Class l-^Qa^J^y CoEyrig'nt]^? CCramCHT DEPOSIT. Teacher Training Series EDITED BY W. W. CHARTERS Dean of the Faculty of Education, Unlverstty of Missouri RURAL SCHOOL MANAGEMENT BY WILLIAM ALBERT WILKINSON HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MAYVILLE, N.D, SILVER, BURDETT & COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO COPYlilGHT, 1917, By silver, BURDETT & COMPANY. M&R 19 1917 ©CI.A457486 EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION For many years the graduates of normal schools and colleges of education have turned from the rural schools toward the more pleasant surroundings of the towns and cities. In the towns the salaries are usually better, the living conditions are more agreeable, the materials and equipment of education are more ade- quate, and the prestige of the teachers' positions is increased. With the unparalleled growth of city school systems demanding an increasing supply of teachers from year to year, the normal schools have been taxed to the limit of their ability in supplying the demand. As a natural outcome of these conditions the machinery of the institutions is directed primarily toward the training of students who will be able to work efficiently in graded school systems. This has left the schools of the country and the village without an adequately trained teaching corps. At first, they depended upon those residents of the country, mature and immature, who could show evidence of knowlejdge chiefly gained in country schools, sufficient to obtain a teacher's certificate. Later, when the high schools, with the aid of the state and because of a quickening of interest among the citizens of towns and cities, grew in numbers, and became more accessible to children of the rural districts, high school graduates sought their teaching apprenticeship in country schools. Soon, however, the glaring deficiencies of elementary and high school graduates became so apparent that the attention of educators was directed toward methods of improving the teaching abilities of those graduates vi Editor's Introduction who were to go into rural school work. This led by logical steps to a movement, now nation wide in scope, for the training of high school students for the vocation of teaching. Three forms have been developed. One is the so- called county normal school, which gives training to graduates of elementary schools in county institutions which are aided generously by appropriations from the revenues of the state. These schools are inde- pendent of the high school and are equipped and manned for the specific purpose of training teachers. A second agency for training rural school teachers is found in the development of courses and curriculums arranged primarily for this purpose in the normal schools. During the summer sessions these courses are crowded with rural teachers and during the regu- lar sessions they are showing a gratifying increase in enrollment.' The third type is the so-called teacher training department in the high school. The expenses of this department are usually paid by the state, which arranges the curriculums and passes upon the adequacy of the training by inspection of the departments and certification of the graduates. When these schools and departments had once been established, the teachers engaged, and the curriculums organized, the textbook problem emerged. Schools cannot be taught without textbooks. The teacher either uses the one that best suits his purposes or he makes one composed of outlines and references. Some sort of text he must have. But the available texts, for the most part, possessed two fundamental weak- nesses. They were written for mature students and, consequently, laid more stress upon principles than upon specific methods; and they were prepared for Editor's Introduction vii students who were being trained to teach in graded schools. Already, a few textbooks primarily intended for the use of prospective teachers in the schools of the country and the small villages have appeared. But the problem of providing suitable texts has not been completely solved, and further effort needs to be directed upon its solution. This fact has led to the planning of a series of which the present volume is the first. Certainly, the task is one well worth undertaking and it is hoped by the pub- lishers, the authors, and the editor that a definite contribution may be made to rural education and the training of teachers for rural schools. The characteristic differences between textbooks for mature teachers of graded schools and young teachers in one-, two-, or three-roomed schools are three. It may be true that mature students may be taught principles and expected to make the applications for themselves; but young students, while finding it easy to learn the principles, find it difficult if not im- possible to make the applications of these principles to their practical work. Unless these young people are shown many and varied concrete and specific applications, they do not and cannot use the principles. They can only turn back to the specific methods which were used upon them when they were themselves in school. A textbook must be constructed for them which consists not of a statement of principles with a small number of illustrations, but which has many specific methods whose significance is illuminated by their reference to the principles upon which they are based. The exposition must be concrete. It is obvious that since the problems of teaching in viii Editor's Introduction rural and village schools are different in part from those of the towns and cities, the subject matter of text- books dealing with these problems must, likewise, be different, in part. Identity of subject matter must, of course, be preserved when the methods of procedure are fundamental in the teaching process, though appli- cations in this case may vary; but identity must not be sought for when the problems are different. Text- books for rural teachers should be written for them. The fundamental function of courses for such teach- ers and, therefore, of textbooks for these courses, is to prepare teachers to teach children who live in the country. There may be a difference of opinion about the advisability of training these children for country life, but there can be none about the necessity of utiliz- ing their experience gained in the country in teaching them the procedure of successful living. It is the only language they know, and as in the days of Pentecost every child has the right to hear the gospel preached in his own tongue. It is, therefore, necessary for one reason or the other, or for both, to prepare textbooks breathing the spirit of the country as it centers around the rural school. These three characteristics are well illustrated in the present volume. It is concrete and specific, and principles are used to illuminate and organize the pro- cedure. It is written for the teachers of the country and the village. It recognizes the enlarging service of the school in rural life by the constant iteration of the fact that the matrix of the school is the community from which flows the life blood of the school and back to which the rejuvenated currents of throbbing life must pulsate. W. W. CHARTERS. AUTHOR'S PREFACE The recent awakening in the study of rural life has given to the rural school a new task and a new responsibility. It is very generally conceded that the country school, because of its social nature, must be the chief means and factor in making country life richer in both a material and a spiritual sense. To the end that the school may meet more adequately the demands of the new ruralism, better trained teachers are needed — teachers who have a clear conception of the mission of the new rural school and an enthusiasm born of a knowledge of what ought to be done and how it may be accomplished. The present volume is an attempt to make some contribution to the supplying of this need. The book is meant primarily for in- tending teachers and those already in service. In its preparation the author has been guided by the problem : What ought the teacher to know regarding management in order that he may make his school serve, in the largest measure, the educational, economic, and social needs of a rural community? The treat- ment is an attempted elaboration of two central thoughts: (1) The school as an efficient agency in promoting the physical, mental, and moral welfare of country boys and girls, and (2) the school as a factor Author's Preface in the economic and social improvement of the com- munity at large. If the book serves to give teachers this conception of the twofold mission of the school and si)me knowledge of how these ends may be at- tained, the purpose of the author will have been realized. The writer wishes to acknowledge here his indebted- ness, first of all, to Dean W. W. Charters, upon whose suggestion the work was undertaken and under whose sympathetic guidance it has been prepared ; secondly, to President T. A. Hillyer, Miss Lake G. Watson, and Professor C. R. Travis, of the Mayville State Normal School, for valuable assistance rendered, especially in the preparation of Chapters VIII and IX, the main features of which were first published as a normal school bulletin; and thirdly, to many state superin- tendents of schools and others too numerous to men- tion by name, for helpful literature bearing on the topics treated. However, none of these must be held accountable for any shortcomings the book may have. For the defects the author alone is responsible. W. A. W. Mayville, North Dakota, March, 1917. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Chapter I. The School and Its Patrons ... 1 I. The Functions of the School. II. Difficulties Encountered. Chapter II. How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 15 I. Securing the Cooperation of the School Board. II. Acquainting Patrons with the Work of the Schools. III. Raising Money for Equipment. IV. School Patrons' Associations. Chapter III. School Hygiene 44 I. Functions of School Hygiene. II. Difficulties Encountered. Chapter IV. School Hygiene (continued). How to Make the School a Health Agency . . 57 Hygiene of the School Premises. Chapter V. School Hygiene (concluded) . . 93 I. The General Health Campaign. II. Medical Inspection of School Children. III. Hot Lunches in Schools. Chapter VI. Beautifying the School Premises . . 113 I. Functions of a Beautiful School Environment. II. Difficulties Encountered. III. How to Beautify the School Premises. 1. Beautifying the Interior Surroundings. 2. Beautifying the Outdoor Surroundings. xi xii Table of Contents PAGE Chapter VII. Play and the School Playground . 136 I. Functions of Play and Playgrounds. II. Difficulties Encountered. III. How to Equip and Use the School Playground. 1. Equipping the Playground. 2. Conducting the Play Activities. Chapter VIII. The Daily Program and Alternation . 165 I. Functions of the Daily Program. II. Difficulties Encountered. III. How to Arrange the Daily Program. Chapter IX. The Course of Study .... 185 I. Functions of a Course of Study. II. Difficulties Encountered. III. Suggested Outline for a Course of Study. Chapter X. School Attendance 214 I. Importance of Regularity of Attendance. II. Difficulties Encountered. III. How to Improve School Attendance. Chapter XI. School Incentives 238 I. Functions of School Incentives. II. Difficulties Encountered. III. How to Secure Incentives for Study. 1. Classification of Incentives. 2. Use of Specific Incentives. 3. Use of Generic Incentives. Chapter XII. School Government .... 264 I. Functions of School Government. II. Difficulties Encountered. III. How to Govern the School. Chapter XIII. Measuring the Results of Teaching . 289 I. Functions of Educational Measurements. II. Difficulties Encountered. Table of Contents xiii III. How to Measure the Results of Teaching. 1. Examinations. 2. Daily Recitations. • 3. Objective Standards. Chapter XIV. Records and Reports .... 307 I. Functions of Records and Reports. t II. Difficulties Encountered. III. How to Keep Records and Make Reports. 1. The Keeping of Records. 2. The Making of Reports. Chapter XV. The School as a Social Center . . 332 I. Functions of a Social Center. II. Difficulties Encountered. III. How to Make the School a Social Center. 1. Unorganized Social Activities. 2. Organized Social Center Work. Chapter XVI. Organization for Administrative Purposes 353 I. Functions and Types of School Organization. II. Difficulties Encountered. III. Better Methods of School Organization. 1. The County Unit System. 2. The Consolidation of Schools. Chapter XVII. Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 376 I. Functions of Boys' and Girls' Clubs. II. Difficulties Encountered. III. How to Organize and Conduct Boys' and Girls' Clubs. Chapter XVIII. The Teacher 392 I. Functions of the Teacher. II. Difficulties Encountered in Rural Schools. III. How to Get Better Teachers. 1. The Training of Rural Teachers. 2. The Retaining of Teachers in Rural Schools. Chapter XIX. Summary of Principles .... 410 List of Material for Collateral Reading . . . 414 Index 417 RURAL SCHOOL MANAGEMENT CHAPTER I THE SCHOOL AND ITS PATRONS I. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL In our study of school management we shall try to find out some of the things we ought to do to make the school serve its purposes most completely. It seems, then, that we should begin with an attempt to see just what these purposes are. Relation of Teacher and Patrons. In the earliest times there were no schools, and each family had to educate or train its own children. But as the duties of home and family life increased, parents adopted the plan of employing some outside person to help in caring for the children. It was found that one person could take care of the children from several homes at the same time, so a group of parents would unite in employing this outside helper. In the course of time it came about that the person so employed spent all his time teaching the children the things they needed to know. Thus schools were first established to assist parents in the care and training of their children. From this simple, crude beginning our present system of public schools has developed. The school, it is true, has undergone many changes since its early beginning; but the relation of teacher 1 Rural School Management and patron has not changed. The school is still a partnership affair ; teacher and parents are colaborers, mutual helpers in the training of children. This rela- tion exists in every phase of the school's work. It follows, therefore, that if the school is to attain to the highest success, if it is to accomplish the greatest amount of good for the community, the patrons must be interested in its work and willing to cooperate with the teacher in every possible way. We are now ready to consider what the school of the present should, by right, undertake to do for the com- munity in which it is located. Special Function of the School. We have seen that the school originated as an aid to parents in educating their children. This is still its most important function. Now, if we were to ask the patrons of the school what, in their opinion, the education of children should con- sist in, we should probably get a great many different answers. Some would tell us that it consists in giving children the kind of training that will enable them to earn a better living. Others would say that it con- sists in training them for the duties of citizenship. Still others would probably hold that education is primarily the developing of the physical, mental, and moral powers of the pupils. Each of these — training in moral character, preparation for earning a living, devel- oping the powers of the pupil, making better citizens, imparting culture — would probably be named as the most important thing in education. And it must be admitted that there are some very good reasons for holding each one of these views. The truth is, educa- tion includes training along all these lines. If we were to put the same questions to the leading educators of the country, they would probably say that The School and Its Patrons education consists in ''training children for social effi- ciency." What they mean by this is that the child should be trained in such matters as moral character, care of the body, skill in earning a living, willingness to be of service to other people, ability to perform the duties of citizenship, appreciation of good music and literature and art. To train the pupil along these lines, to make him, as far as possible, a ''socially efficient" individual, is the special function of the school. Other Functions of the School. There was a time when it was thought that the school's only function was to teach the children the usual school subjects. It was not supposed that the teacher had any duties outside of the school or that the school could serve the community in any way except to instruct the children. But this view is no longer very common. There are three other ways in which the school can be of service to the community. First. It should encourage and direct certain out-of-school activities among the young people of the district. Boys' and girls' clubs, literary societies, debating contests, musical organizations, offer excellent opportunities for this sort of service. Second. The school can help the patrons themselves in various practical ways. Opportunities for such service are found, for instance, in testing seed grain for the farmers, improving health conditions in the homes, which may result in the saving of doctors' bills, lending from the school library books and bulletins which deal with matters of practical importance in the home or on the farm, testing milk from the dairy herds, helping patrons to keep more systematic ac- counts of household receipts and expenses, estimating the cost of new buildings or other improvements. Third. It should strive to make the conditions of Rural School Management life more satisfying, more enjoyable for the entire community — for adults as well as for young people. This it can do by arranging for educative meetings and wholesome social gatherings in the schoolhouse. We now see that the school is not limited in its functions to the training of the children of the district. It has a wider mission in the community, and a great many schools are now performing these other functions in a highly satisfactory manner. Summary. Schools were first established to aid parents in training their children. Teachers and parents were partners in the task. This relation between teacher and parent still exists, hence the necessity of their working together for the highest suc- cess of the shool. The special function of the school is to educate children, but it has other important functions ; namely, to direct educative out-of-school activities of young people, to render practical aid to patrons, and to provide educative and enjoyable entertainments for the community at large. II. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED It was pointed out in the last section that the success of the school depends in a large measure on the active interest and cooperation of its patrons. Now, as a matter of fact, this relation of mutual helpfulness between teacher and parents does not exist in all schools. There are, no doubt, a few instances here and there where all of the patrons of the school give it the hearty support it ought to have. But such cases are at present the exception rather than the rule. A great majority of teachers, especially in rural schools, are laboring under serious difficulties, obstacles which must be removed before the schools can do all they should, either in the training of children or in the improvement of community life in general. The purpose of this section is to point out some of The School and Its Patrons the difficulties due to lack of understanding and cooper- ation on the part of patrons which the teacher some- times encounters in his efforts to make the school serve its purposes in the fullest measure. Indifference of Patrons. In every school district there are a few patrons who are deeply interested in the work of the school. These interested parents are the teacher's best helpers. They send their children to school regularly. They are loyal to the teacher and show a willingness to help him at any time when they can be of service. They look after the needs of the school as best they can, even, in some instances, taking time from their own affairs to do so. They are, as a rule, in favor of levying taxes sufficient to get good teachers and provide the school with the necessary equipment and supplies. On the other hand, in almost every district are found some patrons who have very little or no interest in the school. Unfortunately, in many instances, especially in rural communities, these outnumber those who are interested. Indifference on the part of the patrons may be traced to two main causes. Causes of Indifference. First. The poor results obtained from the school are no doubt partly respon- sible for the lack of interest in its work. Some parents think that their children do not always get as much benefit from the school as they should. Two short- comings of the school are pointed out in this connection : (1) It fails to ground the pupils thoroughly in the funda- mentals of an elementary education. Instances of this failure are found in the case of pupils who, after spend- ing several years in the study of arithmetic and spelling, are still unable to solve accurately simple practical prob- lems or to spell correctly the words most used in every- 6 Rural School Management day life. (2) It spends too much time on things that are of httle value to the pupil to the neglect of other things much more valuable. An instance of this defect may be cited in the case of the rural teacher who refused to teach elementary agriculture in order that the class might have extra time for the study of technical grammar. Where such shortcomings as these exist, there is very likely to be found a lack of genuine interest in the school on the part of some patrons. Second. A lack of knowledge of what the school is actually doing is, perhaps, the most common cause of indifference among patrons. Many parents never visit the school. In the country districts there is usually very little opportunity to hear about school affairs from other people, and the information which parents get from their children is generally too meager to give them a correct notion of the actual work of the school. No matter how excellent this work may be, if patrons have no knowledge of it they cannot be expected to be very deeply interested in it. Results of Indifference. Indifference on the part of patrons, if it is very widespread, hinders the work of the school in at least three important ways. First. It interferes with attendance. Parents who are not interested in the school are less likely to see that their children attend regularly than are parents who are interested. Second. It frequently results in a tax levy which is inadequate for the support of the school. Indifferent patrons can hardly be expected to provide the funds necessary to employ good teachers and pro- cure the equipment needed. This matter is discussed more fully in a later paragraph. Third. It tends to make school discipline more difficult. Undoubtedly a great many of the more " troublesome cases " in The School and Its Patrons school discipline could be avoided or happily settled,' if there were a clear understanding between teacher and parent and a spirit of mutual helpfulness on the part of both. Summary. Every school is fortunate in having at least a few interested patrons. But in nearly all districts there are some patrons who are not interested in the school. The indifference of these patrons may be due (1) to the poor results of the school's work both as to thoroughness in the fundamentals and as to the usefulness of many of the things taught, or (2) to the lack of informa- tion as to the kind of work being done in the school. Where in- difference prevails to any great extent, it usually results in poor attendance, lack of funds sufficient for the proper support of the school, and difficulties growing out of school discipline. Inadequate Funds. A difficulty very closely re- lated to the one we have just discussed is found in the lack of funds necessary to carry on the work of the school. Why Funds Are Needed. School funds are needed for two main purposes : (1) to pay teachers' salaries, and (2) to provide the necessary supplies and equip- ment, such as sanitary buildings, suitable furniture, libraries, maps, charts, globes, etc. Salaries. After all, the teacher is the most important factor in the making of the school. '' As is the teacher so is the school," is an old but a true saying. He must not only be able to teach and govern the school ; he must know how to arouse public interest in its work, procure needed supplies, and overcome various other difficulties. He must know how to make the school serve the whole community in the largest possible measure. Hence, a good teacher is essential to the success of the school. But to get good teachers school boards must pay attractive salaries. Mr. H. W. Foght, in speaking of teachers' salaries, says : 8 Rural School Management • "Public school teachers in the United States receive an average annual salary of $485. Rural school teachers instruct the chil- dren of 53.7 per cent of the entire population, but get as their share only 45.5 per cent of the total amount spent for salaries. Their average annual salary is, accordingly, considerably less than the amount above stated. Artisans, domestics, and common laborers receive better wages than do these teachers." ^ The practice of paying low salaries is, therefore, a serious drawback to the school because it means, in most cases, that the school will have a poor teacher. Equipment. Any one who is at all familiar with the nature of school work understands the very great importance of having suitable teaching equipment. It is as absurd to try to conduct a school without the necessary aids in the way of libraries, maps, etc., as it is to try to run a farm without implements or to build a house without tools. Yet a great many schools are not supplied with the things really needed, and the reason frequently given is that there are no funds with which to buy such material. The conditions found in the rural schools of a fairly progressive, well-to-do county in one of the central states may serve to illustrate this point. Of the 110 schools inspected by a committee of prominent educa- tors it was found that : (a) 24 had no maps and only 41 had enough maps for the teaching of geography and history. (b) Only 30 had measuring sticks, only one had a balance and weights, and only two had liquid or dry measures, for the teaching of arithmetic. (c) 56 did not have enough blackboard space. (d) No school had a phonograph, and only one a museum. ' U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1914, No. 49, p. 28. The School and Its Patrons (e) 109 had no equipment for teaching manual training. (/) 99 had no equipment for teaching agriculture. (g) 109 had no equipment for cooking and 108 none for sewing. (h) The tax levy for school purposes varied from nothing to 75 cents on each $100 of the assessed valuation of taxable property, the levy in the medium or average school being only 40 cents. So long as conditions such as these exist, the school is doomed to fall short of its highest possibilities. No school can do its work as it should be done until it is supplied with the equipment which the nature of its work requires. Reasons for Lack of Funds. This lack of funds may be due to either one of two causes. (1) The highest tax rate permitted by the constitution or the laws of the state may be so low that it does not bring in, when levied, a sufficient amount of money for school purposes; or (2) through the indifference of the school board or patrons the rate actually levied may not be high enough to provide an adequate income. The Legal Limitations. We should recall in this connection that one of the principal ways of raising school funds is by local taxes. This means that the school board levies or designates the rate to be paid, and each property owner in the district pays that per cent of the assessed value of his property into the school treasury. But school boards, and the people themselves also, are prohibited by state law or con- stitution from levying a rate above a certain amount. Now, it may happen in some cases that the highest rate that can be levied under the law does not bring 10 Rural School Management in enough money to pay the running expenses and supply the needs of the school. In one state, for instance, the most that can be levied for rural schools is seventy cents on each one hundred dollars of assessed valuation. In another state it is sixty-five cents, and so on. When the lack of funds is due to this cause, " state aid " and a change in the unit of school administration are the possible remedies. In some states provision is made whereby a school district may obtain a gift or donation from the state treasury under certain conditions. This is known as State Aid. The unit of administration is discussed in a later chapter. Lack of Interest in the School. It more frequently happens, however, that the lack of funds is due to lack of interest, which makes the people unwilling to have the tax rate made high enough to furnish a suffi- cient amount of money. It is the purpose of the next chapter to suggest some remedies for just such cases as this. Summary. A second hindrance to the success of the school is the lack of sufficient money for its support. This may be due either to (1) legal limitation upon the tax rate that may be levied, or (2) the unwillingness of patrons to authorize a sufficient levy. Since school funds are needed (1) to pay teachers' salaries, and (2) to provide equipment, a lack of funds may result in the school's having a poor teacher and inadequate equipment. Lack of Organized Effort. Another difficulty met with in many schools, especially in rural districts, is the lack of any definite organization of patrons for the purpose of promoting the school's usefulness to the community. Organization in Other Fields. It is an old saying that in union there is strength. The value of united, The School and Its Patrons 11 organized effort has been demonstrated again and again. The practice of forming organizations for such purposes is now quite common in a great many lines of business. When there is something to be accomplished which is of interest or value to several people, they find it an advantage to unite in some systematic way to bring about the desired result. When the people wish to prevent the sale or use of intoxicating liquors, for instance, they form temperance societies. When the farmers of a community wish to improve their methods of cultivating or marketing their products, they form granges, farmers' clubs, or equity societies. When a man wants to be elected to some important state or national office, his friends form clubs to help bring about his election. In a similar manner teachers have their educational as- sociations; merchants, their conventions; physicians, their medical societies; laboring men, their unions; fruitgrowers, their cooperative associations; the churches, their ladies' aid or missionary societies. And so it is in almost any line of business we could name. The Situation in Schools. Thus we see that the value of organized effort is well recognized and the practice of forming organizations of various kinds has become quite common. The movement is now coming into prominence in connection with the man- agement of schools. Here it usually takes the form of a parents' association of some sort. In city schools such organizations are already fairly common, though by no means universal. But in rural districts only a beginning has been made. While there are a few country schools that have succeeded in forming and maintaining a parents' organization of some sort, the great majority of such schools are still deprived of the 12 Rural School Management benefits that come from a well-organized systematic effort for the improvement of the schools. Reason for Less Progress in Rural Districts. Per- haps the most important reason why organized effort has made less progress among rural school patrons than in other lines of business is the general neglect of the study of rural education by educators. For a long time our leading educators were concerned almost entirely with city and town schools. Through their help teachers were trained and methods of improve- ment worked out for city schools. But, until recently, country people had no such help. Their teachers were not specially trained for rural teaching, and there was no one to point out better ways of managing their schools. But within the past few years the situation has changed very greatly. Some of our best educators are now directing their efforts to the improvement of rural schools. The beginning which has been made in the matter of patrons' organizations in rural com- munities is no doubt one of the results of this new interest in rural education. Lack of leaders and the isolation of country homes are other hindrances to organization among rural school patrons. Since these are also serious hindrances to the wider use of the rural school, they will be dis- cussed in connection with our study of the social-center movement in a later chapter. Summary. Our discussion thus far has served to do two things : (1) to explain the functions of the school — what it ought to do, and (2) to point out some of the difficulties that keep the school from performing its functions in the fullest measure. The nature of the school's task makes the help of patrons, the co- operation of teacher and parents, essential to its success. Parents, as a rule, are not very greatly interested in the work of the school ; and their indifference is, to a considerable extent, responsible for The School and Its Patrons 13 irregular attendance or non-attendance of pupils, low teachers' salaries, inadequate equipment, and lack of united, organized effort in the community in behalf of better schools. REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Bagley : The Educative Process, Chapter III. Carney : Country Life and the Country School, Chapter VII. COLGROVE : The Teacher and the School, Chapter VIII. CuBBERLEY : Rural Life and Education, Chapter VII. Kern : Among Country Schools, Chapter XI. University of Missouri Bulletin, Vol. 16, No. 22 : A Study of the Rural Schools of Saline County, Mo. CLASS EXERCISES Note. In answering questions about "your school," in these exercises at the end of the chapters, it is intended that you have in mind either the school in which you teach or the one in which you are studying. 1. What, in your opinion, is the relation between teacher and patrons in your school? Give specific reasons for your answer. 2. Enumerate the elements that are included in the term "social efficiency." What subjects are now being taught in your school to supply each of these elements in the training of children ? 3. What activities, if any, besides the teaching of children, are carried on in connection with your school? State the pur- pose and describe the method of conducting each. 4. For what other purposes do you think your school could be used successfully ? 5. How often do the members of the school board visit your school ? To what extent do other patrons visit the school ? Keep a list of the visits for one month and note the object or purpose of each visit. 6. How, in your opinion, are the facts revealed in answer to Exercise 5 to be explained? 7. How does your school compare with other schools in the county in (1) length of term, (2) teacher's salary, (3) library and other equipment, (4) amount of tax levy? What explanation can you offer for the fact§ disclosed? 14 Rural School Management 8. What is the maximum school tax levy permitted under the constitution of your state? Is the maximum rate being levied at present in your district ? If not, why not ? 9. Give from your own observation two instances in which the people of your community are organized for some definite purpose. State the purpose, describe the manner of organization, and give results obtained, in each case. 10. Is there in your community any organization whose pur- pose is the improvement of the school? If so, describe in detail the form of organization and the nature of its work. If there is no such organization, how is the fact to be explained? 11. Prepare, in outline form, a summary of the chapter. CHAPTER II HOW TO AROUSE INTEREST AMONG PATRONS The Problem. We have seen that the indifference of patrons is fraught with very serious consequences to the school. The question, therefore, of how to arouse their interest and secure their cooperation is one of the most important problems in the manage- ment of the school. What can the teacher do to create a widespread, active interest in the work of the school? The solution of this problem means much for the school and the community. Methods of arousing interest in the school may be grouped into four main classes : (1) methods of secur- ing the cooperation of the school board ; (2) methods of making patrons familiar with the work of the school ; (3) methods of raising money for needed equipment; and (4) methods of getting patrons actively enlisted in doing something for the school. These will be considered in the order named. I. SECURING THE COOPERATION OF THE SCHOOL BOARD In every community the general management of the school is intrusted to the school board. Next to the teacher this board is the most important factor in the making of the school. Importance of the School Board. There are two main reasons why the school board occupies such an important position and why its cooperation is essential 15 16 Rural School Management to the school. First. Board members are the officials elected by the voters of the district to manage the school for the community. Being officials, they have certain very important powers in connection with the school. They employ the teacher and determine the salary to be paid. Within certain limits they can fix the rate of taxes, thus controlling to some extent the amount of funds available for school purposes. The board's approval is necessary before any of the regular school funds can be used. Hence it controls such matters as making repairs in the schoolhouse, providing janitor service, and supplying equipment, in so far as these must be paid for out of the regular funds. Since the board has such important powers in relation to both the teachers and the finances of the school, it determines in a considerable measure the kind of school the community will have. It is, therefore, very unfortunate for any district to have a school board which is indifferent, one which does not take pride in getting a good teacher and in helping the school in every possible way. Second. The members of the board are, as a rule, among the most influential members of the community. It is usually because of the confidence people have in them that they are elected to membership on the board. And just because of this confidence on the part of the patrons a member of the board has it within his power to create public sentiment favorable to the school. People are generally easily influenced by their trusted leaders. Hence the directors should be among the stanchest friends and supporters of the school. If they are interested and active in school matters, they set an example which at least some others are sure to follow. How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 17 How to Interest Board Members. Since the school board holds such an important position in relation to the school, it is highly necessary that its members shall be keenly interested in school affairs. How to bring about this condition where it does not already exist, is one of the big problems in the management of the school. Perhaps the most important means of arousing interest on the part of school boards is the influence of the teacher. There are several things any teacher can do to this end. He can visit the members in their homes and confer with them on school matters. He can have a directors' day in his own school. This can be done by inviting the members of the board to visit the school on a certain day to give them an op- portunity to see what the school is doing and what it needs. He might arrange beforehand to have the members make talks on parents' day or to the pupils, or do something else which will emphasize their official relation to the school. In most cases members of the board will appreciate being recognized as leaders. Some teachers have found it possible to interest the school board by obtaining the help of the women of the community. If there is a mothers' circle in the school or a ladies' aid society in connection with the church, the teacher can usually enlist the support of the organization by explaining the importance of the measures he wishes adopted. When there is no such organization, a mothers' meeting can easily be held at the school to get the women interested. When this is done, they may be depended on to use their influence with the school board. Other teachers have succeeded in gaining the desired end through the influence of the children. One method 18 Rural School Management is to organize the pupils in a campaign for some specific purpose or measure. If they have badges or buttons to wear, it will add to their interest and, perhaps, to the effectiveness of their work. They are then asked to intercede with the school board for the thing wanted. Wherever it is possible to grant their wish, the board is not likely to be deaf to their plea. One rural teacher succeeded in securing the co- operation of her board in the following manner. A few days before the close of the first month of the school term she called at the home of the president of the board. After a pleasant little visit with the family, she conversed with the board official on matters pertaining to the school. Before leaving she secured his promise to have a meeting of the school board held at the schoolhouse at the end of the first month. When the members came to the school for the meet- ing, she received them courteously, conversing with them freely and frankly. She explained that, as her employers, the board had a right to know how she was discharging her duties and what difficulties she met with. She described what she had been trying to do and what she would like to do, frequently asking the board's opinion and advice. At the close of the meeting the board was invited, and consented, to hold its next regular meeting at the schoolhouse. Here, again, the teacher took the board into her con- fidence and sought their advice and help. The board then decided of its own accord to hold its regular meetings during the rest of the term at the school- house with the teacher present. The result was that the board took a special interest and pride in the school and helped to advance its interests in many ways. How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 19 In some states laws have been passed establishing county school hoard conventions. These meetings are held once a year, and the expenses of those attending are paid out of the funds of their local districts. It has been found that when school directors meet in this way they get new ideas which they can put into effect in their own districts. In addition to exchang- ing views and plans with each other, they get help from the county superintendent and usually from some leading educator or expert employed expressly to discuss matters of importance before school boards. The result is a deeper interest in, and a more efficient management of, the schools on the part of boards of directors. In one state a prominent educator said : '' The enactment of the county school board conven- tion law is the best school measure passed in this state in the last quarter of a century." A great many county superintendents set apart one day or session of the county teachers' association or institute as directors' day. The object is to get the directors and teachers together for a conference on matters that are important for the success of the schools. Here, also, the board members exchange views with each other and get suggestions from the teachers and especially from the experts in charge of the association. The chief difficulty with this plan lies in getting a large attendance of directors. Unless some provision is made for defraying the ex- penses of those who attend, those who are least in- terested in schools are the most likely to be absent from the meeting. However, the plan has given good results in many counties and is well worth try- ing where no other provision is made for a convention of school board members. 20 Rural School Management Summary. The school board is a very important factor in the making of the school, first, because of its official powers, and second, because of the influence of its members on other patrons. Methods of arousing interest among board members are : (1) the personal influence and work of the teacher, including the enlisting of the assistance of women and children ; (2) county school board conventions; and (3) directors' day at county teachers' associa- tions or institutes. U. ACQUAINTING PARENTS WITH THE WORK OF THE SCHOOLS Much of the indifference of parents is undoubtedly due to their lack of knowledge of what the school is doing or trying to do for their children. If this is true, then one way of overcoming such lack of interest is to enlighten them on these points. Personal Visits. Visits by the teacher to the homes of parents will do much to enlist their interest and cooperation. Instances are quite frequent in which parents do not even know the teacher of their children. This condition favors prejudice and fault- finding on the part of such parents. Since parent and teacher do not even know each other, there is necessarily no bond of interest or sympathy, nor any personal tie between them. A visit to the home may establish a feeling of mutual interest and friendliness. The teacher should visit the home of every pupil at least once during the school term. In making such a visit there are a few things which the teacher should be careful to observe. The visit should be made, if possible, at the time when it will interfere least with the home or other duties of the parent. A good plan is for the teacher to walk home with the children after school. In some cases he may spend the night there. Care must be taken in all How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 21 cases to make the occasion a friendly, cordial visit, not a fashionable call. He should impress the parent, in a tactful way, with his genuine interest in, and hopes and plans for, the children who come from that home. In taking his leave he should extend to the parent a sincere and cordial invitation to visit the school, expressing his desire for the parent's help and cooperation in the work he is trying to do. Such a visit will tend to give the parent a favorable im- pression of the teacher and, perhaps, a kindly interest in the affairs of the school. It will, at least, establish a friendly relationship between the two parties to the child's education — the home and the school. This is an important step toward making patrons familiar with the work of the school and arousing an active interest in its success. School Notes in Local Newspapers. The news- paper is regarded as one of the very best ways of conveying information we wish people to have. It has been found to be an excellent method of acquaint- ing patrons with school affairs. Editors, as a rule, are glad to publish school news for two reasons. First, they are public-spirited men and are anxious to help any movement that is a real benefit to the community ; and second, school news frequently makes the paper more interesting and, therefore, adds to its popularity. The use of the newspaper is an opportunity, then, which the teacher ought to seize. It has a twofold value to the school. In the first place, the writing of the news items by the pupils is an excellent aid in teaching language and composition. When pupils know that what they write is to be printed in the county newspaper, they have a strong motive, a deep interest, which will lead them to do their best. But 22 Rural School Management the teacher must, in all cases, supervise the work of the pupils. He must help in selecting the events or topics to write about and see that pupils get the items written in correct form. In the second place, the school notes are valuable as a means of imparting information to patrons. To serve this purpose well the school news column should always contain information that is really worth while. It should be an important message or communication from the school to its patrons, telling them the things they ought to know about the educational affairs of their community. Such matters as the following would probably make interesting reading for most patrons: the transactions of the school board; the financial affairs of the district, such as the total in- come, expenses, indebtedness, assessed valuation, tax rate as compared with other districts ; library statistics or facts ; the school's equipment and its needs ; recent improvements and others contemplated ; community affairs that are in any way related to the school; special days observed or programs given; visitors; work of the various classes; special work in agri- culture, domestic science, manual training ; the school enumeration, enrollment, attendance ; the doings of organizations connected with the school, such as literary society, school chorus or orchestra, and athletic teams. The sum of the whole matter is that the school notes should give, as far as possible, a true picture of the life of the school, and of the community in its relation to school affairs. This use of the newspaper is already fairly common in town schools. It is just as important, if not more important, for the rural school. Newspaper editors are always glad to have a correspondent in every How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 23 district or section of the county. One method of handling the school news is for the teacher to serve as local correspondent, furnishing school items and other items of interest to the community. If some one else is serving as correspondent, then the teacher, with the assistance of the pupils, may supply him with the school items. Parents' Day. A very common complaint heard among teachers is that so many of their patrons never visit the school. This failure to visit the school may be due to any one of several causes. The pressure of work at home may keep some parents away. The distance from the schoolhouse may be a hindrance to others. But no doubt the real reason in a vast majority of cases is the lack of knowledge of what the school is doing and a consequent lack of genuine in- terest in its work. It is very desirable, therefore, that some way be found to get parents to visit the school and see for themselves what is going on. One method, for instance, is to provide a special occasion to be known as parents' day, and to invite all of the patrons to visit the school at that time. There are various ways of conducting an event of this kind. Perhaps the following illustrations will suggest some ideas that may be used in other schools. In one school the teacher announced to her pupils early in the term that she expected to have their parents visit the school on a certain day which sKe named. She explained that in order for the parents to see what the pupils were really doing it would be necessary to have such specimens of their work as could be kept, and that these specimens would be selected from time to time from their regular school work. Just a few days before the appointed date the 24 Rural School Management teacher and pupils prepared very attractive invita- tions and sent one to every family in the district. This written invitation was, a little later, reenforced by a verbal invitation from the teacher delivered either by telephone or personal visit. When the appointed afternoon came and the visitors arrived, the teacher proceeded with the regular classes until time for recess. The school was then dismissed for the day and the rest of the afternoon spent in examin- ing the school exhibit and in conversation, for the most part, about the school and its work. There was no special program. The teacher mingled freely with her guests, courteous to all alike. The day closed with the serving of simple refreshments which the teacher and pupils had prepared for the occasion. The visitors went away with a very favorable impres- sion of the teacher, and many of them expressed sincere wishes for the success of the school. In another district the observance of parents' day was more on the order of a neighborhood picnic and clean-up day. A date was selected and all the parents invited to spend the entire day at the school. During the forenoon the regular work of the school was carried on without change or special features. At noon a basket lunch, furnished by the patrons, was served on the school grounds. This was a social hour during which parents, pupils, and teacher mingled freely with each other in friendly conversation. The after- noon was devoted to " cleaning up " the school premises. The teacher had carefully planned just what he wished to have done. The men and boys set about improving the school grounds. All rubbish, all unsightly objects, and all unnecessary articles were removed ; ditches were filled and the grounds drained ; flower beds laid How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 25 out and a school garden located. The women and girls devoted their attention to the interior of the building. When the day was over patrons had seen the school at its regular work, and parents and teacher had met and united in a common cause. Cleaner, better school surroundings and a deeper and more .widespread interest in the school were the results. We have now seen how two teachers handled the parents' day event. The methods have at least two points in common : (1) They succeeded in getting a great many patrons to visit the school and inspect a part of the work being done; (2) a deeper interest in the school was aroused. After all, the results are the important thing. The details of the plan to be used must 'be worked out by the teacher and should be adapted to the conditions which exist in his district. School Exhibits. The school exhibit is one of the very best methods of informing parents concerning the work of the school and of bringing them into closer sympathy and cooperation with the teacher and the school. The local exhibit should be conducted in connection with parents' day exercises, a social center meeting, or some other public gathering at the school- house. The display should be made up of specimens of pupils' work selected from as many different lines as possible. It should include such items as booklets, maps, drawings, compositions, construction work, articles made by the domestic art and manual train- ing classes, a nature study and geography cabinet containing material collected by pupils, flowers and agricultural products from the school garden. All of this material can be properly labeled by the children as a part of their school work, classified, and carefully arranged by the teacher. It is very important that 26 Rural School Management every patron of the school see the exhibit and that the teacher be present to confer with parents, make ex- planations, and point out lines of improvement. In a great many sections of the country the school exhibit idea has been extended to include a township or county school fair. In such cases the usual plan is to start with a local exhibit, such as we have de- scribed. From this exhibit the best specimens are selected by competent judges and labeled with a blue ribbon. The material thus selected is then sent to the township or county fair, where it is entered along with similar material from various other schools. The following description of the county school fair held in a Virginia county points out a good method of procedure and indicates the value of such an event in arousing a strong school sentiment among both teachers and patrons. "They came in large groups, often by schools, bedecked with their school colors, waving school banners, giving their school yells, and singing their school songs. It was the gala day for the county public schools, and even early in the morning the holiday spirit was in the air. "By ten o'clock between 3000 and 4000 people had assembled at the School Fair exhibit hall. The entrance to this hall was then thrown open, and this vast throng of people surged in. Their eyes fell upon a unique exhibit — different from anything they had ever seen at any other fair. Near the entrance was a long table loaded down with loaves of bread, biscuit, cakes, pies, homemade candy, butter, jellies, pickles, canned peaches, pears, and tomatoes. On another table was the Domestic Art Exhibit — shirt waists, aprons, handkerchiefs, and a large group of dolls tastefully dressed in the latest fashion by the school children of the primary classes. On another table was the Flower and Nature Study Exhibit — ferns, chrysanthemums, geraniums, dahlias, and collections of wild flowers. Further down the hall was the table containing the Agricultural Exhibit. On this table were piled How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 27 ears of corn, ears of popcorn, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes, and black-eye peas. In a corner was the Manual Train- ing Exhibit, containing bookcases, writing tables, picture frames, brooms, farm rakes, axe handles, shuck doormats, baskets, and rabbit 'gums.' "Nor had the literary work of the school been neglected. A large space was occupied by this department; on a table were a number of carefully prepared compositions. They were not upon such abstract subjects as 'Intellect,' 'Faith,' 'Patience,' but dealt with concrete, practical themes, such as 'Good Roads,' 'The Value of Scientific Methods of Farming,' 'How to Make a Country Home Comfortable and Attractive,' 'The Cause and Prevention of Consumption,' 'The House Fly a Menace to Health.' There were also numerous specimens of writing and drawing, and the walls of one side of the hall were decorated with skillfully drawn maps of the county and the state." ^ One point is strongly emphasized here : School fair day should he a great day for the whole county. It must be an event which will bring a great crowd of people together. If the school fair alone cannot be depended on to get the people out, then it should be held in connection with some other event, such, for instance, as the county agricultural fair, farmers' " round-up," or county graduation day. But, what- ever else the program for the day may include, there should be a definite time for the inspection and judg- ing of the school exhibits and awarding of prizes. Everybody present should have ample opportunity to see what the various schools are doing as revealed by the specimens of work entered in the exhibits. Provision should also be made for a school parade in which the teachers and pupils from all the schools take part. Those from each district should march in a group, wear their school colors, and carry appro- priate banners. Athletic sports and contests between ^Quoted by Curtis in Play and Recreation, pp. 73-4. 28 Rural School Management the various schools will add greatly to the success of the fair. The school fair, conducted in some such way as this, cannot fail to make patrons more familiar with the work of the schools and to increase public interest in education. No doubt a great many more county superintendents would organize and conduct county school fairs if they knew their teachers would help in the matter. One way in which the teacher can aid the movement, therefore, is to suggest to the superintendent the advisability of undertaking the project. If enough teachers would do this, no doubt the fair would be held. m. RAISING MONEY FOR EQUIPMENT We have already learned that the lack of funds is one of the chief drawbacks to the school in many localities. We have seen that this situation is due in some instances to the lack of wealth in the district — the low assessed value of the taxable property ; but in a majority of cases it is due to the unwilling- ness of school boards or patrons to levy taxes ade- quate to the school's needs. In either case the teacher is confronted with the problem of how to raise funds with which to buy the equipment necessary to the success of the school. By right, all of the money needed for school supplies should come from the regular school funds of the dis- trict. Accordingly, the school board should alwaj^s be asked to provide the necessary equipment. In case the board hesitates or refuses to do so, some of the methods previously described may be used to enlist the interest of the members and secure the funds required. How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 29 But if these methods fail or if the regular school funds are not adequate, there are many other means which may be used. Ice cream socials and basket suppers are among the oldest and most widely used. In the case of the ice cream social, the milk and other materials are usually donated by the patrons, while the ice cream is made and served by the pupils under the direction of the teacher. The social should always be held, if possible, in the schoolhouse or on the school premises. For the basket supper, each girl and woman in the district is asked to prepare a nice lunch and put it in an attractive basket or box. A meeting is arranged for at the schoolhouse to which the whole community is invited. At this meeting the lunches are sold at auction. Popularity contests are sometimes conducted in connection with the box supper. The usual plan is to offer a cake as a prize to the most popular lady present. The winner is selected by per- mitting people to vote for their choice at so much a vote. Considerable sums have been raised through good-natured, friendly contests of this sort. Stereopticon entertainments, lectures, and musical programs are excellent methods of raising money for school purposes. Every school should have a stere- opticon and slides of its own. But this is not always the case. It is the custom in some sections for the county authorities to purchase an instrument and place it at the disposal of the county superintendent of schools or the county farm agent. Where this is done, the lantern can usually be borrowed or rented for a small fee by any teacher who wants to give an entertainment for library or other school purposes. In case the county does not own a lantern, one may frequently be borrowed from other sources. Again, 30 Rural School Management it is frequently possible to secure, at very small cost, a good speaker or lecturer from some near-by town or educational institution. The proceeds from the lecture entertainment may be greatly increased, in many cases, by arousing a friendly contest between some of the classes in school in the sale of tickets. A good musical program can often be arranged through the assistance of local musicians. If this is not possible, then a splendid evening's entertainment can be given with a victrola or phonograph. The school bazaar is another method which has given good results in many cases. This method consists in having a sale of articles made by the pupils, such, for instance, as aprons, handkerchiefs, lace, embroidery, candy, and articles made by the manual training class. Interested patrons will often donate various articles for the sale. A vegetable day for the collection of products from the school garden and such things as patrons may donate to be sold in town is a similar plan. Entertainments appropriate to special days have been used successfully in many schools. A Hallowe'en party netted one school a considerable sum. The schoolroom was arranged in keeping with the idea — Jack-o'-lanterns in the corners, doors and windows draped with leaves and vines, and blackboard and walls decorated with crepe paper cuttings to represent cats, owls, snakes, and bats. The cloakroom was used as the witch's tent. Charges were made for the fortune telling and for the refreshments served. In another school a party embodying the valentine idea was held. A post office for the exchange of valentines, a valentine and candy booth, a refreshment stand, and a tent for a gypsy fortune teller constituted the main equipment. The money was raised from How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 31 the sale of valentines, candy, and refreshments and from fees paid for having fortunes told. A Wash- ington's reception, a Thanksgiving program, and an Easter egg hunt are other methods of the same general type. The school quilt is an easy and simple method of raising funds. A piece of common cloth is cut into small squares. These squares are distributed among the pupils with instructions to embroider on the square the name of any person who will pay a small fee to have his name on the quilt. A school play, a home talent play, an old folks' spelling match, tag day, athletic contests with other schools, are other methods which have been found fruitful in rais- ing money for the school. In any or all attempts to raise money for the school there are a few things which should be borne clearly in mind. The foremost purpose, of course, is to get working tools for the school — to get library books, maps, globes, charts, simple laboratory equipment, play apparatus, pictures, a stereopticon, a victrola, or anything, in fact, which will make for a better school. But this is not the only thing to be accom- plished through the money-making endeavor. The school will be brought into public attention. It will receive a certain amount of favorable advertising. Through the method adopted for raising money parents will get better acquainted with the teacher and each other. They will learn more about what the school is trying to do, what it needs, and how they can help in its work. Summary. There are various ways of raising money for school equipment. In attempting to raise money for the school the following objects should be kept in view : (1) to equip the school 32 Rural School Management for better work; (2) to bring the people of the community to- gether at the schoolhouse for a common purpose ; (3) to make patrons more familiar with the actual work and conditions of the school; (4) to arouse a public interest and pride in the school. IV. SCHOOL PATRONS' ASSOCIATIONS It has been pointed out that the principle of organ- ized effort is now widely used in the form of business or commercial organizations, political clubs, and so on. We have also seen that teachers are beginning to avail themselves of the benefits that come from the united, systematic cooperation of all the people in the community who are or should be interested in the success of the school. Types of Organization. To this end school patrons' organizations are coming into vogue. These organiza- tions are of two main types: (1) those that include in their membership only the mothers of the children in the district; (2) those that are open to all of the citizens and taxpayers of the community. Organiza- tions of the first type are usually called mothers' circles, or clubs, while those of the second type are known as parent-teacher associations or school im- provement associations. The mothers' circle prob- ably has its greatest usefulness in connection with the kindergarten and primary department of the city schools. Where there is to be only one organiza- tion for the school as a whole, the other type seems preferable. Functions of a Patrons' Organization. Lack of interest among patrons, as we have seen, is the most serious hindrance to the highest success of the school. We are trying in this section to see what the teacher can do to overcome this difficulty. Three main How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 33 methods have been considered ; namely, securing the cooperation of the school board, making patrons more familiar with the work of the school, and enlisting the people in an effort to raise money for school improve- ment. The parent-teacher association is a fourth method. To arouse a deeper and more widespread interest in the educational affairs of the community is one of the chief functions of such an organization. Just how does the parents' association help to bring about this result? It has been found that people, as a rule, are more interested in any enterprise if they have some active part in it. One is more likely to be interested in Sunday school, for instance, if he teaches a class, or in a picnic if he is asked to serve on a committee or perform some other definite task connected with it. In the same way a patron may be expected to become more interested in the school if he can be induced to take some part in its affairs. Getting the patron to do something for the school is a good way to overcome his indifference. Again, interest begets interest. One often becomes interested in a thing simply because his friends or neighbors are interested in it. If the teacher is thoroughly alive and enthusiastic, he can easily arouse interest in at least a few of his patrons. Then, if these can be en- listed in an active organization, their influence will spread, and others will become interested in what they are doing. In these two ways, then, the parents' association ought to be, and usually is, an important factor in creating and spreading an educational spirit throughout the community. A second function of the association is to bring about a united effort for a better school. It is to get parents to pull together and with the teacher for the 34 Rural School Management kind of school their children ought to have. The word cooperation expresses this function of the or- ganization. Cooperation means that people are not only interested, but that they are actually working together to accomplish some end or purpose. The members of a baseball or basket ball team, for instance, cooperate in trying to defeat their opponents. In like manner there should be team work in school affairs. Parents and teachers should work together in the ways that are most helpful in making the school the best possible place for the training of children. A third function of the association is to help make the school a means of profit and pleasure to the whole community. This might be considered as a phase or aspect of the function described in the last para- graph. But what we wish to emphasize is that the association is not limited in its work to the improve- ment of the school merely as a place for educating children. The present-day school has a wider mission. One of its functions is to help make life more profitable and enjoyable for all the people in the community, adults as well as children. To do this most effectively requires the assistance and cooperation of the citizens who are to receive the benefits from this wider use of the school. But it is well understood that cooperation — mutual helpfulness — is always more effective when the people concerned are definitely united and organ- ized so they can plan and direct their work to best advantage. The functions, then, of a parent-teacher association are : (1) to awaken a public-spirited interest in educa- tion throughout the community; (2) to get patrons definitely united in a systematic effort to have the best possible type of school for their children; and How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 35 (3) to enlist all of the people of the district in a cam- paign for a better community. Difficulties Met With. It has been found that there are several hindrances to the spread of organiza- tion among school patrons. These difficulties vary, of course, with different communities. In rural districts one of the greatest drawbacks to the movement is the timidity of the teachers. It is not surprising that so few rural teachers have under- taken this phase of school work. Many of them are comparatively young and have had little experience in teaching. Only a very few have had any experience or special training along this particular line. Hence, they lack confidence in their own ability and very naturally hesitate to undertake a new line of work. But the task is not so difficult as it may seem to such teachers. It should be remembered that there are always at least a few patrons in the district who are willing to help in any movement for the betterment of their school. If the teacher will study the matter enough to be able to form in his own mind a definite plan of procedure and will then call upon a few of the interested patrons for their assistance, the success of the movement is fairly assured. The best way to overcome timidity is to feel reasonably sure that one knows how to go at the thing to be done. The main purpose of the rest of this chapter is to point out a method of forming and conducting a patrons' organiza- tion which an inexperienced teacher may use with reasonable assurance of success. Another difficulty frequently encountered, especially in rural schools, is the lack of leadership. To start an organization there must be a good leader, some one who understands the movement and can explain 36 Rural School Management its benefits, one who can get others interested and wiUing to help in the matter. In the towns there are usually people upon whom the teacher can depend for this assistance, but in the country it is more difficult. This difficulty may be easily overcome in most cases if the teacher has in mind a fairly definite method of procedure. Through a little personal work he will be able to find one or more influential patrons who will be willing to serve as leaders in getting the or- ganization formed. How to Organize the Association. In most com- munities the teacher must be the leading spirit, both in having a patrons' association organized and in conducting its affairs. This does not mean that he should hold the principal office or take the most promi- nent part in public. It means rather that he must be the chief adviser and counselor for those who are in charge of the organization. It is important, there- fore, that he have fairly definite ideas as to how the association is to be formed, how its meetings should be conducted, and what it may do to be of the greatest benefit to the community. In forming the organization a good method is to pro- ceed in some such manner as follows : 1. Make definite arrangements beforehand with some influen- tial patron to serve as leader or chief spokesman at the first meeting. 2. Arrange to have a meeting of all the patrons at the school- house. A parents' day, or some special school program, may- furnish an occasion for the meeting. 3. After the school exercises, have the meeting organized by the election of a chairman. Then present, or have some one previously selected present, one or two specific needs of the school for consideration. Cleaning up the schoolhouse and premises would be a good project to start with, because all could take part in it. How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 37 4. When all have agreed to help in the projects proposed, have the leader or spokesman previously chosen present in as tactful and convincing a manner as possible the matter of a permanent patrons' association. 5. When this has been agreed upon, have the meeting elect a temporary president and secretary, select a committee on con- stitution and by-laws, and set a time for the next meeting. The meeting may then adjourn, and in all probability a vast majority of the patrons will be enthusiastically interested in the new movement. In making the preliminary preparations steps should be taken to keep the meeting from being so long as to become tire- some. The school exercises before the meeting should be short ; the persons selected to make the leading talks should speak briefly and to the point. If these pre- cautions are taken, the meeting will end happily, and the association will be well on its way to success. At the second meeting the constitution and by-laws should be adopted, the permanent officers elected, and the standing committees provided for in the by- laws appointed. This completes the organization, and the association is now ready to take up some of the things mapped out for it to do. Reference was made above to the appointment of a committee on constitution and by-laws. The teacher is very likely either to be appointed to membership on this committee or to be called on by it for assistance. In either case he will have an excellent opportunity to serve the association by keeping its machinery or organization as simple as possible. The constitution should be a brief simple statement of just the things necessary to make the association a definite working body. Some such form as the following might be used : 38 Rural School Management Article I. Name The name of this organization shall be the Parents' Association (or School Improvement Association) of . . . School. Article II. Purpose The purpose of the Association shall be to unite the teachers and patrons of the school in an effort to improve the school and make it of greater service to the community. Article III. Members All friends of education who are willing to cooperate in a movement for school betterment may become members. Article IV. Officers The officers of the association shall be a president, a vice president, and a secretary-treasurer. Article V. Meetings The regular meetings of the Association shall be held at the schoolhouse on in each month. Special meetings may be called by the president. Article VI. Amendments This constitution may be amended by a majority vote of all the members of the Association at any regular meeting. The by-laws should set forth briefly such matters as : (1) duties, time and method of election, and length of term, of officers; (2) names and duties of such standing committees as may be deemed necessary, such, for instance, as Membership Committee, Program Committee, Social Committee, etc. ; (3) an order of business. Thus it is seen that preparing the constitution and by-laws is a simple matter. In fact, if the teacher is How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 39 armed with a few facts such as we have tried to de- scribe, the entire process of getting the organization formed and started on its work is simple and easy. In several of the states there already exists a state organization whose function is to bring about the •formation of patrons' associations. This state or- ganization, through special organizers or county superintendents of schools, tries to perfect county organizations. The officers of the county organiza- tion, in turn, look after the formation of local associa- tions. The following quotation from a recent school bulletin 1 illustrates the usual method of procedure where these state or county organizations have been formed. 1. Arrange for a school entertainment. It is a good plan to have a "Mothers' or Parents' Day," with students' work on exhibition. The children may write the invitations. Reach every parent in the district. 2. At the conclusion of the meeting have some one, selected beforehand, present the plans of the School Improvement Asso- ciation work. These remarks should be reenforced by others who are familiar with and favorable to the work. 3. Have Constitution read. 4. Appoint a committee to secure the names of those who will become members. 5. Elect from this list a president and secretary. 6. The president should appoint a membership committee to report at the next meeting, or ask each member to pledge another member for that occasion. 7. A day should be selected not more than two weeks distant to complete the organization; that is, to elect remaining officers and plan work. 8. Consult with teachers and find the thing that most needs doing. Then do that thing. Do not attempt too much at first. Often house-cleaning is the first need. 1 School Improvement Associations, State Department of Educa- tion, Arkansas, 40 Rural School Management 9. Have something of interest at each meeting that patrons may have a twofold reason for attending, interest in the work and an entertaining afternoon. 10. Committees should be appointed at the second meeting, or as they are needed. Conducting the Meetings. Practice differs with reference to the character of meetings of the associa- tion. In some places two kinds of meetings are held — one a purely business session, the other an enter- tainment. In other places the two aspects are com- bined in the same meeting. Local conditions, such as the wishes of the members, the material available for entertainments, the amount of business to be done, will have to determine which method should be used in any given community. In either case the meeting will accomplish the best results if it is con- ducted in a straightforward, businesslike way. It is customary in most places to have a fairly definite order of procedure for the business session. The fol- lowing is an illustration of such an order of business : 1. Call to order by the president. 2. Reading of the minutes by the secretary. 3. Reports of standing committees. 4. Reports of special committees. 5. Discussion of the main business of the meeting. 6. Suggestions for the good of the association. 7. Adjournment or entertainment. It is not necessary that such a program shall be followed slavishly. It may be varied or changed as occasion demands, but there should be no waste of time, no floundering around for want of knowing what to do. Those in charge of the meeting should know just what is to be done and go at it in a business- like way. How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 41 Lines of Work. Another matter of importance is to know what lines of work the association may profit- ably take up. Here, again, local conditions will have to decide. Some of the things which are usually undertaken by such organizations are named in the following list: 1. Improving the school premises, such as repairing, improving, painting, and decorating the schoolhouse ; beautifying the school grounds and providing play facilities; meeting sanitary require- ments in school furniture, drinking fountains, etc. 2. Providing needed school equipment, such as libraries, laboratory supplies, classroom aids, victrola, stereopticon, etc. 3. Conducting boys' and girls' clubs, school fairs, industrial contests, play festivals, etc. 4. Observing special days, such as Parents' Day, Arbor Day, Peace Day, Public Health Day, patriotic days, etc. 5. Agitation of needed reforms in school laws and policies, such as changes in unit of organization, consolidation, methods of apportioning school moneys, etc. Since all of these matters are discussed somewhat at length in later chapters, they may be passed over here without further comment. Summary. A school patrons' association is one of the very best agencies for arousing an interest in, and promoting coopera- tion for the welfare of, the school and the community. In a great many schools, and in rural schools especially, the responsibility for the success of such an organization rests chiefly on the teacher. To meet this responsibility the teacher should know how to get the association organized, how its meetings should be conducted, and what lines of work may be most profitably undertaken. Other Methods of Arousing Interest among Patrons. We have now considered four ways of bringing the school and its patrons into closer touch with each other: (1) by enlisting the cooperation of the school board ; (2) by making patrons more familiar with the 42 Rural School Management work of the school; (3) by providing needed equip- ment through various money-raising devices; (4) by organizing and conducting a parent-teacher or school improvement association in connection with the school. Various other ways are open to the resourceful teacher. Mention should be made, especially, of boys' and girls' clubs, and the social center movement. But these agencies are treated in later chapters, hence a discussion of them may be omitted here. REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING National Congress of Mothers: How to Organize Parents* Asso- ciations or Mothers' Circles in Public Schools. State Department of Education of Alabama : Bulletin No. 41 : Alabama School Improvement Association. State Department of Education of Arkansas, Outline for the Organization of School Improvement Associations. State Commissioner of Delaware : Parent-Teacher Handbook. State Department of Education of South Carolina, Bulletin VII : South Carolina School Improvement Association. State Department of Public Instruction of Virginia: The School and Civic League Bulletin. CLASS EXERCISES 1. Point out some of the evidences of interest or lack of interest in the school on the part of your present school board. 2. Describe a method, not mentioned in the text, of arousing interest among school board members. 3. Write, as if for the local newspaper, some items which you think would be interesting news for the patrons of your school. 4. Describe in detail the preparation you would make for a parents' day in your school and tell how you would conduct the event. 5. Is it the custom in your community for the teacher to visit in the homes of pupils? Describe a visit which you have made or have known the teacher to make in the home of some patron of the school. How to Arouse Interest among Patrons 4S 6. Enumerate the things being done in your school which you think would be appropriate material for a school exhibit or fair. 7. Name some methods of raising money for equipment, other than those mentioned in the text, which you have seen used or think could be used successfully in your school. Describe one such method in detail. 8. Make out what you think would be a good program for a meeting of a parent-teacher association in your school. 9. Arrange in the form of an outline the various methods of arousing interest among patrons described in this chapter. 10. Name and describe any other method which you have seen used or have heard or read about. CHAPTER III SCHOOL HYGIENE Meaning of School Hygiene. If you look in the dictionary you will find the word hygiene pronounced with three syllables and defined as " the science of the preservation of health." This really means that hygiene is the study which tells us how to care for and use our bodies in order to keep them healthy and free from any defects. School hygiene deals with the conditions and work of the school in so far as they affect the health of pupils. It tells us what sort of place the schoolhouse and its surroundings ought to be from the standpoint of health, how we may discover the physical condition of pupils, and how we should deal with those whose bodies are not sound in every respect. I. FUNCTIONS OF SCHOOL HYGIENE Importance of Health. The importance of health is so well understood that it needs only a brief com- ment here. A sound body is one of the most valuable possessions a person can have. It is important, first, as a source of happiness. Disease and physical in- firmities rob life of much of its enjoyment. T.hey bring suffering or discomfort to the person afflicted and, in many cases, worry and distress to his relatives and friends. Poor health is no doubt the greatest single foe to happiness. 44 School Hygiene 45 In the second place, health makes for success in life. In any trade or profession physical vigor is essential to the highest success. One can do his very best work only when he feels well and is free from any physical handicaps. Poor health therefore renders one less efficient and, if sufficiently serious, may lead to failure. The health of every individual is important, in the third place, from the social point of view, i.e. in its effects on other people. If one is in poor health, his usefulness to the community is diminished thereby. He cannot be so good a neighbor or citizen as he would otherwise be. If he is afflicted with a con- tagious disease, he may be a source of danger to the health of others. Poor health, by diminishing or destroying one's ability to work, means a financial loss both to the individual and to the community. In some cases it renders one dependent on other people for support, thereby making him, to some extent at least, a tax or burden to society. A sound body is therefore the greatest asset in life. The welfare of both the individual and of people in general depends, in a large measure, on the health of every person. But it is well known that to get the best results in the preservation of health we must begin with the health of children. The purpose of the rest of this section is to point out the ways in which school hygiene can and should contribute to the health of school children. Hygiene of the School Surroundings. One of the chief functions of school hygiene is to make the school- house and its surroundings thoroughly healthful. There are two main reasons why the whole school environment should be sanitary in every respect. 46 Rural School Management Influence on Health. School surroundings have a very great influence on the present and future health of pupils. The years which a child usually spends in school are very important from the standpoint of health. School age is a period of rapid physical growth and development. It is extremely important, therefore, that the child be kept free from disease or any other condition which may tend to weaken the body during this period. Impure drinking water, improper methods of cleaning the schoolroom, and insanitary toilets are known to be common ways of spreading diseases. Poor ventilation and improper methods of heating, lighting, and seating in the school often cause physical defects or gradually weaken the body so that it becomes less able to resist disease in later life. From such dangers as these the child has a right to be protected. In nearly all of the states, at present, children are compelled by law to attend school several months each year for a period of several years. To compel a child to attend the school and at the same time allow conditions to exist there which may result in disease or physical defects is clearly unfair to the pupil. If the child must attend school, as we all believe he should, then he has a right to be protected from any dangers to his health. Further- more, since health is the most valuable asset in life, it is as much the duty of the school to promote the physical welfare of its pupils as it is to train their mental powers. To the end, then, that the present and future health of pupils may be properly safe- guarded, the school surroundings should be made and kept hygienic in every particular. Influence on School Work. Sanitary surroundings are necessary, in the second place, because of their School Hygiene 47 influence on the mental powers of pupils. A child cannot apply himself closely to his studies if he is listless and drowsy from breathing bad air or from sitting too near a hot stove. He cannot study so well if he is suffering from a headache which is caused, in many instances, from improper light or lack of ventila- tion. Inattention, poor lessons, and even slow progress in school sometimes result from unhygienic surround- ings. Psychologists tell us that one's mental ability is affected very largely by his physical condition. We know that insanitary surroundings tend to produce an unfavorable condition of the body. Thus we see why pupils cannot do their very best mental work in an unhygienic schoolroom. Summary. The first function of school hygiene is to provide a sanitary school environment for the pupils. A healthful environ- ment is necessary for two reasons : (1) It protects and promotes the general health of pupils ; and (2) it makes more rapid school progress possible. Hygiene of the Pupils. Adequate protection for the health of school children involves more than providing a hygienic school environment. It requires, in the second place, an examination into the physical condition of the pupils themselves with a view to dis- covering and improving, as far as possible, any defects or ailments that may be found. Extent of Physical Deficiency. Physical examina- tions of school children have shown clearly that a great many pupils are not perfectly healthy and vigorous. Dr. T. D. Wood, of Columbia University, estimated (1912) that about three fourths of all the pupils enrolled in the schools of the country needed attention for defects that could be partly or com- 48 Rural School Management pletely remedied. The facts which he gathered led him to conclude that fully half of the pupils in our schools have defective teeth; that about a fourth have defective vision ; that nearly one third have en- larged tonsils, adenoids, or enlarged glands; that about a fourth suffer from a lack of the right kind or a sufficient amount of food ; and that many, though in smaller numbers, have defective hearing, curvature of the spine, or heart disease. Need for Physical Inspection of Pupils. The above facts serve to reveal the pressing need for a thorough physical inspection of all school children. This need is urgent for two reasons. First. Physical defects, such as those mentioned above, tend to impair or undermine the general health of the pupils. De- fective teeth, for instance, may affect the health of the whole body by making a thorough mastication of the food impossible, or by serving as a lodging place for the germs which produce such diseases as tubercu- losis, scarlet fever, and diphtheria. Adenoids, also, by interfering with breathing and by serving as breed- ing places for disease germs, constitute a menace to the growth and health of the child. In a similar manner it can be shown that nearly all of the more common defects tend to impair the general health of the pupils afflicted with them. Second. The physical condition of the child, as we have already seen, has an important influence on his mental powers. There is no longer any doubt that pupils who have physical defects make slower progress in their school studies than do those who have sound, healthy bodies. One investigation has shown, for instance, that it takes pupils who have enlarged glands or adenoids more than a year longer to complete the eight grades School Hygiene 49 than it does pupils who are free from such defects. In another instance it was found that far more pupils with good teeth made passing grades in certain schools than did those with poor teeth. Physical defectiveness is undoubtedly responsible for the poor school work of pupils in many instances. Summary. A second very important function of school hygiene is to provide adequate physical inspection of all pupils for the purpose of discovering those who need special care or treatment. Physical defects, when not detected and remedied, tend (1) to injure the general health of the pupil, and (2) to hinder his progress in the regular work of the school. Hygienic Home Conditions for Pupils. The third function of school hygiene is to help bring about more sanitary conditions in the homes of pupils. The con- ditions under which pupils live at home are important for the same reasons that sanitary school surroundings and the physical examination of pupils are important ; namely, their influence on the general health and on the school progress of children. Reaching the Homes through the Pupils. There are two ways in which school hygiene may help in bringing about sanitary conditions in the homes. First. If hygienic conditions are maintained in the school, pupils are both instructed and trained in methods of right living. For instance, pupils learn the importance of ventilation by living every day they are at school in a properly ventilated room. They learn that cleanliness is important by being required to keep themselves clean and by living in a schoolroom which is cleaned by proper methods. The hygienic school thus teaches by its example and makes its instruction effective by requiring pupils to practice the measures 50 Rural School Management and methods learned. Pupils thus trained will, in many cases, understand the importance of sanitary- conditions in their homes and will seek to apply there the measures learned at school. The School Health Officer. Second. A more effective method of improving the home conditions is for the school to employ a physician or a nurse as a special health officer. In the discharge of his duties such an officer necessarily comes into close touch with parents. He visits the homes when necessary and makes recommendations with reference to the care of pupils. In this way he has an excellent opportunity to influence parents in the matter of sanitation in the homes. If the school has no special health inspector, then the teacher should be able to perform the most important duties of such an officer. Summary. School hygiene has three important functions : (1) to provide a sanitary school environment; (2) to discover and remedy, as far as possible, physical defects among pupils; and (3) to bring about more sanitary conditions in the homes of pupils. Each of these functions is important for two reasons : (1) It pro- motes the health and physical vigor of the pupils; and (2) it aids them in their school work. More sanitary conditions in the homes may be brought about, in some cases, through the influence of the pupils. The most effective way is to have a special school health inspector. II. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED Having learned what the school ought to do in the matter of preserving and promoting the health of its pupils, our next problem is to see what the situation is at present, and what difficulties the teacher may meet with in attempting to put into effect the measures necessary to accomplish the purposes named. School Hygiene 51 Present Conditions. Better provision for the health of school children is now one of the leading movements in education. People are beginning to understand the importance of the matter, and better health meas- ures are being adopted in a great many places. In City Schools. City and town schools have made the most rapid progress in the movement. In a great many of these schools modern sanitary buildings have already been erected or are being erected as fast as new buildings are needed. Adjustable school seats, sanitary drinking fountains, sanitary methods of clean- ing, and medical inspection of pupils are now fairly common in city schools. On the whole, the situation is rapidly becoming satisfactory in most of these schools. In Rural Schools. In rural communities the school health movement has made less progress. However, a good beginning has been made, and interest in the movement is spreading. One evidence of this fact is seen in the number of laws which have been passed bearing on the subject. In some states the school inspectors or county health officers are permitted by law to condemn insanitary schoolhouses. Some states require that the plans for a new schoolhouse shall be inspected and approved by some competent official, such as the state superintendent of schools. Medical inspection of pupils is required by law in several states, and the use of school funds for that purpose is permitted in a number of others. The use of a common drinking cup in schools has been abolished, and regulations governing the methods of cleaning schoolhouses have been adopted by boards of health in many sections of the country. Furthermore, a great many county superintendents and rural teachers 52 Rural School Management have caught the spirit of the movement and are con- ducting campaigns for the improvement of health conditions in their respective counties and districts. As a result some rural schools are now well equipped with sanitary buildings and other means for promoting the health of their pupils. Notwithstanding the excellent results that have been achieved in some communities, the fact remains that only a beginning has been made. Recent in- vestigations have shown clearly that a great majority of rural schools are still lacking in sanitation and adequate health supervision for their pupils. Dr. F. B. Dresslar, specialist in school hygiene and school sanitation in the United States Bureau of Education, made an investigation of rural school conditions in nineteen states. The replies which he received from more than twelve hundred schools revealed the follow- ing facts : Less than 40% of the schools had enough window area to fur- nish sufficient light. Less than 2 % were lighted from one side only. About 1 % had sanitary toilets. Only 25% used sanitary methods of cleaning. About 60% were heated by means of a common stove. Two thirds of the schools had no thermometer. About half were still using a common drinking cup. The rural schools of a typically progressive county in one of the central states were examined by a com- mittee of educational experts and the following condi- tions found : 77 of the 110 schools were heated by means of an unjacketed stove. 102 had insufficient lighting surface. 105 had windows on opposite sides. School Hygiene 53 72 had no cloakroom. All toilets were earth privies. No school had provision for the physical examination of pupils. No school served hot lunches. These facts and many others which might be cited indicate clearly that, as a rule, the health of country children is not yet adequately protected by the schools they attend. The reasons why rural communities have made less progress in school hygiene than city schools are no doubt the same as those which have tended to retard school progress along other lines. The fact that leading educators are now turning their attention to the improvement of rural schools; that country people, through improved means of communi- cation, are brought into closer touch with each other and with what is going on in other places; and that rural teachers are coming to be better trained for leader- ship in such matters, account for the present awakening and may be expected to bring about a more rapid prog- ress in the future. Old Type of Schoolhouse. One of the most serious difficulties met with in trying to adopt hygienic meas- ures in rural schools is the prevalence of the old- fashioned type of schoolhouse. In general this is a box-shaped structure with a door in one end, a chimney in the other, a row of windows on each side, and no provision for toilet or wash rooms. While such build- ings are old-fashioned, it is worthy of note that not all of the buildings themselves are old. Many of the newer rural schoolhouses are merely copies of the older type. The practical difficulty in such cases arises in trying to make the building already in use sanitary. It is not an easy matter, for instance, to get sufficient light from one side only in a schoolhouse 54 Rural School Management in which the windows are on opposite sides, or to get sanitary cloakrooms, toilets, and wash rooms in a building in which no provision has been made for such things. Other Traditions. Another obstacle to school hygiene is found in the old ideas about schools and health matters which prevail in some communities. One of these ideas or traditions is the notion that the physical condition of the pupils is none of the teacher's business. Many patrons, and even some teachers, have not yet learned that promoting the physical welfare of children is as much a part of their education as is the training of their minds. Keeping order and " hearing '' the recitations constitute, according to this view, the sole functions of the teacher, and any attempt on his part to enforce hygienic measures is looked upon as meddling with affairs which do not concern the school. Old ideas or beliefs about health matters in general are still found in some communities. Some people think, for instance, that certain contagious diseases such as whooping cough and measles are necessary evils to which one must submit sooner or later. A great many people do not yet know the importance of fresh air or pure drinking water or personal clean- liness. In some sections it is not widely known that such diseases as tuberculosis, typhoid fever, and colds can be prevented if proper precautions are taken. The influence on health of good eyes, sound teeth, care of nose and throat, and wholesome food and exercise is not as widely known as it should be. Such traditions and such lack of knowledge, where they exist to any great extent, constitute a real obstacle to effective sanitation and health work in the schools. School Hygiene 55 Lack of Funds. We have already seen that lack of funds is responsible, in some instances, for low teachers' salaries and inadequate school equipment. It is also an obstacle to effective school hygiene in some com- munities. To make the school thoroughly sanitary necessarily involves some expense. To get proper lighting conditions and sanitary toilet facilities in the school, the building may have to be altered some- what. Sanitary drinking fountains, adjustable window shades, heating and ventilating systems, hygienic seats, and the physical inspection of pupils are some of the essentials in school hygiene. While there is much, as we shall see, which a good teacher may do to improve the conditions found in many schools, the very best conditions cannot be provided without incurring some expense. Summary. The movement for better health provision for school children is a leading tendency in education at present. Fairly satisfactory conditions have been attained in most city schools and in some rural schools. In most rural schools adequate health measures have not yet been adopted. The chief hindrances to school hygiene are : (1) the insanitary type of schoolhouse found in a great many districts; (2) traditional ideas about physical education and health matters in general ; and (3) lack of the funds necessary to provide sanitary schoolhouses and equipment, and employ a special health officer. REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Ayres : The Relation of Physical Defects to School Progress. Dresslar: School Hygiene, Chapter I. Dresslar: The Hygiene of Rural Schools. (In Proceedings of National Education Association, 1912.) Wood: Health Problems in Education. (In Proceedings of National Education Association, 1912.) 56 Rural School Management CLASS EXERCISES 1. Do the people of your community regard health as very important? Give arguments to support your answer. 2. How do the "present conditions" in your school compare with those described in the text? How do you account for the facts revealed ? 3. Give from your own observation instances of the traditional beliefs of parents in matters pertaining to health. 4. Summarize the main points in the chapter under the follow- ing headings : a. The functions of school hygiene. h. The difficulties encountered. 5. To what extent are these functions being performed or these difficulties met in your school? Give specific instances to illustrate or prove your answer. CHAPTER IV SCHOOL HYGIENE (Continued) — HOW TO MAKE THE SCHOOL A HEALTH AGENCY Having noted the importance of health and the relation of school hygiene to it, we are now ready to consider the question of what measures should be employed in every school to make it a health-promoting agency and what the teacher can do to bring about the necessary conditions where they do not already exist. We shall consider the problem under four main headings: (1) making the school premises hygienic; (2) a general health campaign; (3) the medical in- spection of school children; and (4) the serving of hot lunches in schools. I. HYGIENE OF THE SCHOOL PREMISES Lighting the Schoolroom. Since our eyes are one of our most valuable possessions, they should be care- fully protected from injury. It is known now that the old-fashioned method of lighting the schoolroom has tended to produce defects in the vision of school children. We ought, therefore, to know how the school should be lighted in order to prevent this in- jury to the eyes of the pupils. The facts pertaining to the lighting of the school- room fall into three groups ; namely : (1) the correct position of the windows ; (2) the amount of glass area needed ; and (3) the methods of regulating the light. 57 58 School Hygiene 59 Position of the Windows. It is now the practice in our best schools to place all of the windows in the side of the room to the left of pupils as they sit at their desks. The windows are arranged in a row, be- ginning about one and a half feet from the rear wall, and are placed as close together as possible. The bottoms are from three and a half to four feet from the floor and the tops extend to within a few inches of the ceiling. In some schools small windows are placed in the rear end of the room. These are in- tended chiefly for ventilation, but may be used to increase the amount of light, especially on dark days. Where rear windows are used they are so situated that the tops are on a level with the tops of the other win- dows and the sills at least eight feet from the floor. This arrangement makes them less injurious to the teacher's eyes and prevents their interfering with the use of the rear wall for blackboard purposes. In all strictly modern school buildings there are no windows either to the right or in front of pupils. Amount of Glass Area. Another feature of the lighting in our best schools is the amount of light provided for. It has been found that in order to get enough light, the area of the glass in the windows, that is, the sum of the areas of all of the window panes, must be from one fifth to one fourth of the area of the floor. If there are any large trees or other ob- structions to the light, the glass area should be somewhat larger. In buildings constructed on this basis pupils can see to read ordinary print in the darkest part of the room, even on cloudy days. Regulating the Amount of Light. While it is very important to have enough light in the room, it is also extremely important that pupils shall be pro- 60 Rural School Management tected from too bright a light. If there is enough window area in the room to furnish sufficient light on dark days, it follows that there will probably be too much light on bright, clear days. Hence window shades are necessary in order to adjust the light in the room to outside conditions. Two methods of regulating the amount of light have been found satisfactory and are in use now in many of the best schools. One method is to fasten two roller shades near the middle of each window so that one may be rolled down, the other up. This arrangement makes it possi- ble to shade any portion of the window as needed without shading all of it. It makes possible also the use of either the top or the bottom of the window for ventilation purposes. Since (Courtesy of Suproma Stiadins W orks) Double Roller Shade. School Hygiene 61 the upper half of the window is the better for lighting purposes, the top shade is not used except when needed to shut out direct sunlight. At other times when the light in the room is too strong, it is regulated by draw- ing the lower shade only. The other method of varying the light condi- tions in the room is to use shades which are adjust- able, that is, shades which may be moved up or down on the window as needed. One type of adjustable shade is shown in the ■ accom- panying illustration. It consists of a special roller device which is sus- pended from the top of the window by means of a cord and small pulley. In a great many schools the ordinary type of roll- er shade is made adjust- able by means of shade adjusters, information concerning which can be obtained from the county or state superintendent of schools. The practice of fastening shades at the top of the windows is no longer followed in the best schools. In some instances they are fastened at the bottom and roll upward, but this plan is not so satisfactory as either the double shade or the adjustable shade method. The most widely approved colors for window shades are light tan, light gray, or light green. (Courtesy of Luther O. Draper Shade Company) Adjustable Roller Shade. 62 Rural School Management Summary. The schoolroom should be properly lighted in order to protect the eyes of pupils from injury. Sanitary light- ing requires: (1) that the windows shall be placed to the left, or left and rear of pupils ; (2) that the amount of glass area shall equal at least one fifth of the floor area ; (3) that the windows shall be equipped with shades which may be so manipulated or adjusted as to shade any portion of the window without shading all of it. What the Teacher Can Do. We have now learned what conditions are necessary for the proper lighting of the schoolroom. Our next problem is to see what the teacher can do to bring about these conditions in schools where they do not already exist. If a new schoolhouse is about to be erected in the district, the teacher should write to his state superin- tendent and to the United States Bureau of Education for bulletins or other literature giving plans for and descriptions of modern rural school buildings. With this information at hand, he can aid the school board very greatly in planning a structure which will em- body correct lighting features. A point which will have great weight with the board is the fact that in erecting the building it will cost very little or no more to place the windows on one side than it will to dis- tribute the same number on opposite sides. If there is a s^ate law which requires that plans for school buildin^ shall be approved by the state superintendent or some other official, this fact will aid the teacher in getting a modern building constructed. But whether there is such a law or not, the teacher must be prepared to assist the board in every way possible. To provide sanitary lighting conditions in school- houses of the older type is, in most cases, difficult, since it necessitates a remodeling of the building. There are a few things, however, which any teacher School Hygiene 63 can do with a view to bringing about some improve- ment. He can (1) fasten opaque shades or some other sort of cover over the windows which are directly in front of the pupils ; (2) compute, or let the pupils compute, the ratio of the window surface to the floor area; (3) make measurements to determine how many additional windows could be inserted in the side to the left of pupils, and estimate the cost in- volved. It is a good plan to let pupils assist in work- ing out such problems, since by so doing they learn how the room ought to be Hghted and may be able to influence their parents to favor the necessary changes. In the matter of window shades, an alert teacher can certainly do something to improve the lighting conditions which prevail in a great many schools. One teacher describes the plan slie adopted as follows : "We had no shades of any kind in our school. I saw an adjust- able shade on display in the county superintendent's office and described it as best I could to my pupils. We decided we wanted that kind for our school and planned a box social entertainment to raise the funds. When the shades came we put them up our- selves during the recess and noon intermissions." Another teacher whose school was equipped with roller shades fastened at the tops of the windows saw a shade adjuster demonstrated at a tp'"'2hers' institute. He wrote to the manufacturers for i sample device to show his school board. The sample was placed on one of the windows and the school board invited to meet at the schoolhouse. The result was that the board purchased enough of the adjusters to equip all of the windows where the direct sunlight was troublesome. Each one of the other shades was fastened at a point near the middle of the window instead of at the top. 64 Rural School Management Heating the Schoolroom. The heating of the schoolroom is another important phase of school sanitation. To make the heating thoroughly sani- tary two conditions must be maintained : (1) The temperature must not be too high or too low ; (2) the heat must be evenly distributed throughout the room. The Proper Temperature. In our best modern schools very great care is taken to avoid too high or too low a temperature in the schoolroom in winter. Experts have found that for most sections of the country a temperature of from 66 degrees to 68 degrees is best for all purposes. If the temperature is kept much higher than 68 degrees, pupils become drowsy and inactive and their mental powers are so dulled that they cannot do their school work effectively. But the most serious result is the effect of an excessively high temperature on the health of pupils. Over-heated air usually becomes too dry to be breathed with safety. It tends to absorb the moisture from the membranes of the air passages and thus to produce diseased conditions of the nose, throat, and lungs. Furthermore, the sudden change from the high temperature in the room to a much lower temperature out of doors is dangerous. Pupils cannot apply themselves closely to their studies if the room is uncomfortably cold. Again, the chill in- cident to sitting for a long time in a cold room may prove injurious to health. Unless pupils are required to dress more warmly than they usually do for school, the temperature of the room should not be allowed to remain below 66 degrees. Distribution of the Heat. Sanitary heating requires, in the second place, that the heat shall be evenly distributed throughout the room. If this is not done, some portions of the room are likely to be too hot School Hygiene 65 while other portions are too cold. Both of these extremes, as we have seen, should be avoided. To bring about an even temperature the method of heat- ing the room must be one which causes currents of warm air to go to all parts of the room. The methods in use in the best rural schools are the hot-air furnace and the jacketed stove system. But since these are ventilating as well as heating systems, they are more fully explained in connection with ventilation. Thermometers and Hygrometers. From what has just been said we can readily see that every schoolroom should be supplied with thermometers. The practice in the best schools now is to have two thermometers for each room, one at some point near the source of heat and the other in an opposite part of the room. Care is taken not to place them too far above the floor. If the school does not have a basement furnace, they are usually placed from one to three feet from the floor. Hygrometers are instruments for indicating the amount of moisture in the air. Since very dry air in the schoolroom is known to be injurious to the health of pupils, care is taken to see that the humidity (moisture) does not fall below 50 per cent. To this end a vessel containing water should be kept on the stove, if an ordinary stove is used for heating. All modern jacketed stove systems have humidifying vessels attached to the stove or furnace. Summary. The heating of the schoolroom has a very important influence on the physical and mental condition of the pupils. Sanitary heating requires (1) that the temperature of the room shall be maintained at from 66 degrees to 68 degrees, and (2) that the heat shall be evenly distributed throughout the room. Every schoolroom should be supplied with thermometers and a hygrom- eter to enable the teacher to know both the temperature and the humidity of the air at any time. fZ^ CT^ (Courtesy State Department of Education, Columbia, S. C.) Jacketed Heater for Schoolroom. A, the complete equipment which is placed in a corner of the room. B, a specially constructed joint furnishing connections for the smoke and foul air pipes. C, the special joint needed when the pipe enters the chimney through the ceiling. X, the fresh-air intake — a hole in the floor under the stove. (To guard against impure air, there should be a pipe under the floor extending from this hole to the outside of the house.) The drum or jacket is about 18 inches larger in diameter than the stove. 66 School Hygiene 67 What the Teacher Can Do. The un jacketed stove is a positive menace to the health of school children. The best remedy for this condition is to induce the school board, if possible, to install a hot-air furnace or one of the patented jacketed stove systems. In preparation for presenting this matter to the board the teacher should procure descriptions, illustrations, and information as to the cost of such systems. The names of reliable manufacturers can be obtained by writing to the nearest state normal school, and the companies will be glad to furnish the information and literature needed. From this literature the teacher can easily understand the workings and advantages of a modern heating plant and can present the facts to his school board. In addition to the argument based on the health and comfort of pupils, the matter may be presented in some districts as a business in- vestment. In some states it is the custom to allow a certain amount of state aid to rural schools which have met a satisfactory standard of excellence. One of the requirements in almost every instance is that the school shall have a sanitary heating system. It can easily be shown that the funds received as state aid will, in the long run, more than offset the cost of making the needed improvements. But in case a modern system cannot be procured, the next best remedy is to make the method in use as sanitary as possible. The accompanying fig- ure shows how a South Carolina teacher converted an ordinary stove into a fairly satisfactory jacketed system. Ventilation. It is an established fact that fresh air is one of the greatest factors in the preservation of health. People who have made a careful study of 68 Rural School Management the matter tell us that the breathing of bad air tends to create a condition in the body which renders one susceptible to various diseases, especially to such diseases as tuberculosis, pneumonia, diphtheria, colds, and catarrh. An abundance of fresh air in the school- room is absolutely essential to the physical vigor of school children. Consequently adequate provision for ventilation is one of the most necessary phases of school sanitation. Purposes of Ventilation. The supreme importance of fresh air is well established. Just how it produces such beneficial effects on health is not, at present, so well understood. For a long time it was thought that the only purpose of ventilation was to supply the air in the room with an abundance of oxygen and remove the carbon dioxide and other objectionable substances from the room. But it is now beheved that ventilation is necessary for other reasons as well. Recent experiments have shown that the air, to be most healthful, must be kept in motion, that its tem- perature must not be too high, and that it must con- tain a certain amount of moisture. In the fight of our present knowledge, then, we may say that the purposes of ventilation are (1) to supply the air with oxygen and to remove impurities; (2) to produce a movement of the air in the room; (3) to keep the temperature reasonably low; and (4) to supply a sufficient amount of moisture. Methods of Ventilating Schoolrooms. The most common methods of ventilating, except in some of the larger city schools where the mechanical or fan system is used, are (1) the window method and (2) the gravity method. The window method, as its name implies, consists in School Hygiene 69 admitting air through open windows. In warm weather the windows are opened both at the top and the bottom as far as possible. In cold weather the plan is modified so as to prevent drafts of cold air from striking directly on the pupils. This may be done in either one of two ways : (1) By opening the window at the top only. This makes two air passages at each window, one at the top and another at the middle between the sash, both of which are above the heads of the pupils. (2) By the use of window boards. These are boards about six inches wide, hinged vertically at the middle and cut just the right length to fit snugly into the window when the lower sash is raised. The raising of the lower sash makes an opening at the middle of the window. In some instances wider boards are used, and instead of being placed under the sash they are slanted inward so as to deflect the air upward over the heads of the pupils. It is the custom now in our best schools to flush the room thoroughly with fresh air at recesses and at least once between intermissions. When the flushing is done during the school session, the children are given marching or calisthenic exercises while the windows and doors are open. A gravity method of ventilation is one in which the movement of air into and out of the room is produced by means of the heating plant. The most common types are the hot-air furnace and the modern jacketed stove system. The hot-air furnace is placed in the basement. Air from the outside is conducted through a large duct to an enclosure around the fire box. In this enclosure is a vessel containing water to supply the 70 Rural School Management air with moisture. When the air is heated it passes up through other ducts and enters the room at a point about eight feet from the floor. The foul air is con- » (Courtesy of the Smith System Heating Company) A Modern Heating and Ventilating System. ducted out of the room by means of a flue or pipe connected with the chimney. A modern jacketed stove system makes use of the same general principle as the furnace, but is simpler School Hygiene 71 in construction. It consists of a heating device or stove surrounded by a metal screen or jacket extend- ing from the floor to a height of five and a half or six feet. Air is admitted from the outside through a duct near the floor, is heated in the enclosure between the jacket and stove, passes out over the top of the jacket, and goes to all parts of the room. The foul air outlet is either an opening into the chimney near the floor or a specially constructed pipe extending from a few inches above the floor to the smoke pipe. All of the best jacketed stove systems are equipped with water containers for humidifying the air. Summary. Ventilation is one of the most important phases of school sanitation. It has four functions : (1) to supply oxygen and remove impurities; (2) to produce a movement of the air in the room ; (3) to keep the temperature from becoming too high ; and (4) to supply the indoor air with moisture. The methods of ventilating in most common use among rural schools are (1) the window method, and (2) the gravity method, which includes hot- air furnaces and jacketed stoves. What the Teacher Can Do. Owing to the close connection between heating and ventilation, what was said about the improvement of heating conditions in the school applies with equal force here. For the sake of emphasis let us restate the main points. (1) Get the school board to install a modern method, if possible. If this cannot be done, then (2) con- struct a homemade system by putting a screen or jacket around the stove and providing for a cold air inlet and a foul air outlet. (See page 66.) The following additional points should be em- phasized in connection with ventilation. (1) Flush the room thoroughly with fresh air at regular intervals. 72 School Hygiene 73 (2) If the school is not equipped with a modern system, then make as wide a use as possible of the windows for ventilation purposes. (3) Let the pupils make the window boards previ- ously referred to. It furnishes an excellent opportunity to give pupils valuable training in manual training, hygiene, and social service. School Toilets. The condition which exists in the toilets in a great many schools is a source of danger to both the health and the morals of pupils. The waste materials from the human body frequently contain dangerous disease germs, notably those of typhoid fever and hookworm disease. If the toilet floors and seats are not kept clean, if flies or other insects have access to the cesspools, or if the excreta are scattered about in any way, the health of the whole school is thereby endangered. The influence of the toilets on the morals of school children, while not strictly a matter of health, is none the less serious. The filthy condition and the in- decent drawings and writing found in so many school toilets make for habits of uncleanliness, and, in some cases, lead to immoral practices on the part of school children. To provide healthful and morally whole- some toilet facilities is an important measure in school sanitation. Indoor Toilets. For several reasons indoor toilets are far more satisfactory than outdoor privies. Being more directly under the supervision of the teacher, they are much more likely to be kept clean and free from any indecent writing and drawings. There is less opportunity for any immoral conduct on the part of pupils. The sewage is properly disposed of, and so there is less danger from disease germs. They are 74 Rural School Management more comfortable in cold or disagreeable weather. And, incidentally, they impart ideas of cleanliness and comfort in connection with toilet facilities, ideas which the children may be the means of putting into effect in their own homes. Types of Modern Toilets. Indoor toilets have long been in use in schools where there is a city water and sewer system to furnish the means of flushing the toilets and carrying away the sewage. But it has been found that such a system is not absolutely essential, and indoor toilets are now coming into use even in rural schools. One method is to have a pressure tank to supply School Hygiene 75 the water and a septic tank to receive the sewage. This method is too compHcated to describe in detail here, but any teacher can get a complete description of it either from his state superintendent or from the United States Bureau of Education. The least expensive and the most easily installed indoor toilet for rural schools is the patented chemical toilet. This device consists of a box- or cylindrical- shaped seat with a close-fitting, hinged lid over the opening and a water-tight metal receptacle within. This receptacle is partly filled with a mixture of water and certain chemicals which liquefies the excreta and kills all disease germs they may contain. It may be removed as often as is necessary for emptying and cleaning. All odors are removed by means of a small pipe extending from the toilet out through the roof or into the chimney. Where indoor toilets are used in schools, they are usually placed in the cloakrooms. In order to give the necessary privacy, the cloakrooms must be located on opposite sides of the building or separated from each other by means of a sound-proof wall. Outdoor Toilets. In a great majority of rural schools the outdoor privy is the type still in use. In some instances these have been made fairly sanitary, though they are perhaps never as safe as the indoor type. In schools where the outhouses are most nearly satisfactory some such plan as the following is used. Two toilets are provided, one for each sex. They are located well in the rear of the schoolhouse, on opposite sides of the playground, and are well screened by means of a board fence in front and on one side. The toilet is a tightly constructed building, well lighted, and ventilated by means of a flue extending 76 Rural School Management out through the roof. The interior walls are painted, and while the paint is fresh they are coated with a layer of sand to prevent their being defaced with knives or pencils. A bin containing lime or dry xed Window (.From United States Bureau of Educa- tion, Bulletin 1914, No. 12) Dry Toilet with Buckets. earth stands in one corner. The openings in the seat are provided with close-fitting hinged covers. The receptacle for the excreta is either a large bucket- shaped vessel, a stout metal-lined box, or a cement- lined vault or pit in the ground. Care is taken to make the receptacle water-tight and to protect it School Hygiene 77 completely from flies or any other germ-spreading agency. The toilet is so constructed that the receptacle may be emptied and cleaned when necessary. The accompanying illustration reveals the essential features of a good outdoor toilet. Summary A badly kept toilet is a source of danger to the health and morals of school children. Indoor toilets are now practicable for rural as well as for city schools. They are more sanitary, more comfortable, more easily kept clean, and afford less opportunity for bad conduct on the part of pupils, than out- door toilets. Either the septic tank type or the chemical type is suitable for use in rural schools. Fairly satisfactory outdoor toilets are possible if they are properly located, constructed, and cared for. What the Teacher Can Do. Unless the school is already provided with well-constructed and well-kept outhouses, the teacher's efforts should be directed toward procuring indoor toilet facilities. If the school- room has separate cloakrooms for boys and girls, the chemical type of toilet may be installed with very little trouble and without a great deal of expense. In such cases the first step for the teacher is to prepare himself to make a convincing plea to his school board for the necessary funds. To this end he will need illustrations, descriptions, and information as to cost and methods of operating chemical toilets. A good plan is to get from the state superintendent of schools the names of the manufacturers of such devices and write to these for illustrative material, prices, and all other information needed. Thus armed the teacher can readily point out the need for such toilet facilities for the sake of the health, morals, and comfort of pupils, and their advantage to the school as one of the steps necessary to procure state aid. 78 Rural School Management Where there are no cloakrooms, the installing of indoor toilets would probably necessitate some re- modeling of the school building. This is a measure which the teacher can recommend, but may not be able to carry into immediate effect. In case the efforts for the indoor toilets fail, the outhouses must receive more attention than they are at present receiving in a great many schools. As the supervisor or general manager of the school, the teacher is temporarily in charge of the whole school plant — the grounds, the building, and the out- houses. In some schools the teacher serves as janitor, in others some one else is employed for this service. In either case it is the teacher's duty to see that the toilets are in good condition on the first day of the term. He should see that all filth has been removed from the floor and seats ; that all drawings and writing have been erased or covered with paint; and that a supply of lime or dry soil for spreading over the excreta is on hand and properly used. All of this is a part of the janitor's work, and the teacher must see that it is not neglected. Drinking Water. Another important phase of school sanitation pertains to the drinking water and the drinking utensils used in the school. The dangers to health from this source are three in number. (1) The water used for drinking purposes may be impure. It may contain disease germs, portions of decayed animal or vegetable matter, or other substances which are injurious to the health of both teacher and pupils. Epidemics of typhoid fever frequently start from the use of drinking water which contains the germs of this disease. (2) The quantity of water available may not be sufficient to meet the requirements of good School Hygiene 79 health. Physicians tell us that people as a rule do not drink enough water. In schools where there is not an abundant supply of water on the school premises or very near at hand, pupils may not get as much water as they need. (3) The utensils used for drink- ing may be the means of transmitting diseases from one pupil to others. It is known that many of the most injurious disease germs gain entrance to the body through the mouth. It is, therefore, dangerous for pupils to drink from the same cup or from any cup which is not known to be perfectly clean. Plenty of Pure Water. To safeguard the health of pupils and teacher from the dangers just mentioned, the first step is to see that the school is supplied with plenty of pure water. This is accomplished in the best schools by having a well of pure water on the school premises. To be sure that the water from the well is pure, two precautions are necessary. First, the well is made deep enough to tap water which has not been polluted by near-by cesspools or barn- yards. Further, the wall is made water-tight by means of glazed sewer tiles, and the covering around the pump is so close-fitting that neither water nor vermin can enter from the top. If water is to be kept in the schoolroom, still another precaution is necessary. It must be kept in a dust- proof vessel of some sort. For this purpose most of the better class of schools are now using metal tanks or large earthen jars equipped with close-fitting covers and faucets or bubblers. In addition to the precautions just mentioned, it is a good plan to have the water examined by an expert from time to time to ascertain its fitness for drinking purposes. This service is usually performed free by 80 Rural School Management some one connected with the state university, the agricultural college, or the state board of health. All that is needed is to send a small sample of the water to the proper official, and he reports as to whether or not it contains any injurious substances. Methods of Drinking. The common drinking cup has been found to be one of the worst enemies to health. In one of the larger cities an empty cup used in one of the schools was discovered, upon ex- amination by an expert, to contain more than a million disease germs. Among them were the germs which produce scarlet fever, diphtheria, tuberculosis, and blood poisoning. The discovery of such facts as this has led a great many states to pass laws prohibiting the use of a common drinking cup in the schools. No first-class school any longer permits this method of drinking. A method used in quite a number of schools at present is to have each pupil furnish his own drinking utensil. These individual cups are a decided improve- ment over the common cup ; but this practice, too, is, in many instances, insanitary. One of the difficulties is that the cups are not always kept clean. Again, where the method of taking care of the cups is not supervised by the teacher, pupils frequently lose them, leave them at home, or get them interchanged or dip them into the water bucket. However, most, if not all, of these difficulties are overcome in some schools by having a definite place to keep the cups and a systematic method of taking care of them. In quite a number of schools, too, pupils are taught as a part of the handwork of the school to make paper cups for their own use. The sanitary drinking fountain is now believed to School Hygiene 81 offer the best solu- tion of the problem so far discovered. These fountains are now adapted for use in rural as well as in city schools. The es- sential feature is the bubbling de- vice, which may be attached to any water tank in place of the ordinary fau- cet. The county or the state superintendent will furnish any teacher, upon request, the names of man- ufacturers or supply houses from which information concerning these bubblers may be obtained. Several different varieties are now on the market, some A Sanitary Bubbling Fountain. A Sanitary Wasteless Fountain. 82 Rural School Management of which are shown in the accompanying illustra- tions. Summary. The drinking water and the drinking utensils used in the school may endanger the health of pupils in three ways : (1) The water may be impure ; (2) there may not be a suffi- cient quantity to supply the needs of pupils ; and (3) the method of drinking may be the means of transmitting diseases. Adequate provision for this phase of school sanitation requires (1) that there shall be an abundant supply of pure water easily accessible, preferably on the school premises, and (2) the use of a dust-proof water tank equipped with a sanitary bubbler. What the Teacher Can Do. We have now seen what measures are necessary to safeguard the health of school children in the matter of drinking water. What the teacher can, or in any given school should, do depends on the conditions which exist there. Quite a number of rural schools are already supplied with plenty of wholesome water and sanitary methods of drinking, but perhaps a considerably greater number are still lacking in one or both of these features. In the latter case the steps to be taken fall into two groups: (1) steps to determine and maintain the purity of the water; and (2) steps to prevent the spread of disease through the methods of drinking. Whatever the source of water supply, the water should be tested for impurities. If the teacher does not know the name of the official to whom the sample should be sent for examination, an inquiry addressed to the county or state superintendent will bring the information. This test should be made, if possible, before the opening of the school term. But if that is impracticable, then it should be done immediately after school begins. If the water is found to contain impurities, it should not be used until the well or School Hygiene 83 cistern has been thoroughly cleaned and a water-tight cover constructed to protect it from surface water, rabbits, mice, etc. The school board should be notified promptly in all cases where the water has been found to be unsafe for drinking purposes. With reference to the method of drinking, get a sanitary fountain, if possible. Interest the pupils in some sort of entertainment to raise the necessary funds. If this fails and an ordinary water pail must be used, keep it well covered and require pupils to use a long-handled dipper in conveying the water from the pail to the individual drinking cups. Do not permit the use of a common drinking cup. Let the pupils make a cupboard or case for the individual cups where each may be kept in its place and all pro- tected from the dust. Seating in the School. Provision for the proper seating of pupils is a phase of sanitation which has been neglected in a great many schools. The features which contribute to make the seating both uncomfort- able and unhealthful are : (1) The seat may be too high or too low; (2) the desks may be too high, too low, too flat, or either too near or too far from the seat; (3) the seating may be insanitary from the standpoint of cleanliness. These defects are known to be injurious to the health of children. If the seat is too high, for instance, the pupil's feet cannot rest on the floor. If it is too low, or if the desk is too near the seat, the pupil must sit in a cramped position. If the desk is too high, it tends to produce curvature of the spine ; if too low or too far from the seat, round shoulders, a flat chest, or defective vision may be the result. As at present constructed and fastened to the floor, most school 84 Rural School Management seats are excellent dust collectors, and dust is one of the most common methods of spreading disease germs. How to overcome these defects and prevent the harmful effects that sometimes result therefrom is an important problem in school sanitation. Arrangement of the Seats. At least a partial remedy for some of the defects mentioned is found in the proper arrangement of the seats in the room. School seats of the ordinary type are made in five or six sizes. The practice in a great many schools is to place all of the smallest seats in the front of the room, the next larger size just behind these, and so on, with the largest seats all in the rear. This plan places the desk of a smaller size in front of a seat of a larger size — an arrangement which is sure to bring either the seat or the desk out of adjustment to the pupil who uses it. A much better plan is to place all of the seats of the same size in a row extending from the front to the rear of the room. A great many pupils may then be seated so that both the seat and the desk are well suited to the size of the pupil. Adjustable Seats. In some of the more progressive schools the most serious defects in school seating are remedied by means of adjustable seats. These are seats which are equipped with a device for raising and lowering the seat and desk parts or at least the desk part. Seats of this kind are of two main types : (1) those in which both the seat and the desk parts are adjustable ; and (2) those in which only the desk part is adjustable. To make those of the first type both comfortable and healthful for pupils, three things must be observed. (1) The seat must be just high enough to let the pupil's feet rest comfort- ably on the floor when his knees are bent at right School Hygiene 85 angles. In general the correct height for the seat is two sevenths of the height of the pupil. But it is better not to depend entirely on this rule. The pupil Adjustable Chair and Desk. who is to occupy the seat should try it ; and if it is found to be too high or too low, it can then be changed to meet the needs of this particular pupil. (2) The height of the desk must be such that the pupil will not have to raise the shoulder in order to write when 86 Rural School Management the body is erect. For primary pupils the height of the inner edge of the desk should be three sevenths of the height of the body plus half an inch, and for pupils MouLTHROP Movable Chair Desk. of intermediate grades three sevenths of the height of the body plus one inch. (3) The edge of the seat should extend slightly, not more than an inch, under School Hygiene 87 the edge of the desk in front. When seats of this type are used, they should be adjusted three or four times a year, and pupils should be permitted to assist in making the adjustments. The movable chair is another type of adjustable desk. It consists of a chair with a writing table or desk attached. In the chair is a sliding box which serves as a receptacle for books and other supplies when not in use. The desk is adjustable in three ways : (1) It may be raised or lowered ; (2) it can be moved toward or from the pupil ; and (3) the slant may be varied so as to hold the paper when used for writing. In addition to its sanitary features this type of seat has an especial advantage in schools which are used for social gatherings. Since the seats are not fastened to the floor, the room may be easily cleared when an open floor space is wanted. Or camp chairs may be used instead of the school seats when a larger number of seats is needed. Summary. School seating is fraught with more danger to the physical welfare of children than was formerly thought to be the case. These dangers may be overcome in part by placing the seats of the same size in the same row from front to rear of the room. But a more effective method used is a good type of ad- justable seating. What the Teacher Can Do. In those schools in which new seats are about to be purchased, the teacher should try to induce the school board to buy either movable chairs or adjustable seats and desks. Some such method as that described in connection with the procuring of a modern heating and ventilating system may be followed. If the school is already furnished with adjustable desks, it is extremely important that each desk be 88 Rural School Management kept adjusted to the size of the pupil who occupies it. Superintendents report that teachers sometimes fail to make use of the adjustable features of the seats. In such cases the chief value of the seats is lost, and pupils are subject to the same dangers that arise in connection with the ordinary type of seats. Where the school is furnished with the ordinary folding seats, two measures are necessary to get the best results : (1) The seats must be arranged accord- ing to size as previously described; (2) each pupil should be seated at the desk which comes nearest to being the correct height for him. In selecting a seat for a pupil the following rule may be used : The height of the desk should be about one inch more than three sevenths of the height of the pupil. In thus seating pupils according to size they will also be seated, in most cases, according to grades. However, if there are any large pupils in the lower grades, they should be permitted to sit with the larger pupils and to change, when necessary, for recitation purposes. By adopting these measures, the teacher can make the seating fairly comfortable and hygienic for a majority of the pupils. It is a good plan to let the larger pupils assist in arranging the seats and making the measurements. It is interesting, and, besides, teaches them an important lesson in hygiene. Cleanliness. Cleanliness in the school is necessary for at least three important reasons. Chief among these is its influence on health. Mention has already been made of dust as a means of spreading diseases. When dust gets into the air, or settles on pupils' desks, books, or pencils, or gets on their hands or food, the children are exposed to any disease germs which it may contain. Wherever disease germs are likely to School Hygiene 89 be found, perfect cleanliness is essential. It is neces- sary, in the second place, to make the schoolroom more attractive. A clean schoolroom has a greater drawing power, is more stimulating and uplifting in its influence on pupils, than is a dirty one. Again, by practicing cleanliness in the school pupils form habits and get ideas about cleanliness which they can put into effect in their homes. Methods of Cleaning. Since a considerable portion of the dirt and filth which get into the schoolroom is brought in on shoes, every school should be supplied with foot scrapers and doormats. Pupils should be required to use these until it becomes a habit with them to do so. After the floor has been thoroughly cleaned it should be oiled, care being taken to remove by rubbing with cloths all of the oil which is not absorbed. If this is done occasionally, the floor can be swept more easily and scrubbing will be required much less frequently. In sweeping, a bristle brush should be used instead of a broom. A sweeping compound, consisting chiefly of oiled or damp sawdust and some sort of disinfectant, should be sprinkled over the floor before sweeping. This material serves to prevent the dust from spread- ing and to kill any disease germs it may contain. Both the bristle brush and the sweeping compound can be bought from any school supply house. Usually they can be procured from local dealers in any town or village. The desks and all other furniture should be cleaned with an oiled or damp cloth — never with a feather duster or dry cloth. A cloth moistened with kerosene should be used in cleaning the windows and window and door casings. 90 Rural School Management Window and Door Screens. Flies are known to be one of the filthiest and most dangerous forms of un- cleanliness. They breed in such places as barnyards and cesspools, frequent the filthiest places that are open to them, and, in many instances, gather up and spread disease germs wherever they go. Most of our homes are carefully screened against this pest. Children have a right to the same protection while at school. For this reason it is important that every schoolhouse be provided with screens for the doors and windows. Washbasins. Facihties for washing hands and face are another important phase of cleanliness in the school. Pupils should be required to wash their hands before eating, after using the toilet, and at any other time when it becomes necessary. Washbasins, paper towels, and liquid soap are now a part of the regular equipment in our best schools. The best place for keeping these facilities is in the cloak- rooms. Summary. Cleanliness in the school is necessary (1) to pro- tect the health of pupils and teacher; (2) to make the school attractive; and (3) to train pupils in habits of cleanliness. Cleanliness is promoted through the use of (1) foot scrapers and doormats; (2) oiled floors; (3) an oiled or damp cloth in cleaning furniture and windows ; and (4) a bristle brush and sweeping com- pound in sweeping. The school should be screened against flies and provided with washbasin, paper or individual towels, and liquid soap. What the Teacher Can Do. The first step for the teacher to take is to see that the school is supplied with the small amount of material needed to promote cleanliness. Every school should be provided with foot scrapers, doormat, window and door screens. School Hygiene 91 bristle brush sweeper, sweeping compound, a little kerosene, washbasins, paper towels, and soap. This material is as much a part of the necessary school supplies as are chalk, erasers, and maps, and should be furnished by the school board. In case the board should refuse, then the matter should be taken up with the pupils and a collection taken, an entertain- ment planned, or a pupils' club or committee formed, to raise the necessary funds. The second step is to see that sanitary methods of sweeping and dusting are used in the school. The teacher has general supervision over the janitor's work. He can, therefore, see that all cleaning in the school is done according to the methods previously described. A third step is to see that the pupils do their part in keeping the school and themselves clean. The teacher can see that the pupils do not carry mud into the schoolroom on their shoes ; that they do not scatter paper and pencil sharpenings over the floor; and that they wash their hands at any time there is need for it. If the teacher patiently and persistently requires these things, they will soon become regular habits with the children, and that is one of the ends sought. REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Carney: Country Life and the Country School, pages 206-223. Dresslar: School Hygiene, Chapters IV, V, VIII, IX, X, XI, XIII, XIV, and XV. FoGHT : The American Rural School, Chapter VII. Rapeer: Educational Hygiene, Chapters VIII, XIX, XX. Salisbury : School Management, Chapters II, III, IV. Shaw: School Hygiene, Chapters I, IV, V, VII. 92 Rural School Management CLASS EXERCISES 1. Compute the ratio of the actual glass area to the floor area in the schoolroom you are now using. 2. Describe in detail the methods of heating, ventilating, and humidifying in use in your schoolroom. Point out the defects revealed, if any, and state how they may be remedied. 3. Using some pupil in the school as a subject, demonstrate the method of adjusting the seat to the child, if adjustable seats are used. If you have ordinary desks, show how to select the seat best suited to the size of the pupil. 4. Prepare and give to the class such an argument as you would make to your school board in favor of installing indoor toilets in the school. 5. State clearly just how you would get the water used for drinking in your school examined for impurities, also just what you would do in case it was found to be unsafe for drinking pur- 6. Note carefully all of the provisions made for cleanliness in your school. Point out the defects, if any, and show how the conditions could be improved. 7. Make a list of all of the equipment needed to make the school environment sanitary. What items in the list can be made by the teacher and pupils without expense to the district? How would you get the funds necessary to purchase the rest of the material ? 8. A sanitary survey of a school plant is made by observing all of the facts that bear on the health of pupils and teacher and arranging these in systematic or logical order. Make such a sur- vey of your school. CHAPTER V SCHOOL HYGIENE (Concluded) I. THE GENERAL HEALTH CAMPAIGN Purpose. In sanitation, as in any other important phase of school work, the teacher needs the coopera- tion of his school board and patrons. Without this no teacher can put into effect all of the measures necessary to make the school thoroughly sanitary. But in order to secure their assistance people must be informed as to the importance of the measures to be adopted. The purpose of the school health campaign, therefore, is to spread information about matters of health and arouse an active interest among patrons. Among the means which may be used in such a campaign are: (1) parent-teacher associations; (2) Clean-up Day; (3) Public Health Day; (4) pupil organizations; and (5) distribution of health litera- ture. Parent-Teacher Association. If the school has a parent-teacher association, one of its regular com- mittees should be a committee on health. This committee should be composed of those patrons who are most familiar with, and most deeply interested in, matters of health. Its duties should include such matters as investigating the sanitary needs of the school, making reports and recommendations to the association and to the school board, conducting a 93 94 Rural School Management Clean-up Day in the school and arranging for special speakers for Public Health Day. Clean-up Day. If the school has no parent-teacher association, then the teacher will have to take the lead in the health campaign. A very good way to begin is to have a general Clean-up Day very early in the school term. The usual method is to invite all of the patrons to meet at the school on a certain day for the purpose of cleaning up the building and premises. Some teachers prefer to have the meeting in the afternoon only, while others make it an all- day affair and have a basket lunch served on the school grounds. The main purpose of such a meet- ing is to improve the school premises, and anything which will add to their appearance or healthfulness should be attended to. Such an occasion is also a splendid time for the teacher to call attention to any equipment needed, such as window shades, a drinking fountain, washbasins, doormats, window screens, etc. When patrons have had an active part in cleaning up the school, they are very likely to be willing to furnish the supplies necessary to keep it clean and healthful. Public Health Day. It is becoming the custom now in a great many schools to observe one day during the term as Public Health Day. For this occasion a special program is prepared and all of the patrons are invited to be present. In one school the exercises consisted of the following items so arranged as to make a varied program : 1. Music by the school. 2. Recitations and readings by the pupils on topics pertaining to health. 3. Essays by pupils on such topics as "The Value of Fresh School Hygiene 95 Air in Home and School," "How to Prevent Typhoid Fever," "The House Fly Pest," etc. 4. Short talks by patrons, previously arranged for. 5. A health exhibit consisting of charts containing health statistics, pictures contrasting sanitary and insanitary school and sleeping rooms, illustrations and advertisements of sanitary appliances for home and school. The essays and the health exhibit had been pre- pared as a part of the regular school work in hygiene. In this school, Health Day was regarded by all as one of the most valuable events of the entire school year. In quite a number of states, the state superin- tendent designates the day to be observed as Health Day and prepares a suggestive program for the oc- casion. County and state superintendents every- where will be glad to furnish material and suggestions for Health Day exercises if asked to do so by the teachers. Pupils' Organizations. An organization or club composed of the larger pupils is another excellent means of promoting sanitation in the school. Such an organization should have a president, secretary, and treasurer elected from among the pupils, with the teacher acting as counselor. An appropriate name should be selected, such as Pupils' Board of Health, Junior Civic League, or School Health Militia. The larger pupils will thoroughly enjoy belonging to such an organization and will cheerfully assist the teacher in every way possible. The organization may be of great service in various ways, but especially in (1) maintaining cleanliness in the schoolroom, in the toilets, and on the playgrounds ; (2) raising funds with which to purchase material needed for school 96 Rural School Management sanitation; (3) planning and conducting Clean-up and Health Day events in the school; (4) spreading ideas about health and sanitation among the patrons of the school, and in putting these ideas into practice in the homes. Distribution of Health Literature. In nearly all of the states and in a great many counties, the boards of health issue bulletins or other publications dealing with important health matters. These are for free distribution, and the school is one of the very best agencies for placing this literature in the homes of the people. To this end every rural teacher should keep in close touch with the various boards of health and public sanitoriums in his state and county and should ask for their bulletins in sufficient quantities to supply every family in his district with a copy. These can be distributed on Pubhc Health Day, Parents' Day, or on any other public occasion in the school, or they can be sent to parents by the children. In this way the schools may be the means of bringing to the attention of people in general the expert knowl- edge and advice they most need, especially with reference to the prevention of diseases. This in- formation is furnished freely and gladly by our public health officials, and the school can and should play an important part in the campaign to educate the public in important matters of health. n. MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN Our discussion of how to make the school a health agency has thus far dealt with two aspects of the problem; namely, making the pupil's surroundings sanitary, and conducting a health campaign in the School Hygiene 97 community. We shall next consider those factors which relate more particularly to the condition of the pupils themselves. Functions of Medical Inspection. Medical inspec- tion, as the term is ordinarily used, means a careful physical examination of pupils by a physician, a trained nurse, or some other competent person. The most important functions or purposes of such in- spection are as follows. To Prevent the Spread of Contagious Diseases. When a child who has diphtheria, scarlet fever, measles, whooping cough, or some other contagious disease goes to school, other pupils are exposed, and an epidemic of that disease may be the result. But if the school has adequate medical inspection, the disease may be discovered and the pupil afflicted may be removed from the school in time to prevent the spread of the malady. An eminent physician, in speaking of this matter, says: *' It can be shown that in places where a thorough system of medical inspection has been established, the number of cases of diphtheria has fallen off two thirds, and scarlet fever five sixths." To Discover and Correct Physical Defects. A second main function of medical inspection is to discover and correct the physical defects of school children. The extent of this defectiveness and its influence on both the health and school progress of pupils have been discussed and need not be repeated here. To Aid in School Sanitation. In the third place, medical inspection aids the teacher in providing and maintaining sanitary conditions in the school. While the special health officer is employed primarily to examine the pupils, it is also his duty to supervise 98 Rural School Management the sanitation of the school. He, therefore, looks into the methods of lighting, heating, ventilating, and cleaning employed in the schools he visits and recommends any improvements that may be needed. Being a special officer employed for health work in the schools, he has greater authority and influence, and may, therefore, succeed in bringing about im- provements which the teacher alone could not secure. To Improve Health Conditions in the Homes. We have seen that the duties of the school health in- spector frequently take him into the homes of pupils to consult with parents. These visits have great possibilities for good. The inspector becomes familiar with the conditions in the homes, advises parents as to the proper care or treatment of children, and recommends the sanitary measures necessary to make the home healthful. The whole family may thus profit from the inspector's visit. It may be the means of saving the lives of children, of preventing sickness in the family, of saving doctors' bills, and of contributing to the comfort and happiness of home life in general. Methods of Conducting Medical Inspection. There is, as yet, no standard or uniform method of conduct- ing medical inspection in the schools. A few of the states have passed laws requiring the medical inspec- tion of pupils, and, in some instances, the laws pre- scribe the method that shall be used. But in most of the states at present the whole matter is left with the local school authorities, who must work out or adopt their own method of procedure. In City Schools. The methods most widely used at present in city schools are of two kinds: (1) in- spection by physicians and nurses, and (2) inspection by nurses alone. School Hygiene 99 In the first of these methods the steps are usually as follows: (1) A careful examination of every pupil is made at the beginning of the term by a physician employed by the school board. A complete record of the facts found is kept on a card prepared for the purpose and filed for future use. (2) The parents of pupils found to have defects are notified and urged to procure proper medical treatment for the child. (3) An examination of any pupil is made by the school physician at any time during the term when it seems necessary or advisable. (4) A nurse is employed to assist the physician, to look after the sanitary con- ditions in the school, and to visit the homes of pupils to confer with parents. The second method differs from the first only in that all of the work is done by trained nurses em- ployed by the school board for all of their time. This method is less expensive than the first and has been found to be highly satisfactory. In Rural Schools. Where medical inspection is employed in rural schools, the health officer is usually the county physician or a county school nurse. In most sections of the country provision is already made for a county physician. One method of provid- ing for medical inspection is for the county authorities to employ this physician on a salary to devote his entire time to the examination of school children and the supervision of health matters in the schools of the county. In some counties a special school nurse is employed instead of the county physician. The nurse spends her entire time in visiting schools, examining pupils, assisting teachers, and consulting with parents on matters pertaining to the health of the children. 100 Rural School Management A few states have established the office of state health inspector or director of hygiene. The prin- cipal duties of such an officer are to visit as many schools as possible, inspect school buildings, attend teachers' meetings to instruct teachers in methods of conducting the health work in their schools, collect and send out valuable information, and assist in health campaigns throughout the state. Summary. Medical inspection in the schools has four main functions : (1) To prevent the spread of contagious diseases ; (2) to detect and correct, as far as possible, physical defects among pupils; (3) to aid in making the school surroundings sanitary; and (4) to bring about better health conditions in the homes of pupils. In the cities medical inspection is conducted by physicians aided by nurses, or by nurses alone. In rural schools, the usual plan is either to extend the duties of the county physicians to include health work in the schools, or to employ a special nurse for this work. What the Teacher Can Do. At the present time only a very small number of rural schools have made any provision for the medical inspection of pupils. It is extremely important, therefore, that the teacher shall be able to make at least a partial survey of the health of school children. Country children are in greater need of this service than are the children who live in the cities. Statistics show that the percentage of defectiveness is greater among rural pupils. Doctors and dentists are not as accessible to country people, consequently they seek medical advice only in the more serious cases. Rural schoolhouses, as a rule, are less sanitary than city schoolhouses. The rural teacher should therefore be able to adopt some meas- ures for detecting and correcting defects in the physical condition of country boys and girls. Among the con- School Hygiene 101 ditions which any teacher can easily detect are (1) de- fective vision ; (2) defective hearing ; (3) disorders of the nose and throat ; (4) defective teeth. Tests of Vision. The only material needed for testing the eyes of pupils is either a Snellen vision McCallie Vision Test Card. chart or a set of the McCallie vision test cards, either one of which may be procured from any school supply house at small expense. For primary pupils the McCallie test cards are preferable, because the test is in the nature of a game and can therefore be made very interesting. They are also preferable in all cases where the tests are to 102 Rural School Management be made in the presence of other pupils, since the test material cannot be memorized by seeing others use it. Complete instructions for giving the tests are printed on the backs of the cards. If the Snellen chart is used, the following instruc- tions should be carried out: Hang the chart in a good light (but not direct sunlight) at a distance of 20 feet from the pupil being tested, and, if possible, in a position so that other pupils cannot see the letters. Examine each eye separately by requiring the pupil to cover the opposite eye with a card. Have the pupil read the letters aloud, beginning at the top and reading down as far as possible. Record the results of the test for each eye by using a fraction whose numerator is the distance from the chart (20) and whose denominator is the number over the last line read. For instance, if the last line which the pupil can read is marked 30 feet, then the vision for that eye is ffi ; if he can read the 20-feet line, the vision is |§, or normal. If the vision of either eye is less than |§, the pupil's parents should be notified and urged to have the child examined by a physician or eye specialist. Testing the Hearing. What is known as the '' whisper " test is an easy and fairly satisfactory method of detecting defective hearing among school children. One method of conducting it is as follows : The pupil to be tested is placed at one end of the room with the ear turned toward the opposite end and the other stopped with a ball of clean cotton. The teacher stands in the opposite end of the room and speaks in a whisper a series of twenty words or numbers. The pupil repeats aloud the words whispered by the teacher and the number of words repeated correctly is recorded. The other ear is then tested in the same manner, a different series of words being used. The number of words repeated correctly by a majority of the pupils is taken as the standard for normal hearing. Thus if a majority of the pupils repeat fifteen out of the twenty words, then fifteen represents hearing which is not defective. If a pupil can repeat only ten of the words correctly, his hearing is recorded School Hygiene 103 as jf ; if another repeats only eight words, his hearing is put down as j%, and so on. In giving this test the teacher must be careful to speak the words in as nearly a uniform voice as possible. If the hearing of any pupil is noticeably below the standard, his parents should be notified that his ears need to be examined. Nose and Throat Disorders. Enlarged tonsils and adenoids are the most common disorders of the nose and throat. In their effects on the physical and mental condition of pupils they are among the most serious defects found in school children. The teacher who has had no special training for health work must rely on certain external signs or symptoms to detect their presence. But these signs are easily recognized by any teacher. They are usually some of the following : Breathing through the mouth Earache, defective hearing Nasal voice Sore throat Prominent upper teeth Blank expression Catarrh of the nose or throat Inattention Frequent colds Mental dullness Any pupils in whom these symptoms are noticeable should be urged to see a doctor for treatment. Defective Teeth. Defective teeth have been found to be one of the most widespread and one of the most serious defects with which school children are afflicted. Very few rural teachers will be able to conduct a dental clinic or careful examination of the teeth of pupils. But any teacher can easily learn whether or not pupils have the toothache, or whether their teeth are discolored, crooked, unduly prominent, or broken. Where any of these conditions are found, it is evidence that the pupils should see a dentist, and this should be reported to the parents. Contagious Diseases. The teacher can hardly be expected to recognize any of the more common con- 104 Rural School Management tagious diseases in their early stages, since this is often difficult for experienced physicians to do. There are a few symptoms, however, which are sufficient grounds for suspicion. Among these are feverishness, vomiting, headache, backache, sneezing, running nose, cough, inflamed or watery eyes, and spots on the skin or in the mouth. Where a combination of these symptoms appears, it is better both for the pupil and for the school to have him taken home for treatment. To assist the teacher in detecting the presence of fever, the school should be provided with a clinical (fever) thermometer. This instrument can be pur- chased at any drug store. It should be thoroughly cleansed after using, preferably with alcohol. Notifying Parents. In every case where pupils are thought to have any physical defects that need special attention,, it is very important that their parents be informed of the fact. The usual method of doing this is for the teacher to send the parents a note stating his opinion in the matter and suggesting that they take the child to a doctor for advice and treat- ment. Such a note will, in many instances, accomplish the end desired. Experience has shown, however, that parents do not always act upon this advice. In serious cases the teacher should visit the home and confer with the parents in person. A personal visit from the teacher in the interest of their children's health will have great weight with most parents and is very likely to result in their taking the steps neces- sary to correct the conditions found by the teacher. Summary. The present lack of expert medical inspection in rural schools makes it necessary that the teacher be able to do some work along this line. The teacher can easily (1) test the vision and hearing of pupils ; (2) detect disorders of the nose and School Hygiene 105 throat ; (3) tell when the teeth need attention ; and (4) recognize some of the more marked symptoms of illness. When defects are found he can notify parents, following the written notice by a personal visit when necessary to induce parents to procure proper medical attention for their children. m. HOT LUNCHES IN SCHOOLS Functions. The serving of warm lunches to school children is now recognized as a very important phase of school hygiene. Like a great many other school practices the hot lunch came into use first in city schools. Its value was so completely demonstrated there that the movement has spread into country districts, where there is perhaps even a greater need for such a measure. The pressure of work incident to doing the morning chores, the haste necessary to get to school on time, the long trip, and the impossi- bility of returning to their homes for the noon meal make the hot school lunch an especially important matter for country children. Hygienic Function. The foremost function of the warm lunch for school children is to promote the physical and mental condition of pupils. From the standpoint of the health and vigor of the growing child, plenty of wholesome food is a necessity. It has been found that the warm lunch supplies this necessity in a greater degree than does the usual cold lunch. In the first place, the one or two warm dishes served tend to make the whole meal more attractive and appetizing than it would otherwise be. Again, the serving of the warm lunch probably leads to the exercising of greater care in the preparation and handling of the box lunches brought by the children. In the third place, where the whole school unites in 106 Rural School Management the noon meal the food is eaten more slowly and, consequently, is more thoroughly masticated and prepared for digestion. It is claimed that the hasty eating of the cold school lunch, followed immediately, as is usually the case, by vigorous exercise on the playground, gradually affects the digestive organs so that stomach trouble is likely to appear later in life. On the mental side, actual experience has shown that warm lunches enable pupils to do more and better school work than they could otherwise do. The reason for this is easily understood. Plenty of wholesome food is necessary to supply the energy required for both physical and mental work. When pupils do not have a hearty, refreshing noon meal, they use up their store of energy and become fatigued — a condition which makes the best mental work impossible. Hence a well-prepared, appetizing lunch enables pupils to make more rapid progress in their school studies. Practical Domestic Science. In addition to the hygienic function just described, the serving of a hot school lunch furnishes an excellent opportunity for practical training in domestic science. In the first place, it supplies a natural setting, a real need for the work, and, therefore, gives rise to a stronger motive, a deeper interest on the part of pupils. When pupils help prepare food for a real meal, they very naturally want to do their work right and hence be- come eager to learn how it ought to be done. The interest thus aroused has been observed to spread to the homes, where pupils become more willing and capable helpers in such matters — a fact for which busy mothers are duly grateful. In the second place, the lunch period furnishes a splendid opportunity to the teacher to explain such School Hygiene 107 matters as the different classes or kinds of food, the part each plays in nourishing the body, the best methods of making the food inviting and palatable, the physi- ology of digestion, and the importance of cleanliness in eating. If such instruction is given in connection with the preparation and serving of the school lunch, it is more interesting and more easily understood by pupils than if given in the usual manner. Social Training. The third function of the hot school lunch is to serve as a means of giving children a certain amount of social training. Since the pupils all eat together, the most important matters of table etiquette may well be taught and put into practice at the lunch period. Again, in preparing the warm dishes, in arranging the tables or desks for the lunch, and in cleaning and putting away the equipment, pupils learn the value of cooperation and mutual helpfulness. Summary. The serving of a hot noon lunch is an important phase of school hygiene in rural as well as in city schools. Its chief function is to promote the physical and mental vigor of pupils. Incidentally it serves as a means of giving practical train- ing in domestic science, and in such social matters as table manners, cooperation, and mutual helpfulness. Equipment. A teacher who has had a great deal of experience in connection with hot lunches in rural schools recommends the following list of articles as comprising the necessary equipment : 1 8-qt. kettle with cover 1 steel fork 1 4-qt. double boiler 1 Dover egg beater 1 8-qt. saucepan 1 grater 3 large granite spoons 1 dish pan 2 asbestos mats 1 draining pan and basket 1 graded measuring cup 1 two-burner kerosene stove 108 Rural School Management 1 tablespoon 4 dish towels 1 steel knife 2 dish cloths 1 teaspoon 1000 paper napkins In addition to the foregoing each pupil provides himself with a spoon, a knife, a fork, a plate, and a cup. Several teachers have found it possible to get along with much less general equipment. One teacher reports that her equipment consisted of a stove, kettle, teakettle, dish pan, trays, and towels. In another instance the school heater, a six-quart kettle, a strainer, and ladle constituted the general equipment. The method of procuring this equipment varies with different schools. In some districts the school board furnishes the equipment. In others the funds are raised by means pf a box social or school enter- tainment of some sort. In quite a number of in- stances the teacher and pupils furnish the equipment, each bringing some one or two articles that can be spared from the home. The following statements from teachers themselves serve to illustrate some of the methods used : "Stove is borrowed. The rest was furnished by the teacher. Pupils furnish their own cups and spoons." "The pupils furnished what they needed and the teacher got the kettle, spoon, and dish pan." "The oil stove was paid for with a part of the money made by giving a box social and entertainment shortly 9.fter Christmas." Procuring the necessary equipment is clearly not a difficult matter. Teachers find in almost every case that if they can get just enough articles to start the movement, ample equipment will soon be provided. Parents, as a rule, become deeply interested when once they see the value of the hot lunch demonstrated. The method of caring for or storing the equipment School Hygiene 109 is another important phase of the hot lunch move- ment. In one school the larger pupils constructed a small cupboard in one corner of the schoolroom. In another a '' kitchenette was fixed up in a part of the hall and the boys transformed a grocery box into a cupboard." Where the school attempts to do any manual training work, the making of a cupboard or receptacle for the school dishes constitutes an ex- cellent exercise for the class in that subject. The pupils will thoroughly enjoy working on something that serves a real need in the school. Food Materials. The warm lunch, as it is usually served in rural schools, consists of one or two warm dishes together with the lunches which the children bring from their homes. Among the warm dishes which it has been found practicable to serve are : Soup — Various kinds, such as corn, potato, pea, bean, and tomato. Cereals — Rice, barley, cream of wheat, oat meal, corn meal. Eggs — Boiled, scrambled. Stews — Meat, vegetable, meat and vegetable. Vegetables — Potatoes, carrots, beans. Beverages — Cocoa, postum. The materials for the hot dishes are procured in different ways in different schools. Some teachers have found it an advantage to furnish the supplies themselves for the first few meals in order to awaken an interest among pupils and patrons before calling on them for materials. One teacher began by fur- nishing meat broth, and crackers to serve with it. After two meals the children suggested that they would like to bring something and have a hot dish every day. In another district a school entertain- ment with a " domestic science shower " was held 110 Rural School Management and resulted in the parents' contributing several cooking utensils and a quantity of sugar, salt, baking powder, cereals, and vegetables. In some districts the school board furnishes the funds and the teacher purchases the materials needed from time to time. The method which is probably most widely used is to let the pupils furnish the supplies by turns. For instance, one pupil is asked to furnish the milk and another the tomatoes for one day. Other pupils are asked to bring the things needed for the next day, and so on, until each has furnished his share. Teachers who have used this plan report that fre- quently more material is contributed than is really needed. In some communities the school garden is planned with a view to supplying the vegetables needed for the school lunch. This has been found to increase the interest in the regular school garden work. How to Conduct the Lunch. Methods of preparing and serving the lunch vary with different communities. One teacher gives the following description of the method she uses: "We prepare the vegetables for dinner at recess and it takes only a moment to set them over the fire later. If I am busy when the cooking needs attention, one of the girls attends to it and does so as quietly and as naturally as she would lay aside her book or sewing in her own home under the direction of her own mother. "We use our desks for tables. Each child lays his table and furnishes his own bowl, plate, paper napkins, cup, knife, fork, and spoon. After lunch each one clears his own table and takes his dishes to the desk that is used for a cook table. "We did our cooking the first year on a No. 18 Round Oak Heater, but last year I purchased a small oil stove that adds greatly to our comfort, especially on warm days. I have furnished the cooking utensils but the mothers have offered to furnish us any- thing we needed." ^ 1 Rural Educator, 1915. School Hygiene 111 Another teacher who has had a great deal of ex- perience with warm lunches in rural schools recom- mends the following method : "Appoint two boys or girls as housekeepers and two more as waiters. The duty of housekeepers will be to prepare the material, attend to the cooking and serving of the dish, and after the meal to wash dishes and put things in order. The duty of the waiters will be to get out the dishes and pass them when the food is served ; after the meal to collect the dishes and pile them neatly on the table for washing, dry the dishes when washed and return them to their places. Groups of workers may be changed each day or may serve longer. Appointments should be so made that every child will be called upon in his turn, and thereby made to feel that he is an important factor in the scheme. The plan of work should be made out a week ahead and written on the board, also a list of the dishes to be prepared in the order in which they are to be used. If this plan is followed, each child will know when he is to be on duty and what he is to do. "If possible, some credit might be given for this work. Points to be considered : Neatness, order, dispatch, quietness. But care should be taken not to allow this work in any way to super- sede the regular school work. "Material should be prepared at recess or before school in the morning. If the dish requires long cooking, it may be prepared and put to cook before school in the morning ; or if less time is required, at recess ; or if still a shorter period of cooking is needed, at some appointed time during the forenoon. In any case, everything should be in readiness, and the housekeeper attend to the matter at the time set." ^ REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Bagley: Classroom Management, Chapter VI. Dresslar : School Hygiene, Chapters XV, XVI, XVII, XXIII. Foght: The American Rural School, Chapter XIV. Rapeer : Educational Hygiene, Chapters VII, VIII, IX, XI, XII, XIII. Salisbury: School Management, Chapter V. ^ Rural School Agriculture, October, 1914, 112 Rural School Management state Normal School, Cheney, Washington, Bulletin R, No. 3 : Hot Lunches in Country Schools. United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1913, No. 44 : Organized Health Work in Schools. University of Idaho, Agricultural Extension Department: Rural School Lunches. University of Minnesota, Department of Agriculture, Extension Division : Warm Lunches for Rural Schools. CLASS EXERCISES 1. Procure the addresses of the following health agencies and show clearly just how you would use each in a general health cam- paign in your community: (1) your county physician or health officer; (2) the secretary of your state board of health; (3) the physician in charge of your state public health laboratory; (4) the superintendent of the tuberculosis or other public sanitorium. 2. Make out a good program for the observance of Health Day in your school. 3. Using a pupil or a member of your class as a subject, illus- trate the methods of testing the vision and hearing of school children. 4. It is customary now in 'the best schools to record and keep on a card all of the facts revealed by the medical inspection of a pupil. Make out a model form of card to be used for this purpose. 5. Assuming that your examination of a pupil revealed the presence of some physical defect, write a note such as you would send to the parents of the pupil. 6. Write out a brief statement of how you would get (1) the serving of hot lunches started in your school ; (2) the equipment and material necessary to continue the practice. CHAPTER VI BEAUTIFYING THE SCHOOL PREMISES I. FUNCTIONS OF A BEAUTIFUL SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT In Chapters IV and V we learned how the school premises may be made healthful. In this chapter we shall try to learn how they may be made beautiful. Leading educators everywhere hold now that the school and its surroundings should be the most beautiful place in the entire community. Our first problem, then, is to see why the school environment should be esthetic. Esthetic Training. A beautiful school environment is necessary, in the first place, because it is an im- portant factor in the esthetic training of children. One of the aims or purposes of education is to give pupils the ability to appreciate things that are beau- tiful. Such ability is a source of genuine pleasure to its possessor. There is real enjoyment in a beautiful picture, a flower, or a landscape to one who has been trained to appreciate the beautiful. It is well known now that one of the best ways to arouse and cultivate an esthetic interest is to live in the midst of beautiful surroundings. Flowers, pic- tures, shrubs, well-kept lawns, and attractive buildings seem to have a silent influence on one's life which causes him to come, in time, to admire the beauty with which he is surrounded. It is well known, too, that this influence is much greater during the years 113 114 Rural School Management of childhood and youth than it is in later years. If one does not acquire a taste for the beautiful during these early years, it is very difficult, as a rule, for him to acquire it later in life. Children should, there- fore, be surrounded, as far as possible, with the things which will help to develop in them a love for the beau- tiful as it is revealed in nature and in art. Moral Influence. A second need for an esthetic school environment is found in its moral influence on the lives of children. It is pretty generally con- ceded now that clean, attractive, pleasant surround- ings give rise to purer thoughts and nobler deeds than does an ugly environment. A prominent educator has said : " The good picture is like a sermon teach- ing a great moral truth, or like a poem idealizing some important aspect of life." Ugliness seems somehow to suggest that which is low and base, while beauty appeals to the higher and nobler aspects of our nature. ''It is easier to be good and think noble thoughts amid pleasant surroundings than in the midst of Mgly ones.'' Influence on School Attendance. Experience has shown that attractive school premises tend to promote regularity of attendance on the part of pupils. This Yi precisely what we should expect. Dirt, filth, ugliness, are naturally repulsive, while cleanliness and beauty are attractive. A well-kept schoolhouse, surrounded by grounds made beautiful with lawns, trees, shrubs, and flowers, has a drawing power over pupils. For children who come from homes where conditions are not esthetic, such a school affords a sense of relief, a pleasant change ; for those who come from homes of culture and refinement it supplies a homelike and congenial atmosphere. Very naturally children are Beautifying the School Premises 115 more attracted by a school environment of this type than they are by one which is bleak and desolate and neglected in appearance. Influence on Home Life. It should be clearly understood that one of the important functions of any school measure is to influence the lives of children outside of school — to make them healthier, happier, and more helpful in their homes and in their relations with other people. We have seen that this is es- pecially true of school hygiene. It is equally true of school beautification. Esthetic school surroundings will give pupils such a taste for the beautiful as will cause them to want similar conditions in their homes. These conditions they will try to maintain in their present homes, as far as possible, and later, in their own homes when they have become homemakers. To the end, then, that children may have a more pleasant, a more attractive, a more refined home life, it is important that their school surroundings shall be such as will cultivate the esthetic element in their natures. Summary. An esthetic school environment has four functions : (1) It cultivates in pupils a love for and an appreciation of the things cultured people enjoy; (2) it has an uplifting moral in- fluence on children ; (3) it makes the school more inviting, thereby tending to promote regularity of attendance ; and (4) it serves to bring about a more esthetic home environment. II. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED Indifference and Lack of Funds. Any attempt to beautify the schoolhouse and grounds is likely to meet with the same difficulties that hinder the im- provement of the school in other respects. Chief among these are the indifference of school boards and 116 Rural School Management patrons and the lack of sufficient funds. Methods of dealing with these difficulties are discussed in Chapter II, hence they need not be repeated in this connection. Beautifying the school premises is one of the important purposes for which the methods of arousing interest and raising money previously de- scribed may and should be used. Neglect during Vacations. As most schools are at present conducted, there is a period of from three to five months each year during which the school is not in session. There is, as a rule, no one whose special duty it is to look after the school premises during these vacations. Consequently they are neglected. The lawn is not mowed, the flowers and shrubs are not cared for, and the playground becomes covered with weeds. In some instances cattle or hogs have access to the grounds and damage the premises in various ways. In some of our best schools this difficulty has been overcome through the use of the school premises as a community meeting place. It has become the prac- tice in some districts to use the schoolhouse and grounds for community picnics or other social gatherings. Where this is done, there is a genuine pride in the school premises and great care is taken to keep every- thing in first-class condition. In fact, the school grounds have become, in some instances, a public park, and the people of the district strive to make them one of the most beautiful spots in the community. Frequent Change of Teachers. Another serious handicap to the beautifying of the school premises lies in the frequent change of teachers. In nearly all cases, in this country, rural teachers are elected for a term of only one year. In a great majority of Beautifying the School Premises 117 cases the teacher remains in the same school for one or at most two school terms. This frequent changing of teachers tends to hinder the work of beautifying the school in two ways. (1) The teacher, when elected, has no assurance that he will be able to remain in the position for more than one school year. He is, there- fore, less inclined to make any plans which cannot be carried to completion during one term. The result is that a great many teachers never make any plans for the permanent improvement of the school grounds. (2) When a teacher has adopted a plan of procedure, a change of teachers before the plan is fully carried out is likely to result in the abandonment of the plan by the new teacher. Any teacher can do a great deal to improve appearances even in one term ; but a plan of improvement which aims at making the school premises permanently beautiful requires a longer time to be put into effect. Both this difficulty and the one arising from long vacations have been overcome in quite a number of districts. One of the methods used is to arouse an interest on the part of the school board. Some teachers have succeeded in getting their boards to take charge of the entire matter of school improvement. In such cases the board usually adopts a definite plan for the beautification of the premises and proceeds to put it into operation. It furnishes the funds and makes all arrangements for both the interior decoration and the outside improvements. It employs some one to care for the grounds and mow the lawns during vacations. In one instance two boys who lived near the school were engaged for this purpose. If there is a change of teachers, the board explains its plans to the new teacher and asks his cooperation in creating and 118 Rural School Management maintaining the conditions desired. A change of teachers, therefore, does not seriously interrupt the program or plan mapped out. With such an attitude as this on the part of the school board, the school premises are certain not to be neglected or to become unsightly. The school board is, by right, the proper authority to make provision for the beautification of the school. Consequently, an effort should always be made to get the board to undertake the matter. When this fails, the parent-teacher association furnishes an excellent means and has been used with success in a great many instances. Where there is an organization of this sort, the usual plan is to place the beautification of the school in the hands of a patrons' committee on school improvement. This committee should be com- posed of those patrons, either men or women, who are most deeply interested in the school and who have a keen appreciation of beautiful surroundings. In addi- tion to their interest in and knowledge of what ought to be done, such patrons are, in most cases, the very men and women who have most influence in arousing public interest and in raising the funds necessary to carry on the improvements needed. This method of bringing about the beautification of the school environ- ment has been highly successful in many instances and at present seems to be the most practicable means available. How the teacher may bring about the formation of such an organization is discussed in a later section of this chapter. In a few instances the hindrances to school beautifica- tion have been overcome by providing a teacher's home in connection with the school. The usual plan is to erect a teacher's cottage on the school grounds. Beautifying the School Premises 119 This movement has as yet made only a beginning in this country, but wherever the plan has been tried it has given excellent results. Summary, The chief difficulties met with in beautifying the school premises are (1) lack of interest among patrons and in- adequate school funds ; (2) neglect of school property during vaca- tions; and (3) too frequent changes of teachers. m. HOW TO BEAUTIFY THE SCHOOL PREMISES The Problem. A beautiful school environment is a very important factor in the esthetic and moral train- ing of children and in making school life more attractive and home life more refined. In a great many districts steps have already been taken to provide school sur- roundings which have a wholesome influence along these lines. But, despite the progress which has been made, thousands of country boys and girls are still attending schools where the surroundings both within the schoolroom and on the grounds are lacking in the things that make for refinement and culture. How to transform an unsightly, neglected school environ- ment into one of beauty and attractiveness is a very important problem in the management of the school. In this section we shall try to learn what constitutes an esthetic school environment and what the teacher can do to bring about the conditions desired. 1. Beautifying the Interior Surroundings Cleanliness. We have already learned that clean- liness is essential to health. It is also essential to beauty. One of the first steps in beautifying the schoolroom is to clean it up and see that it is kept clean. Floors, windows, woodwork, and furniture 120 Rural School Management should be kept just as clean as possible. All cobwebs should be removed and the stove kept polished. The litter which necessarily results from school work, or from putting fuel into the stove should be cleared away. A little attention to such matters as these will help to give the room an attractive appearance. Walls and Woodwork. The walls and woodwork offer the very best opportunity for beautifying the interior of the schoolroom. Color Schemes. The aim or purpose of all interior tinting and painting is to give the room a cheerful, attractive appearance. No invariable rule can be given for accomplishing this end. In most modern schools, however, some such scheme as the following is usually employed : The floors are made the darkest part of the room, the wainscoting is slightly lighter, the window and door casings and the doors themselves are finished in the natural color of the wood, the walls are tinted a light, soft color, and the ceiling is made still lighter. By this plan the colors grow gradually lighter from the floor to the ceiling. In buildings where the woodwork is finished in natural color the scheme may be carried out by tinting the walls a cream, a light gray, a light bluish gray, a light greenish yellow, or a light buff, and the ceiling a very delicate cream. Which of the foregoing colors should be used in any given case depends mainly on the direction from which the light enters the room. If the windows are on the north side, a color having an element of yellow should be used, since this will give the room an ap- pearance of warmth. But if the windows are on the south side, or if much direct sunlight enters the room, a light gray or light bluish gray should be used be- cause of the cool effect it produces. Beautifying the School Premises 121 In an old building where it is necessary to paint the woodwork, the same general color should be chosen for the wood and the walls, the wood being made a darker shade than the wall. A dark gray wood, a light gray wall, and a still lighter ceiling make a very good combination in such cases. A teacher who has had no experience or training in working out color schemes should write to the extension department of his state agricultural college or to the art department of his state university or normal school for advice in the matter. In asking for this advice he should send a description of the room, stating its length, width, and height ; the number and position of the windows; the ratio of lighting surface; the loca- tion of the blackboards; and the color of the wood- work, furniture, and window shades. Wall Paper. In some instances it may be imprac- ticable to tint the walls and ceiling. If the room has been previously papered, for instance, it may be impossible to remove the old paper completely. In all cases where tinting is impracticable, wall paper may be used. Where this is done, care should be taken not to use figured or gaudy patterns. Plain ingrains should be selected with a view to carrying out some such color scheme as that suggested in con- nection with tinting. Pictures. In addition to having a beautiful interior finish, every schoolroom should have a few good pic- tures for wall decoration. For a room of the usual size not more than four or five pictures are needed, since more than this number tends to produce a crowded effect. All wall pictures should be large enough to be seen and studied with ease from the remotest part of the room. They should be neatly framed with plain 122 Rural School Management molding, finished, in general, in brown or black. They should be suspended from a picture molding, wherever possible, and allowed to hang as low as the blackboard will permit. A space of a few inches should intervene between the top of the board and the frame in order to give the picture a background of wall color all around it. Every picture used for schoolroom decoration should be a recognized work of art. All loud-colored pictures, all gaudy advertisements, and most of the pictures sent out with calendars attached are out of place on the schoolroom wall. Real works of art which deal with animal life, landscapes, historical events, child life, domestic scenes, and famous people have been found especially interesting to children. It is not possible to give here the names of all, or even very many, pictures which are suitable for school- room decoration. The following list contains the names of a few that are rather widely used for this purpose. Art publishers' catalogues should be con- sulted for the names and illustrations of others. Sistine Madonna, by Raphael The Gleaners, by Millet The Angelus, by Millet Summer Evening, by Adam Deer in Forest, by Bonheur The Children of Charles I, by Van Dyck By the Riverside, by Lerolle Pilgrims Going to Church, by Boughton The Shepherdess, by Teralle Can't You Talk, by Holmes The Horse Fair, by Bonheur Washington Crossing the Delaware, by Leutze Signing the Declaration of Independence, by Trumbull Spring, by Corot Head of Christ, by Hofmann Dance of the Nymphs, by Corot Beautifying the School Premises 123 Flowers. A few well-chosen and well-kept flowers constitute another element of cheerfulness and attrac- tiveness in the schoolroom. In many sections of the country it is possible to have a small window garden of growing plants during most or all of the school term. A fern, some geraniums, and a box or two of hyacinths, tulips, or other hardy bulbs will make a good collection. All house plants should be kept in suitable flower pots or in boxes painted to harmonize with the color scheme of the room. They should also be well cared for and kept in a thrifty condition. With a little assistance from the teacher the pupils can easily manage the window garden, and will take great pride in doing so. With an eight- or ten-inch board and two shelf brackets the larger pupils can make a window seat or shelf for the flower pots. They can also make flower stands and boxes where these are needed. If the pupils are permitted and en- couraged to take care of the flowers in school, they are very likely to become more interested in such matters in their homes. Summary. The first step in creating an esthetic school en- vironment is to beautify the interior of the room. To accomplish this end, the schoolroom must be kept thoroughly clean; the ceiling and walls must be tinted or papered and the woodwork finished in colors that produce a pleasing effect; a few choice large pictures should decorate the walls ; and where climatic condi- tions permit there should be a small window garden consisting of a few thrifty potted plants. What the Teacher Can Do. Having learned what is required to make the interior of the schoolroom beautiful, our next problem is to see what the teacher can do to bring about the conditions desired in schools where they do not already exist. 124 Rural School Management In the matter of pictures one of the first things to do is to get catalogues from a few reliable art publish- ing companies. The names of such publishers can be obtained by writing to the art department of the nearest state normal school. From these catalogues the teacher can learn the names and prices of pictures suitable for schoolroom decoration. If the school board is unwilling to furnish the funds for purchasing the pictures, an entertainment of some sort can be given to raise the money. In one school the teacher sent for a few small pictures at her own expense. These she used as the basis of some '' opening exer- cise " talks on pictures. The pupils became deeply interested. A box social and a " Bonheur-Millet " entertainment were held to raise the funds needed to buy the three or four pictures the teacher and pupils had selected. The entertainment consisted of music and essays and talks dealing with the life and works of Bonheur and Millet. The box social netted more money than was required to purchase the pictures they had selected. Traveling art exhibits constitute another method of getting good pictures. These are collections of fine pictures sent to schools for exhibit purposes. The usual plan is to place the pictures on display in the schoolhouse and charge a small fee for seeing them. These exhibits are sent by the companies on condition that the school will pay the transportation charges and spend the net proceeds with the com- pany for pictures for the school. The names of companies which send out such exhibits can be obtained from the county or state superintendent of schools or from the art department of a state normal school. Beautifying the School Premises 125 With a little help from the teacher, pupils can make frames for the pictures at practically no cost. In a school in one of the southern states, frames were made from lath obtained free at a near-by sawmill. These were cut the proper lengths, planed, sandpapered, and joined by flat joints. They were then stained either black or brown with Diamond Dyes and polished with Johnson's floor wax. The pictures were mounted on gray, brown, or white cardboard. The glass was cut at the drug store and cost from ten to thirty-five cents, depending on the size.^ Another teacher's experience in the matter of interior decoration may be helpful in this connection. Upon arriving at her school this teacher found conditions that were decidedly unattractive and cheerless. The building had never been painted, the lock to the door was broken, the windows were coated with smoke, and the floors literally covered with dirt. The teacher was not accustomed to such surroundings. Immedi- ately after taking the names of the pupils present, she asked for volunteers to help her clean up the room. The pupils responded cheerfully. Buckets were borrowed from neighboring farmhouses, water was carried by the children, the floor was scrubbed, and the desks and windowpanes were thoroughly cleaned. The next morning when the children arrived they found muslin curtains at the two windows. The place had been transformed. A little later, when one of the school directors came in, he praised the teacher and the pupils and offered to assist in any way he could in the improvement of the premises. Through the support of the school board thus gained and with funds raised at an entertainment, the school- 1 Bulletin No. V, State Department of Education, Mississippi. 126 Rural School Management house was painted inside and out, a few good pictures were hung on the walls, and the school grounds were cleaned up and made more attractive.^ 2. Beautifying the Outdoor Surroundings The School Building. An esthetic outdoor school environment consists of an attractive building set in the midst of beautiful surroundings. If the district has a new building constructed according to present- day ideas of sanitation, beauty, and usefulness, the first step toward an esthetic environment has been taken. Where such a building does not exist, the first problem is to make the one which does exist as attractive as possible. The fact that a building is old is no reason why it should be entirely neglected and allowed to become unsightly. To see that the schoolhouse is in good repair and well painted is the first step in beautifying the outdoor premises. This is so evident that it needs no further comment here. The School Grounds. Functions. In making plans for the improvement of school grounds its three main functions must be taken into consideration. These functions are : (1) Recreational. The school ground should be first of all a school and neighborhood play- ground and recreational center. (2) Instructional. The grounds should contain a school garden which, along with the trees, shrubs, and flowers, may be used as a laboratory for the regular school work, especially the work in agriculture and nature study. (3) Es- thetic. The school premises should be as attractive as possible because of their importance as a factor in the esthetic and moral training of children. ^Beautifying Our Schools, State Department of Education, Virginia. Beautifying the School Premises 127 Playgrounds. Play in connection with schools is such an important matter that a separate chapter is given to this subject. All that need be said here is that in planning for the improvement of the school grounds provision should be made first for a play- ground and second for a school garden. After these have been laid out, the rest of the grounds may be planned with a view to making it esthetic. Walks and Driveways. A school ground with well- established and well-constructed walks and driveways is much more beautiful than one in which paths and roads are made haphazard across the premises. Just what walks and drives are needed in any given case depends on local conditions. In general, there should be one or two walks from the main traveled roadway to the front entrance of the building; another to the well; one to each of the outhouses, if outdoor toilets are used; and a drive to the fuel house and horse sheds, if these conveniences are provided. Gracefully curved walks are more artistic than straight ones where the distance is not too short. Cement walks are preferable, but where these are impracticable, dirt walks covered with gravel or cinders are very satis- factory. The driveways should be graveled or cin- dered in all cases. Lawns. For a long time we have recognized the value of a good, well-kept lawn as a means of beautify- ing our home premises. It is equally important in connection with school premises. A great many schools already have, and every school should have, a beautiful lawn. The amount of lawn which any given school can have depends on the size of the school grounds. Where the grounds are small and practically all of the space 128 Rural School Management is needed for play and a school garden, the grass plot must be confined to a portion of the front yard. But where there is ample ground for all purposes, the entire front yard and a portion of the grounds at the sides of the schoolhouse may be set apart for a lawn. In the making of a lawn three things are very im- portant: (1) the preparation of the soil; (2) the selection of the kind of seed and the best time for seeding; and (3) the care of the lawn. No specific directions can be given here, since the methods to be used vary with different sections of the country. The teacher who does not already understand these matters as applied to his community should write to his state agricultural college for definite information on these points. Trees. Trees are needed on the school ground both for protection and for ornamentation. They are needed almost everywhere to furnish shade from the summer's sun. In some sections of the country, especially in prairie sections where the winter storms are severe, they are used to form windbreaks or shelter belts. When used for this purpose, they are usually set so as to form dense groves on the north and west sides of the grounds. Where windbreaks are not needed, a few trees planted irregularly along the boundary lines with a cluster, or perhaps a belt, in the rear of the grounds are all that are needed. If the grounds are large, a massive tree or two which stand apart from the others add to the beauty of the premises. Care should be taken to keep the center of the grounds open and the front view of the house and lawn unobstructed by trees. Success in tree growing depends mainly on three things : (1) the kind of trees planted ; (2) the time Beautifying the School Premises 129 and method of transplanting ; and (3) the care of the trees after planting. In general, the trees that are native to the community make the best varieties for the school grounds. These are, as a rule, as beautiful as any that could be procured, and, besides, are better adapted to the soil in which they are to be planted. Elms, maples, ashes, oaks, and poplars are found almost everywhere and will grow on a great variety of soils. Every community will have other varieties that can be added to the list or substituted for any of the foregoing which are not easily obtained. Every teacher who is inexperienced or untrained in tree culture should seek information which is applicable to his particular community. Agricultural colleges everywhere are glad to be of service in the improve- ment of school grounds and will furnish any teacher, upon request, reliable information as to the kinds of trees to plant, the best time for and methods of putting out trees, and the cultivation and' protection they need after planting. Shrubs, Vines, and Flowers. '' Beautifying results are more quicklj^ obtained with shrubs than with trees and some of them have long and lovely lives." To produce the best effect, shrubs should be planted in clusters around the outhouses, in the fence corners, at irregular intervals along the borders, and in masses against the background of trees in the rear. In bleak countries a rather heavy planting of evergreens about the borders should be used in place of so much shrub- bery. With shrubs as with trees, the varieties which grow at large in the community should be used on the school grounds. The willows, the sumac, the elder, witch- hazel, dogwood, the haw, the honeysuckle, and the 130 Rural School Management lilac are excellent, and most of them are to be found in almost any section of the country. Vines, such as the common woodbine and the clematis, can be used to good advantage to screen the outhouses or other unsightly objects. Where necessary a trellis or a wire netting can be easily con-^ structed for the vines. A wild grapevine or two in connection with tall shrubs or old trees will help to beautify the premises. To complete the beautification, a few flowers are needed. Some of these may be grown with good effect along the sides of the building, a bed or two of bulbs may occupy the curves or angles in the walks, while some of the taller and long-lived ones may be planted along the borders with the shrubbery as a background. (See frontispiece.) Summary. The essentials to a beautiful outdoor school en- vironment are : (1) a school building that is kept in good repair and well painted ; (2) school grounds on which are found artistic walks and driveways, a beautiful lawn, a variety of trees along the borders and in the rear, shrubs arranged in clusters here and there, vines to conceal all unsightly objects, and a few flowers to give a final touch of beauty to the whole setting. What the Teacher Can Do. Success in transforming a bare, cheerless school ground into such a one as we have described depends, in a very large measure, on two things, both of which an energetic teacher can easily accomplish : (1) having a definite plan, and (2) enlisting the cooperation of pupils and patrons in carrying out the plan adopted. Making the Plan. After the teacher has had time to make a fairly careful survey of the school premises, he should begin the making of a plan for their permanent improvement. In doing this he should take the pupils 131 132 Rural School Management into partnership with him and let them assist in every way they can. The pupils will enjoy helping to make all of the measurements necessary to draw a diagram or map of the premises. On this map should be shown as accurately as possible the location of the school building and other objects which exist on the grounds, such as outhouses, horse sheds, trees, etc. The next step is to plan and lay off on the map any improvements that are to be made. The playground and the school garden should be marked off, the walks and drives sketched, and the place for the lawn in- dicated. Then the places for the trees, shrubs, and flower beds should be located and, if possible, the varieties to be planted decided upon and indicated on the margin of the map. If at any time in the working out of the plan the teacher and pupils are in doubt as to the best arrange- ment and varieties of plants or as to the preparation required for the planting, the agricultural college should be called upon for the information needed. When a plan has been worked out in this way, both teacher and pupils will have clear ideas of what the grounds are to contain and will be in possession of all the information. needed to put the plan into effect. Securing Cooperation of Pupils and Patrons. After the plans are made, the next step is to get them carried out. To this end the teacher needs the cooperation of both pupils and patrons. If he has permitted the pupils to assist in making the plans, he will have done much to arouse their interest in the beautification of the school. Following this a Junior Civic Society or School Improvement League can be formed among the children to assist in beautifying both the interior and the outdoor surroundings. If such an organiza- Beautifying the School Premises 133 tion does not seem practicable, then various com- mittees can be appointed, such as a flower committee, committee on shrubs, committee on pictures, etc. Usually pupils consider it an honor to be asked to help in this way and take great interest in doing the work assigned to them. The interest thus aroused will, in many cases, spread to the homes and may be the means of securing the cooperation of their parents. A very good method of securing the interest and cooperation of patrons is to start with a Clean-up Day or " bee " for the improvement of the school. Get all of the patrons to meet at the schoolhouse at an appointed time. Let each one have some part, if possible, in putting the house and grounds in order. When all have become interested through doing some- thing for the school, have some influential patron propose an organization for the permanent beaut ifica- tion of the premises. Get one or two others to make short talks in favor of the proposition. Arrangements for the leader and the talks should be made before the meeting is called. At an appropriate place in the proceedings let the teacher be asked for suggestions. By using the map previously made or by drawing a sketch on the blackboard, he can explain in a few words the main features of the plan for the improve- ment of the surroundings. The outcome of such a meeting should be the forma- tion of an organization of patrons, such as a parent- teacher association or a school improvement league. If this is done, suitable committees can be appointed to carry out the plans agreed upon. In cases where a permanent organization is not formed, a sufficient number of patrons will probably volunteer to make most or all of the improvements needed. Some will 134 Rural School Management agree to prepare the soil for the lawn ; others, to haul gravel for the walks; and still others, to provide the trees and shrubs. This, together with what the teacher and pupils can do, will, in most instances, serve to start the movement for a beautiful school. But the planting of trees, shrubs, etc., is only the beginning of permanent school ground improvement. If the interest ends here, the grounds will probably fall into neglect and the trees will be permitted to die for want of attention. It is extremely important that the community interest in the matter shall be kept alive and increased, if possible. Appropriate observance of special days will help to do this. A good program on Arbor Day will stimulate interest, if the patrons are invited and some of them asked to take part. In some communities Flower Day and flower shows have been conducted with good results. But perhaps the best method of insuring a continued interest in the beautification of the school is to have a permanent organization of patrons — a parent-teacher association with a school improvement committee, or a school improvement league. Such an organization will be especially valuable both in carrying out the plans for beautifying the premises and in preventing their neglect during vacations. REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Carney: Country Life and the Country School, pages 223-229. Cubberley: Rural Life and Education, Chapter VI. FOGHT : The American Rural School, Chapters VIII, IX. Kern: Among Country Schools, Chapters III, V. Kern: Report of Winnebago County, 1910, Chapters I, II. Kern: Report of Winnebago County, 1911, Chapters II, III. State Department of Education of Maine : Improvement of School Buildings and Grounds. Beautifying the School Premises 135 State Department of Education of Wisconsin : The School Beauti- ful. State Department of Education of Virginia: Beautifying Our Schools. Youth's Companion: How to Set Out Trees and Shrubbery. CLASS EXERCISES 1. State a difficulty not mentioned in the text which might be encountered in attempting to beautify the school premises, and show how it could be overcome. 2. Write a letter such as you would send to the art department of your state university or normal school asking for a color scheme and a list of pictures suitable for use in your school. Give such a description of the room as the department would need in order to give the information desired. 3. Criticize the interior painting or papering in the schoolroom you are now using, giving reasons for your views. 4. Assuming that you have the information referred to in Exercise 2, just how would you go about getting these improve- ments for your school? 5. What shrubs, vines, and flowers would you recommend for use in beautifying a school ground in your community? Where and how could they be obtained? 6. Make a list of five things the teacher and pupils can do to improve the appearance of a dirty, dingy schoolhouse and an un- sightly school ground. 7. Enumerate the steps you would take to get your school board and patrons interested in the permanent beautification of the school premises. 8. Write a paper, as if for a teachers' association or a parent- teachers' meeting, on the topic "Why the School Premises Should Be Beautiful." CHAPTER VII PLAY AND THE SCHOOL PLAYGROUND I. FUNCTIONS OF PLAY AND PLAYGROUNDS A GREAT deal has been said and written of late con- cerning play in connection with schools. In fact, the movement for a wide use of play in the training of children is one of the foremost tendencies in education at the present time. How to make adequate provision for the play activities of the pupils is one of the main problems in the management of the school. In our study of the problem we shall try to discover first what purposes or functions play serves in the education of children. Hygienic Function. Wholesome food, fresh air, sunshine, and exercise are the four conditions which are essential to the healthy growth and development of children. With the exception of the first, these con- ditions are supplied adequately only through play and the playground. It is a well-established principle of hygiene that children must have a certain amount of exercise in order to keep their bodies healthy and vigorous. Through exercise the muscles become firmer, the bones tougher, the lungs larger, and the heart stronger. A well-known authority on play says: *' In that shortened process we call childhood every faculty, every power, every organ that fails to receive its due exercise shrivels, and health by so much suf- fers and by so much the man becomes less a man.'' 136 Play and the School Playground 137 But to be most effective in promoting this end the exercise one takes must be joyous and spontaneous — it must be an activity which is liked and is entered into freely and cheerfully of one's own accord. To meet these requirements nature has wisely endowed us with a desire to play. Play is the only form of exercise small children can take and it is the best form for people of any age. Exercise is most beneficial to health when it is taken in the open air and sunshine. Even our best venti- lated schoolrooms do not meet the needs of children for fresh air. Conditions indoors may be made fairly satisfactory for study, but when children play they should be out of doors, if possible, where there is an abundance of fresh air to purify the blood, and sun- shine to destroy any dangerous disease germs that may infest their clothing. The first function of the school playground, then, is to promote the health of the pupils. It does this by providing a means for an abundance of free, joyous exercise in the open air and sunshine. Educative Functions. In addition to promoting health and physical vigor, play is a very important factor in the intellectual, moral, and social training of children. Intellectual Development. Play develops the child both physically and mentally. As a matter of fact, physical development is necessary to mental devel- opment. Psychologists tell us that there is a very close relation between muscles, brain, and mind. Play activity develops the muscles and the brain centers which control the muscles and, since the mind is in- timately related to the brain, the mental powers are correspondingly developed. Our best authorities as- 138 Rural School Management sert that a child who has not had abundant oppor- tunities for play is not capable of as high a degree of mental development as is one who has had such oppor- tunities. " A simple little game like tag or hide-and- seek calls many faculties into exercise and keeps them alert.'^ Furthermore, play and games serve as an excellent means of getting children to learn certain subjects in school. Bean bag games and playing at keeping store, for instance, furnish an excellent motive for learning the number combinations in arithmetic. Language, word recognition, and spelling are now taught to a considerable extent in many schools by connecting them with games which the children like to play. The desire to act a story or an event or to construct a scene on the sand table can be and is often used as a means of getting children to study such subjects as reading, literature, and history. Moral Influence. One of the most important facts about play is its influence on the morals of children and young people. A great many teachers have ob- served that vigorous play at recess and noon intermis- sions makes it much easier to discipline the school. When pupils have an opportunity to use their surplus energy in vigorous, wholesome play, they are less in- clined to get into mischief of any sort. In cities it has been found that playgrounds are a very great help in breaking up destructive street gangs. In some instances the opening of playgrounds has reduced the amount of crime among boys fifty per cent. Some cities are now finding playgrounds to be a business investment, the amount saved in criminal cost being greater than the cost of conducting the play- grounds. Play and the School Playground 139 Social Training. Play has been called nature's great teacher. In their plays and games from day to day children acquire a great variety of experiences, most of which are very useful to them. As children play together they become less selfish, and more sym- pathetic toward each other; they learn, in time, to exercise self-control, to get along together; in their team games they learn that each one has an impor- tant part to play and that the success of the team depends on each one's doing his part well. Cooper- ation, helpfulness, division of labor, forbearance, self- control — these are some of the qualities which chil- dren acquire through the necessity of having to practice them in their plays. Again, in their imitative and constructive plays children learn a great deal about the affairs of grown- up people. When they play at keeping house, school, or store; when they act out some public event, or play at being soldier, doctor, or minister; when they construct a doll house, a farm scene, or a village street, they necessarily acquire some insight into a few of the activities of their elders. It must be remembered that when children play at such things they do so for the joy and delight that comes from the play itself, and that the social training comes incidentally as a by-product of the play. But this fact does not detract from the value of the social training. What children learn in their play is usually better understood and more firmly fixed in their minds than if it were taught to them as a school exercise. Recreative Function. A third function of play and the playground is to furnish a means of recreation both for the pupils of the school and for the community at large. 140 Rural School Management The importance of suitable recreation for school children is thoroughly well understood. Pupils must have periods of change and rest from their regular school work. The best recreation for them is that which comes from getting out on the playground and having a thoroughly good time. Pupils who have spent a few minutes in wholesome, joyous play out in the open air return to their studies refreshed and in- vigorated, and with renewed interest in their work. Such recreation invariably results in better school work and in a better feeling on the part of pupils toward the school. But recreation is necessary for adults as well as for children. One of the greatest drawbacks to country life is its lack of opportunity for recreation. Coun- try people need diversion and change from the daily routine of farm life. It is now believed that the school and its playground can and should supply this need. A school playground constructed with this end in view becomes a public park, a community meeting place, where people may go for recreation and diversion. A wider use of the rural school playground for picnic parties, play festivals, baseball, and other athletic contests does much to make country life more enjoy- able. Since the schoolhouse and school grounds be- long to all the people of the community, there seems to be no good reason why they should not be used for community recreation. Summary. Play and playgrounds have three very important functions: (1) hygienic — to promote the health and physical vigor of pupils ; (2) educative — to help bring about the intel- lectual development and the moral and social training of children ; (3) recreative — to furnish wholesome recreation for the pupils and for the community at large. Play and the School Playground 141 II. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED Size of School Grounds. One reason why play is not more widely used in connection with schools is found in the small amount of space available for play purposes. School playgrounds, as a rule, are too small. This is what we should naturally expect in cities where land values are high. But small play- grounds are just as common in rural districts, where an abundance of land could be had at comparatively little cost. In one of the central states it was found that four out of ninety-one rural schools in a county had no playground, sixty-four had less than an acre, fourteen just an acre, and only nine had more than an acre. Dresslar found from an investigation of more than twelve hundred rural schools in nineteen states that " less than 15 % of them are furnished with play- grounds large enough to enable the children to play with any degree of freedom and vigor.'' Just how large a playground for a rural school ought to be has not been definitely settled. Estimates vary from two to five acres. If the school grounds are to be properly beautified with trees and shrubs, to furnish ample space for school gardening and play, and to serve as a community recreation center, a site of five acres is none too large. It is generally agreed that a site which contains less than two acres cannot be con- sidered at all adequate. How to procure larger playgrounds is an important problem in a great many districts. In some instances the land needed has come as a gift from some wealthy and interested patron. In other cases funds for the purchase of additional land have been raised through private subscriptions solicited by the teacher or by a 142 Rural School Management committee of influential patrons. Still another method is to get the people to vote an appropriation for this purpose. This method is very likely to fail unless the friends of the school do some active work among the voters, before the vote is taken. Perhaps a better method is to enlist the interest of the school board and get them to appropriate the necessary funds. In any com- munity where a parent-teacher association or a school improvement league can be successfully maintained, the problem of larger playgrounds can usually be solved through the influence and work of that organization. Work versus Play. A second difficulty is the fairly widespread belief that country boys and girls do not need much play. A great many parents believe that the work on the farm and in the home, the chores, and the trip to and from the school, furnish the children all the exercise they need. But educators under- stand clearly now that this view is wrong. Work can- not take the place of play. It lacks the joy, the zest, and the interest necessary to make the exercise profit- able in any great measure. Too much work without opportunity to play often becomes drudgery and has a depressing effect on the spirits of the child. It is now believed that too much work and too little play are responsible for the fact that a great many boys and girls grow dissatisfied with country life and leave the farm at the first opportunity to seek employment in the towns and cities. Again, the kind of work which children are usually required to do at home is not as educative as group play. It does not furnish so much exercise for the mental powers or so good an oppor- tunity for moral and social training. Therefore, the fact that country children have to work is not a suf- ficient reason for depriving them of their right to play. Play and the School Playground 143 Parents should be led, if possible, to see the error in the view that their children do not need to play. This may be done, in part at least, by making the best use of the play facilities already at hand. More and better games for the recess and noon intermissions, a field day exercise or play festival on some Friday afternoon, will do much to get the children thoroughly interested and may be the means of overcoming the prejudices of the parents. An explanation of the im- portance of play for country children, given on Parents' Day in the school or at a meeting of the parent-teacher association, will help to overcome this difficulty. Lack of Equipment. Very few rural schools are provided with suitable play equipment. A survey of the rural schools in one well-to-do county showed that ninety-eight of the one hundred and ten schools had no play apparatus. A noted authority on the subject of play estimates that not more than one per cent of the rural schools of the country are supplied with adequate play equipment. It is true that children can get a great deal of benefit from playing games that require no special equipment. However, some equipment is highly necessary in order to increase the number and variety of playground sports. In some of our best schools a part of the play equip- ment is made by the larger pupils. This method has a twofold advantage over buying such apparatus. (1) It arouses a deeper interest in the use of the ma- terial, and (2) it furnishes excellent practice in man- ual training. Some of the material, however, such as croquet sets, volley balls, basket balls, etc., will have to be purchased. Funds for this purpose can easily be raised by means of school entertainments. This method is really preferable to having the school board 144 Rural School Management appropriate the funds, for the reason that it brings the people together for social intercourse and serves to arouse public interest in the school. Lack of Supervision. To get the best results from the playground, there must be some one in charge to supervise or direct the play activities. There is need of some one to help and encourage the children, to teach them new games, and to see that there is no undesirable conduct on the part of pupils. In most rural communities this has to be done, if it is done at all, by the teacher. But, heretofore, a majority of rural teachers have not understood the very great impor- tance of the matter and, consequently, the play activities of pupils have been greatly neglected in many schools. The best remedy for this difficulty is a teacher who will get out and play with the children. Almost any teacher already knows or can easily learn what games children like to play, how to lay off a playground, and what equipment to order. The teacher who takes hold of the matter can accomplish a great deal under almost any sort of conditions. Special preparation for this sort of work is very helpful, but it is not absolutely es- sential, and the teacher who has had no training in conducting playgrounds should not on that account think that he can do nothing. Conducting the play activities of children is no more difficult than con- ducting their study activities and is usually far more enjoyable to the teacher. Summary. The most serious hindrances to the movement for a wider use of play in connection with schools are: (1) The playground, in many instances, is too small; (2) a great many parents believe that the work their children do furnishes them all the exercise they need ; (3) not many rural schools are at present supplied with suitable play equipment; (4) rural teachers, as a rule, have had no training in supervising the plays of children. Play and the School Playground 145 m. HOW TO EQUIP AND USE THE SCHOOL PLAY- GROUND The Problem. Play is now regarded as one of the most important factors in the education of children. Up to the present time it has not been as widely used as it should be. One of the chief reasons for this neg- lect is the lack of training on the part of teachers in the matter of equipping playgrounds and directing the play activities of pupils. The purpose of this section is to point out a few things which teachers can and should do to provide a richer play life for their pupils. 1. Equipping the Playground The Sand Bin. A sand bin makes possible a very profitable form of play for small children. Every rural school should have one. The size of the bin must, of course, depend on the number of pupils to use it. In general, it may vary from six feet by eight feet to as much larger as may be needed. It should be made of boards from ten to twelve inches wide and should be located in some quiet part of the ground so as to keep the small children ^way from the playground of the larger pupils. If there are no funds available for buying the lumber, waste boards can often be brought from the homes of pupils. In most cases the larger pupils will be glad to make the bin as a service to the school, and some interested person will haul the sand. Equipment for Games. Group games are known to have a much greater value both physically and socially than the individual plays of children. In many instances the school playground affords coun- try children the only opportunity they have of engag- ing in play of this sort. Consequently, the equipment 146 Rural School Management for group games constitutes the most important part of the playground equipment. In deciding upon the equipment for any particular school, the size of the grounds and the number of pupils must be taken into consideration. Where the play- ground is large and is to be used for both school and neighborhood play, provision should be made for the following games: volley ball, baseball, indoor base- ball, basket ball, tennis, and croquet. Volley Ball. Volley Ball. Volley ball is now regarded as one of the very best games for the school playground. Its chief advantages are that it requires little space, can be played any month in the year, is suitable for both boys and girls, is not limited to any particular number of players or to players of any particular age or size. It is an excellent game for any school, but is especiallj^ well adapted for use in schools in which there are few pupils and small playgrounds. Play and the School Playground 147 The equipment consists of a volley ball, two posts, and a net. The ball can be purchased from any athletic supply house or mail order house, or can be ordered through a local dealer. Where it is neces- sary to economize, a rope can be used for a net and the posts can be made by the pupils from studding or saplings. If the teacher is not familiar with the game, a copy of Spalding's '* Rules for Volley Ball, Tether- ball," etc., can be purchased for ten cents. Complete instructions for playing the game are also given in Bancroft's '* Games for the Playground, Home, School, and Gymnasium," a copy of which should be pur- chased for the school library. Baseball. Baseball is essentially a game for older boys and young men rather than for school children. Every school ground which is to be used for com- munity recreation should have a baseball field of standard size. An occasional contest in this na- tional sport adds a great deal to the enjoyment of country life. On account of the large amount of space required and the large number of players needed, baseball is impracticable in a great many rural school districts. Indoor Baseball. For small schools indoor or play- ground baseball is a good substitute for regular base- ball. This game is played on a diamond which is thirty-five feet on a side. For girls the sides are only twenty-seven feet. The equipment consists of a large, soft ball and suitable clubs or bats. The ball will have to be purchased, but the bats can be made by the pupils. The rules for this game are almost the same as those for regular baseball. If needed, however, a copy of Spalding's " Official Indoor Baseball Guide " can be procured at a cost of ten cents. 148 Rural School Management Basket Ball. Basket ball has become one of our most popular games both for school and for neighborhood sport. Dr. H. S. Curtis states that it is probably more generally played than any other game. A great many schools, especially the larger schools, now have their regular basket ball teams, and contests with other schools are quite common. The game is played on a court thirty-five by seventy feet. Two poles five or six inches in diameter and about fifteen feet long, two shields or backgrounds four feet by six feet, a couple of baskets, and a basket ball constitute the equipment. The poles are set one at each end of the court so as to extend about twelve feet above the ground. In most communities small trees or saplings can be pro- cured for this purpose. In many cases the shields can be made by the pupils from waste lumber brought from their homes. Where funds for play material are meager, discarded potato baskets or barrel hoops may be used for baskets. The only item of necessary ex- pense, therefore, is the ball. A teacher who is not familiar with the game will need a copy of Spalding's " Basket Ball Rules." Both the ball and the rules may be ordered from any athletic supply dealer. Tether-ball. Tether-ball is an excellent game for small schools with limited playground area. It re- quires very little space and few players, and furnishes healthful and enjoyable exercise. The material needed for this game consists of a thirteen-foot pole set about three feet in the ground, a tether-ball attached by means of a cord to the top of the pole, and a tennis racket for each player. The pole can easily be pro- cured and set up by the pupils, and if tennis rackets cannot be provided, thin board paddles can be used instead. A regular tether-ball with cord attached Play and the School Playground 149 can be ordered with the volley ball, basket ball, and indoor baseball. Complete instructions for laying off the court and for playing the game are found in Spalding's *' Rules for Volley Ball," also in Bancroft's " Games for the Playground, Home, School, and Gym- nasium." Croquet and Tennis. Croquet and tennis are good games for school use and also for community recre- ation. A croquet set can usually be purchased in any town or village. A book of rules or instructions is generally supplied with the set. A tennis outfit will have to be ordered from some athletic dealer or mail order house. A ten-cent copy of Spalding's "How to Play Lawn Tennis " will give all the instructions needed for preparing and laying off the court and playing the game. To the foregoing list there should be added a great variety of running games, singing games, bean-bag games, and folk dances. These require no special equip- ment and are well suited to the needs and interests of smaller pupils in particular. Numerous games of these types are found in the following books : Angell: Play, Little, Brown & Company, Boston, Mass. Bancroft: Games for the Playground, Home, School, and Gym- nasium, Macmillan Company, New York City. BuRCHENAL : Folk Dances and Singing Games, G. Schirmer, Inc., New York City. Hofer: Popular Folk Games, A. Flanagan Company, Chicago, 111. Johnson: Education by Plays and Games, Ginn & Company, Boston, Mass. These books should be purchased with library funds and placed in the school library. If this cannot be done, either an entertainment should be held for raising 150 Rural School Management the funds, or teachers should buy them and retain them as their personal property. Summary. Large playgrounds which are to be used for both school and community recreation should be equipped for playing volley ball, baseball, tether-ball, croquet, and tennis. Small play- grounds should provide for as many of these as possible, prefer- ence being given to volley ball, indoor baseball, tether-ball, and croquet. In either case school children should be taught a great variety of running, singing, and folk games. Equipment for Athletics. In addition to the equip- ment for games, provision should be made in every school for some simple athletic exercises. In the first place there ought to be a running track not to ex- ceed one hundred yards in length. A sixty-yard track will do if a longer one cannot be provided. This can easily be constructed along one side of the school grounds. A stop watch will add a great deal of in- terest to the running, since it will enable pupils to keep their time and compare their records with those made by pupils in the same or in other schools. This instrument can be bought for $2.50 from any school supply house. Jumping Pit and Standards. A jumping pit for the broad jump and standards for the high jump should be provided. With a little help from the teacher these can be constructed by the pupils. The jumping pit should be equipped with a take-off board and filled with sand or sawdust to prevent injury to the pupils. The jumping standards consist of two upright pieces fastened to substantial bases. The upright pieces are marked off with feet and inch marks. At the inch marks holes are made in which pegs are in- serted to hold up the crossbar. Horizontal Bars. Horizontal bars furnish another interesting and profitable form of playground sport. Play and the School Playground 151 To make this apparatus set two posts firmly in the ground about five feet apart. Bore a hole in each near the top and insert a strong wooden rod or a piece of gas pipe for the bar. If there are several children to use them, there should be two — one five and a half feet and the other six feet high. To prevent injury from falling there should be a pit under each bar filled with sand or some other soft substance. Other Play Apparatus. The slide has been found to be a very popular piece of playground apparatus. If rightly constructed, it is neither dangerous nor especially hard on children's clothing. It can be used by a large number of pupils, and furnishes excel- lent physical exercise and a lot of wholesome enjoy- ment. The slide is difficult to construct; hence it is better, in most cases, either to buy one from some athletic supply house or to employ a skilled workman to make it. In some instances, however, very good ones have been made by the pupils. (From Play and Recreation in the Open Country, by Henry S. Curtis, Ginn and Company.) A Homemade Slide at a Rural School. The giant stride is an excellent source of amusement, especially for the larger pupils. Where funds are 152 Rural School Management lacking, a very good one can be made by the pupils. It consists of a fourteen-foot pole set well in the ground and having a wheel mounted on top. To the circum- erence of the wheel rope lad- ders or knotted ropes are at- tached. In most communities a pole can be pro- cured from a near-by forest and a cast-off wagon or plow wheel from a blacksmith's shop. The rope, therefore, is the only item of ex- pense. Swings, see- saws, and teeter ladders are now regarded as less important in the equipment of a school play- crround than A HOMEMADE GIAM STRIDE. ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ thought to be. In fact, Dr. Curtis, one of our best authorities, holds that they are out of place on a school ground. But it is well known that children enjoy swings very much, and since few of the pupils have them at their homes, the school ought to supply this Play and the School Playground 153 source of enjoyment. In some schools a satisfactory swing can be made by attaching a rope to the limb of a tree. The best swings, of course, are those which are made of gas pipe and chains. But these are expensive, and if the funds are limited, strong wood posts and rope will answer. The posts should be set in cement or vefy deep in the ground, and the rope must be examined frequently to see that it is not worn to the point of breaking. 2. Conducting the Play Activities The Play Leader. Need of a Leader. Experience has shown that in order to get the best results from play there must be a competent leader in charge of the playgrounds. There are three reasons why such a leader is necessary. First, Children, as a rule, know how to play only a few games and they frequently grow tired of playing these. When this happens they usually sit or stand around or get into some sort of mischief. There is need, therefore, of some one to play with them and to teach them new games, thus stimulating them to play with greater interest and vigor. Second. A leader is needed, also, to help the pupils organize their teams, and to arrange for contests, tournaments, and play festivals. Children usually play with a great deal of interest and pleasure, but when their games and plays are in preparation for a public exhibition, they play with far more enthusiasm. Third. Incidentally, a leader serves to prevent dis- order and to insure justice and fair play on the play- ground. Play loses much of its value if the children quarrel or use profane or indecent language, or if a few pupils monopolize the best games and apparatus, or if the playing is not always fair and sportsmanlike. 154 Rural School Management These bad features the leader prevents, not by force, but by his presence and by the sympathetic interest he takes in the plays himself. Who Should Serve as Play Leader. In large cities the playgrounds are usually in charge of an expert physical director who devotes his entire time to the supervision of a single playground. On account of the heavy expense involved and the comparatively few people who use the playground, this method is hardly practicable for rural schools. Again, a few communities have adopted the plan of employing a county play supervisor. This official visits the various schools in his county and instructs the pupils in new games, organizes teams, and arranges for play festi- vals and tournaments. But this plan is not yet com- mon and perhaps will not be for some time, because of the expense necessary to pay the salary of the supervisor. The plan which is most widely used among rural schools at present is for the regular teacher to serve as play leader. This method seems to have the fol- lowing advantages: (1) The importance of play to children demands that it shall constitute a part of every day's program at school. It is desirable, there- fore, that the play leader shall be one who is connected with the school and who can be present every day to assist the pupils at play times. (2) It has been ob- served that children play more heartily when the teacher plays with them. (3) The duties of play leader need not in any way add to the burdens of the teacher. In fact, to most teachers the exercise and recreation afforded by playing with the children is a profitable and enjoyable diversion from the routine work of the schoolroom. Furthermore, it is not essential that the teacher be an expert physical director or play su- Play and the School Playground 155 pervisor. Any teacher who is in sympathy with chil- dren and with play and who is willing to learn a few games from the books previously mentioned, can easily arouse a genuine interest in play among his pupils and develop a public interest in recreation in the community in which he teaches. Time for Play and Recreation. How to find time for play and neighborhood recreation is regarded as one of the difficult problems in rural schools and commu- nities. But that the enterprising teacher can find a solution for this problem has been clearly demonstrated in a number of instances. Recess and Noon Intermissions. For school children the recess and noon intermissions offer an excellent opportunity for play. During these periods, on days when the weather conditions permit, the school ac- tivities should be transferred from the schoolroom to the playground, the teacher joining heartily in the children's games. The activities for any intermission should be determined very largely by what the chil- dren want to play. At any time when there is a lack of interest some new game should be taught. The larger pupils should, in the course of time, learn to play- volley ball, indoor baseball, basket ball, dodge ball, captain ball, etc. At times some of them will prefer the athletic sports — the running, jumping, and horizontal bar exercises. The smaller pupils should be taught various bean bag games, circle games, and simple running games, such as prisoner's base, pull away, etc. Folk games and dances for all who wish to take part, and the play apparatus, will add interest and variety to the play programs. A little encourage- ment and help from the teacher will thus make the play periods a genuine delight to pupils of all grades. 156 Rural School Management On stormy days when the children cannot play out of doors, the intermissions and the periods when the room is being flushed with fresh air should be spent in playing games, relay races, and gymnastic or calis- thenic exercises suitable for indoor use. Miss Ban- croft's book, " Games for the Playground, Home, School, and Gymnasium," contains an excellent list of exer- cises especially adapted for indoor use. Between Intermissions. Since the pupils in the lower grades cannot study with much profit or for very long periods, they should be permitted to go out and play between intermissions. If it can be arranged so that one of the larger pupils may be free to assist the little folks at these times, their play will be much more valuable and there will be less danger of dis- turbing the school with their noise. Before and After School. In some instances it may be possible to have a play period before or after school hours. Permitting pupils to play before school may be a means of getting them to come to school on time. A play period after school is objected to in some cases on the ground that the children are really needed at home, or that they have such long distances to go that they cannot remain after school hours. These objec- tions seem valid, and only those pupils should be per- mitted to remain whose parents give their consent thereto. Saturday Afternoon Holidays. The right use of the playgrounds at the times we have mentioned will go a long way toward giving the children a rich play experience and, incidentally, will serve to improve the attendance at school. But the importance of play both to school children and to other young people in the community demands a still wider use of the school Play and the School Playground 157 playground. In some rural communities the school grounds are used by the young men for baseball and basket ball games and for athletic sports on Saturday afternoons. This practice the teacher should encour- age and promote in every way possible. The move- ment should be extended to include the young women and school children as well as young men. Saturday afternoon should become a regular community holi- day. The young women should be invited to the school to play croquet and tennis, while the young men engage in their favorite games. The school children, too, should come for their folk dances and other games and to play in the sand bin or on the slide, giant stride, and swings. When the young people and school children become deeply interested in this matter, their parents are very likely to catch the spirit and they, too, will meet at the schoolhouse for a half day of social intercourse and recreation. Play Days, Festivals, and Tournaments. The prac- tice of giving public exhibitions of the play activities of the school is spreading rapidly among rural schools. These exhibits usually take the form of a play festival, a tournament or athletic meet, or a Play Day. Functions. Such events as these have three impor- tant purposes or functions. First. They serve to arouse a deeper interest in play among school children. Children naturally love to play, but it has been found that they play with greater zeal and enthusiasm when there is a prospect of giving a public exhibition of their plays and games. Through the increased inter- est thus aroused the pupils get greater value from their play activities. It is the same principle as that in- volved in having parents' days, school exhibits, and 158 Rural School Management fairs, to get pupils to do their best work in the regular subjects. Second. Play days and festivals tend also to create a deeper public interest in the school. Through them the school is brought into the focus of attention. As a result, parents learn more about the school, and a closer relation is established be- tween teacher and patrons. Third. These public occurrences afford an excellent form of neighborhood recreation. The need for recreation in rural com- munities and the part the school should play in rela- tion to this need are admirably stated by Dr. Curtis when he says : "Rural communities are overserious, and it is necessary that the spirit of play shall be introduced into country life. It is the lack of recreation, probably, more than anything else, that is driving the young men and women and even adult farmers to the city. The country school must teach the games that are adapted to country life." ^ To help supply this need for recreation and culti- vate this spirit of play among rural people is one of the functions of public exhibitions of play activities. Let us see now how such events are usually conducted. Local Play Festivals. The local or district play fes- tival is an exhibition of playground activities in which folk dancing, singing, games, and drills are most prom- inent. One of the usual methods of conducting such an event is as follows: A program of suitable exer- cises is made out and the children practice these until they can perform them well. A Friday afternoon is selected for the public performance, and invitations are sent to all of the patrons to be present. It is a good plan wherever possible to publish the program ^Education through Play, Curtis, page 152. Play and the School Playground 159 in a local newspaper. The event should be widely advertised and as much interest as possible created. Following is the program exactly as it was given in one school : SPRING FESTIVAL June 2, 1916 1. Processional — Crowning of the Goddess of Flowers, or the May Queen 2. "Queen of the May-time " Sung by All Grades 3. Dance of Greeting — "0, A-Hunting We Will Go" First Grade 4. "Pop Goes the Weasel " — Merry-go-round Second Grade 5. "Oats and Beans" — Mountain March Song, " Dancing Song " Third Grade 6. "Ace of Diamonds" Fourth Grade 7. "Brownie Polka," "How Do You Do" Fifth Grade 8. " Morris Dance " Eighth Grade 9. Song, " May-time" — Ribbon Play Seventh Grade 10. May-Pole Dance These exercises were so popular that the school was asked to repeat the program a little later on the oc- casion of a public celebration in the community. The Tournament. The tournament or athletic field meet differs from the festival proper in that the ex- ercises consist very largely or wholly of athletic sports and competitive games, such as running dashes, jump- ing, relay races, baseball, basket ball, volley ball, and tennis. A local tournament can easily be held, provided there are enough pupils to constitute the necessary teams. The usual plan, however, is to hold inter-school meets ; that is, contests between pupils from several different schools. The program for a meet of this sort usually consists of contests in : 160 Rural School Management 25-yard dash Relay race Running broad jump 50-yard dash Baseball Standing broad jump 60-yard dash Basket ball Running high jump 100-yard dash Tennis Standing high jump Low hurdles Field meets of this sort are not often held in rural communities except in connection with a county Play Day or Play Picnic. However, an occasional contest between two neighboring schools in a few of the above sports furnishes a wholesome form of recre- ation for the community and stimulates play in the schools participating. Rural School Play Day. A Play Day or Field Day and Play Picnic is a combination of the play festival and tournament. The program for such an occasion includes play activities of all kinds suitable for school children of all grades and both sexes. Rural School Play Day has become an annual event now at a great many of our state normal schools. The usual plan is for the normal school authorities to desig- nate the day to be observed, prepare a schedule of events and exercises, and invite all of the schools within reach to participate. The normal school students make the necessary preparations and serve as umpires and judges in the contests. Sometimes they are per- mitted to go out into the schools beforehand and assist in teaching the children the games that are included in the program. Such play days are almost invariably attended by large numbers of pupils and their parents. In this way the normal schools are doing much to arouse an enthusiasm for play among rural people. Some county superintendents, too, have instituted play days for the rural schools of their counties. In Play and the School Playground 161 some instances the play day activities are held in con- nection with a county school fair or a boys' and girls' industrial club exhibit. In other instances the day is devoted exclusively to plays, games, and ath- letic sports. A brief description of an actual occurrence of this sort will serve to illustrate one method of procedure and also to indicate how successful such an event may be made. The county superintendent designated a certain day to be observed as County Play Day and named a certain centrally located town as the place where the event would be held. A program of exercises was prepared for the occasion. Printed copies of these programs were sent to all of the teachers with a press- ing invitation to prepare their pupils to take part in the exercises. The affair was widely advertised in all of the newspapers in the county and parents were urged to come and bring their children. The fore- noon was spent in getting acquainted and in social intercourse. The lunches which the parents had been asked to bring were served at noon as a picnic dinner. At one o'clock a parade, nearly a mile long and headed by a local band, was held, in which nearly every school in the county was represented. After the parade came the play activities and sports. There were May- pole and folk dances by primary, intermediate, and grammar grades; drills of various sorts by pupils from different schools; running dashes and relay races ap- propriate for pupils of different ages; jumping con- tests for boys ; and baseball and volley ball contests between different schools. In a lengthy report of the occasion a local newspaper made the following comment : 162 Play and the School Playground 163 "Featured by a mammoth parade, dances, and all popular sports, the program given Monday in observance of County Play Day was the most successful event ever held in this part of the state and was attended by more than four thousand people." It was a gala day for men, women, and children. Play Day will probably become an annual event in that county, for the people have caught the play spirit and have had a taste of the pleasure that it affords. REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Betts and Hall : Better Rural Schools, Chapter XXVII. Curtis : Plaij and Recreation for the Open Country, Chapters IV- XIV. Curtis : The Practical Conduct of Play, Chapters I, III, V, VIII, XV. Dewey : Schools of Tomorrow, Chapter V. Dresslar : School Hygiene, Chapter II. CLASS EXERCISES 1. What, in your opinion, are the most serious hindrances to the wider use of play in your community? 2. How would you meet the argument that country children do not need to play? 3. Explain just how you would proceed to get your school board or patrons to provide a larger playground or better play facilities at the school. 4. Make actual observations in connection with your own or some near-by school to determine : (a) The size of the playground. (b) Number of pupils using it. (c) The times at which it is used. (d) The equipment for games and athletics, and play apparatus. (e) Principal games and activities engaged in by pupils of different ages. 5. If the conditions disclosed by the study suggested in Exer- cise 4 are not satisfactory, show how they could be improved. 6. For what purposes, other than the playing of children at 164 Rural School Management school, is your school ground used? For what other purposes do you think it could be used ? 7. Make a list of all the material needed to equip a school playground properly. Indicate on the list the things that could be provided without expense. From the catalogues of athletic or school supply houses estinjate the cost of the equipment that would have to be purchased. 8. What means would you use to get the people of your com- munity to attend a play festival at the school? 9. Prepare an argument for the wider use of play in your community, grouping your points under the following headings: (a) How play and the playground may aid the school in the training of children. (h) How the playground may contribute to the enjoyment of life in general in the community. CHAPTER VIII THE DAILY PROGRAM AND ALTERNATION I. FUNCTIONS OF THE DAILY PROGRAM To Distribute the Pupils' Time. The present scheme of grading schools requires a pupil to study several different subjects during the course of the school day. A pupil in the fifth grade, for instance, is required to study reading, arithmetic, geography, language, writ- ing, etc. Each of these subjects is placed in the course of study because it is believed to constitute a neces- sary part of the child's education. One of the func- tions of the daily program is to distribute the pupil's time and energy among the various subjects he is expected to study. It serves to prevent him from studying one or two subjects to the neglect of all the others. The program not only fixes approximately the amount of time to be given to the various subjects, but it sets the period for each at the time of day which is thought to be best suited to that particular kind of work. Those subjects which make the heaviest de- mands on the mental energies of the pupils of a given grade are placed at the time of day when the children are most vigorous. On the other hand, those subjects which require more physical activity and less mental effort are placed late in the day when the pupils are more or less fatigued from the day's work. 165 166 Rural School Management Again, a good program provides periods for study or seat work between recitations. Where there are several grades in the school, pupils usually spend not more than a fourth or a third of their time in recita- tions. What they do between these recitations is very important. A well-arranged program divides the pupils' time between study and recitation in such a way that the children may have an opportunity to prepare their lessons. For the smaller children who cannot study assigned lessons in books, some form of profitable seat work is provided. To Distribute the Teacher's Time. Another func- tion of the daily program is to distribute the teacher's time among the various classes. It serves to prevent the teacher from spending so much time with one or two classes that all the others are deprived of the amount of time they are entitled to receive. In a school where there are several grades of pupils, the teacher may be inclined to devote most of his time to the advanced classes. Where this happens, the pri- mary pupils — those in greatest need of the teacher's help — make little progress because of the lack of sufficient attention on the part of the teacher. Again, it sometimes happens that teachers use too much time in teaching their favorite subjects. As an instance, a teacher who was very fond of gram- mar spent a full hour in conducting a grammar recita- tion. As a result, some of the other classes had to be omitted for that day. A good program, then, if it is reasonably well followed, serves to give to each grade and to each class in the school the proportion of the teacher's time it ought to receive. An Aid to Discipline. A program arranged with a view to accomplishing the two purposes already named The Daily Program and Alternation 167 incidentally aids the teacher in maintaining order in the school. A great deal of the disorder in school results from the idleness of pupils during their study periods. When pupils have definitely assigned work for each study period to keep them profitably employed and interested, they are not likely to get into mischief. Summary. The main functions of the daily program are: (1) to enable the pupils to make the best use of their time by (a) fixing the amount of time to be devoted to each subject; (6) locating the periods for each subject at the time most favor- able for the kind of work to be done ; and (c) providing suitable work for the study periods. (2) To distribute the teacher's time fairly between (a) the different grades and (&) the different sub- jects to be taught. (3) Incidentally the program serves to pro- mote good order in the school. n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED Large Number of Classes. The usual method of classifying pupils into eight grades gives rise to serious difficulties in rural schools. In the first place it makes the number of classes too large for one teacher to handle properly. If a separate class is formed for each subject in each of the eight grades, there will be from thirty- five to forty classes, or even more in some cases. Since it is extremely important that the teacher have time to make preparation for teaching each class, some method of reducing the number of classes must be found. No teacher can make adequate preparation for teaching thirty-five or forty different classes daily. Short Recitation Periods. Another difficulty which grows out of the usual method of grading rural schools is the fact that the recitation periods are necessarily too short to be of much value to pupils. Allowing six hours for the length of the school day with thirty min- 168 Rural School Management utes deducted for intermissions, there are only three hundred and thirty minutes for actual class time. In a school where there are thirty-five or forty classes the average length of the recitation periods is less than ten minutes. If the period for some of the classes is made longer, the time for the others must be cor- respondingly shorter. This means that some of the recitation periods could not be more than five minutes in length — a period entirely too short to do justice to any class. Here, then, is another necessity for finding some method of reducing the number of classes. Small Classes. When separate classes are main- tained for each grade it sometimes happens that there are only one or two pupils in a class. A class of this size is too small to arouse much interest in the work. As a rule, neither the pupil nor the teacher is stimulated to put forth as much effort as is the case when the classes are fairly large. Furthermore, the larger classes afford a better opportunity for cooperation among pupils — a matter which is being strongly empha- sized in the best schools at present. It seems very de- sirable, therefore, to find some way, if possible, of eliminating the classes which are too small to arouse both teacher and pupils to do their best work. Summary. The chief difficulties encountered in trying to make a satisfactory program for a school having eight grades are : (1) the large number of classes; (2) the necessarily short recita- tion periods; and (3) in some instances, the small number of pupils in a class. m. HOW TO ARRANGE THE DAILY PROGRAM To insure to each subject in the course of study and to each class a proportionate share of time on the part of both pupils and teacher a daily program is needed. The Daily Program and Alternation 169 But in a school having eight grades a program which provides a separate class in each subject in each grade is wholly unsatisfactory. Our problem here, then, is to see how a program may be arranged that will re- duce the number of recitations per day, make longer periods possible, and increase the size of the classes. Two methods of accomplishing this end are in fairly common use : (1) forming classes without reference to grade lines in the school, and (2) alternation of grades and subjects. Classes without Reference to Grades. This method consists in forming a series of classes in each subject and permitting pupils to recite in the class best suited to their capacities. It is claimed, for instance, that in a school of eight grades there need not be more than five classes in reading, four in arithmetic, three in language, etc. The following scheme will show how a school may be organized on this plan. Reading. Form five classes — beginners, D, C, B, and A. Give beginners three daily periods, classes D and C two each, and classes B and A one each. Let each pupil recite in the class best suited to his ability. Arithmetic. Form four classes — D, C, B, and A. Give beginners some number work at a reading period during latter part of year. Distribute all other pupils among the four classes according to their ability to do the work. Daily recitations in classes D and C ; four periods per week in classes B and A. Language and Grammar. Form three classes — C, B, and A. Give beginners and second year pupils language work with read- ing. Three periods per week in each of the three classes. Spelling. Form two classes — B and A. Two periods per week each. Beginners and lower grade pupils spell in connection with reading. Geography. Form two classes — B and A. Daily recitations. Beginners and immature pupils do not Study this subject. History and Civics. Form one class for advanced pupils. 170 Rural School Management Give all other pupils history stories as supplementary work in geography and reading. Writing. Whole school, two periods per week. Music. Singing by entire school, two periods per week; also at opening exercises, close of school, etc. Drawing. In connection with other subjects. Agriculture, Manual Training, Domestic Science. Friday afternoon after recess in place of other classes held at that time on other days. * A plan of this sort undoubtedly has some com- mendable features. It reduces the number of classes, thereby giving longer periods for recitations and diminishing the amount of daily preparation on the part of the teacher. Another advantage claimed for it is that it attaches little or no importance to the strict grading of the school. There is serious doubt now as to the wisdom of trying to copy a city system of grading in a rural school. Some educators hold that it is better to let each pupil recite in those classes from which he can get the greatest amount of good. It is questionable whether the above scheme can be made to meet the demands of present-day education without unduly multiplying the number of classes. Nature study, handwork, and plays and games are believed to be as important in the training of pri- mary pupils as are reading, numbers, and language. Hence the program should make some definite pro- vision for these subjects. It is thought, also, that such subjects as agriculture, domestic science, manual training, and rural sociology should have a more prominent place in a rural school program than is accorded them in the plan just described. Alternation by Grades. " By the alternation of grades we mean the combining of the pupils of two grades into a single class. This class does the work out- The Daily Program and Alternation 171 lined in the course of study for one of the grades one year and that for the other grade the next year. To illustrate, suppose we combine the fifth and the sixth grades in geography. During the first year the two grades recite together in the work laid down in the course for, let us say, the fifth grade. The next year they take the work prescribed for the sixth grade. The following tables will help to make clear this method of organizing the entire school. TABLE I. OUTLINE OF First Grade 1. Reading (5) 2. Reading, phonics, word drills (5) 3. General Lessons : Study, Hygiene Studies (5) 4. Handwork, Games (5) Nature Social Stories Third Grade 1. Arithmetic (5) 2. Reading (5) 3. Language and Spelling (3) ; History and Social Studies (2) 4. Nature Study, Hygiene, Handwork (5) Fifth Grade 1. Reading (5) 2. Arithmetic (4) ; Manual Training and Sewing (1) 3. Geography (4) ; Agricultural Nature Study (1) 4. Language and Spelling (3) ; History (2) SUBJECTS BY GRADES Second Grade 1. Reading (5) 2. Reading (3), Numbers (2) 3. General Lessons: Nature Study, Hygiene, Social Studies (5) 4. Handwork, Games, Stories (5) Fourth Grade 1. Arithmetic (5) 2. Reading (5) 3. Language and Spelling (3) ; History and Social Studies (2) 4. Oral Geography, Hygiene, Handwork (5) -^ Sixth Grade 1. Reading (5) 2. Arithmetic (4) ; Manual Training and Sewing (1) 3. Geography (4) ; Agricultural Nature Study (1) 4. Language and Spelling (3) ; History (2) 172 Rural School Management Seventh Grade Eighth Grade 1. Literature (5) 1. Literature (5) 2. Arithmetic (3) ; Grammar 2. Arithmetic (3) ; Grammar (2) (2) 3. Geography (5) 3. Physiology (5) 4. History (5) 4. Civics and Rural Sociology (5) 5. Agriculture (3) ; Manual 5. Agriculture (3) ; Manual Training for boys and Do- Training for boys and Do- mestic Science for girls (2) mestic Science for girls (2) Table I contains a list of the subjects to be taught in each grade. The figures in parenthesis denote the number of recitations per week. In addition to the subjects named, all classes have work in music, writing, and drawing. It will be noted that if separate classes were formed for each grade, there would be at least thirty-five daily recitations, counting one period for the three subjects, music, drawing, and writing. The plan of alternation under consideration here groups all of the pupils into four classes — D, C, B, and A. Class D is composed, in the main, of first and second year pupils ; class C, of third and fourth year pupils, etc. The two grades in each class recite together in all of the subjects in which they can work together with profit. Tables II and III indicate the subjects in which the two grades in each class may be combined. TABLE n. CLASSES FORMED IN ODD-NUMBERED YEARS Class D (First and second year pupils) First Grade Second Grade 1. Readi ng (5) 1. Reading (5) 2. Reading, phonics, word drills 2 Reading (3) ; Numbers (2) (5) (Recite with first grade all other subjects) ' in The Daily Program and Alternation 173 3. General Lessons; Nature Study, Hygiene, Social Studies (5)' 4. Handwork, Stories, Games (5) Class C (Third and fourth year pupils) Third Grade 1. Arithmetic (5) 2. Reading (5) 3. Language and Spelling (3) ; History and Social Studies (2) 4. Nature Study, Hygiene, Handwork (5) Fourth Grade 1. Arithmetic (5) (Recite with third grade in all other subjects) Class B (Fifth and sixth year pupils) Fifth Grade 1. Reading (5) 2. Arithmetic (4) ; Manual Training and Sewing (1) 3. Geography (4) ; Agricultural Nature Study (1) 4. Language and Spelling (3) ; History (2) Sixth Grade (Recite with fifth grade in all subjects) Class A (Seventh and eighth year pupils) Seventh Grade 1. Literature (5) 2. Arithmetic (3) ; Grammar (2) 3. Geography (5) 4. History (5) 5. Agriculture (3) ; Manual Training for boys and Do- mestic Science for girls (2) Eighth Grade (Recite with seventh grade in all subjects) 174 Rural School Management TABLE III. CLASSES FORMED IN EVEN-NUMBERED YEARS Class D (First and second year pupils) First Grade Second Grade 1. Reading (5) 1. Reading (5) 2. Reading, phonics, word drills 2. Reading (3) ; Numbers (2) (5) 3. General Lessons; Nature (Recite with second grade in Study, Hygiene, Social all other subjects) Studies (5) 4. Handwork, Stories, Games (5) Class C (Third and fourth year pupils) Third Grade Fourth Grade 1. Arithmetic (5) 1. Arithmetic (5) (Recite with fourth grade in 2. Reading (5) all other subjects) 3. Language and Spelling (3) ; History and Social Studies (2) 4. Oral Geography, Hygiene, Handwork (5) Class B (Fifth and sixth year pupils) Fifth Grade Sixth Grade (Recite with sixth grade in all subjects) 1. Reading (5) 2. Arithmetic (4) ; Manual Training and Sewing (1) 3. Geography (4) ; Agricultural Nature Study (1) 4. Language and Spelling (3); History (2) The Daily Program and Alternation 175 Class A (Seventh and eighth year pupils) Seventh Grade Eighth Grade 1. Literature (5) (Recite with eighth grade in all 2. Arithmetic (3) ; Grammar subjects) (2) 3. Physiology (5) 4. Civics and Rural Sociology (5) 5. Agriculture (3) ; Manual Training for boys and Domestic Science for girls (2) From the above tables it is seen that in odd-numbered years classes are formed in the subjects in the odd-num- bered grades, while the subjects in the even-numbered grades, except two in the second and one in the fourth, are omitted. In even-numbered years the subjects in the even-numbered grades are taught, while those in the odd-numbered grades, with the exception of reading in the first and arithmetic in the third, are omitted. Counting one period daily for the three subjects, music, writing, and drawing, the total number of recitations, in either case, is twenty-one. The results of this method of alternating grades are that the number of classes is greatly reduced, the amount of work for the teacher to prepare correspond- ingly diminished, the recitation periods lengthened, and the size of the classes increased. Furthermore, a pupil may be classified in any subject according to his ability to do the work. If a pupil in class C, for instance, is found to be capable of doing more advanced work in reading or arithmetic, he can be assigned to a more advanced class in that subject. 176 Rural School Management Alternation by Subjects. Another feature of the plan of organization here presented is the fact that in some of the subjects the number of recitations is less than five per week. In class A, for instance, arith- metic has three and grammar two recitations per week. Similar alternations are found in nearly all of the classes. Where fewer than five recitations are indicated it means that the subject first mentioned has a certain number of periods, while the recitations in the second subject come at the same time on the remaining days in the week. The numbers are used to denote the relative amount of time each subject should receive. The alternating may be done by days, by weeks, or in any other manner so long as the plan makes careful provision to divide the time between the two subjects approximately in the ratio indicated. The reasons for some such method of alternating subjects are three: (1) There is at present a strong demand that the rural school shall give its pupils some training in nature study, agriculture, domestic science, and manual training. In order to get time for these newer lines of work we must give less time to some of the older subjects. (2) It is believed, too, that we have been teaching a great many things in connection with some of the older subjects, especially in arithme- tic, grammar, history, and geography, that are not of sufficient value to pupils to justify the amount of time we have been giving them. Hence, by omitting these unimportant matters fewer periods are needed to give pupils the necessary training in these subjects. (3) We have learned, also, that some subjects, such as formal language, spelling, writing, and drawing, can be taught effectively by being correlated ; that is, by The Daily Program and Alternation 177 being taught in connection with the other studies. Fewer recitation periods may, therefore, be devoted to these subjects without depriving the pupils of the training which they ought to receive along these lines. The alternation of subjects is therefore one method of providing time for the newer lines of work. It does this by giving fewer periods to some of the older studies. These fewer periods will afford ample time for the branches affected, provided: (1) that all topics which are of little or no value to pupils are omitted entirely, and (2) that certain other subjects which admit of this treatment are correlated with the other work of the school, thus giving them really more instead of less attention. The Daily Program. There are two factors which determine what the daily program for any given school shall contain. These are (1) the number of grades in the school, and (2) the subjects required by the adopted course of study. These factors vary with different schools. In some schools there are eight grades, in others only seven, while in still others there are but five or six. Again, the courses of study in use in different states or in- dividual schools vary somewhat in the subjects to be taught. Hence, it is impossible to give here a program that will meet exactly the conditions found in all schools. However, the following sample pro- grams are submitted for the helpful suggestions they may offer. In the state of New Jersey the program which is rec- ommended by the Department of Public Instruction for use in schools having one teacher and eight grades is as follows : 178 Rural School Management Begin Time Recitation Program 9 00 10 Opening Exercises — Singing 9 12 20 Class A — History or Civics (4) — Reading on Monday- 9 34 15 Class B — Geography (4) — Reading on Tues- day 9 51 10 Beginners — Reading and Oral Language (5) 10 03 10 Class D — Reading and Spelling (5) 10 15 10 Class C — Reading and Spelling (5) 10 27 15 Recess 10 45 10 Beginners — Reading and Number (5) 10 57 20 Class A — Arithmetic (4) — Spare Period (1) 11 19 15 Class B — Arithmetic (4) — Spare Period (1) 11 36 10 Class C — Arithmetic (5) 11 47 10 Class D — Arithmetic (5) 12 00 Dismissal Noon 1 00 5 Open School 1 05 20 Class A — Composition (2) — Grammar (1) Class B — Composition (2) 1 30 10 Beginners — Reading and Writing (5) 1 42 10 Class C — Reading (5) 1 54 10 Class D — Reading (5) 2 04 15 Class B — Technical English (1) Class C — Geography (4) 2 20 15 Recess 2 35 20 Class A — Reading (2) Class B — Reading (2) 2 57 20 All Classes — Penmanship (2) — 3 20 15 Written Spelling — Word Study (2) Class A — Oral Spelling — Word Study (2) Agriculture and Household Arts, Friday Class B — Oral Spelling — Word Study (2) 3 37 20 Class C — Language (3) All Classes — Hygiene (1) 4 00 Singing and Dismissal The Daily Program and Alternation 179 An excellent feature of this program is the fact that it provides free or " spare " periods for the teacher. These periods can be used in giving individual help to pupils or classes that are in need of special attention. It seems, however, that the primary pupils should re- ceive a larger share of the teacher's time than the program allots to them. Furthermore, there appears to be no provision for nature study, handwork, story- telling, and games — lines of work that are now deemed to be very important in the development and training of children. Several of the states have adopted a plan of alter- nating grades very similar to the one we have just pre- sented. In Missouri the state course of study con- tains the following suggested program of recitations for use in one-teacher schools : Begin Time Recitation Program 8:50 10 Opening Exercises and Music. All grades. 9:00 20 A Arithmetic 9:20 10 D Reading, Grade 1 9:30 10 D Reading, Grade 2 9:40 15 C Reading 9:55 15 B Reading 10:10 20 A Grammar 10:30 10 Recess 10:40 10 D Reading, Grade 1 10:50 10 D Reading and Spelling, Grade 2 11:00 12 C Arithmetic, Grade 3 11:12 13 C Arithmetic, Grade 4 11:25 15 B Arithmetic 11 : 40 20 A History and Government Noon 180 Rural School Management Begin Time Recitation Program 1:00 5 Music. All Grades 1:05 15 C Geography and Nature Study 1:20 15 D Reading, Number, and Nature Study 1:35 15 A Agriculture or Physiology 1:50 20 Writing or Drawing. All Grades 2:10 15 B Geography and History 2:25 10 Recess 2:35 15 C Reading, Language, and Spelling 2:50 15 A Geography 3:05 10 B Nature Study or Physiology 3:15 10 D Story Hour, Grade 1 3:25 10 D Story Hour, Grade 2 3:35 20 A Reading and Spelling 3:55 15 B Language and Spelling Two or three features of this program deserve special notice. It will be observed that the total number of recitations, exclusive of opening exercises and music, is twenty-four; that seven of these and the recess periods are only ten minutes in length; and that the period for agriculture is only fifteen minutes long. There are at least three ways in which the program may be improved in these respects : (1) By giving less time to arithmetic and grammar and, perhaps, to geography. Most educators hold that the importance of these subjects in everyday life does not justify our giving so much time to them. (2) By correlating language, spelling, writing, and drawing with the other studies. In this way more effective woi^k can be done in these subjects with fewer recitation periods than we usually give them. (3) By combining grades one and two in the story-hour period for the work ia stories, handwork, and games. The Daily Program and Alternation 181 Let us see, now, how these improvements may be em- bodied in the program. The following schedule of classes is based on the plan of alternation previously described in this chapter. The program for odd-numbered years includes the subjects listed in Table II, page 172. PROGRAM FOR ODD-NUMBERED YEARS Begin Time Recitation Program 8:50 10 Opening Exercises 9:00 20 A Literature (5) 9:20 15 D Reading, Grade 1 (5) 9:35 15 D Reading, Grade 2 (5) 9:50 15 C Reading (5) 10:05 15 B Reading (5) 10:20 15 Recess 10:35 20 A Arithmetic (3) ; Grammar (2) 10:55 10 D Reading, phonics (5), Grade 1 11:05 10 D Reading (3) ; Number (2), Grade 2 11 : 15 12 C Arithmetic (5), Grade 3 11:27 13 C Arithmetic (5), Grade 4 11:40 20 B Arithmetic (4) ; Manual Training (1) 12:00 60 Noon 1:00 20 A History (5) 1:20 15 D General Lessons (5) 1:35 15 C Language and Spelling (3) ; History and Social Studies (2) 1:50 15 B Language and Spelling (3) ; History (2) 2:05 15 Music (2) ; Writing (2) ; Drawing (1) 2:20 15 A Geography (5) 2:35 15 Recess 2:50 15 D Handwork, Stories, Games (5) 3:05 15 C Nature Study, Hygiene, Handwork (5) 3:20 15 B Geography (4) ; Agricultural Nature Study (1) 3:35 25 A Agriculture (3); Manual Training and Domestic Science (2) 182 Rural School Management Program for Even-numbered Years. The program for even-numbered years should contain the subjects enumerated in Table III on page 174. It will be noted that the subjects in this table differ from those in Table II in only three instances — oral geography, physiology, civics and rural sociology taking the places, respectively, of nature study in class C, geogra- phy in class A, and history in class A. To make the program for even-numbered years, then, all that is necessary is to make the following substitutions in the program for odd-numbered years: (1) Civics and rural sociology for history at 1 : 00. (2) Physiology for geography at 2 : 20. (3) Oral geography for nature study at 3 : 05. Comments on the Program. The general lessons period in class D is intended to cover the work in na- ture study, hygiene, and social studies as outlined in the course of study. Nature study should receive the greater share of the time here, especially during the seasons of the year when it is easy to get material for this work. During the midwinter season the time may be devoted more largely to the other lines of work. The work in nature study should not be dropped alto- gether, however, as there are some topics which may be studied with profit at this time of year. Spelling is placed in the same recitation period with language. This is done for two reasons : (1) Spelling, like capitalizing and punctuating, is primarily a phase of language teaching. (2) It is assumed that spelling will be correlated with all of the other subjects. Since pupils must spell in the preparation of all their written work, every written exercise is a spelling exercise. It is expected, however, that the teacher will use all or The Daily Program and Alternation 183 a part of the language period occasionally as a separate spelling period. Only one period a day is devoted to the three subjects, music, writing, and drawing. More time can and should be provided for music by using the opening ex- ercise period for that purpose on certain days in the week. The drawings and written work required in other subjects constitute the best practice exercises for pupils in drawing and writing. With a period or two a week for special instruction and help, and with constant attention to the writing and drawing pupils do in other subjects, fairly satisfactory results can be accompHshed. The program assumes that both boys and girls in class A will take the work in agriculture, the class re- citing three times per week. On the other two days the girls will have domestic science and the boys manual training. The nature of the work in these two sub- jects makes it possible for the teacher to conduct both classes at the same time. The Study Periods. Care should be taken to pro- vide profitable employment for each class during study periods. For the primary pupils this employment should consist largely of play and different forms of handwork. The play periods should be spent, as far as possible, out of doors. Added value can be given to these periods if it can be arranged for the larger pupils to take turns in teaching the children new games, and in otherwise assisting them in their play. In most of the subjects pupils should be encouraged to study the advanced lesson just after the recitation and again just before the next recitation in that sub- ject. The study period just after the recitation comes at a time when the pupil's interest in the subject is 184 Rural School Management keen and the assignment fresh in mind. The period just before the recitation gives an opportunity for review, thereby fixing the lesson more firmly in the mind of the pupil. The study periods in agriculture, manual training, and domestic science should be spent in performing experiments, making observations, or working on projects which were explained or started in the pre- vious recitation. REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Bagley : Classroom Management, Chapter IV. COLGROVE : The Teacher and the School, Chapter XII. Salisbury : School Management, Chapter X. 3tate Department of Education, Missouri : State Course of Study, pages 3-9. State Department of Education, New Jersey: The Making of School Programs. CLASS EXERCISES 1. State clearly all of the reasons you can think of why a school should have a definite daily program of recitations. 2. Compare the program given on page 179 with the one on page 181 as to total amount of time given to (1) primary pupils ; (2) advanced pupils. Which do you regard as the better? Why? 3. Point out any objections you can think of to the plan of alternating grades and subjects given on pages 173-177. 4. Do you consider the alternation of grades necessary in a school having only five or six grades? Why? 5. Construct a daily program for a school having eight grades and two teachers. 6. In connection with the "study" program, state the argu- ments for and against the practice of requiring all of the pupils of the same class to prepare the same lesson during the same study periods. CHAPTER IX THE COURSE OF STUDY I. FUNCTIONS OF A COURSE OF STUDY We learned in Chapter I that the special function of the school is to give children such training as will make them efficient members of society. In seeking to accomplish this end the teacher uses, as his chief means, a course of study which contains the subjects or material thought to be necessary to give the sort of training needed. The course of study, then, is a means of helping children to become better men and women than they could otherwise become. It does this in two ways. Psychological Needs. In the first place, the course of study supplies the material needed to enrich the lives and unfold the physical and mental powers of the pupils. This is important for the reason that proper growth and deyelopment during childhood is necessary before children can become the kind of men and women we wish them to be. The course of study, therefore, must make provision for the things children must do and learn in order to enjoy life and develop as they should. There are certain things which are necessary to the natural, healthy growth and devel- opment of children, and the course of study is to help them do these things better than they could do them if there were no school. To this end the course of study, 185 186 Rural School Management especially for the lower grades, should provide abun- dant opportunity for children to play, to work with their hands, to observe the things around them, to hear good stories, and to tell each other about things they are interested in. Plays and games, handwork, na- ture study, the activities of people, stories from history and children's literature, language, reading, writing, drawing, and numbers — all of these are demanded as means of helping the children do the things which are both enjoyable to them and necessary to their natural development. Social Needs. The second function of the course of study may well be called its social or sociological function. It pertains to the qualities or training which one needs to make him the best possible type of citizen. To be such a citizen one must be able to read, write, and make the arithmetical computations that arise in everyday business affairs; he must be physi- cally sound and know how to preserve his own health and that of his neighbors; he must be able to earn his own living; he ought to be familiar with the af- fairs of government in his community, in the state, and, to some extent, in the nation ; he ought to know something about the social conditions which prevail in his community and be willing to help make, or keep, them what they ought to be ; and, finally, he ought to be able to find enjoyment for his leisure hours in good literature, music, and art. To give to the pupil, as far as it can be done in an elementary school, the training that will develop these qualities is the social function of the course of study. Summary. The course of study is the group of subjects which the teacher uses as a means of helping children to become better men and women. It serves this purpose (1) by providing the The Course of Study 187 material necessary to develop the pupils and satisfy their needs in their present activities, and (2) by supplying the subjects best suited to give them the sort of training they need to make them good citizens. n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED Selecting the Subjects. In the earlier schools pupils were required to study only a few subjects, such as reading, writing, arithmetic, and spelling. When this was the case the making of a course of study was not particularly difficult because there was plenty of time for both teacher and pupils to do all that was re- quired of them. But we believe now that the old or traditional subjects do not supply all the training children need. Consequently, a great many new sub- jects have been added to the course, with the result that the curriculum has become crowded. It is prac- tically impossible to teach all that was formerly taught and all of the new subjects besides. Hence, it is neces- sary to select some subjects or parts of subjects and omit others. It is not always easy to decide just what ought to be included and what left out of the curriculum. We learned in the last section that the functions of the course of study are to supply the child's immediate needs for development and to train him for the best type of citizenship. It may be stated as a general rule, then, that the course of study should contain those subjects and topics, and only those, which con- tribute to one or both of these ends. When we apply this rule we find that we can very well omit some of the things which have heretofore been taught, par- ticularly in arithmetic, grammar, history, and geog- raphy. We find, also, that greater emphasis should 188 Rural School Management be placed on some of the other subjects, such as hy- giene, literature, music, and the appreciation of art; and that some new lines of work such as manual train- ing, agriculture, domestic science, and rural sociology, should be added to the curriculum. The outline which follows in the next section is an attempt to ar- range a course of study according to the requirements of this rule. Other Difficulties. After we have decided what sub- jects the course of study should contain, it is still neces- sary to determine (1) just where in the course, that is, in what grade, each subject should be placed, and (2) how long the study of each should continue, and how much time should be given to it. On both of these points practice differs somewhat. The plan of alter- nation discussed in the preceding chapter is one of the ways in which these difficulties may be satisfac- torily met. Summary. The most difficult problems which arise in making a course of study are: (1) what subjects to include and what subjects or parts of subjects to omit from the course; (2) where in the course to place the subjects selected; and (3) how to appor- tion the time among the various subjects. m. SUGGESTED OUTLINE FOR A COURSE OF STUDY In Section I we learned what purposes or functions the course of study ought to serve. We learned there that the material selected should be such as is really necessary (1) to satisfy the interests and supply the needs of growing, developing boys and girls, and (2) to equip them for the duties of efficient citizenship. In this section our problem is to try to arrange a course of study that will accomplish this twofold end. The outline which follows is intended to be merely a very The Course of Study 189 brief statement of the main lines of work that should be carried on in a rural school. Hence, few or no sug- gestions are offered as to methods of teaching the subjects named. CLASS D (First and Second Grades) Reading From the standpoint of the teacher the work in read- ing has two main purposes or aims : (1) to give pupils the ability to get the thought with ease from a printed page, and (2) to arouse and cultivate in them an in- terest in good literary material. Both of these aims should receive constant consideration throughout the course. But from the very nature of the case, the first demands the greater emphasis in the lower grades and un- til the mechanics of the subject are fairly well mastered. To this end there should be word drills, enough of phonics to enable pupils to pronounce new words with- out the aid of the teacher, and abundant practice in actual reading under the stimulus of a strong interest. From the standpoint of the pupil a reading lesson should be an exercise in getting and expressing thought. Word drills, phonics, and practice in reading are necessary means to this end. Since getting the thought is the thing of chief importance, it follows that the material selected should be both interesting to, and worth while for, children. First Grade, 1. Script : From blackboard, and charts made by the teacher. Material based on home and school experiences of children — ■ words and sentences growing out of conversations about pets, toys, playtMngs, pmes^ etc. 190 Rural School Management 2. Print: Reading from books. Material chiefly nursery rhymes and classic stories from folk literature. Several books should be read during the year. 3. Phonics: Sounds of consonants; long and short sounds of vowels ; practice in blending, such as wh, sh, fl ; building words with phonograms, such as an, ing, ed. Second Grade. 1. Reading: Continuation of work of first grade. Material selected largely from classic stories for children and choice easy poems. Encourage extensive reading. Provide single copies of several different kinds of first and second readers. Permit pupils to use these at seats and at home. 2. Phonics: Review work of first grade. Remaining vowel sounds. Practice in blending and word building from phonograms. Object: Not sounds for their own sake ; but as a means of enabling the pupil to pronounce the new words he encounters. Numbers A child's first knowledge of numbers is acquired in- cidentally, that is, in connection with his play or other activities where number facts naturally arise. The earliest instruction in this subject in school should follow, very largely, the same method. Children should learn number facts when such knowledge is needed to help them do the things they want to do. Such a need arises in connection with nearly all of the subjects studied in school. First Grade. No separate period for number work in this grade. Number facts taught incidentally in connection with plays and games, nature study, handwork, and stories, whenever such facts are needed in these lines of work. Second Grade. Continuation of the incidental teaching of numbers. Two periods per week devoted to exercises and drills along the following lines : The Course of Study 191 1. Counting and writing numbers to 100. 2. Learning simple addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division facts. 3. Measuring with pint, quart, gallon ; inch, foot, yard. 4. Making money transactions involving cent, nickel, dime. 5. Solving simple problems involving one operation. Nature Study Children are naturally interested in and want to find out about the things they see all around them. This natural tendency is the basis or starting point for the work in nature study. Children's interest in nature should be cultivated and directed in the ways that are most ^helpful to them. Some of the specific aims in the teaching of this subject are: (1) to give children a love for the things in nature that are the friends and helpers of man; (2) to give them an ap- preciation of the beauties of nature as revealed in fiowers, leaves, landscapes, the color and songs of birds, etc. ; (3) to give them some insight into the order and system and mutual dependence and help- fulness that exist in the world of nature ; (4) to arouse a spirit of inquiry and investigation, a desire to know more about their natural surroundings; and (5) to impart information that has a practical value. In the following outline the topics are arranged in regular order. In teaching the subject, however, it is not necessary to follow this order. Each topic should be studied at the time when the material for it is most easily obtained, or when there is some special reason why the children are more deeply interested in it. First Grade, (Alternate with second grade.) 1. Trees: o. Recognition of common varieties. 192 Rural School Management b. Uses — shade, fruit, fuel, lumber, etc. c. Two or three kinds studied as to size, branching, leaves, bark. 2. Cultivated plants : a. Recognition of a few varieties grown on farm and in garden. b. Uses — food for people, food for animals, clothing, etc. c. Germination of seeds and growth of plants in window boxes or sand table. d. Parts of a plant and their functions. 3. Flowers : a. Recognition of a few common wild flowers. b. Time of appearing, length of life, etc. 4. Domestic animals : Horse, cow, dog — uses, food, care of, etc. 5. Birds: a. Recognition of birds of the locality. 6. Two or three common birds studied as to food, nesting, song, how we should treat them and why. c. The kinds and number present in fall, iij winter, in spring. 6. Weather: a. Weather chart for one month in each season. b. Rain, frost, snow — value, and harmful effects. c. Wind — value and harmful effects. Second Grade. (Alternate with first grade.) 1. Trees : Studied as suggested for first grade, using different varieties. 2. Cultivated plants : Work similar to that suggested for first grade, selecting different varieties for study. 3. Weeds : Recognition of the more common varieties found on the farm and in the garden. 4. Flowers: Recognition of varieties not included in first year's work. 5. Domestic animals : Chickens, turkeys, ducks — their uses to man, their food, care they should have, etc. 6. Birds : Studied as suggested for first grade. 7. Wild animals : Rabbit, squirrel, etc. 8. Weather : As suggested for first grade. Hygiene The very great importance of good health and physical vigor demands that children shall be trained The Course of Study 193 very early in matters of hygiene. In the lower grades the primary purpose of the teacher should be to get pupils to put into practice and make habitual those rules of right living which are essential to good health. Since some of the pupils probably come from homes in which these rules are not known or observed, a secondary purpose is to impart health instruction through the children to other members of the family. First Grade. (Alternate with second grade.) 1. Posture : Teach, and have pupils put into practice, correct postures in sitting, in standing, in work and exercise. 2. Cleanliness: Bathing and care of the skin; importance of clean hands and clean clothing; cleanliness in connection with food and eating. 3. Food : Why we eat ; kinds of food best for children ; regu- larity in eating ; rules for eating. Second Grade. (Alternate with first grade.) 1. Fresh air: Purpose; importance of fresh air in the home and schoolroom; breathing habits; importance of working and playing in the open air. 2. Sleep : Why needed ; amount needed by children ; im- portance of regularity in sleeping; changes of clothing on retir- ing ; fresh air in the sleeping room. 3. Clothing: Comparison of winter and summer clothing; effects of exposure, wet feet, etc. Social Studies By the time children are old enough to enter school their social instinct is fairly strong. They want to play and work together and are interested in the ac- tivities of other people. The social studies in the lower grades are intended primarily to guide this in- terest of children in such a way as to give them some insight into, and practice in, the essentials of group life. Sympathy, mutual helpfulness, cooperation and 194 Rural School Management division of labor are some of the lessons to be learned and put into practice by the children. First Grade. (Alternate with second grade.) 1. Training in cooperation, helpfulness and division of labor through : a. Plays and games. b. Handwork projects. c. Preparing for some special school event, such as a Hal- lowe'en party. 2. Home life of children at present : The family as a form of group life — its members, what each does, the needs of the family, pleasures in the home, government. Second Grade. (Alternate with first, grade.) 1. Social training as suggested for first year. 2. Primitive home life : The Indian family — how the needs of food, clothing, and shelter are provided for. The share of each member of the family in (1) making the home, (2) providing clothing, (3) procuring and preparing food. Handwork Two types of handwork should be recognized. (1) The making of the things children want for their own use, for the school, or to give to other people. This type of work is regarded as highly educative both in- tellectually and socially. Hence it should have an important place in the school. (2) Handwork in connection with other subjects. Making booklets in nature study; constructing and furnishing a doll's house or an Indian wigwam in social studies; draw- ing, paper folding or cutting, and modeling with clay in connection with reading and stories — these are a few illustrations of this type of handwork. Oppor- tunities for such work are abundant in nearly all of the subjects the pupils study. Since children are par- ticularly fond of working with their hands, they usually The Course of Study 195 become deeply interested in any topic that affords an opportunity for such activity. In general, the handwork should be done as " seat " work between recitations. However, a recitation pe- riod should be used as often as is necessary to get the children started on their projects or to help them over- come their difficulties. Plays and Games The play instinct is one of the most deep-seated in- terests of children. An abundance of play activity is known to be essential to the health and the physical and mental development of children. Hence, the school should make ample provision for the exercise of this tendency. The recess and noon intermissions should be used, whenever possible, for outdoor plays and games. In addition, provision should be made for the smaller children to play as a part of their school work. Among the very great variety of activities that are suitable for indoor use the following may be mentioned : 1. Singing games. 2. Circle games. 3. Simple contests, such as bean bag, ring toss, etc. 4. Imitation plays, such as keeping house, store, etc. Stories The telling of stories may be made one of the most valuable of all school exercises for small children. Little folks love good stories and, through hearing and reading them, their lives are enriched and ennobled. Any child who does not have an opportunity to im- bibe the best there is in children's literature is de- prived of one of the naost precious rights of childhood. 196 Rural School Management t By all means, then, the school program should make provision for the telling, reading, and dramatization of stories. The material for this work should be selected from the best fairy tales, fables, legends, myths, Bible stories, and nature stories. No attempt is made here to name the stories best suited for children, but the teacher is referred to the following books for suggestions : Andersen : Fairy Tales and Stories. Bailey : For the Story Teller. Bryant : How to Tell Stories to Children. Stories to Tell to Children. Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh : List of Good Stories to Tell to Children under Twelve Years of Age. McMuRRY : Special Methods in Reading. CLASS C (Third and Fourth Grades) " Reading Third Grade. (Alternate with fourth grade.) 1. Continue drills in phonics and pronunciation with a view to giving pupils such a mastery as will enable them to grasp the essential thought of the selection. Emphasize silent reading. 2. Read a selected half of the lessons in the third reader text. 3. Selections from Stevenson's "Child's Garden of Verse." Poems appropriate to the seasons, holidays, and celebrations. 4. Stories and other selections from the school library, for seat and home reading. Frequent reading of a selection by one pupil to the class as an audience. Fourth Grade. (Alternate with third grade.) 1. All of the lessons in the third reader text not read during the third year. 2. Additional material for class use: "The Child's Garden of Verse," Kipling's "Jungle Books," "Alice in Wonderland," " Pinocchio," " The Nuremberg Stove." 3. Library material as suggested for third year. The Course of Study 197 Arithmetic The function which arithmetic performs outside of school should determine the chief purpose in teaching the subject in school, particularly in the elementary grades. Clearly this function is to enable people to make the number computations which arise in the affairs of everyday life. In order to make these com- putations most efficiently, three things are essential : (1) absolute accuracy in the fundamental processes, including integers, common fractions, and decimal fractions; (2) reasonable rapidity; and (3) ability to apply these processes in the solution of those types of problems most commonly met with in home and ordinary business life. These, then, are the aims which should determine both the selection of the material and the method of instruction in this subject. Third Grade. Pupils in this class will have some knowledge of numbers gained through play, handwork, nature study, and the formal work of the second grade. This knowledge should be extended along the following lines: 1. Reading and writing numbers not to exceed 1000. 2. Number combinations and tables. 3. Simple problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplica- tion, and division. 4. Such simple fractions as arise in connection with games, handwork, measurements, etc. Fourth Grade. By the end of this year pupils should be able to : 1. Read and write numbers as large as may be needed. 2. Add and subtract numbers as large as are usually met with in the home or in ordinary business. 3. Multiply with three-figure numbers, divide with two-figure numbers. 198 Rural School Management 4. Add and subtract U. S. money; compute cost with such common units of measure as pounds, tons, bushels, etc. ; measure length or distance in inches, feet, and yards ; handle simple frac- tions as needed in solving concrete problems. 5. Solve practical problems involving two operations. Any good text may be used as a guide, but it should be abundantly supplemented with material drawn from the home, the farm, and other subjects in school. Language and Spelling The foremost aim in formal language teaching is the formation of habits of correct oral and written expression. To this end, every lesson in which the pupil uses oral or written language to express his thoughts should be an exercise in the use of correct forms. Hence, the necessity for correlating the language work with all the other work of the school. Since the only need for spelling arises in connection with written discourse, the material for this aspect of- language training should be selected with a view to mastering those words which are in most common use in practical life. One period a week, or more if needed, may be devoted to drills on words selected from pupils' written exercises and from Ayres' " Thou- sand Commonest Words in English Writing." Third Grade. (Alternate with fourth grade.) 1. Oral language : Reproduction of stories read by pupils and of incidents from the pupil's own experience ; constant attention to irregular verbs and personal pronouns in common use. 2. Written language : Composition — brief exercises upon subjects treated in other lines of work; development of simple outline. Letter-writing — letter to a friend. Paragraphing — treated in an elementary manner. Comma after words used in series. Correct use of to, too, two; there, their; no, know; here, hear; meet, meat. The Course of Study 199 Fourth Grade. (Alternate with third grade.) 1. Oral language: Continuation of work outlined for third year. 2. Written language : Composition — children assist in making outline. Paragraphing — indentation, margin. Use of quotation marks and period after abbreviations. Use of capitals in titles and poetry. History Stories History teaching in the lower grades should aim definitely to give pupils those ideals that make for nobility of character. These ideals are best gained through an intimate contact with the lives of the best men and v/omen of our own and other times. This aim demands that the course in history for the lower grades shall consist of biographies — of stories of in- teresting events and noble deeds in the lives of prom- inent people. Third Grade. (Alternate with fourth grade.) 1. Stories in connection with holidays and the anniversaries of important events — Thanksgiving, Columbus Day, Washing- ton's Birthday, etc. 2. Greek and Roman stories, such as the story of Ulysses, of Alexander, of Horatius. 3. Bible stories, such as the story of Moses, of Joseph, of David. 4. Stories from the lives of noted people who have figured in American history; such as Columbus, Washington, Lincoln, Frances Willard, Clara Barton, and as many others as there is time for. Fourth Grade. (Alternate with third grade.) 1. Story work in connection with holidays and anniversaries, as suggested for third year. 2. Interesting stories of some of the most important American explorers and early settlers. 3. Stories of a few American statesmen and leaders. 200 Rural School Management Social Studies Third Grade. (Alternate with fourth grade.) 1. Continuation of social training through various school ac- tivities, as suggested for preceding grades. 2. The neighborhood as a form of group life. a. How composed. b. Location of the school, the church, and any other public places. c. Instances of, and opportunities for, cooperation. d. Special services needed — the need for a doctor, a black- smith, a carpenter, a mail carrier, a teacher, etc. The service rendered by each and what he receives in return. Fourth Grade. (Alternate with third grade.) 1. Continuation of social training through school activities. 2. The school as a form of group life. a. How composed — teacher, pupils, janitor. What each does, how each can help the other, etc. b. Government — why necessary, how administered, etc. Nature Study (Alternate with Oral Geography) The work for this year necessarily includes many of the topics studied during previous years. But third year pupils are able to learn more about the topics than are pupils in the lower grades. The following outline is suggestive of the work that should be covered during the year, each topic being studied at the time best suited for such study. 1. Plant Life. a. Seeds : Functions, how protected, how disseminated, com- parative number in different plants, observations on germina- tion, collection of various kinds. b. Leaves: Functions, kinds, coloring at different seasons, recognition of several varieties. The Course of Study 201 c. Flowers : Principal wild and cultivated varieties, parts, the flower garden, flower exhibit. d. Vegetables : The vegetable garden — preparation of soil, varieties to plant, cultivation, vegetable exhibit. 2. Animal Life. a. Birds : Appearance, habits, beneficial and injurious species. h. Insects: Life history, beneficial and injurious insects. Special study of house fly, mosquito, bumblebee. 3. Seasonal Changes : Effects on animal and plant life, prepara- tion for winter, renewal of life in spring, etc. Oral Geography (Alternate with Nature Study) The primary purpose of the first work in geography is to lay the foundation needed for later study. This preparation should start with simple concrete facts pertaining to the child's own environment, give him the means of acquiring further knowledge, and acquaint him, in a general way, with the field to be covered. 1. Local geography : Local surface features, atmosphere, local industries, commerce and trade, means of communication. 2. Map interpretation and map making. 3. The earth as a whole. a. Size, shape, distribution of land and water. b. Brief study of all of the continents and principal countries. Hygiene Third Grade. (Alternate with fourth grade.) 1. Pure air : Ventilation of schoolroom, bedroom, sitting room. 2. Care of teeth, eyes, ears, and nails. 3. Effects of tobacco, cigarette smoking, alcohol. Fourth Grade. (Alternate with third grade.) 1. Pure water: Sources of water supply, how contaminated, drinking cups, etc. 2. Disposal of sewage and garbage at school and at home. 202 Rural School Management 3. Safeguards against epidemics : Duty of each person, quaran- tine law, public health officer. 4. Tuberculosis : Cause, prevention, treatment — care of patient, protection of other people. CLASS B (Fifth and Sixth Grades) Reading By the time pupils reach this grade they should have acquired considerable ability in getting the thought from a printed page. Where this process has not been mastered, it should continue to receive the attention of the teacher. The primary aim here, how- ever, is to cultivate a taste for good literature. Hence the importance of selecting reading material which has genuine literary value. Fifth Grade. (Alternate with sixth grade.) 1. A selected half of the lessons in a standard fourth reader text. 2. Such of the following as time will permit : " The Story of Robin Hood " ; " Lobo, I^ag, and Vixen " ; " Pied Piper of Hame- lin" ; " King Arthur and His Knights" ; " Hiawatha." 3. Standard literature selected from the school library, to be read at home. Sixth Grade. (Alternate with fifth grade.) 1. The remaining lessons in the fourth reader text. 2. Selections from Hawthorne's "Wonder Book," Ruskin's "King of the Golden River." 3. Other literature drawn from the library, for home reading. Arithmetic Fifth Grade. (Alternate with sixth grade.) 1. Review of fundamental processes. 2. Careful study of fractions, 3. Denominate numbers and practical measurements. The Course of Study 203 Sixth Grade. (Alternate with fifth grade.) 1. Review of fundamental processes. 2. Decimals. 3. Percentage. Geography Beginning with the fifth year and extending through- out the course, two main ideas underhe the work in geography : (1) where those activities are carried on through which human wants are satisfied, and (2) why these activities are found in certain places. The important industries, therefore, and the physiographic and chmatic conditions which influence them, are the points to be emphasized in the teaching of this subject. The study of mountains, rivers, capes, bays, etc., is important only when a knowledge of these is necessary to a better understanding of the activities of people. The general plan of a good text should be followed, but much of the textbook material should be omitted and supplementary material dealing with industries, travel, and commerce substituted therefor. Fifth Grade. (Alternate with sixth grade.) 1. North America: Brief general survey. Omit all unimpor- tant places and features. 2. United States : Physical regions and features. 3. State groups: Leading industries and commercial centers and the physiographic and climatic conditions affecting same, in each group. Type study of each of the following in connection with the group of states in which it is the most important industry : a. Wheat growing and flour milling. h. Corn raising. c. The cotton industry. d. Coal mining. e. Lumbering. 4. Alaska, Canada, Mexico: Physical features, climate, re- sources, industries. 204 Rural School Management Sixth Grade. (Alternate with fifth grade.) 1. Europe : Brief general survey. 2. Important European countries : Physical features, climate, industries, commercial centers, and routes. 3. South America : General features, main countries, important industries. Special study of coffee industry. 4. Asia: General description, countries, people, products. The tea industry. 5. Africa: Brief general survey. Rubber and diamond in- dustries. 6. Australia and Oceania: Position and influence, physical features, climate, occupations, importance to other countries. Agricultural Nature Study Fifth Grade. (Alternate with sixth grade.) 1. Plant structure : Roots, stem, leaves, flower. 2. Plant physiology : Food, growth, propagation — germina- tion, budding, cutting, grafting. Sixth Grade. (Alternate with fifth grade.) 1. Plant enemies : Weeds, insects, diseases. 2. Fruit growing: Varieties adapted to locality, planting and care of trees, enemies, harvesting and marketing the fruit. Language and Spelling Fifth Grade. (Alternate with sixth grade.) Composition — as in class C. Description and narration. Children make outline to write from. Study and memorize selected poems. Letter writing — business letters. Pupils write for bulletins, folders, etc., for use in other subjects. Paragraphing. Essentials of punctuation completed and reviewed. Formation of plurals and possessives. Sixth Grade. (Alternate with fifth grade.) Composition, memorizing poetry, letter writing, making out- lines continued. Use of negatives. Abbreviations. The sen- tence — subject and predicate. The Course of Study 205 History The material outlined for the preceding grades is wholly biographical in character. Beginning with this class a more connected account of our country's history should be given. The general plan of a good elementary text may be followed. Fijth Grade. (Alternate with sixth grade.) From the Period of Discovery to the formation of the New Republic, inclusive. This should be a brief elementary survey, omitting all persons and events which are of only minor im- portance. Sixth Grade. (Alternate with fifth grade.) From the organization of the hew government to the present time. Manual Training While manual training undoubtedly has other values quite as important, clearly the foremost purpose of teaching the subject in a rural school is the practical one of giving pupils some skill in the making of things needed in the home or on the farm. Skill in the use of tools is best acquired when the pupil is deeply in- terested in making some article which he regards as valuable. Hence the importance of selecting for the bench work those articles which serve a real need in the school, on the playground, in the home, or on the farm. The list necessarily varies with local condi- tions, but the following are suggestive of what may be selected : Fifth Grade. (Alternate with sixth grade.) Pencil sharpener, plant label, match scratcher, game board or counting board, nail boxes, bird houses, boxes for window garden, etc. 206 Rural School Management Sixth Grade. (Alternate with fifth grade.) Bill file, ringtoss, bread board, plant marker, hatrack, swing board, etc. Sewing The primary purpose of sewing in the school, like that of manual training, is to give pupils some practi- cal skill in making things needed in the home either for themselves or for other members of the family. The following points should be emphasized in all of the work done in this subject : 1. The making of things of use in the home or school that require the different kinds of stitches. 2. Mending — articles to be brought from the homes. 3. Instruction in position, materials needed, etc. 4. Neatness in all the work done. 5. Care of garments. CLASS A (Seventh and Eighth Grades) Literature Seventh Grade. (Alternate with eighth grade.) 1. Literary classics, such as "Enoch Arden," "Legend of Sleepy Hollow," "Miles Standish," "Rip Van Winkle," "Christ- mas Carol," "Vision of Sir Launfal," etc, 2. Shorter poems, such as "The Daffodils," "The Heritage," "The Day Is Done," "An Autumn Festival," " Snowflakes," "Recessional," etc. 3. Standard books for individual reading, such as "Grand- father's Chair," "Red Rover," "The Spy," "Deerslayer," "Boys of '76," "Treasure Island," "Being a Boy," etc. Eighth Grade. (Alternate with seventh grade.) 1. Such classics as "Evangeline," "Snowbound," "Tales from Shakespeare, "."Sohrab. and Rustum," "The, Man without a Country," etc. The Course of Study 207 2. Short poems, such as "Autumn Woods," "To a Water- fowl," "The Snowstorm," "Spring Has Come," "Old Ironsides," "The Chambered Nautilus," "Building the Ship," "The Vaga- bonds," "Midwinter," etc. 3. Other standard literature from library, for individual reading. Arithmetic Seventh Grade. (Alternate with eighth grade.) 1. Review of fundamental operations, fractions, decimals. 2. The more important applications of percentage, such as : a. Interest — one method only. h. Insurance — farm, hail, automobile. c. Stocks — in connection with local stock companies, such as creamery, telephone, elevator, etc. d. Bonds — school district, municipal, state. e. Taxes — in connection with the study of civics. Eighth Grade. (Alternate with seventh grade.) 1. Practical measurements and mensuration. 2. Practical problems pertaining to farm and home accounts. Correlate with agriculture and domestic science. Grammar The main purpose of the study of this subject is to put pupils in possession of those principles of technical grammar most needed as a standard in determining the correctness of their own language. The work is stripped of all technicalities and fine distinctions not essential to this end. Seventh Grade. (Alternate with eighth grade.) The Sentence. 1. Kinds — as to use ; as to structure. 2. Parts. a. Subject — bare, complete; simple, compound; modifiers. b. Predicate — bare, complete ; simple, compound ; modifiers. c. Complements — attribute, objective. 208 Rural School Management 3. Phrases and clauses — as to use ; as to structure. 4. Practice in sentence analysis. Eighth Grade. (Alternate with seventh grade.) Parts of Speech. 1. Noun. a. Kinds — common and proper. 6. Gender, number, and case forms. 2. Pronoun. a. Kinds — personal, interrogative, relative. h. Antecedent. c. Gender, number, and case forms. 3. Adjective — comparison. 4. Verb. a. Kinds — transitive, intransitive ; regular, irregular. 6. Person and number forms. c. Voice — active and passive. d. Mood — indicative and imperative. e. Tenses — all of the six. /. Infinitives and participles. 5. Adverb. 6. Preposition. 7. Conjunction. 8. Interjection. Geography (Alternate with Physiology) 1. Principles of geography. a. Form, size, and movements of the earth. 6. Latitude and longitude and standard time. c. Distribution of temperature and rainfall; winds, zones, ocean currents. 2. The pupil's home state, the United States, and a few of the im- portant foreign countries, studied according to the following outline : a. Location. h. Physical features or regions. c. Climatic conditions — wind, temperature, rainfall. d. Industry as determined by physiographic and climatic conditions. e. Commercial centers — reasons for location, principal articles of commerce. The Course of Study 209 /. Transportation routes — water, railroad; articles trans- ported each way. g. Exports — what, where to. h. Imports — what, where from. i. Agencies for promoting and regulating commerce. Physiology (Alternate with Geography) In the lower grades children are taught the im- portant health rules with a view to putting them into immediate practice. In this final course the aim is to give such instruction in the structure and functions of the organs of the body and in bacteriology as will explain the reasons for the rules put into practice. Any good recent text in hygiene may be used as a guide, but it should be supplemented with assigned readings from other texts, health bulletins, etc. History (Alternate with Civics and Rural Sociology) The final year's work in history may well follow the general plan of any good recent text. If the text used contains more material than can be covered in the allotted time, the omissions should be made in con- nection with the following topics : 1. Explorations : Omit all but a few of the more important. 2. Colonies : Study Virginia, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and New York only. 3. Intercolonial wars: Omit everything not essential to an understanding of the outcome — English supremacy on the continent. 4. All other wars: Omit all unimportant campaigns and battles. 5. Political parties: Omit all except Federal, Democratic, Whig, and Republican. 210 Rural School Management Civics In the half year devoted to the study of this subject the work is directed toward giving pupils a knowledge of those phases of government most essential to the intelligent performance of the more important duties of citizenship. The material selected for study con- sists of those problems of government which are of common concern to the community and in which the pupil will have acquired some interest through his home environment. The following topics are sug- gested. The best time to study each is when it is in the focus of public attention. 1. Elections. 5. Land transfers and titles. 2. Taxation. 6. The settlement of estates. 3. How a suspected criminal is 7. How state laws are made. dealt with. 8. The good roads problem. 4. Public health. 9. Public charity — care of the poor, insane, etc. Rural Sociology The new conception of the mission of the rural school regards it as an agency for social betterment in the community in which it is located. To the end that pupils may know what conditions prevail, in general, and how some of these conditions may be improved, an elementary study of some of the more important local problems is undertaken. In the half year de- voted to this study the following topics are among those considered : 1. The country home: Present conditions; possible improve- ments as to conveniences, sanitation, attractiveness, sources of pleasure, etc. 2. The country school: Present status, mission, improve- ments in building, grounds, equipment, consolidation. The Course of Study 211 3. The country church. 4. The rural labor problem : Conditions which give rise to the problem, social results, remedies. 5. Social recreations: Present means, the school as a social center, community centers. 6. Country life organizations : The Grange, farmers' clubs, etc. Agriculture Seventh Grade. (Alternate with eighth grade.) 1. Soils: Origin, composition, kinds, texture, soil water, soil improvement. 2. Farm crops: Cereals, grasses, legumes. a. Culture: Preparation of soil, selecting and testing seed, planting, cultivation. 6. Marketing. Eighth Grade. (Alternate with seventh grade.) 1. Farm animals : Horses, hogs, cattle, sheep. a. Types and breeds. b. Feeding and care of. 2. Farm management : a. Kinds of farming — diversified, specialized ; intensive, ex- tensive. b. Farm buildings — barns, granaries, silos, etc. c. Farm machinery. d. Farm accounts. Domestic Science Seventh Grade. (Alternate with eighth grade.) 1. Sewing : Use of sewing machine ; cutting and fitting simple garments ; taste and economy in dress. 2. Elementary study of textiles : Cotton, linen, woolen, and silk. 3. Home furnishing and decoration. Eighth Grade. (Alternate with seventh grade.) 1. Cooking. a. Utensils and their uses. b. Preparation of dishes for warm school lunch. c. The. cooking of cereals, eggs, vegetables, meats. 212 Rural School Management d. Breadmaking, cakes, and pastry. e. Canning — fruits and vegetables. • /. Setting table and serving. 2. Household accounts. Manual Training The projects for the bench work should be selected in accordance with the interests and needs of the pu- pils. Hence, no fixed list of articles can be prescribed. The following list is suggestive only : 1 . For use at the school. Playground equipment. Ventilating boards for windows. Cupboard for school cooking utensils. Cabinet for individual drinking cups. Shelf for school window garden. Plant stand, and boxes for plants. Frames for wall pictures. Bird houses, plant markers. 2. For use in the homes. Post card box. Teapot stand. Photo shelf. Broom holder. Coat hanger. Sleeve board. Hatrack. Bookrack. Glove box. Footstool. 3. For play and sport. Sled. Game board. Box trap. . Windmill, etc. Music, Drawing, Writing (In All Classes) Music. It is admitted that adequate instruction in music requires a closer gradation of material and a larger share of time than are possible under conditions which prevail in a rural school. The daily program (page 181) provides two periods a week for instruction The Course of Study 213 in this subject. Such use of this time should be made as will contribute most to the attainment of the fol- lowing ends : (1) ability to read simple four part music, (2) familiarity with and ability to sing several good songs, (3) an appreciation of the best vocal and in- strumental music. In connection with the latter the talking machine offers opportunities not heretofore possible. Drawing. The work in this subject is, in a large measure, correlated with the content subjects of the course of study. Two periods a week may be devoted to formal instruction in drawing. The ideals which dominate the work are : (1) an elementary knowledge of the materials and principles of drawing, (2) ability to sketch fairly accurately and rapidly with pencil or brush, and (3) an appreciation of the best productions of the great artists. Writing. (1) To be able to write a fairly neat, legible hand with reasonable speed, and (2) to use this ability on all occasions where the pupil communicates his thoughts in writing — these are the ends to be at- tained. Therefore every written exercise in the school should be an exercise in writing until the de- sired hand has become habitual. One formal writing period per week should be used (1 ) to give instruc- tion as to position, movement, manner of holding pen or pencil, and (2) to practice on those forms which pupils find most difficult. REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Betts and Hall: Better Rural Schools, Chapters III-VI. Carney : Country Life and the Country School, pp. 239-246. COLGROVE : The Teacher and the School, Chapter IX. CuBBERLEY : Rural Life and Education, Chapter XI. CHAPTER X SCHOOL ATTENDANCE I. IMPORTANCE OF REGULARITY OF ATTENDANCE We have already learned that the special function of the school is to educate the children of the com- munity. This function the school cannot perform unless the children attend it. Hence, regularity of attendance on the part of all the pupils is essential to the highest success of the school. How this may be accomplished is one of the most important problems in school management. Civic Importance. Regularity of attendance is of the utmost importance, first, in order that the children may get the training for citizenship which the state expects them to have. From the standpoint of the state, public schools are maintained primarily to make better citizens out of the children than they would otherwise become. It is a well-known fact that chil- dren who do not attend the schools do not, as a rule, become the leading citizens, or even the best tjrpe of people, in any community. There are, of course, oc- casional exceptions to this rule, but in general it is true. It is held now that the duties of citizenship demand an education equivalent, at the very least, to gradu- ation from the eighth grade. The following facts serve to illustrate in a forcible way the significance of non- attendance in relation to preparation for civic life. The rural school inspector in one state found (1913) that the graduations from the eighth grade in the rural 214 School Attendance 215 schools of his state represented only seven per cent of the boys and twelve per cent of the girls who enrolled in the first grade eight years previous. He found also that the average number of days attended by each pupil (1913) was eighty-four — approximately half of the days the schools were in session. Some allowance must be made, of course, for those who may have at- tended parochial or other private schools. But even then it is perfectly clear that non-attendance was, in this case, very largely responsible for the failure of a large number of boys and girls to complete an elemen- tary course of eight grades. Now these boys and girls will constitute a considerable portion of the citizens of that state in the next generation. Here, then, will be a large number of men and women charged with the responsibilities and surrounded with the op- portunities of life, and they will not have an education equivalent to graduation from the eighth grade of a rural school. Such people are not only not trained for service and leadership, they are, in many cases, handi- capped in the struggle for making a living and are de- prived of those means of enjoying the higher things of life which it is one of the functions of education to impart. This is the price which society in general and these boys and girls themselves will have to pay for non-attendance at school. The conditions just described may be, and no doubt are, worse than they are in a great many other states. Yet it is well known that non-attendance is greater in rural schools than it is in city schools. In so far as this is true it means that country children are either missing their opportunity, or are being deprived of their right, to get the training which is necessary for enjoyment and good citizenship in. later life. 216 Rural School Management Economic Importance. The problem of school at- tendance is important, in the second place, because of its economic aspect. By the economic aspect we mean the relation of the returns or value received to the cost of maintaining the schools. It is a well-established principle among business men that that enterprise is best managed which yields the largest returns in proportion to the cost of operation. Let us examine the problem of school attendance in the light of this principle. The chief items of expense in maintaining a school are the teacher's salary, the janitor's wages, and the cost of fuel. These expenses are the same whether all or only a few of the children in the district attend the school. There is no reduction in the cost of operating the school when some of the children are absent. In other words, the district pays for the education of all the children of the school. But when some of the children are absent and are, therefore, receiving no benefit from the school, the taxpayers lose their school funds in proportion to the number of children who are out of school. A few concrete illustrations will help to make this matter clear. In one district in which there were twenty-five pupils enumerated, only two attended the school during the first month of the term. In another district twenty-four pupils were enumerated, and only four attended the first six weeks of school. In still another district there were forty-five children, with twenty-two in attendance. In fifteen districts of a certain county there were three hundred and thirty- two children of school age, with only one hundred and sixty-one actually attending the school. In these fifteen districts the teachers and janitors drew their School Attendance 217 regular salaries, and the school buildings were heated and kept in repair. But the number of children who were benefited by these expenses was only fifty per cent of what it should have been. Thus the commu- nity received only half the value from the school that it would have received had all of the children been in attendance. Some of the instances just given are, of course, ex- treme cases. The facts were collected at a time when many of the children were out of school to help with the farm work. Nevertheless, the facts reveal con- ditions which, in the main, are typical of rural schools in many sections of the country. Statistics show that the average daily attendance in the public schools of the United States, including rural, village, and town schools, is less than seventy-five per cent of the num- ber enrolled. When due allowance is made for the better attendance in village and town schools and for the number of children who ought to be in school but do not even enroll, certainly conditions in rural schools as a whole are not very much better than they are in the county just cited. This phase of school attendance constitutes a part of the basis for the charge that the public schools in- volve the largest economic waste of any enterprise in the country. Certainly no private industry could be successfully conducted on the same business principle. Since there is no practicable method of adjusting the expenses of running the school to the number of pupils in actual attendance, the only way to get larger returns on the money expended is to bring about a better school attendance. Some means of attaining this end are discussed in a later section of the chapter. 218 Rural School Management Pedagogical Importance. By the pedagogical sig- nificance of attendance is meant its effects on the school work of both individual pupils and the school as a whole. Non-attendance has been found by teach- ers everywhere to be one of the most serious hin- drances to the teaching work of the school. If a pupil is out of school very much, he falls behind in his work and one of three things must follow : (1) He will fail of promotion at the end of the term, or (2) he will drop out of school permanently, or (3) the teacher will have to give him extra time and special help to make up the work missed. Non-attendance is one of the most common causes of failure of promotion. If a pupil misses any con- siderable portion of the work in his grade, it neces- sarily follows, in most cases, that he will not be able to do the work of the next grade. Consequently, he is retained in the same grade for another term. It frequently happens, however, that a pupil gets very little benefit from repeating the work of a grade, for, as a rule, he lacks interest in the work because there is so little in it that is new to him. He is disappointed at not being able to go on with his class and resents being classed with younger or smaller pupils. The outcome in many such cases is that the pupil fails a second time, and when this happens he will generally, if permitted to do so, drop out of school altogether rather than remain longer in the same grade. Absence serves to eliminate pupils from school by a more direct method in many instances. After a pro- longed absence, or after repeated short absences, the pupil finds that he cannot keep up with his class. Ac- cordingly, he loses interest, becomes discouraged, and then decides to quit school for the remainder of the School Attendance 219 term. In most cases of this sort the pupil does not return to school at all. Thus prematurely ends the school career of many a country boy or girl, who is destined thereby to go through life without having come into possession of his or her birthright of an ele- mentary education. Such, in numerous instances, are the results of non- attendance unless the consequences are averted through special effort on the part of the teacher. Many teach- ers are naturally in sympathy with the pupil who is behind in his work and want to see him catch up with his class. To this end they give him special attention and assistance. This necessarily constitutes an extra tax on the time and energy of the teacher and deprives the other pupils of the attention they are entitled to receive. The whole school, therefore, suffers neglect on account of the pupil who has fallen behind. Fur- thermore, there is a conscious or unconscious tendency on the part of most teachers to hold back an entire class until the non-attendant member has had time to make up his work. Thus, the whole class is retarded in its progress in order to accommodate the one or more pupils who have been out of school. In such cases the non-attendant becomes " a dead weight that the re- mainder of the class is forced to carry." Such con- ditions certainly are not conducive to the best school work, and that school falls short of its highest possi- bilities which must accommodate itself to the situation created by prolonged or habitual non-attendance. Summary. The problem of school attendance is one of the biggest problems in school management. Regularity of attend- ance is of the utmost importance in three ways : (1) It is the only means through which the school can perform its special function of training children for the duties of citizenship ; (2) non-attend- 220 Rural School Management ance involves an economic waste or loss to the taxpayers in pro- portion to the number of children who do not attend the school; and (3) non-attendance is a serious hindrance to the teaching work of the school in that it causes (a) the failure of promotion of the absentees, (b) tends to eliminate pupils from the school, and (c) operates to retard the progress of an entire class, and, to some extent, the whole school. n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED Having pointed out the very great importance of regularity of attendance, our next step is to see what difficulties stand in the way of its attainment. Causes of non-attendance vary so greatly with different com- munities and with different sections of the country that it may be impossible to include all of them in a single list. The following, however, are believed to be those which are most widespread and most serious in their effects. Indifference of Patrons. The indifference of patrons has already been mentioned as one of the serious hin- drances to the work of the school. There is, perhaps, no phase of a child's education in which the indifference of his parents can do so much harm as in connection with his attendance at school. There are some par- ents in every community who are deeply interested in the education of their children and take every precaution to keep them in school every day it is possible for them to attend. On the other hand, there are some parents in almost every district who regard the school as a thing of secondary importance. They feel at liberty to keep their children out of school at any time they can be of service at home. They per- mit their children to remain at home at almost any time and for almost any reason. Such parents do not understand the effects of habitual absence upon both School Attendance 221 their own children and the children of their neighbors. Some methods of overcoming this indifference are discussed in Chapter 11. If the suggestions given there are acted upon, the result will be a marked improve- ment in the regularity of school attendance. Work at Home. Having to work at home is another common cause of children's absence from school. The conditions which give rise to absence from this cause are of two types; namely, poverty in the home, and the greed of parents. There are undoubtedly many instances in which children are kept out of school because their work is needed to help support the family. Usually the com- pulsory attendance law recognizes this condition as a valid reason for absence, and such parents are not re- quired to send their children to school. But the situation is none the less unfortunate for the children. Occasionally, public-spirited and charitable neighbors come to the assistance of such families, especially in the case of widowed mothers, furnishing the means necessary to keep the children in school. Such assist- ance usually takes the form of " working bees," or donations of food, articles of clothing, and school- books, if these. are not furnished by the district. A few states have enacted Mothers' Pension Laws which help to overcome the difficulty in such cases. It occasionally happens, however, that children are kept out of school to work because their parents are unwilling to pay out money for hired help. Such parents seem perfectly willing to sacrifice the future welfare of their children in order to accumulate a little larger bank account. It is in such cases as this that the compulsory attendance law should be applied in full force. It is clearly the duty of society to protect 222 Rural School Management children from the greed of their own parents when this greed operates to deprive them of their right to an education . The compulsory attendance law is the means which society has devised to accomplish this end, and it should be vigorously enforced in all such cases. Dislike for School Work. A great many teachers report that the dislike of pupils for school work is a common cause of absence in their schools. A pupil's dislike for school work may be due to (1) his inability to do the work successfully, or (2) his lack of interest in the things he is required to study. Children cannot be expected to like their school work unless they can do fairly well what is expected of them. How, for instance, can a pupil like the study of arithmetic or of grammar if he cannot solve the problems, or parse the words, or analyze the sen- tences assigned? There is a real pleasure in achieve- ment — in the consciousness that one has done his work successfully, while the consciousness of failure is disagreeable. When children discover that they can- not do their work, they become discouraged from re- peated failure and want to drop the subjects that give them most trouble. If this is not permitted, they will stay out of school on any sort of pretext, and, unless forced to attend, will probably drop out permanently. Children's inability to do their work results, in some instances, from ill health or physical defects. In these cases medical inspection will do much to remove the difficulty. But in a majority of cases inability is due to the improper classification of pupils. When a pu- pil is known to be in a grade where the work is too diffi- cult for him, he should be re-classified. This can usually be accomplished satisfactorily to all concerned if the teacher will confer with the pupil's parents and point School Attendance 223 out to them the importance to the child of having him in a grade where he can do the work successfully. Much of the difficulty that arises from the inability of pupils in rural schools would disappear if the subject matter they are required to learn were better suited to the interests and needs of country children. Lack of interest in school work is undoubtedly the more common cause of children's dislike for the school. The simple truth is that country children are frequently not much interested in many of the things they have to learn in school. The reasons for this are two. First. Some of the material in the course of study is of no immediate use to children. It does not help them in any way to do the things children enjoy or want to do. Until recently children's needs and in- terests were not sufficiently emphasized in the making of the course of study. Now we have learned that the best way to teach a child the things he should know and do as an adult is to make use of the things he likes to know and do as a child. In schools where this is done children do not dislike the school. Neither are they often absent, except when it is unavoidable. Second. Many of the things taught in rural schools do not fall within the range of country children's ex- periences. It is a well-known principle of teaching that what is to be learned must be related to the ex- periences of the learner. Now, as a matter of fact, most rural school courses of study are city or town courses adopted by country districts. They are there- fore lacking, to a considerable extent, in country life experiences — in the things that country boys and girls know something about. There is a need, then, for a course of study and methods of teaching for rural schools that place greater 224 Rural School Management emphasis on children's interests and recognize the value of country life as the source from which to draw the materials of instruction. The outline of the course of study given in Chapter IX is one attempt to embody these ideas. Some such scheme is recom- mended as at least a partial remedy for country chil- dren's dislike for the school and the non-attendance to which such dislike leads. Dislike for the Teacher. It has been found that dislike for the teacher frequently causes pupils to re- main away from the school. There can be no doubt that the teacher is an impor- tant factor in the attendance problem. A dislike for the teacher may result from matters of discipline or from a disrespect due to the teacher's lack of skill in teaching. It is too much to expect that any teacher can always please all of his pupils. There are, however, a few things very important in this connection, that any teacher can easily attain. In matters of discipline he can be just and firm. He can take an interest in children and an active part in their plays and games. He can set a good example of self-control and orderli- ness. He can be kind, sympathetic, and helpful. Investigations have shown that children, as a rule, admire rather than dislike these qualities in their teacher. The teacher who exercises these virtues in his dealings with pupils is not likely to incur their ill will or cause any of them to leave school on account of discipline. On the side of skill in teaching, the greatest weak- nesses of teachers are lack of scholarship and poor methods. Every teacher should have a fairly thor- ough knowledge of the subjects he teaches. Such scholarship begets confidence and esteem, while the School Attendance 225 lack of it breeds indifference and disrespect on the part of pupils. In addition to this, the teacher should know how to teach these subjects so that children can understand them and will be interested in them. With the wealth of books, magazines, and other helps for rural teachers now available, any one with reasonable energy and enthusiasm can easily acquire these qualifi- cations. Unattractive and Uncomfortable School Environ- ment. The influence of an unattractive schoolhouse and grounds has been discussed in a previous chapter. An uncomfortable schoolhouse is also a hindrance to regularity of attendance. Pupils have been known to stay away from school because the room was not prop- erly heated. In some rural schools such conditions as open floors and broken window panes make it im- possible to keep the room comfortable in cold weather. In other instances the janitor, or the teacher if he serves as janitor, fails to start the fire early enough to have the building warm when the children arrive at the school. All such matters should be corrected as promptly as possible. The school board should be called upon to make all needed repairs in the building, and the janitor should be required to have the room clean and warm in ample time every morning to re- ceive the earliest comers. Ill Health. Dr. Luther H. Gulick, one of our best authorities on child welfare, in writing on the question of why children leave school, says that sixteen per cent of all the children who drop out of school before gradu- ating do so because of ill health. Every child right- fully belongs to the school until he has graduated. It is, therefore, the school's duty to prevent his dropping out or to reclaim him, if possible, after he has dropped out. 226 Rural School Management An adequate system of medical inspection, a hy- gienic school environment, and a general health cam- paign, such as are described in earlier chapters (Chap- ters IV and V) will do a great deal to eliminate the absences that are due to ill health and physical defects. Summary. The chief hindrances to regularity of school at- tendance are : (1) the indifference of parents ; (2) children being kept out of school to work; (3) dislike of children for the school due to (a) inability to do the work required, and (6) lack of interest in the studies ; (4) dislike for the teacher ; (5) uncomfortable and unattractive school surroundings ; (6) ill health. m. HOW TO IMPROVE SCHOOL ATTENDANCE Attendance at school is far from being what it ought to be. Statistics show that the number of pupils in actual attendance varies (1913) from fifty-five per cent in some states to eight-four per cent in "other states, of the number enrolled. If we add to the number of non-attendants those boys and girls who ought to be in school but who are not enrolled, the figures become still more startling. There is clearly a pressing need for ways and means of improving this situation. It is impossible, perhaps, to get all of the children in any district to attend school all of the time. Nevertheless, there are some methods which have been used with success in reducing the amount of non-attendance. Compulsory Attendance Law. Compulsory attend- ance laws probably constitute the most widely used method of attempting to bring about regularity of attendance. These are laws which require that every child in the district between certain ages shall attend the school unless he has certain specified reasons for being absent. School Attendance 227 These laws have done a great deal to bring about a better school attendance, particularly in town and city schools. In rural districts, however, in some states at least, they have not given altogether satisfactory results. One of the chief difficulties seems to lie in the method of enforcement. The towns and cities are usually permitted, under the attendance law, to have a special official known as the truant officer, who is appointed for the specific purpose of enforcing the law. It is his business to find out what children are not in school and why they are absent, and to see that they are sent to school unless they have a lawful reason for being out. But in rural districts the en- forcement of the law is usually laid upon officials, such as the county superintendent of schools or the prose- cuting attorney, who have a great many other duties to perform. Experience seems to show that the law is most effective when its enforcement is placed in the hands of an officer who is appointed to his position and who is held responsible for that special duty. Another difficulty with the attendance law, in some states, is the fact that the number of years of attend- ance required of a child is less than the number re- quired to complete the eight grades. In a few of the states, for instance, a child is required to attend school only four years ; in others, six years ; in still others, seven years. It is perfectly clear that in such cases a child may comply with the attendance law and still not have as much education as he needs for the purposes of good citizenship. Since graduation from the eighth grade represents the least amount of train- ing that any child should have, there ought to be some means of holding country boys and girls in school until they have attained this end. 228 Rural School Management Another point needs noting in this connection. When it becomes necessary to enforce the law, it usu- ally arouses an ill will on the part of the parent toward the school. Often, too, though by no means always, the children do not have the right attitude toward the school. Occasionally, encouraged by the attitude of their parents, they become trouble makers in the school. The law may compel a child to go to school, but it does not require that he shall learn. It would probably be better if the law did require the completion of a certain number of grades rather than mere attendance for a cer- tain number of years. Then there would be a strong inducement for the child to learn as rapidly as possible. These criticisms of the compulsory attendance law are not intended to imply that it should not be enforced. There are two reasons for calling attention to these points. First, to emphasize the need of certain changes in the attendance law to make it more effective in accomplishing the end for which it is intended ; namely, the guaranteeing to every child an elementary educa- tion. When teachers understand these matters they can be more instrumental in bringing about the changes needed. Second, to point out the importance of using all other means of getting children to attend school before invoking the aid of the attendance law. We have already learned that the school needs the good will, interest, and cooperation of all of its patrons. Again, better results can be obtained if the children are drawn or attracted to the school through friendly means. But when all other methods fail, the attend- ance law should be rigidly enforced. Apportionment of School Funds. In some states the method of apportioning the state school funds is used as a means of bringing about a better attendance School Attendance 229 at school. One of the principal sources of school money is the income from the permanent state school fund. The usual method of apportioning this income is to divide it among the various districts in proportion to the number of children of school age. The total amount of the income is divided by the total number of children of school age in the state. This gives the amount to be apportioned for each child, and this amount multiplied by the number of children enu- merated in the district gives that district's share of the funds. It will be observed that this method of apportioning the funds takes no account of the actual attendance in the schools. Each district shares in the funds in proportion to the number of children enumerated, re- gardless of whether the children are in or out of school. In a few states now the apportionment is made on the basis of actual attendance. The total income is di- vided by the total number of days attended by all pupils. This gives the amount to be allowed for each day's attendance. A district's share of the fund is found by multiplying the amount per day by the total number of days attended by all of the pupils in the district. It will be seen that this method makes it financially important for a district to have a good attendance record. The better the attendance, the larger will be the district's share of the state funds and, consequently, the lower the local tax levy neces- sary to run the school. Under this plan school boards and taxpayers usually get interested in the matter of school attendance and do what they can to give their district the best record possible. Parent-Teacher Associations. The indifference of parents has been found to be one of the serious hin- 230 Rural School Management drances to regularity of school attendance. The parent-teacher association offers one of the best means of overcoming this difficulty. It gives publicity to the school and awakens a widespread interest in its work. Indifferent patrons catch the school spirit from their interested neighbors and from being asked to help in matters pertaining to the school. Teacher and patrons become better acquainted and a tie of mutual interest and helpfulness is established. How the teacher may get a parent-teacher associ- ation formed in his district is stated in Chapter II, and hence need not be repeated here. Attendance Contests. Some teachers have been able to reduce non-attendance in their schools by means of attendance contests. These are of two types: (1) contests between different classes in the same school, and (2) contests between two or more schools. Interclass Contests. This method consists of work- ing up a race between different classes in the school to see which can have the best attendance record for a given period, usually a month. The plan works well in schools where the classes are fairly large. Gen- erally some sort of recognition, such as possession of a banner, is given the winning class. Usually the chil- dren get very much interested in such a race. Care must be taken to prevent the development of an un- friendly class spirit, or the tendency on the part of pupils to rejoice in the absence of members of rival classes. This can usually be done by emphasizing the ideas of fair play and true sportsmanship at all times. Interschool Contests. These are similar contests between two or n%ore schools. The following incident illustrates one method of conducting them. School Attendance 231 Two teachers who had been close friends in school were employed to teach in different parts of the state. Shortly after their terms opened they instituted an attendance contest between the two schools. The matter was explained to the pupils, emphasis being placed on the importance of getting all of the children in the district to attend school every day. The chil- dren in both schools entered heartily into the race. Pupils were not only eager to be present themselves, they were anxious to see all the others present. In some instances, pupils visited the homes of those who were absent to find out why they were out of school. Careful records of the attendance were kept, and these were exchanged by the teachers and announced to the pupils in both schools at the end of each month. No prizes or rewards of any sort were offered. It was merely a friendly race to see which school could have the better attendance record at the end of the term. The results in both schools were a somewhat larger enrollment and a considerably higher average daily attendance than were usual in those schools. Making the School Interesting. Undoubtedly one of the best means of improving school attendance is to make the school more interesting to children. If children really wanted to attend school, a larger num- ber of them would find a way to do so than is the case at present in many of our rural schools. The school which makes the strongest appeal to children is, as a rule, the one which is troubled least with non-attend- ance. Three things are necessary to make the school one of this type : (1) It must be comfortable and at- tractive : (2) it must make provision for the exercise of the social instincts of children and young people; (3) its class work must be interesting and worth while. 232 Rural School Management Comfortable and Attractive School Surroundings. This matter is treated at considerable length in an- other chapter (Chapter VI). The only reason for re- ferring to it here is to emphasize its importance in relation to school attendance. Our best business men understand and apply this principle. The successful merchant, for instance, keeps his store comfortable, neat, and attractive at all times. He understands that these conditions tend to draw customers, while the lack of them has the opposite effect. We teachers need to understand clearly that a cold, bleak, and barren school, or one that is run down and unsightly, does not have so strong a hold on children as the school should have. Many of them will prefer to remain at home or go to a school that presents a more inviting appearance. Social Activities in the School. Children and young people are by nature social beings. They enjoy as- sociation with others of their own age. They like to play and work together, to talk to and help each other. The best opportunities that country children have for the exercise of these social interests are those af- forded by the school. And yet the tendency in most of our schools has been to repress, rather than to en- courage and develop, this aspect of children's nature. There are three ways in which the school can, and in which many do, make provision for the exercise of these instincts : (1) by providing adequate play facilities, such facilities, for instance, as those described in Chapter VII ; (2) by permitting pupils, under proper conditions, to work together and help each other in their studies ; (3) by forming student organizations in the school, such as health militias, literary societies, musical clubs, etc. This is one of the functions of the boys' and girls' clubs described in a later chapter. School Attendance 233 Interesting Class Work. The third factor in mak- ing the school life of pupils enjoyable lies in making their regular class work both interesting and profitable. To this end the course of study for rural schools is being enriched and the methods of teaching improved. In our best rural schools now the larger boys and girls are finding real pleasure in the study of litera- ture, music, the leading present-day industries, agri- culture, and the social conditions and civic matters pertaining to their own community and state. In the manual training and domestic science classes, they are making the things they need or want, and inci- dentally they are acquiring a mastery of tools, uten- sils, and processes that will be useful in the future. For the younger pupils, there are nature study, plays and games, the telling and dramatizing of stories they like, and the making of things they want either for themselves or to give to some one else — all of which they find extremely interesting. In addition to, and in connection with these, the children are learning to read, to write, to spell, and to compute with numbers. These subjects, too, are interesting because they are taught in such a way that the children need and use them in doing the things they like to do. If the school has these three characteristics, there is certainly very little in it to which children could be averse. If it is comfortable and attractive, if it affords opportunities for children to play and work together and to associate in some organized way with each other, if its class work is useful or enjoyable, children will prefer being in school to being absent. Personal Work by the Teacher. Personal work by the teacher is another excellent method of preventing non-attendance. The things which seem to be most 234 Rural School Management effective are the writing of notes to absent pupils, and visiting the homes to see why the children are absent. One teacher adopted the plan of sending a friendly little note to every pupil who was out of school for more than a day or two. The letter was a simple, frank statement that the teacher was sorry the pupil was obliged to be out of school, that he was missed by both the teacher and the other pupils, and that they all hoped he would soon be able to return to school. The result in almost every case was that the pupil was back in school at the earliest possible date. Whether the child has learned to read does not matter. The parents will always read the note and, in a vast major- ity of cases, will be greatly pleased with the teacher's interest in their child. One of the surest methods of establishing one's self in the esteem of the parents is to take a genuine interest in their children. A per- sonal note addressed to the pupil, in most cases, will convince both the child and his parents of the teacher's interest and will nearly always result in the pupil's returning to school. Personal visits to the homes of absent pupils have been found very effective in preventing the with- drawal of the larger boys and girls. An incident or two will serve to illustrate this method of personal work by teachers. On one occasion a country boy quit school about six weeks before the end of the term. On the evening of the third day of his absence the teacher called at his home. After a brief friendly conversation with the parents he stated the purpose of his visit ; namely, to see why William was out of school. The father re- plied that William was present and could answer for himself. Whereupon the teacher turned to the boy School Attendance 235 and said : *' William, we miss you at school. We are planning to have an entertainment at the close of school and need you to help us. Won't you come back to school, finish up your work, and help in the entertainment? " The ideas of being ''missed " and '' needed " at school were new to both the boy and his parents. After the teacher's departure, his visit and the school were the topics of conversation in that home for the remainder of the evening, and the boy was in school again the next day. In another instance, a young woman was teaching her first school. About the middle of the term five of her largest pupils quit school. The teacher was genuinely sorry to lose these pupils, and decided to make an effort to get them to return to school. Ac- cordingly she went to their homes. She explained to the parents in each case that if the child left school at that time, he could not be promoted and would, there- fore, have to remain in the same grade another year. The outcome of the visits was that three of the five pupils returned to the school, completed the year's work, and were promoted with their respective classes. The state rural school inspector learned of the inci- dent and used the facts in his lectures to teachers to illustrate what rural teachers can do through personal work to reduce the amount of non-attendance in their schools. Other Means. The consolidation of schools, boys' and girls' clubs, and social center work are other means of improving school attendance which should be mentioned in this connection. But these are fraught with so much importance to the school in va- rious ways that they are treated at length in later chapters. 236 Rural School Management Summary. There is a pressing need for the improvement of school attendance. Some of the means that may be used to this end are: (1) the enforcement of the compulsory attendance law; (2) apportioning state school funds on the basis of actual attendance rather than on the number of pupils enumerated; (3) the forming of parent- teacher associations; (4) attendance contests either between classes in the same school or between different schools ; (5) making the school more interesting by (a) making it comfortable and attractive, (6) providing wholesome exercise for the social instincts of pupils, and (c) making the class work interesting and profitable ; and (6) personal work on the part of the teacher. REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Bagley : Classroom Management, Chapter V. GULICK : Why 250,000 Children Quit School. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, No. 2. Compulsory School Attendance, pp. 7-77. CLASS EXERCISES 1. Why is it important to the state that every child have at least an elementary education? Give specific reasons. 2. Compute the economic loss to your school district by finding the ratio of the average daily attendance to the number of pupils who ought to be in school ; that is, the number enumer- ated exclusive of the deaf and dumb, the blind, the feeble-minded, and those who have graduated or married. 3. Give instances from your own observation of pupils who (a) failed of promotion, and (6) quit school, because of absence from school. What were the causes of the absence in each case? 4. Add to the list of causes of absence given in the text any others which you have known to keep pupils out of school. 5. What provision is made in your district for the education of children whose parents are too poor to send them to school? 6. State clearly the provisions of the compulsory attendance law in your state. To what extent is it enforced in your district? 7. Give arguments for and against placing the enforcement of the attendance law in the hands of an elective officer. 8. If you can find from your state superintendent's report the total amount of state school funds to be apportioned, the School Attendance 237 total school enumeration, and the total number of days attended by all pupils, compute your district's share of the funds on the basis (a) of enumeration, (b) of actual attendance. 9. What methods of improving school attendance are being employed in your school? Which of the methods named in the text do you consider most practicable? Most impracticable? Give your reasons in each case. 10. Prepare a complete outline of the chapter. CHAPTER XI SCHOOL INCENTIVES I. FUNCTIONS OF SCHOOL INCENTIVES In the last chapter we tried to find out why children should attend school regularly and how they may be induced to do so. Logically, the next step in our study is to see how we may get them to do their school work in the most effective manner. This brings us to a study of school incentives. Meaning of Incentives. By the term incentive we mean the reason or motive one has for performing a certain action, or the object one desires to attain through the action. All of our actions, except those that are reflex or habitual, are prompted by some in- centive. The desire to be well, for instance, is the in- centive for calling a physician or taking medicine when one is sick. A young lady's desire to have her new dress conform to the prevailing fashion is her incentive for consulting the latest style books and magazines. As applied to school work, an incentive is the desire or motive or object that causes the pupil to study. A pupil may study his language lesson either to get the information he needs in writing a letter to a friend, or to please his teacher, or to escape being kept after school. In the first case, the incentive is the pupil's desire to write his letter correctly; in the second, it is his de- sire for approval ; while in the third, it is fear of pun- 238 School Incentives 239 ishment. In any case, whatever it is that causes the pupil to prepare his lessons, constitutes his incentive to study. To Arouse Interest in Study. From the foregoing illustrations it is seen that the primary function of an incentive is to arouse such an interest as will lead to action. In school, the action desired is the studying of the lessons assigned. Pupils must have an incen- tive of some sort, else they will have no interest, no desire, no motive, to cause them to study. Conse- quently, their lessons will not be learned. It is a rule of life that the stronger one's incentive is, the deeper will be his interest and the harder he will work to at- tain the desired end. The same rule applies in school. The secret of getting pupils to study diligently, there- fore, lies in providing them with strong incentives to study. To Aid in Discipline. A second function of incen- tives is to help maintain good order in the school. Good incentives constitute one of the very best aids to school discipline. Much of the disorder that arises in school is due to idleness and the disinclination of pupils to study. Good incentives give pupils an in- terest in, and a motive for, doing their school work, and thereby serve to keep them profitably employed on their school tasks. When pupils are thus engaged, they are not likely to have either time or inclination to do the things that make for bad order in the school. The result is not only better order but a better attitude in general toward the school. Summary. School incentives are the desires, the motives, the aims, which prompt pupils to do their school work. They have two main functions : (1) to arouse an interest in study, and (2) to aid in the discipline of the school. 240 Rural School Management II. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED How to provide pupils with proper incentives to study is regarded as one of the most difficult problems encountered by the teacher. The chief sources of this difficulty, in the case of most teachers, lie in their lack of sufficient knowledge of (1) the purposes or functions of school subjects, and (2) the direct or immediate interests of school children. Functions of School Subjects. When we raise the question of how to get pupils to study, we imply that they ought to study. There are, to be sure, good reasons why children should study most or all of the subjects usually taught in the schools. But if we were to ask teachers to tell us why the pupils should study any particular subject, perhaps only a comparatively small number could give any definite reason. The only reason that would be given in many cases is that the subject has been taught in the schools for a long time and it is still customary to teach it. But we believe now that mere tradition is not a sufficient rea- son for teaching any subject. Unless a subject serves some purpose that makes it worth while for children to learn it, we think now that it ought to be left out of the course of study altogether. Some of our leading educators have given this question of the functions of school subjects very careful study. They tell us that subject matter has two kinds of functions. One of these is the purpose for which it is used outside of school, that is, by people in general in the affairs of everyday life. This is called its intrinsic function. For instance, people in general use arithmetic to make the number computations that are necessary from day to day in the course of their business or other affairs. School Incentives 241 This ability to make number computations, then, is the intrinsic function of arithmetic. But the study of arithmetic may serve other purposes besides. It may aid in the development or training of the reason- ing powers, or it may prepare one for the study of al- gebra, or it may cause one to be regarded by other people as being educated or refined. These, and, in fact, any purposes that arithmetic may have besides its intrinsic function, are called its indirect functions. And so it is with all of the subjects in the course of study. They have an intrinsic function and one or more indirect functions. But a great many teachers do not know as well as they should what the functions, especially the intrinsic functions, of the various sub- jects are. And herein lies one of the difficulties in connection with the use of incentives. In order that we may know how best to arouse an interest in a sub- ject, it is important that we know what purpose or function that subject serves in everyday life. Interests of School Children. The primary func- tion of a school incentive, as we have seen, is to arouse such an interest in children as will lead them to study their lessons. Those who have studied the question of interest carefully, have pointed out that there are two kinds of interest, immediate and mediate. By immediate interest is meant an interest in a thing just for its own sake — for the sake of the immediate pleas- ure it gives. For instance, nearly all children are interested in play just because of the pleasure they derive from playing. Again, some children are in- terested in arithmetic simply because they like it — they find pleasure in that sort of activity. When children study a subject or a lesson solely because they like it, they are said to have an immediate in- 242 Rural School Management terest in it. In such cases there is no difficulty in se- curing incentives, for immediate interest is itself a sufficient incentive to study. But in a great many instances children are not thus immediately interested in the things we wish them to learn in school. Some pupils do not like history, some do not like geography, others are not interested in grammar, and so on. In these cases it becomes necessary to arouse an interest in the uninteresting subject. This is done by connecting it with some- thing in which the pupils are already interested. A pupil who is not interested in numbers, for instance, may become interested in them when he needs the number facts to see who wins in a game of bean bag or marbles. Most pupils like to make good grades. This desire may be used to arouse an interest in any subject which is not directly interesting to the pupil. Interest thus aroused is said to be mediate. It is in connection with interest of the mediate type that the difficulties of providing incentives arise. What incentives can we use to arouse an interest in subjects or lessons that are not directly interesting? To answer this question we need to know (1) what the interests of children are — what immediate interests children in general have that can be used as incentives, and (2) which of these should be cultivated and devel- oped and which, if any, should be inhibited or repressed. These matters most of us do not understand as well as we should. Furthermore, we ought to be more familiar than we are with the individual differences in the interests of school children. Parents and educators have learned that there are marked differences in children with respect to their interests. They have observed, for School Incentives 243 instance, that some children are sensitive while others are indifferent to reproof ; that some are eager to make good grades while others are not interested in grades at all; that some are very much interested in the opinion their teacher, parents, and classmates have of their work while others do not care for such things. Nearly all teachers have noticed that some children are most deeply interested in arithmetic, that others prefer the study of grammar, while still others like the study of history best of all. It is clear, therefore, that an incentive which may be effective with one child may fail with another. In order to make the wisest use of school incentives, then, we ought to know (1) the immediate interests of children in general — things most children like to do ; (2) the immediate interests of each child ; and (3) which of these interests may be used and which should not be used as incentives. Summary. The problem of providing proper school incentives is a difficult one for the reason that we do not know as well as we should (1) the functions of the subjects we teach, and (2) the things in which children are immediately interested. If a pupil is immediately interested in the study of a subject, his interest is an incentive to study it ; if he is not interested, then a mediate interest must be aroused by connecting the study of the subject with something in which he is immediately interested. iii. how to secure incentives for study 1. The Classification of Incentives An adequate study of the problem we have under consideration here requires, first, that we shall dis- tinguish between the different kinds of incentives. Nearly all of the writers on school management propose some sort of a scheme of classification. A few of these 244 Rural School Management schemes are presented and discussed in the present section. Positive and Negative Incentives. Some writers, notably Bagley and Colgrove, divide all school incen- tives into two main classes; namely, positive and negative. By a positive incentive they mean one that induces study because of the pleasurableness of the end or result that is to follow. The fundamental idea is that of being rewarded in some way for study. Study- ing in order to win a prize or get a good grade is an illustration. The list of positive incentives, as given by Bagley,^ is as follows : (A) Incentives that make a positive appeal to the instinct of emulation. (1) Competitive prizes of intrinsic value. (2) Competitive prizes not intrinsically valuable. (3) Privileges. (4) Immunities. (5) Display of pupils' work. (6) Grades, marks, and promotion. (B) Incentives that make a positive appeal to the social instincts. (1) Praise, commendation, and adulation. (2) Pupils' pride in the good name of the school. (C) Ideals as incentives. Negative incentives, according to these authors, are those that stimulate pupils to study as a means of escaping something more disagreeable than studying. The fundamental idea here is that of coercion — of having to study or suffer for faihng to do so. The various forms of punishment, such as scolding, de- motion, being kept after school, etc., are the incentives of this class. The chief difficulty with this classification lies in its failure to recognize or emphasize the intrinsic use ^ Classroom Management, p. 169. School Incentives 245 or function of subject matter as an incentive for study- ing it. The fear of punishment, the desire to win a prize or get a goo^ grade, the love of praise — in fact, all of the incentives named in the foregoing list, are alike in that the end or desire which prompts the study is not the intrinsic function or purpose of study. They are mere devices to get pupils to learn something. It is assumed, of course, that the things they learn will be of use in later life. That some of these incentives may be used in school work is not to be denied. In fact, they must be used in many of our schools. The crit- icism we are making is that there are other incentives that may be used. Our best courses of study now contain a great deal of material that is, or can be made, of immediate use to children in doing the things they want to do, and their need for this material can be used as an incentive to get them to study it. Natural and Artificial Incentives. According to an- other classification, school incentives fall into two groups known as natural and artificial. An incentive is said to be natural when the object or thing desired results naturally from the activity that it stimulates. To illustrate, suppose a pupil desires a good standing in school. This, it is claimed, is a natural incentive to study, since the thing desired (a good standing) results naturally from study. Again, suppose a pupil desires to attain a high degree of self-control. This desire is held to be a natural incentive to study, be- cause self-control is supposed to result from study. On the other hand, if the studying is done to win a prize or secure some privilege, the incentive is said to be artificial, because these prizes or privileges are not the natural result of study. That is, there is no natural relation or connection between the prizes or privileges 246 Rural School Management and studying. An artificial incentive, therefore, is one in which the thing desired is not the natural out- come or consequence of the action which it arouses. The more common school incentives, according to White,! one of the foremost advocates of this classifi- cation, are as follows, beginning with the artificial : ARTIFICIAL INCENTIVES 1. Prizes: Medals, books, class honors, merit tickets, etc. 2. Privileges: Holidays, early dismissal from school, "honor seats," positions as monitors, etc. 3. Immunities : Exemptions from tasks, class exercises, etc. NATURAL INCENTIVES 1. A desire for (1) success, (2) good standing, (3) excellence, etc. 2. A desire for (1) approbation, including that of equals, superiors, one's self, and God; (2) esteem; (3) honor, etc. 3. A desire for knowledge, including that which is useful (1) in acquiring other knowledge, (2) for guidance, (3) for en- joyment, etc. 4. A desire for (1) activity, (2) power — mental, moral, and physical, (3) skill, (4) efficiency, (5) freedom from imperfections, etc. 5. A desire for (1) self-conduct, including self-control (negative) and self-direction (positive) ; (2) self -approval ; (3) self-respect, etc. 6. A desire for future good, including (1) usefulness, (2) in- fluence, (3) well-being, (4) freedom from want, discomfort, de- pendence on others, etc. 7. A sense of (1) honor, (2) right, (3) duty, (4) demerit, (5) shame, etc. This classification of incentives appears to be open to two criticisms. In the first place, this scheme, as does the former one, fails to take account of the definite, specific uses of subject matter — the purposes it serves ^School Management, pp. 132 and 150-151. School Incentives 247 in everyday life — as incentives for its study. The distinction between natural and artificial incentives is, in reality, a difference of value or rank rather than of kind. There is no fundamental difference, for instance, between studying in order to gain approba- tion or self-control and studying to win a prize or a privilege. True, the incentives listed under the term ''natural" are higher, more worthy motives than are those called artificial. But in both cases the ends or objects named are extrinsic, that is, different from the ends or purposes for which people ordinarily study. It is perfectly proper, and in some cases necessary, as we shall see later, to use some of the incentives enu- merated. But we shall also see that there are others which may be used with equally good, if not better, results. The second criticism is that the list of natural in- centives includes many that are not effective with most children of school age. Take, for instance, the desire for self-control. There are certainly very few pupils who are prompted to study their lessons diligently from a conscious desire to acquire self-mastery. Again, the desire for future good is not very strong with children, especially those in the primary and interme- diate grades. One of the greatest difficulties in teaching arises from just this fact that children in the lower grades are not conscious of their future needs. This inability of children in general to foresee the needs of later life or to be affected by the thought of their future wel- fare, constitutes one of the main reasons why we have to search for school incentives. A desire for skill, efficiency, and freedom from imperfections; a desire for knowledge that is useful in acquiring other knowledge and for guidance; a sense of honor and 248 Rural School Management duty — these are other incentives that are not, as a rule, very strong in school children. These are quali- ties which the school ought to try to develop, but, in doing so, it must begin with incentives that make a stronger appeal to children. Specific and Generic Incentives. A classification which seems to overcome the objections we have urged against those already considered is found in the one which classifies incentives as specific and generic. This is the classification which we shall follow in our further study, and the reasons for adopting it will appear as we proceed. Summary. The first step in learning how to secure school incentives is to distinguish between the different kinds. One classification divides them into positive and negative classes; another into natural and artificial. The chief difficulty with both of these classifications is that they omit those incentives which appeal to children because of the specific ways subject matter helps them to do the things they want to do. What seems to be a better classification is to regard incentives as specific and generic. 2. Use of Specific Incentives Meaning of Specific Incentives. Illustrations from Everyday Life. A specific incentive is one which arouses an interest in a thing or a subject because of its intrinsic use or function. The intrinsic function of a thing, as we have seen, is the use people make of it in everyday life. The intrinsic function of a rail- road time-table, for instance, is to tell people the time of arrival and departure of trains at certain places. Now, if a person is planning to take a trip on the railroad, he needs to know at what time the train leaves his home station, when it will arrive at his destination, School Incentives 249 and what transfers or '' connections " he will have to make on the way. The desire for this knowledge con- stitutes a specific incentive for consulting the time- tables. Again, the intrinsic function of the market reports in newspapers is to tell those who wish to sell or buy certain products the prices that are being paid in the leading market centers. When a farmer has some grain or live stock or other farm products to sell, he very naturally wants to know what prices are being paid for such commodities. This desire is a specific incentive for looking up the prices in the market re- ports in his newspaper. Still further, wholesale and mail order houses send out catalogues whose intrinsic function is to tell people what these merchants have for sale and the price they ask for each article offered. Now, if one is in need of some article of merchandise which he cannot or does not wish to buy from his local merchant, he turns to a catalogue to see if it is listed there and, if so, at what price it can be bought. Here, then, is a specific incentive for referring to the cata- logue. Thus we see that a specific incentive arises when one feels a need for a thing for the very purpose for which it is generally used. Illustrations from School Subjects. Each one of the subjects usually taught in school has its intrinsic function. The function of arithmetic, for instance, is to help people make number computations correctly in those situations in which a need for numbers arises. The function of reading is to enable us to find out for ourselves, or interpret, thoughts that have been put down in print or in writing, and (of oral reading) to impart to others these same thoughts in the language of the writer. The function of language study is to tell us how to state clearly and effectively, either orally 250 Rural School Management or in writing, the things we want to say. The function of spelling is to show us how to put letters together to form the words we need when we wish to write our thoughts. And so it is with each of the other subjects — each serves to help us in some specific way to do what we want to do. Many of our leading educators now hold that one of the best ways to get pupils interested in a subject is to take advantage of, or create, a situation in which they need the subject matter for its intrinsic function — that is, for the purpose for which it is generally used. If we wish to get pupils interested in arithmetic, one of the best methods is to find something they want to do that requires the handling of numbers. When pupils want to make something they need, or find who has the highest score in a game, they have an interest in, a specific incentive for, making the measurements or adding the numbers involved. Again, we can easily interest a pupil in reading if we can make the getting of the thought necessary to him as a means of doing something he wants to do. A boy once went to the library to get a book on how to pitch a spit ball. Here was something he wanted to do, and the reading of this book was the means of helping him to do it. Needless to say, he read it diligently to " get the thought " it contained. Similarly, spelling, writing, or language is interesting to a child when he needs to know how to spell correctly or write legibly or use correct language forms in order to say something he wants to say. Thus it is seen that specific school incentives arise when pupils feel a need for the things they study be- cause of the intrinsic purpose they serve. The general principle is easily stated. The practical difficulties, as we have already learned, lie in our not knowing what School Incentives 251 the intrinsic functions of the various subjects are and what immediate interests children have that involve a need for the things they study. Securing Specific Incentives. In the discussion that follows we shall name a few of the immediate interests of children with a view to pointing out how they may be used to secure specific incentives for the study of certain subjects. Plays and Games. One of the best-known facts of psychology is that all normal children are directly interested in play. Here, then, is one opportunity for the use of specific incentives. In order to play to the best advantage, children really need some knowl- edge of numbers. Such games as bean bag, marbles, keeping store, and many others that could be named involve number facts, and in order to play them chil- dren must master those facts. Again, ability to read is a great aid to play. Children will read to learn the rules for playing new games, how children in other lands play, etc. Any reading matter which will help children to learn new games or to find out more about play, will be interesting, and they will want to be able to read it — to '' get the thought " out of it. Further- more, pupils will probably want to write to their friends in other places about the games they play at school. To do this they will need to know, and will want to learn, how to write legibly, spell the words correctly, etc. The play interest, therefore, gives rise to a situation in which the pupils really need certain subject matter for the specific, intrinsic purpose it serves. And by so doing it arouses a deep interest in the subject matter. But in addition to the interest aroused, the children put the things they learn to actual use in their own 252 Rural School Management experience. This is a very important factor in making their knowledge permanent. What a child learns and uses because he really needs it, is much more likely to be retained than what he learns for some extrinsic purpose. Handwork. It has been found that practically all children like to work with their hands. They like to make such things as doll houses and furniture for the same; articles to be used as gifts; things they need for their own use; paper cuttings, clay models and drawings to represent animals, plants, characters in stories, etc. ; sand table scenes of the farm, the village, Indian life, historical events, etc. But in order to get the greatest amount of pleasure from the making of such things, they must be able to make measure- ments, to draw, to write, and to spell. Methods of using handwork to arouse an interest in these and other subjects are so well known and widely used that they need no further comment here. In handwork, as in plays and games, the pupils not only want to learn the things that will help them in their specific problems, they put the things learned to use in the ways in which such things are normally or intrinsically used. Physical Surroundings. We know now that children in general are interested in their physical surroundings — in domestic and wild animals, birds, trees, flowers, plants, streams, snow, rain, etc. Their interest in such things leads pupils to want to know more about them and to tell others what they have learned. Here, then, is an excellent opportunity to arouse an interest in any subject that will help them accomplish these ends. The practice of correlating nature study with reading, drawing, writing, and oral and written Ian- School Incentives 253 guage is already fairly widespread. The result of such correlation is that both the nature study and the other subjects are made more interesting and greatly enriched. Other Interests. We have now named a few of the immediate interests of children that are being used by many teachers as a means of arousing interest in cer- tain school subjects. Our discussion of these will serve to illustrate a method by which a feeling of need for certain subject matter may be employed as a specific incentive to study. Among the many other interests that may be, and are being, similarly used, two are worthy of special mention : (1) interest in stories — an excellent basis for the teaching of reading, writing, drawing, and language, for each of these is needed by the pupil to enable him to get the most pleasure from the reading and telling of stories he likes; (2) interest in the ac- tivities of people — social, political, and industrial. A child's interest in an industry, such as lumbering, for instance, may be used to stimulate a deep interest in reading, geography, arithmetic, and any other sub- ject that is necessary to enable him to learn all he wants to know about the industry. He will want to read about the logging camp, how the logs are trans- ported to the sawmills, how they are cut into lumber ; he will want to know where the forests are, where the sawmills are located and why, and how the lumber gets from the mills to his local lumber yard ; he will be interested in solving problems that involve the wages of the lumbermen, the cost of sawing the logs, the freight charges for transporting the lumber, and the price of lumber at the local yard. Each subject is interesting to the pupil because, through its intrinsic function, it helps him to find out what he wants to know. 254 Rural School Management Summary. A specific incentive is a feeling of need for a thing (or a subject) which, by reason of its intrinsic function, aids one in doing what he wants to do. To use a specific incentive in connection with a school subject, we must first find out what the intrinsic function of the subject is and then connect it with something the pupils like to do so that it will be used for its in- trinsic purpose. Among the immediate interests of children with which certain subjects may be thus connected are: plays and games, handwork, interest in physical surroundings, story interest, and interest in the activities of people. Specific incen- tives arouse an interest in and lead pupils to use the things they learn, thus aiding the retention of the subject matter. 3. Use of Generic Incentives It should be recalled here that we have grouped school incentives into two classes — specific and generic. Specific incentives, such as we have de- scribed, are now very generally regarded as the best means of getting children to study. However, it is not possible at present to use such incentives in all cases. There are, no doubt, a great many things in the course of study that pupils ought to learn but for which it is extremely difficult to create a feeling of need. In such cases we must resort to other means of arousing interest, namely, generic incentives. Meaning of Generic Incentives. If the reason or motive which prompts a pupil to study applies to a particular subject or assignment and involves the in- trinsic use of the subject matter, the incentive, as we have seen, is a specific one. But if the motive is a general one ; that is, if it applies equally well to all or to a large number of subjects, it is called a generic incentive. For instance, if the reason that prompts the pupil to study is his desire to get a good grade, the motive applies to all subjects alike. He will want School Incentives 255 good grades in all of the subjects he studies. Or, if the reason for studying is to please the teacher, or to escape punishment, or to be promoted, the motive works as well in one subject as in another. It stimu- lates study in all of the subjects. A generic incentive, then, is one which applies equally well to all of the subjects a pupil studies. Common Generic Incentives. Among the incentives of this type the following are, or have been, most widely used as school incentives: desire for approval, school exhibits, promotions, grades, privileges, immunities, punishment, and prizes. Desire for Approval. Next to the use of specific incentives, one of the best means of arousing interest in study is to make use of children's desire for approval. There are two reasons why the desire for approbation is a good school incentive. First. Practically all children desire the approval of those whom they es- teem. They like to know that their teacher and parents are well pleased with their work. The in- centive is, therefore, as applicable to the younger pupils as it is to the older ones, and to the duller as well as to the brighter members of any class. But this alone is not a sufficient justification for its use, for fear of punishment is probably just as universal. Second. The end to be gained, while it is not the in- trinsic end or purpose of study, is, nevertheless, a worthy motive. A desire for the respect and esteem of other people is a desirable trait or characteristic of adults. It makes them better citizens. Therefore, the desire for approval applies outside of school as well as in it. There is no serious danger to the pupils, then, in letting them study to win approbation. Even if they should form the habit of working from this 256 Rural School Management motive and carry the habit into later life, they will, in the main, be all the better for having done so. The use of this incentive involves the right use of praise and censure. The incentive will be most ef- fective if the following precautions are observed: First. When praise is given it should be for the effort put forth and not for the result achieved by the pupil. The dull pupil who does his best, though his work may not be first-class, is as much entitled to a word of praise as is the brighter pupil who puts forth his best effort. Second. The praise given should be a sincere expression of the teacher's feeling. Flatter- ing does more harm than good. Third. Praise should be given sparingly. Pupils must not be led to expect praise for everything they do. An occasional word of sincere praise bestowed on a pupil when his effort merits special recognition — this will do much to stim- ulate faithful work on the part of most pupils. Fourth. If a pupil's work is unsatisfactory and the reasons for its being so are known to be within his control, an expression of disappointment, a mild censure, or a sharp reprimand by the teacher may serve to prevent its recurrence. But never should censure degenerate into " nagging." School Exhibits. Not only children but practically all adults are fond of having their work placed on pub- lic exhibition. In a great many schools this natural tendency is being used now, through school exhibits and parents' days, to stimulate pupils to do the very best work they are capable of doing. Methods of con- ducting such exhibits have been discussed in a previous chapter. Promotions. The desire to be promoted is a char- acteristic of almost all school children. Some writers School Incentives 257 on school management object to the use of this desire as a school incentive, on the ground that in many cases children are overworked or worried into ner- vousness through fear of failing to " pass." These evils grow out of the misuse of the incentive. Any generic incentive is liable to abuse, and constantly threatening children with failure is certainly an unwise school practice. Other writers object to the use of this incentive because promotion is not the intrinsic purpose of study. This point must be conceded. But in cases where intrinsic purposes cannot be em- ployed, the desire to advance with one's class seems to be an entirely worthy motive for study. The desire for advancement is unquestionably an incentive to faithful work in many instances outside of school. Workmen in factories and mills and on railroads, clerks in stores, and even teachers are often promoted for faithful service. Furthermore, in many of these instances the possibility of advancement is held out as an inducement to get people to do their work well. The position taken here, therefore, is that, in the absence of specific incentives, the desire to be pro- moted, if used in moderation, is a legitimate school incentive. Grades. At the present time the giving of grades is undoubtedly the most widely used school incentive. Educators differ in their opinions as to the wisdom of giving grades in school, but they agree that the prac- tice is at present carried to a harmful extent in most schools. In a great many schools everything the pupils do is graded. Their oral recitations, their daily written work, their test papers, are graded. Grades are given out at the end of each month, each quarter, each term. Children compare and talk about their 258 Rural School Management grades rather than their work, and sometimes both they and their parents complain if the grades are not what the pupils think they ought to be. A fuller treatment of the defects of the usual method of grading pupils is reserved for Chapter XIII. Prac- tically all educators now agree that there ought to be less stress placed on the getting of grades and more on the character of the work done by pupils. Some teach- ers have adopted the plan of using such words as " excellent," " good," "fair," and " poor " to indicate the character of a pupil's work. When such words are used in the way that praise and censure are em- ployed, the results are: (1) less unwholesome rivalry and ill feeling among the pupils, and (2) deeper concern about the work itself rather than about mere grades. Privileges. In some schools children are induced to study by offering them certain privileges, such as occupying '' honor " seats, and serving as monitors to distribute pupils' wraps or the materials for writing and drawing. If these privileges are given only to those pupils who attain the highest standing in their classes, they become a sort of prize for which the pupils work. This method of granting privileges is objectionable for the same reasons which we shall urge a little later, against the giving of prizes. A much better method is to rotate the privileges among the pupils in regular order, with the understanding that a pupil can have the privilege in his turn, provided his work is satisfactory. By this method the privilege is extended to all the pupils but is withdrawn from those who, in the opinion of the teacher, fail to put forth proper effort on their work. It is the practice in some schools to deprive children of their play period when they have failed to do their School Incentives 259 work satisfactorily. This practice is objectionable for the reason that children really need the play and should have all of the time allotted to them for that purpose. A better plan is to give pupils the privilege of engaging in handwork or reading an interesting story after they have prepared their other work. Care should be taken to withdraw the privilege when a pupil fails to prepare the work he is expected to do. Immunities. An immunity is an exemption from some school task or from all school work for a cer- tain period. One method of using immunities is to excuse from examination all pupils whose class work attains a certain standard. Another is to give a half- holiday or dismiss pupils early at certain times on condition that they have met certain specified re- quirements in their work. There is a difference of opinion among educators as to the value of examinations, but we need not discuss that here. If we hold, as some do, that examinations or tests have a real educative value, then, clearly, it is unfair to deprive any pupil of the privilege of taking them and, hence, no pupil should be excused from them because of good class standing. If we accept the opposite view that examinations are harmful, then no pupil should be required to take them. In other words, whether or not a pupil should take the examinations depends upon their value and not upon the standard he attains in his class work. Much the same argument applies to half-holidays and early dismissals as incentives to study. If the school work is so profitable that some of the pupils should be kept at school to do it, then it ought to be worth while for all of: the pupils. A further argument against immunities is the fact 260 Rural School Management that they place school work in the light of punishment — something to be escaped from when possible. In actual practice, however, immunities have been used temporarily with good results. In some instances teachers have used an immunity to get pupils to study until they became interested in their work for other and better reasons. This seems to be legitimate, pro- vided the immunity is abolished just as soon as some higher incentive can be used effectively. Fear of Punishment. Resorting to punishment is still used in some schools as an incentive to study. Scolding, keeping pupils after school, standing them on the floor, and whipping are a few of the many forms of punishment sometimes used to stimulate study. That punishment has a legitimate use in the school is not to be denied. But such use is in connection with order or discipline rather than with study. White states the true function of punishment to be " to serve as a check, not as a spur, — to suppress activity, not to energize it." There are three reasons why the use of punishment as a school incentive is objectionable. First. It leads to the minimum amount of study. Pupils put forth the least amount of effort that will avert the punish- ment. Second. It serves, in many instances, to in- crease a pupil's dislike for study. Third. Pupils who study from a sense of compulsion are very likely to take advantage of the first opportunity to quit school. They prefer to go out into life where they can do the things they like to do or feel a need of doing. Notwithstanding these and other objections to the use of punishment as a school incentive, the fact re- mains that no pupil should be permitted to remain in School Incentives 261 school and show an utter disregard for all school tasks. If the pupil is to remain in school, some means must be found to induce him to put forth some effort to do his work. In such extreme cases, as in all cases, the best method is to find something the pupil likes to do and associate his work with that interest as a means of helping him to do the thing he likes. When this fails, recourse should be had to any or all of the generic incentives we have described. In case these prove in- effective, the fear of punishment may be invoked. Prizes. The term " prize '' is used here to include all such inducements to study as money, books, merit cards, badges or buttons, honor rolls, class honors, etc. There are two methods of using prizes as incentives. The first is to give the prize to the pupil who ranks highest in a given subject or line of work. Sometimes a second and a third prize are given to those who rank second and third in their class. The other method is to reward, in some way, all who attain a certain stand- ard of excellence in their work. The usual plan is to give merit cards or badges or class honors or a place on the honor roll to all pupils whose grades reach or exceed a certain mark. To both of these practices there are some very serious objections. First. The prizes will always be won by those pupils who are naturally the most capable or are most favorably situated. Other things being equal, the brighter pupils will always get the prizes. But if, for any reason, these are eliminated, those who can attend the school most regularly stand the next best chance of winning. Those who are less capable, and those who are compelled to be absent from school very much, soon come to realize that they cannot be in the winning group. These very naturally cease to 262 Rural School Management be stimulated by the prize, and the contest narrows down to the few more fortunate pupils. The prize system, therefore, rewards natural ability or fortunate circumstances rather than genuine effort, and fails, in most cases, to stimulate the pupils who most need an incentive. Second. Prizes make their appeal to the instinct of rivalry — the instinct that prompts us to want to win over or beat others in some sort of con- test. When we offer prizes we cultivate this instinct and cause it to grow stronger. Educators now be- lieve that the school ought to strive to cultivate the spirit of cooperation, sympathy, and mutual helpful- ness rather than that of competition and strife. Under the conditions of present-day life outside of the school there is little or no need for stimulating the spirit of competition, while there is a great need for developing the idea of cooperation. If there is to be any compe- tition in the school, it should be between large groups or classes of pupils and not between individual children. The advantage of group competition is that it offers opportunities for cooperation and mutual helpfulness within the group. Third. Prize-giving frequently stirs up an ill feeling among children and tends to cul- tivate undesirable traits of character. There is danger that the winners will become vain and bigoted while the losers may become sullen and revengeful. In- stances are numerous in which children have rejoiced in any misfortune that served to keep their rivals in a spirited contest out of school. The verdict of practically all educators is that prize- giving as a school incentive is decidedly harmful and should not be practiced in any school. Other Generic Incentives. There are no doubt other incentives that may appeal to a few pupils. School Incentives 263 Some children may be led to study from such motives as a feeling of self-respect, the desire for success in life, the wish to be a great scholar, the sense of right and duty, etc. Such incentives are perfectly worthy rea- sons for study and should be employed in all classes where they can be made effective. REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Bagley : Classroom Management, Chapters XI-XII. Charters : Teaching the Common Branches, Chapter XVI, also Specific Needs and Generic Values in the index. CoLGROVE : The Teacher and the School, pp. 384-390. Button : School Management, Chapter VIII. Salisbury : School Management, Chapter XI. White : School Management, pp. 130-188. CLASS EXERCISES 1. State what you consider to be the intrinsic function and one indirect function of : (1) a newspaper, (2) a dictionary, (3) grammar, (4) music, (5) manual training. 2. Name ten immediate interests of children and show how each may be used to arouse an interest in some school subject. 3. Why is the classification of incentives as specific and generic to be preferred to the other classifications given in the text? 4. Why are specific incentives regarded as better than generic? 5. Show how a specific incentive can be secured for the study of : (1) agriculture, (2) manual training, (3) domestic science. 6. Which do you regard as the higher incentive and why — the desire for promotion or the desire for a high grade? 7. State two objections to the use of punishment as a school incentive, in addition to those named in the text. 8. What generic incentives besides those named in this chapter have you known to be used, or do you think can be used, success- fully with some children? 9. Prepare a brief but careful summary of your study of the "Use of Generic Incentives." CHAPTER XII SCHOOL GOVERNMENT I. FUNCTIONS OF SCHOOL GOVERNMENT Ability to discipline a school is one of the foremost qualifications of the teacher. In our attempt to learn how a school may be governed it is necessary for us to consider, first of all, what constitutes good discipline in school and why a school should be well governed. Meaning of School Government. Our conception of what constitutes good order in school has changed greatly within recent years. Not so very long ago good order was supposed to consist in the stillness and quietness of the pupils. A school was thought to be well governed if the pupils remained in their seats and made as little noise as possible. According to this view a good disciplinarian was one who could suppress most effectively all physical activity and noise on the part of the pupils. But this notion of good order is no longer common. Since we have learned more about the nature and needs of children, we have seen that the old view of discipline is wrong. We know now that activity is necessary to the development of children. We know, too, that a certain amount of noise is unavoidable. The sup- pression of all activity and noise on the part of children tends to defeat the main purpose of the school, in that it prevents the natural development and the most effective learning on the part of the pupils. 264 School Government 265 But everybody understands, of course, that no pupil should act in such a way as to disturb other children in their work. According to our present view a school is well governed when all of the pupils are interestedly, actively employed on their school tasks but are doing their work without interfering with the rights of other pupils. The same idea applies to conduct on the playground. School discipline, therefore, as we view it at present, means keeping children profitably em- ployed in work or at play in such a way as not to disturb or interfere with the rights of other pupils in their work or play. To Preserve Good Order. The immediate function of school government is to create and maintain good order in the school. By good order we mean a condi- tion in which every pupil can do his work without unnecessary interruption or interference from others. To this end pupils must not be boisterous or unneces- sarily noisy. There must be no laughing, talking, or moving about the room that would create a disturb- ance during study time. Pupils may be permitted to work together provided they do not thereby disturb others in their work. But " visiting " among pupils is out of order, because it necessarily interferes with the right of others to pursue their work. Further- more, a pupil who " visits " during study time not only prevents others learning, but deprives himself of a part of the profit which he should receive. To preserve order in the school, then, means to prevent those things that tend to disturb the work of the school. It means to permit nothing on the part of any pupil that will distract others or waste his own time and energy. Children may exercise all of the freedom and activity essential to their own 266 Rural School Management learning without necessarily causing a disturbance in the school. The same principle applies to the playground. Here, as well as in the schoolroom, the rights of others and the good of the school as a whole must be respected in the conduct of every pupil. To preserve these conditions, to guarantee to all of the pupils their right to work and play without unnecessary interfer- ence, is the first and the immediate purpose of school government. Training in Right Conduct. We learned in another connection that the main function of the school is to help children become efficient citizens. In order to accomplish this end, it must do more than teach them the common school subjects. It must train them in matters of right conduct. This is the second function of school government. If children are to become good citizens, it is very important that they shall learn to control their un- desirable impulses, to work and play agreeably with other children, to have a wholesome respect for the rights of other people, and to maintain a due regard for authority. It is important that children shall acquire habits of work, of obedience, of honesty, and of truthfulness. It is important, in a word, that children shall acquire all of those traits of character that good citizens are expected to possess. These qualities the school can impart, to some extent at least, through its methods of discipline. In a well-governed school, children control their evil impulses. They work and play in harmony, and respect the rights of one another and the authority of the teacher. These things they do from day to day in concrete situations in their own experience School Government 267 where there is a real need for doing them. Thus habits of right conduct are estabhshed and a good character is formed. The teacher who recognizes this as one of the functions of school discipline will take advantage of every opportunity that arises in the school to get children to do the things that are desirable, to the end that right action may become habitual with them. Summary. According to the present view a school is well governed when every pupil is engaged in study and does his work in such a way as not to disturb or hinder others. School government has two functions: (1) to preserve order in the school, and (2) to train pupils in the formation of habits of right conduct. II. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED Having learned what constitutes good school gov- ernment and what ends it should accomplish, we are ready to consider the difficulties usually encountered in trying to attain the ends desired. The causes of disorder in school are so numerous and so varied that a complete list cannot be given here. We shall consider only those causes of mis- conduct that apply to schools in general. Unhygienic and Unattractive Surroundings. Poor ventilation, improper heating and humidity, and bad lighting conditions are common causes of disorder in school. Such conditions make it difficult for pupils to apply themselves to their school work. Hence they lapse into idleness or find rther outlets for their energy. Disfiguring desks, thrc ving paper wads, re- flecting bright lights into the eyes of other pupils with a mirror, and various other mischievous pranks are the legitimate results of poor working conditions in the room. 268 Rural School Management Again, a dirty, belittered schoolroom is an invita- tion to pupils to be careless and inconsiderate of others. A filthy, disfigured toilet is a stimulus to children to be filthy in both thought and action. Many of the disgusting practices connected with the use of toilets are suggested to children by the obscene writing and drawings and the filth-covered seats and floors found in neglected outhouses. Ugliness in the schoolroom or on the premises appeals to the baser elements in children's nature, while beauty and attractiveness serve to restrain the impulses and inspire to nobler thoughts and deeds. Good conduct, both in the schoolroom and on the play- ground, is easier for children amid hygienic and attrac- tive surroundings than it is under opposite conditions. Physical Condition of Pupils. A source of disorder closely related to the one we have just described is found in the physical condition of the pupils. That physical defects interfere with school progress is a matter of common knowledge. A child who does not see well enough to read the maps and charts, or the work placed on the blackboard, is likely to lose interest in his work and become inattentive. So, also, is one who cannot hear well enough to understand what the other pupils and the teacher say. Other defects, such as adenoids and defective teeth, are known to produce similar results. Losing interest, becoming inattentive and indifferent to school work, are conditions which favor misconduct. If pupils are not interested in their lessons, they are very likely to become interested in the things that make for disorder in the school. The effects of physical deficiencies on school discipline constitute another argument for the medical inspec- tion of school children. School Government 269 Uninteresting School Work. Practically every one who has taught school knows that much of the dis- order grows out of a lack of interest on the part of pupils. The child who likes his school work and applies himself diligently to the study of his lessons may occasionally do something that is out of order. But the habitual trouble-makers are in most cases those who are not interested in their work. A well- selected course of study and good school incentives con- tribute a great deal toward overcoming this difficulty. Instinctive Tendencies of Children. A fourth source of disorder in school lies in certain instinctive or natural tendencies of children. These vary with different children and with different stages in the life of the same child. There are times, for instance, when children are more or less selfish and want their own way in almost everything. Some children are, at times, fond of teasing or tormenting others and fre- quently get into quarrels and fights. Showing off, doing things that are unique or sensational in order to attract attention to themselves, is a prominent characteristic of some children at certain times. The formation of gangs or cliques, admiration for the opposite sex, and the writing of love notes are trace- able to certain instincts. In many instances, the so-called " meanness " of children is simply a strong natural tendency that needs to be controlled, or directed in ways that will make it beneficial rather than harmful to the child and to the school as a whole. Poor Home Training. The kind of training children receive in their homes constitutes an important factor in school government. Children that come from un- cultured homes cannot be expected to have the best of manners until they have had time to acquire them 270 Rural School Management through the influence of the school. If children are permitted to be boisterous, rude, and quarrelsome at home; if they are accustomed to hear profane or vulgar language ; if they are allowed to be dis- respectful to their parents, or to address their elders with too much familiarity, they are likely to display these qualities at school until they have been trained in better ways of acting. A child's first ideas of right and wrong, of what constitutes propriety, are acquired in the home. These he takes to school with him, and, if they lead him to do things that are out of order, he should have the school's help in acquiring better ideas and better ways of acting. The Teacher. In enumerating the principal sources of disorder in the school, the teacher himself must not be left out of the list. There is no doubt that in many instances the misconduct of pupils is traceable to some trait or action of the teacher. There is an old saying to the effect that "as is the teacher so is the school." Nowhere is this saying more true than in connection with school discipline. The noisy, blustering teacher is sure to be imitated in those traits by some of his pupils. The teacher who scolds, nags, worries, and frets creates a condition very unfavorable to good order. Again, teachers sometimes drive their pupils into rebellion by the harsh, cruel means they use, or spoil them through misguided sympathy and over- indulgence. The teacher who is made cross or ill- tempered from loss of sleep or poor health is likely to incur the dislike of his pupils and thereby lose his influence and control over them. The elements of the teacher's personality that make for good order are discussed in the next section. It will suffice here to say that any teacher who is troubled School Government 271 with disorder in his school will do well to examine himself carefully to see whether his own conduct is not responsible, to some extent at least, for the mis- conduct of his pupils. Summary. The conditions that tend to produce disorder in the school are numerous, and are sometimes confined to a par- ticular school or pupil. Among the causes that are more or less general are : unhygienic and unattractive school surroundings, physical deficiencies of pupils, uninteresting school work, certain instinctive tendencies of children, lack of proper home training, and certain traits or actions on the part of the teacher. m. HOW TO GOVERN THE SCHOOL Disciplinary Agencies Already Studied. Almost every chapter we have studied thus far has an im- portant bearing on the government of the school. The teacher who succeeds in arousing interest on the part of his patrons will have their cooperation in matters of discipline as well as in the other affairs of the school. School hygiene and the beautifying of the school premises, by making conditions favorable for study, tend to prevent undesirable conduct on the part of pupils. A well-equipped playground and an active interest in play by the teacher tend to give the teacher an easy control over the conduct of the children. A daily program and a course of study which provide interesting work for pupils during both the study and the recitation periods go a long way toward maintaining good order in the school. And fianlly, good school incentives, as we have seen, con- stitute one of the best means of preventing disorder and accomplishing the ends of school discipline. It seems, therefore, that the use of these agencies ought to be sufficient to solve the problem of how to 272 Rural School Management govern the school. Indeed, if the conditions set forth in previous chapters can be fully attained in the school, there will be little need for the employment of other means. However, there are, even in the best of schools, occasional instances of misconduct that require the use of special agencies of control. Some of these we shall now consider. The Teacher. Attention has already been called to the fact that ability to govern the school is regarded as one of the most important qualifications of the teacher. School boards always try to be sure that an applicant is a good disciplinarian before they employ him to teach their school. Many persons who are otherwise good teachers fail because of a lack of ability to govern the school properly. Our problem here, then, is to find out, if we can, in what this special ability, this very important qualification, consists. Just what are the elements in a teacher's personality that give him the power to govern the school ? Nearly all writers on school management enumerate the qualities in the teacher's character and training which they regard as essential in a good disciplinarian. Baldwin ^ gives the following list : 1. Bearing — dignified quietness and confidence. 2. Tact — a wise use of all educational agencies. 3. System — orderliness, the fitness of things. 4. Will power — control through high motives. 5. Heart power — sympathetic helpfulness. 6. Teaching power — stimulating pupils to do their best work. 7. Pupil insight — an understanding of child nature. 8. Culture — a mastery of the subjects one teaches. 9. Character — being what one wishes his pupils to become. ^ School Management and School Methods, p. 95. School Government 273 As given by Bagley (" Classroom Management "), the essential elements of personality in the teacher are : Courage — physical and moral fearlessness. Tact — preserving order without an undue display of authority. Persistence — a rigid adherence to necessary requirements for good order. Scholarship — mastery of subject matter and ability to present it so children can comprehend it. Justice — the spirit of fair play, the " square deal." Good nature — a genial, sunny disposition. Another list includes such qualities as address, personal appearance, optimism, reserve or dignity, enthusiasm, fairness, sincerity, sjonpathy, vitality, and scholarship. If the judgment of these and other experienced educators is to be relied upon, it is perfectly clear that from the standpoint of ability to govern the school there are certain qualities that every teacher should possess. Undoubtedly he ought to give careful atten- tion to his personal appearance, including such matters as cleanliness of person and clothing, modesty of dress, etc. He ought to be courteous, kind, and sympathetic, convincing pupils that he is their true friend and helper. He should be fair, tactful, and firm, in the enforcement of the measures found necessary to pre- serve good order. And further, he should have a sufficient mastery of subject matter and skill in teach- ing to inspire pupils with a respect for, and confidence in, his ability as a teacher. If the teacher has such qualities as we have men- tioned, there is little danger that his school will become disorderly or that he will fail as a teacher because of inability to govern. Fortunately, most persons who aspire to be teachers can acquire, with reasonable 274 Rural School Management effort, the qualifications most essential to their success. Having first learned what traits of character are most needed to maintain order in the school, the next step is a conscious endeavor to put these qualities into practice at every opportunity. Summary. Important agencies for promoting good order in the school are: interest in the school on the part of patrons; medical inspection and hygienic and attractive surroundings; facilities for play ; a well-arranged daily program and an interest- ing course of study ; good school incentives ; and a teacher whose personality includes an attractive personal appearance, kindness, sympathy, justice, tact, firmness, scholarship, and skill in teaching. Rules and Regulations. The practice of using a code of rules and regulations as a means of promoting school discipline is not very common at present. Formerly, it was the custom in many schools for the teacher to post up in the room, or to read at the be- ginning of the term, a long list of rules stating what pupils should or should not do and specifying a certain penalty for the violation of each rule. Objections to a Set of Rules. Educators now be- lieve that the practice just referred to is decidedly unwise. There are three main objections urged against the reading of a set of rules at the opening of the school. First. It is impossible to have a list of rules that will cover all of the offenses children may commit. No one can foresee all of the disorderly things children may do in school. And pupils feel at liberty to do anything that is not specifically forbidden, or at least to justify their action on the ground that it was not "against the rules." Second. The rightness or wrongness of children's behavior at school is not always a fixed matter. An action that is wrong at one time may not be wrong at another time under different circum- School Government 275 stances. What is wrong for one pupil may not be wrong in the same degree for another pupil. Or it may be, in some instances, that the wrong lies not so much in what is done as in the way it is done. What a pupil says to the teacher, for instance, may be per- fectly proper so far as the words are concerned, but the manner of expression may make it very impertinent. Third. The reading of a set of rules often suggests to pupils things they would not have thought of doing, but which, when once brought to their attention, they become eager to do. Accordingly they " take chances," '* try out " the teacher, or do the things stealthily, if possible. In such cases the rules serve to provoke rather than prevent misconduct on the part of pupils. Instead of having a set of rules, the best teachers prefer to place the responsibility for good conduct very largely on the children themselves. When some- thing is done that the teacher regards as an offense, he explains why it is out of order and requests that it shall not be repeated. He has, or should have, fairly clearly in mind what he will do in case the offense is repeated, but he does not make this known to the pupils. He does not tie his hands with threats, but keeps himself free to deal with each offender in the light of all the circumstances connected with the case. Summary. Experienced educators have found that the read- ing or posting of a set of rules is not a good method of governing a school. The best teachers prefer to place the responsibility for right conduct on the pupils and to deal with ofifenses as they arise in the way that seems best in each case. Punishment. The use of punishment is undoubtedly the most widespread means of maintaining order among school children. The agencies we have studied thus far (with the exception of rules) seek to preserve good 276 Rural School Management order by providing those conditions in the school that are especially favorable to good conduct on the part of pupils. Punishment, on the other hand, is a means of preventing disorder through a fear of the unpleasant consequences that may follow wrongdoing. Means of the former type are universally regarded as the better where they can be made effective. But experience has shown that it is necessary sometimes, even in the best of schools, to resort to punishment in order to govern the school properly. Functions of Punishment. Punishment, as a means of school discipline, has two important functions; namely, to prevent wrongdoing, and to reform the wrongdoer. Misconduct on the part of any pupil should be pre- vented for two reasons. It is necessary, in the first place, to protect other children in their right to study or play without disturbance or interference from others. Even one disorderly pupil may disturb the work of the whole school, or mar the value of the play period for other children. Misconduct should be prevented, in the second place, because of the influence of the conduct of one pupil on the behavior of other children. Children are naturally imitative. They are inclined to want to do what they see others doing. Misconduct in school has been known, in many instances, to spread from the example of a single bad pupil. It is clear, therefore, that all disorderly behavior in school should be prevented, to the end that pupils may be protected from disturbance in their study and from the influence of a bad example. In all cases where better means fail to accomplish this end, the fear of punishment may be invoked. The punishment that is employed to prevent a pupil from repeating School Government 277 his misdeeds may serve incidentally to prevent others from committing similar offenses. But in addition to preventing disorder through restraint, punishment should serve also to reform the wrongdoers. This means that the punishment should be such as will tend to overcome or remove the pupil's desire to do the things that are objection- able. To make the pupil better, to help him master his undesirable impulse, to train him to do and to want to do the things that are approved of by the best people — this is a duty the school owes to every pupil. In some cases punishment may be necessary to accomplish this end. Summary. Punishment, as a means of promoting school government, serves to prevent disorder by appealing to the fear of suffering for wrongdoing. The need for punishment arises when all of the agencies for stimulating pupils to good conduct fail. The functions of punishment are : (1) to prevent disorderly conduct, and (2) to reform refractory pupils. Objectionable Forms of Punishment. The purposes which punishment ought to accomplish should be the teacher's guide in selecting the form of penalty to use in any given case. Just what punishment to use for any given offense cannot be prescribed. The teacher who knows all of the circumstances in the case is the one to decide what penalty should be employed. There are some forms of punishment, however, which fail so utterly to accomplish the true ends of punishment that teachers should be cautioned against employing them. Threatening and Nagging. These are methods of dealing with school offenses that should never be employed. Both nagging and frequent threatening fail, in most cases, to accomplish either of the aims of 278 Rural School Management punishment — they neither restrain nor reform pupils. They more frequently result in creating a disrespect for the teacher, and when this happens, the teacher's best means of control is lost. Further than this, they sometimes stimulate pupils to make their conduct even more objectionable. Sarcasm and Ridicule. Sarcasm and ridicule cer- tainly have nothing to recommend or justify their use as punishments. Speaking in terms of scorn or contempt of pupils' work or behavior, taunting them with their faults, and making keen, cutting jests at their expense serve to anger rather than reform pupils. Most pupils in the elementary school are too immature to catch the point of a sarcastic remark, and there- fore cannot be helped by it, while those who are old enough to comprehend its significance are most likely thoroughly to resent such methods. Jesting or " pok- ing fun " at the frailties of pupils is more often the venting of the teacher's anger at his own failure than it is a sincere desire to help pupils overcome their weakness. The use of sarcasm and ridicule is decid- edly harmful in a vast majority of cases. Applying reproachful epithets to children is a prac- tice closely related to, but even more harmful than, the use of sarcasm and ridicule. To call a pupil a blockhead, an idiot, a sneak, a liar, or a thief is the gravest of insults. Such a practice should be beneath the dignity of any self-respecting teacher. Personal Indignities. Such personal indignities as striking pupils on the head, boxing their ears, and pulling their hair are other forms of punishment that are thoroughly objectionable. In the same class be- long the so-called '' appropriate " punishments, such as washing a pupil's mouth with soap and water, School Government 279 tying a cloth over the mouth, and sealing the lips with court plaster. Such punishments do not serve the true functions of punishment. Hence they are, at least, a waste of time and energy and frequently result in positive harm. Saturation. Saturation is the term applied to that form of punishment in which the pupil is required to repeat the offense he has committed until he is tired of doing it. If a pupil has been guilty of throw- ing paper wads, for instance, he is required to make and throw paper wads until he grows weary of it. In order to break a pupil of the tendency to lie down in his seat, a teacher placed a coat on the seat for a pillow and required the pupil to lie there during an entire quarter-day session of the school. Such a form of punishment is fundamentally wrong. If the deed is a real offense against the school, clearly the teacher has no right to require the pupil to repeat it. Even children are able to see the inconsistency in such a practice. Again, the child may absolutely refuse to obey — to be made a source of amusement, a spectacle for other pupils to laugh at. In this case the situation becomes complicated. The teacher not only has to select another penalty for the original offense, he has the additional offense of disobedience to deal with. Saturation may occasionally serve to restrain pupils, but the chances of its failing and the fundamental inconsistency in the method make it unwise for teachers to resort to it as a form of punish- ment. School Tasks. The practice of requiring pupils to perform school tasks as a punishment for their wrong- doing is, in general, open to serious criticism. If a pupil has wasted the time allotted to him for the 280 Rural School Management study of a given lesson, he may, and should, be re- quired to prepare the lesson he has neglected. Some additional punishment as a penalty for idleness is, perhaps, permissible. But the setting of legitimate school work as a penalty for other forms of misconduct is objectionable because it gives the pupil the wrong attitude toward the work required. To illustrate, suppose a pupil is required to memorize a poem or write a composition or solve additional arithmetic problems as a penalty for having quarreled with a playmate. In most cases the result will be a thorough dislike for the work assigned rather than a wish to be a better pupil. Teachers should distinguish care- fully between requiring school work to be done be- cause it has been neglected and requiring it as a penalty for disorderly conduct. The former is a legitimate practice, while the latter is objectionable and should not be employed. Summary. Some of the punishments frequently used in school are objectionable because (1) they fail to accomplish the ends for which punishment should be used, and (2) they tend, in many instances, to make the conduct or attitude of pupils worse than it was before they were punished. Threaten- ing and nagging, sarcasm and ridicule, personal indignities, saturation, and school tasks are objectionable for one or both of these reasons. Desirable Forms of Punishment. Having enumer- ated some of the punishments that are to be avoided, it is in order next to name a few that may be used with reasonable assurance that good results will follow. Reproof. Reproof has been found to be an excellent means of preventing the repetition of offenses against school discipline. It consists in calling attention to the offense committed, explaining why it is offensive. School Government 281 and requesting that it shall not be repeated. This statement may be made in public, or to the pupil or pupils who committed the misdeed. In many cases this is the only punishment the pupils will need. For when they once understand that their conduct is objectionable, many of them will wish to escape the further disapproval either of the teacher or of other pupils. The aim of the teacher should be to create in the school a public sentiment against wrongdoing. Such a sentimxcnt is one of the most powerful means that can be employed to restrain and reform pupils. A friendly heart-to-heart talk is often very effective, especially with the older children. In such a talk the teacher should strive, in a friendly, sympathetic way, to get from the pupil the reasons for his misconduct, a frank admission that such conduct is wrong, and a sincere promise not to repeat the offense. If the pupil is thoroughly convinced that the teacher is his friend and wants to be his helper, he is very likely to be favorably affected by such an interview. This means has resulted in reforming many a troublesome boy and girl, where harsh methods would have failed. Notifying Parents. It frequently happens that parents are ignorant of the trouble their children cause in school, and many of them would be glad, if they knew the facts, to cooperate with the teacher in correcting the evils. The fear of disapproval at home is an excellent aid to school government. A child's desire for the approbation of his parents is a perfectly worthy motive for good conduct and one to which the teacher may legitimately appeal in his dealings with children. A definite, sjnnpathetic under- standing between teacher and parents is known to be one of the best means of promoting good order in the 282 Rural School Management school. Parents have a right to know of the mis- deeds of their children, to the end that they may help bring about their reform. A personal visit by the teacher to interview the parents is sometimes the most effective punishment for a refractory pupil that can be employed. In a certain school there was one boy who was particularly troublesome. His offenses were so many and so serious that the teacher asked the school board to expel him from school. But, before any action was taken in the matter, the superintendent visited the school. He suggested that the teacher confer with the boy's parents. Acting upon this suggestion, the teacher called at the home and gave the parents a straightforward statement of all the facts in the case. The parents were genuinely surprised to learn that the boy had caused any trouble at school. They promised the teacher that if he would permit the boy to remain in school, they would guarantee his good behavior thereafter. The teacher consented to the arrangement and the parents fulfilled their agreement. Isolation. A great many teachers have found that the practice of isolating pupils has a wholesome effect on their conduct. This punishment consists in separat- ing the naughty pupil from other children so that he cannot be associated with them in certain school activi- ties. If a pupil is quarrelsome, overbearing, or other- wise disorderly on the playground, he is not permitted to play with other children. He must play either at a different period or on a different part of the play- ground from that used by the other pupils. Likewise, if a pupil is disrespectful or misbehaves in class, he is not allowed to take part in the class exercises but must recite alone or write out his lessons for the teacher. School Government 283 A concrete instance will serve to illustrate one method of using this form of punishment. A certain pupil was particularly annoying because of his con- stant talking to and tormenting pupils who sat near him in school. The teacher had a private interview with him about his conduct, but this failed to bring any improvement. Accordingly she arranged a seat in one corner of the room and assigned the boy to this seat with the understanding that he was to occupy it until he had decided to conduct himself properly at his regular desk. He was at liberty to return to his regular seat at any time, but his returning was to be the signal that he had decided not to cause any further trouble. He remained at the special seat for several days, but finally returned of his own accord to the desk from which he had been removed. There was no further disorder in the school on his part. Isolation, as a mode of punishment, has two strong points in its favor. First, it effectively prevents a repetition of the offense while the pupil is isolated, and second, it causes the pupil to think seriously about his conduct and, in some instances, to decide for him- self that a different course of action would be preferable. Loss of Privileges. Depriving pupils of certain privileges is generally regarded as an excellent form of punishment. The abuse of a privilege should re- sult naturally in the loss of that privilege. The effectiveness of this penalty is in proportion to the extent to which the pupils enjoy or appreciate the privilege withdrawn from them. There is, of course, no punishment in withdrawing a privilege that a pupil cares little or nothing about. However, the principle has rather a wide application to school discipline. There are a number of privileges which 284 Rural School Management most pupils enjoy and which they would dislike to lose. Among such privileges the following may be mentioned : 1. Serving as monitor to distribute and collect wraps, writing and drawing material, etc. 2. Performing certain services for school, such as cleaning the blackboard, carrying water, etc. 3. Engaging in handwork or reading an interesting book after the other work has been prepared. 4. Sitting at a favorite desk or with a certain playmate. 5. Playing with other children. 6. Taking part in some school exercise, such as an entertainment or a debating contest. 7. Belonging to a school organization, such as an athletic team, school chorus, or student club. To make this form of punishment effective it must be made clear to the pupil that his loss of the privilege is due to his misconduct and that the privilege can be restored only when he has given evidence that his offenses will not be repeated. If the privilege makes a very strong appeal to the pupil, he is very likely to meet the conditions required to regain it. Detention. Keeping pupils in at recess or after school should be resorted to only when it takes the form of the loss of a privilege. If a pupil is kept in, he should understand clearly that it is for one of two reasons; namely, that he has wasted his study time and, consequently, must do the work he has neglected before he can have his playtime ; or that his conduct on the playground is so objectionable that he has lost the privilege of playing with other children. In all cases a pupil should have the full time allotted for play, but he may be required, for either of the above reasons, to play at a time other than the regular play period. School Government 285 For certain reasons, however, detention should not often be resorted to. In the first place, the teacher should be free to go out and play with the pupils at all intermissions. In the second place, keeping a pupil after school may interfere with the janitor's work, or deprive the pupil's parents of his help after school hours, or, on account of the long distance to go, make the pupil late in reaching home. It is also frequently inconvenient for the teacher. These matters should have due consideration before a pupil is detained. Restitution. In some schools pupils are required to make good any damage to school or private property which results from carelessness or willfulness on their part. Such restitution or reparation is certainly very desirable. Stolen property should always be restored to its owner. A damaged book, whether it belongs to the school or to a pupil, should be made good or paid for. A broken window pane should be replaced. But restitution, as a school punishment, is adequate only when it involves some sacrifice on the part of the guilty pupil. If he must use the money he has saved for other purposes, or find a way to earn money with which to make good the damage done, he is punished for his offense. But if the parents make the restitution without making any demands on the pupil, some other penalty should be imposed on the child. Corporal Punishment. There is a wide difference of opinion among educators as to whether whipping should ever be resorted to as a school punishment. For our purposes here it is not necessary to state the arguments for and against this form of punishment. It will be sufficient to say that the weight of opinion, based on observation and experience, seems to be in 286 Rural School Management favor of its use in extreme cases. The fear of whip- ping undoubtedly serves as a powerful restraint. In many instances it is an effective preventive of dis- order, and this is one of the functions of punishment. It may also occasionally effect the reform of a refrac- tory pupil. Apparently, there are some children who must be compelled through fear of pain to control their undesirable impulses before any higher motive can be made to appeal to them. In the use of corporal punishment a few precautions should be observed. First. A whipping should never be administered in a spirit of anger or revenge on the part of the teacher. The teacher must exercise the self-control he is trying to establish in the conduct of the pupil. Second. The punishment should be severe enough to be effective, but never cruel or brutal. It must not result in any bodily injury to the child. Third. It should not be an attempt at the public humiliation of a pupil. The punishment should be administered at a time when both teacher and pupil are free from excitement, when the pupil can reflect on the seriousness of his misdeeds, and when there is no occasion for displaying a spirit of bravado or martyr- dom on his part. Suspension and Expulsion. In most of the states the teacher has the right, under the law, to suspend a pupil for a limited time for disorderly conduct. The right of expulsion usually rests with the school board. It is generally conceded now that these penalties should be employed only in the most extreme cases. When all other means have failed to govern a pupil whose conduct is vicious, the teacher may suspend him for a few days. But if, when he returns to school, he is still unmanageable, he should be expelled by the School Government 287 school board. Such a course is not only justifiable, it is positively necessary in some cases. Well-behaved and well-meaning children have a right to be pro- tected from persistent disturbance and from the pernicious influence of an incorrigible pupil. This is the reason why the state has given school authorities the right of expulsion. Summary. The characteristics of a desirable form of punish- ment are that it prevents disorder and, if possible, reforms the offender. Among the penalties that will generally, if rightly- used, accomplish one or both of these ends are: reproof, reports to parents, isolation, loss of privileges, detention, restitution, and corporal punishment. When all other means have failed, sus- pension or expulsion may be employed. REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Bagley : Classroom Management, Chapters VII-VIII. Bagley : School Discipline, Chapters I-III. Baldwin: School Management and School Methods, Chapters X, XII, XIV. COLGROVE : The Teacher and the School, Chapter XXIV. Button : School Management, Chapter VII. Morehouse : The Discipline of the School, Chapters IX-XI. Salisbury : School Management, Chapter XIV. White : School Management, pp. 190-216. CLASS EXERCISES 1. What, in your opinion, are the causes of the change of view as to what constitutes good order in the school? 2. Give two reasons why good order should be preserved in the schoolroom and on the playground. 3. Name five characteristics of a good citizen from the stand- point of conduct which you think the school ought to cultivate in children. 4. State three causes of disorder in school that are not listed in the text. 288 Rural School Management 5. Why are such conditions as hygienic and attractive sur- roundings, good incentives, etc., more desirable means of preserv- ing order than punishment? 6. Is lowering a pupil's grades in the subjects he studies as a penalty for misconduct an objectionable or a desirable form of punishment? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Think of your favorite teacher and name the elements in his or her personality which you admire most. 8. Give, from your own observation Or experience, two illus- trations of the use of objectionable punishments. State why each was objectionable. 9. Some educators believe that the teacher ought to have a few rules at the beginning of school. What reasons can you give in support of this view? 10. Name five punishments, other than those listed in the text, which you have seen used in school. Classify each as ob- jectionable or desirable and give reasons for your classification. CHAPTER XIII MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING I. FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS Meaning of Measuring Results. In all lines of business a great deal of importance is being attached to measuring the results of effort. Our very best farmers take pains to know just what results are obtained from the work done on their farms. They know exactly, or nearly so, the quality and the quantity of the products raised and the cost of producing the same. They keep records to show how the results of one year compare with those of other years, how the results of one method of farming differ from those obtained under different methods, how the products of their farms compare with those of other farms, and so on. The managers of factories, mills, etc., are even more careful to know just what results are obtained from the work done in their institutions. They know just what products are made, and keep an accurate account of the quality, quantity, and cost of production of each. By this means they are able to know at any time whether the industry is yielding them a profit and, if so, how much. They are also able to determine just what changes should be made, if any, to make the enterprise more profitable. Thus it is seen that good business management requires, first of all, that the managers shall be able to determine just what is being accomplished — to measure the results obtained. This principle applies 289 290 Rural School Management as much to the school as to any other hne of business. In order to know just how efficient the school is, we must have some way of measuring the work it does. We learned in another connection that there are several things the school ought to do. It would be well if we could measure the results obtained along all of these lines. But since the education of the children of the community is the most important function of the school, our discussion of educational measurements will be confined to that phase of the school's work. As a Basis of Comparison. Measuring the results of teaching is very important as a means of enabling school officials and teachers to make the comparisons necessary to bring about the best management of the school. School boards and patrons ought to know just how efficient their school is at any time. To this end they should be able to compare the results achieved in their school with those achieved in other schools. They should know also how the work done under one teacher compares with that done under former teachers. Teachers, too, should be able to make the same, and other, comparisons. It is very important that they know how their schools compare with other schools, how their own work compares with that of other teachers, how the achievements of a given class com- pare with those of corresponding classes in the same and in other schools, and how the ability of a par- ticular pupil compares with that of other members of the class. To make such comparisons as these, it is necessary to have some means of measuring results that can be applied alike to all schools, teachers, classes, and pupils. We cannot compare very accurately the work of one school or class with that of another school or class Measuring the Results of Teaching 291 unless we apply the same standard, the same method of measuring, to all cases. As a Measure of Progress. A more important purpose of measuring the results of teaching, how- ever, is to reveal the actual progress pupils make in their studies. The rate at which pupils acquire ability or advance in their studies is the best test of the effi- ciency of teaching in those subjects. To determine just how much progress pupils are making, we must be able to measure their ability in the various subjects at different times. Suppose, for instance, we wish to know exactly how much progress a pupil is making in learning to write. We would measure his ability in writing at the beginning, and again at the middle, of the term. The increase in the pupil's ability at the middle of the term is the progress he has made in the subject during that half year. By a like pro- cedure in the other subjects we would have an ac- curate measure of the results the pupil had received from his school studies. Having found the progress made by each pupil, we could easily compute the advancement made by any given class, or by the school as a whole. Such information every teacher ought to have, and ought to want, for his own satis- faction and guidance. As a Stimulus to Improvement. The third purpose of measuring the results of teaching is to stimulate teachers, pupils, and school officials to improve the work of the school where it is found to be in need of improvement. If the teacher finds by these measure- ments that the work of certain pupils or classes is not up to the standard required, or that the progress made during a certain time is not so great as it should be, he naturally wants to get better results. Accordingly, 292 Rural School Management he tries to find out what the difficulties are and how they may be overcome. Similarly, when pupils learn that their work falls below that being done by other pupils in the same class, or in corresponding classes in other schools, they are stimulated to work more vigorously. Almost all pupils like to know that their standings and achievements compare favorably with those of other children and will often put forth greater effort, if necessary, to attain this end. In some city schools such measurements are used by the superintendent or school board to determine the efficiency of the teachers. If the pupils under a certain teacher fail repeatedly to reach the standard they should attain or to make as much progress as they should, the teacher is regarded as less efficient than one who gets better results. Usually in such cases, steps are taken either to improve the work of the teacher or to get a better teacher. Summary. Methods of measuring the results of effort put forth are employed, now in most lines of business. Efforts are being made to devise means of measuring the results of teaching. Such measurements are needed for three reasons: (1) as a basis of comparing the work of schools, classes, and pupils; (2) as a measure of the progress pupils make in their studies ; and (3) as a stimulus to teachers, pupils, and school officials to improve the work where improvement is needed. n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED Having learned why the results of teaching should be measured, our next step is to see what difficulties arise in making such measurements. Some Results Not Measurable. One of the chief difficulties lies in the very nature of some of the results that come from teaching. We are accustomed to Measuring the Results of Teaching 293 think and speak of two main results, or groups of results, of teaching; namely, the learning of certain subjects, and the personal influence of the teacher. The first of these pertains to the ability the pupils acquire in arithmetic, reading, writing, and spelling, the number of facts they learn in history, geography, agriculture, etc. These are the things we usually have in mind when we speak of grades, examinations, or any other device for measuring pupils' achievements. The other group refers to such matters as ideals, habits, and interests which pupils get from a personal contact with the teacher. Everywhere the influence of the teacher is recognized as a powerful factor in helping children to form good physical and moral habits, in arousing in them an interest in the things that the best people appreciate, and in inspiring them with high ideals or noble purposes. These are the things which, according to most educators, cannot be measured. This fact should not stand in the way of measuring such school achievements as are capable of being measured. It may be, as some educators hold, that those teachers who are the best at teaching the various subjects are at the same time those whose influence is most valuable. If this is true, it is not necessary that we measure the personal influence of the teacher. At any rate, the measuring of the results in arithmetic, reading, spelling, etc., need not prevent the teacher from exercising the same helpful influence that he would otherwise have over pupils. Absence of Standards. A very practical difficulty at present lies in the fact that there are no standards for measuring the results in several of the subjects. Examinations and the usual metht>ds of grading, as 294 Rural School Management we shall see presently, are not accurate measures of teaching efficiency. Educators have worked out more reliable means for use in some of the subjects, and probably, in the course of time, will devise standards for all of the subjects. But until this is done, we cannot measure accurately all of the work pupils do in the school. Summary. In the measurement of the results of teaching, two difficulties are encountered: (1) Some of the results of teaching — those that come from the personal influence of the teacher — are generally considered to be incapable of being measured, and (2) no standards have been provided for measuring results in some of the subjects. III. HOW TO MEASURE THE RESULTS OF TEACHING That there is a recognized need for some means of measuring educational results is evidenced by the fact that nearly all teachers employ some method of grading or marking pupils' work. On just what these grades or marks should be based, or just how they should be determined, has long been one of the perplexing problems in teaching. Examinations and the daily recitations of pupils are at present the most widely used means of measuring the results of teach- ing. Recently, however, a few educational standards or scales have been devised for this purpose. 1. Examinations The giving of examinations is one of the most uni- versal of school practices. In a great many instances examinations at certain intervals are required by the school authorities. There are, perhaps, very few schools that do not have regular monthly, quarterly, Measuring the Results of Teaching 295 or term examinations. In addition to these regular examinations a great many teachers give other written tests at such times as may seem advisable. It is to the point, therefore, to inquire as to the purpose or value of the examination as a school exercise. As a Measure of Results. One of the claims made for examinations is that they serve to reveal the extent to which pupils have mastered the subjects in which they are examined. As applied to elementary schools, this view has been abandoned by most educators. There is practical agreement among experienced teachers now that the usual type of examination is not a reliable measure of the results of teaching. There are several reasons why examinations are no longer regarded as an adequate method of measuring the results pupils get from their study. Chief among these is the fact that teachers vary widely in their estimate of the same examination papers. In one instance a paper that was graded 76 per cent by one teacher was marked 28 per cent by another. An examination paper in arithmetic was once passed around among a number of teachers with the request that each one should grade it. No teacher knew how the paper was rated by the others. The grades ranged from 54 per cent to 94 per cent. In a large city school ten teachers were selected to grade a set of papers written by a group of 67 children. The grades given to the same paper ranged, in some instances, from 20 per cent to 90 per cent. Many similar incidents could be cited to show that the grades given on ex- amination are by no means an accurate index of what the pupil knows about the subject. In each of the cases mentioned, the grade which the pupil received was determined^ not by what was written on the paper. 296 Rural School Management but by the opinion of the teacher who graded it. A pupil who would have been promoted with a high grade by one of these teachers would have failed utterly under another. Such grades seem to repre- sent merely the opinion of the teacher and not the actual achievement of the pupil. As an Aid to Teaching. If examinations are not a reliable method of measuring a child's knowledge of a subject, it is to the point to ask whether they should ever be used as a school exercise. A great many experienced teachers hold that, if rightly used, they are an excellent means of making the teaching more effective. Their chief function, such teachers assert, is to help the pupil get a better understanding of the subjects he studies. To make the examination serve this purpose, the teacher should have two aims in mind : (1) to aid the pupils in organizing or system- atizing the facts they have learned, and (2) to help them put into actual use the knowledge they have acquired. Organization of Facts. Ability to organize facts, to put them together in their right relations, is one of the very important results which all children should get from their school work. When the study of a topic has been completed, it is a good plan to have it reviewed for the specific purpose of giving the pupils a view of the topic as a whole, of enabling them to see the facts in their logical connections. Suppose, for instance, the topic studied is the causes of the Amer- ican Revolution. When the facts have been studied, the class should review the topic for the purpose of getting a better grasp of the whole situation leading up to the war. This will necessitate their seeing each cause in its relation to all the other causes. Such a Measuring the Results of Teaching 297 review might well be followed by a written lesson, or test. But the questions given in the examination should be such as would require pupils to employ an outline, or systematic order, in their answers. Any subject that is made up of units or topics lends itself readily to this form of treatment. Nature study, geography, history, civics, physiology, agriculture, do- mestic science — all of these furnish excellent oppor- tunities for exercise in organizing the facts learned. Some of the questions used in every examination in these subjects should be questions which require the pupils to organize the facts they have learned. It is evident from the foregoing that it is usually well to let the children know that they are to have an examination in time to give them an opportunity to prepare for it. Application of Knowledge. The highest value of learning lies in knowing how to use what one learns when one needs it. Our best teachers now take ad- vantage of every opportunity to get pupils to use the knowledge they acquire. The examination is one means to this end. But to make it serve this purpose, the questions asked should be those that require the pupil to use the facts he has learned. An examination in arithmetic, for instance, should include problems such as children actually meet with in their play and handwork or at home, on the farm, and in the kitchen. In the solution of such problems pupils must apply their knowledge of number combinations, fractions, percentage, etc. A good form of examination in spell- ing is to have the pupils write something they want to tell. Here they must use their knowledge of spelling in the situation in which such knowledge is needed; namely, in writing words to convey thoughts. The 298 Rural School Management same or a similar exercise would serve as an excellent examination in writing and language, for the reason that it would require the pupils to apply in a real situation their ability to write and their knowledge of language forms. Thus we see that the true function of the examina- tion is to help the teacher get results rather than to measure the results obtained. It serves this function best when the teacher uses it as an exercise in the organization and use of what pupils learn. Children should be trained, if possible, to look upon the examina- tion as a means of helping them to get a better under- standing of the things they study and not as an exer- cise to test their fitness for promotion. Summary. The giving of examinations is practiced in nearly all schools. As a means of measuring the results of teaching, the examination is defective for several reasons, the most important of which is the fact that the grades given by teachers are merely the expression of the teacher's opinion and not an accurate meas- ure of the pupil's work. The true function of the examination is to make the teaching more effective by (1) training pupils to organize their knowledge, and (2) helping them to apply the knowledge and ability they acquire through study. 2. Daily Recitations It is quite common now for teachers to attach more importance to the daily class work of pupils than to the results of examinations. The kind of work children do from day to day in their regular recitations is regarded as a better index of what they are getting from the school than are the occasional examinations. As a Measure of Results. But, like examinations, the recitation, as a method of measuring educational Measuring the Results of Teaching 299 results, is inaccurate and unreliable. In the first place, the teacher's estimate of a pupil's class work is very largely a matter of personal opinion, and opinions sometimes differ very widely. In one in- stance ten teachers were asked to rate the oral reading of a group of pupils. The grading of the same read- ing ranged from 33 per cent to 100 per cent. Some of these grades were necessarily very inaccurate. In the second place, the teacher's judgment of a pupil's work is likely to be unconsciously influenced by the child's conduct, or by the teacher's regard for his parents, or by a single piece of exceptionally good or exceptionally poor work. All such factors tend, of course, to destroy the accuracy of the grades given the pupil. A third difficulty arises when teachers adopt the plan of recording a grade for every recita- tion a pupil makes. This practice is oTDJectionable for two reasons: (1) It involves too much bookkeeping. The time and attention given to the recording of grades during a recitation period necessarily detracts from the effectiveness of the teaching. The recitation period is a time for teaching, and the work in hand should have the undivided attention of both teacher and pupils. (2) The practice places too much em- phasis on grades. It stimulates pupils to study solely for the purpose of reciting well. The desire on the part of a pupil to get a good grade is, within certain limits, a worthy motive, but it should never become the sole end or purpose of study. Furthermore, under this plan the recitation is likely to degenerate into the mere " hearing of lessons " — the asking of questions by the teacher and the giving of memorized answers by the pupils. Such a method defeats the main pur- poses of the recitation. 300 Rural School Management As an Aid to Teaching. Very clearly, then, the daily recitation cannot be regarded as a thoroughly reliable measure of the efficiency of the teaching. Never- theless, it has an especially important place in the work of the school. The recitation, like the examina- tion, is primarily a teaching process, a means of help- ing children to learn more effectively than they other- wise could learn. As an aid to teaching it has several functions, four of which are so important that they need special emphasis. These are : (1) to help pupils learn how to study; (2) to stimulate pupils to think and to train them in the expression of their thoughts ; (3) to make the necessary drill work interesting to pupils ; and (4) to correct any errors pupils make and to explain any difficulties they encounter in the prep- aration of their lessons. Learning How to Study. Ability to study a lesson or a book in such a way as to get the thought most effectively is one of the most valuable results pupils can get from their school training. And yet it is a result which few schools achieve. Perhaps one of the main reasons for this failure is the fact that the teacher's time is so taken up with hearing lessons recited that he has no time to teach children how to study. It is now believed that the recitation period is the best time to give pupils this help. In teaching pupils how to study, some such method as the following might be used. First, lead the chil- dren to discover the main problem or thought in the lesson and get them to state it in their own language. For the next step, try to discover how the author divides the main problem or thought ; that is, try to select and number the principal subdivisions of the topic under consideration. Then find the facts sub- Measuring the Results of Teaching 301 mitted by the author in support or explanation of each subdivision. Lead the pupils to compare the facts given to see which are really important and which are unimportant. And, finally, get the children to add thoughts of their own bearing on the topics under consideration. According to this method studying consists in (a) finding the main problem or thought in the lesson; (b) organizing the facts submitted; (c) judging the importance or value of these facts; and (d) adding children's own thoughts to those given in the text. After this process has been carried on for a few minutes, the teacher may ask the pupils to finish the study of the lesson at their seats. This constitutes the assignment for the next day. Some subjects, such as arithmetic, spelling, and writing, do not admit of this method of treatment. Neither is it meant that all recitations in the subjects to which this method does apply should be of this nature. But it is a good plan for teacher and pupils to study a lesson together occasionally, even fre- quently, to th^ end that the children may learn how to study. Stimulating Thought and Expression. A study- recitation, such as we have just described, is an ex- cellent exercise in thinking and in expressing thought on the part of pupils. In such an exercise the children will form judgments as to what the main problem is, how the facts are organized, which facts are most important, etc. But there are other ways in which the recitation may be used to stimulate thinking. The development lesson is an excellent means to this end. This is a recitation in which the pupils are led by careful questions or hints to discover certain facts for themselves. As an illustration, suppose the teacher 302 Rural School Management wants his pupils to know why MinneapoHs is the largest flour-milling center in the United States. He could tell them the reasons outright. But it is a far better plan to get the pupils to think out and suggest reasons and then examine these to see if they offer a satisfactory explanation. If the pupils do not hit upon the correct reasons, the teacher may ask a few questions that will lead them to see (a) what conditions are necessary to make a flour-mill center, and (6) how Minneapolis has the advantage of other cities in these respects. The topical method of recitation affords a good opportunity for training in the expression of thought. It is a good plan frequently to let pupils tell all they have learned about a given topic. In preparation for the recitation the pupil should be encouraged to arrange the things he wishes to tell according to some definite outline and to follow this order when called upon to recite. It will add greatly to the value of this exercise if what the pupil tells is both new and interesting to the other members of the class. Making Drills Interesting. The main purpose of some recitations is to make interesting the drills that are necessary in order that certain facts may become habitual or automatic. Number games, language games, etc., are means to this end. Psychologists have found that merely repeating a thing has very little value in making it habitual. The repetitions, they say, must be interesting and pleasurable. Hence it is necessary to connect the repetitions with some- thing the children like to do. Correcting Errors and Overcoming Difficulties. It frequently happens that pupils make mistakes or get wrong impressions in the preparation of their lessons, Measuring the Results of Teaching 303 or encounter difficulties they cannot overcome. Some- times they cannot understand what they study. Hence, they learn merely the words of their lessons without getting the meaning. The recitation affords the teacher an opportunity to give needed help along these lines. The outline or organization of the lesson which pupils make at their seats should be checked up in class. Sometimes the teacher must explain by means of illustrations, objects, drawings, etc., the points pupils are not able to understand. Summary. The daily recitation is not an adequate measure of the results of teaching. That is not its true function. Its true function is to help pupils get better results from their work. Among the purposes it ought to accomplish are: (1) to help pupils learn how to study; (2) to stimulate them to think and to express their thoughts; (3) to make necessary drill work in- teresting; and (4) to give the teacher an opportunity to correct the errors pupils make and to explain the difficulties they en- counter. 8. Objective Standards Meaning of Objective Standards. Examinations and daily recitations are excellent aids to teaching. Essentially they are means of enabling pupils to get the best results from their work. But as an accurate measure of the actual achievements of pupils, both are defective. The chief defect lies in the fact that a grade based on either an examination or daily class work is merely the expression of the personal opinion of the teacher. Since teachers often differ in their opinions of what constitutes good school work, the grades given by different teachers on the same work will necessarily differ. Hence, to measure the work of a pupil or a school accurately, we must have a standard or a scale that is the same for all teachers. 304 Rural School Management When people wish to measiire the length of a room, they employ a measuring stick. When they wish to know the weight of an object, they employ a balance. In each of these cases the standard or scale used lies outside of the person who uses it. It does not rest on opinion. The results are the same for all who use the scale correctly. Such standards are said to be objective. Objective Standards for School Work. A great many of our leading educators now believe that we ought to have, and can have, objective standards for measuring the results of teaching the various school subjects. Several such scales have already been constructed and are being used in a great many schools. The common school subjects for which scales are now available are arithmetic, reading, spelling, writing, composition, and drawing. Scales for the other sub- jects are likely to appear from time to time. How to Use the Scales. The scales for arithmetic, reading, and spelling consist of a series of examples, reading exercises, and lists of words which are given to pupils according to specific directions, the results of each pupil's work being scored or marked in the manner prescribed in the test. By comparing a pupil's score with the average or median score for his grade, it is possible to tell how the pupil ranks in that subject. The scales for writing and drawing consist of samples of writing and drawing, each of which has a definite value or rating. A pupil's ability in these subjects is measured by comparing his writing and drawing with the test samples. In schools where such scales are used the usual practice is to give the tests at the middle and at the Measuring the Results of Teaching 305 close of the school year. These tests do not take the place of the educative type of examinations we have previously described. They are given primarily to guide the teacher. They enable him to compare the work of his school with that done in other schools, to note just how much progress pupils have made in the interval between the tests, and to see just what sub- jects and pupils, if any, need more attention. Com- plete instructions for giving the tests and scoring the results are usually sent along with the test material. For information as to what scales to use and where they may be obtained, the teacher should write to the department of education of his nearest state normal school or to the teachers' college of his state university. Summary. Objective standards or scales are devices which have been constructed to enable teachers to measure more ac- curately the work done in certain subjects. Every teacher should write to his state normal school or university for a list of the scales to use and should apply these to his school at least twice each year. REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Bagley : Classroom Management, Chapter XV. Charters : Teaching the Common Branches, Chapter XVII. Strayer : A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapters IX and X. CLASS EXERCISES 1. State clearly just why a farmer should be able to measure the results of each year's work on his farm. 2. Do you think it is as important that the results of each year's work in school should be measured? Why? 3. Why is it harder to measure the results of school work than it is to measure the results of farm work? 4. If it is possible to* procure a pupil's examination paper, perform the following experiment : Let each member of your 306 Rural School Management class grade the paper. See that no member of the class knows the mark given by any other member until all have finished. Then compare the grades given by the different members of the class. What is this experiment intended to illustrate? 5. Give three reasons not stated in the text why examinations should not be used as the sole basis for promoting pupils. 6. Prepare an outline for the study of the geography of your own state suitable for use in the seventh grade. State five ques- tions you would use in an examination on the work outlined. 7. Outline the section in this chapter which deals with the daily recitation. 8. What purposes besides those mentioned in the text should the daily recitation serve? 9. Demonstrate the methods of giving the objective tests and scoring the results in (1) arithmetic, (2) reading, (3) spelling, (4) writing. 10. Which of the exercises in this list are "organization" and which are "application" exercises? CHAPTER XIV RECORDS AND REPORTS L FUNCTIONS OF RECORDS AND REPORTS The keeping of records and the making of reports constitute an important phase of school management. The records that seem most necessary for the success- ful management of rural schools are those that pertain to the school census, the attendance and scholarship of pupils, the physical condition of the children, and the library. Reports are usually made to the school board at the end of each month and at the close of the term, and to the parents of the pupils at such intervals as may be decided upon. To Convey Accurate Information. The primary function of records and reports is to convey accurate information concerning the school. The people of the community who support the school are entitled to know just how well it is performing the work for which it is maintained. It is their right and their duty to know how many children there are in the district who are entitled to receive instruction in the school, to what extent the school is being attended by those who are entitled to attend it, just what progress is being made by those in attendance, and what the school has and what it needs in the way of library and other equipment. Without such information the school board and tax- payers have no means of judging of the efficiency of 307 308 Rural School Management their school. They have no way of comparing it with other schools. They cannot know how the work and the condition of the school under one teacher's management compare with the work and conditions under former teachers. In a word, they have no way of knowing whether they are getting as much benefit from the money expended as they ought to receive. True, the teacher might be able to furnish some in- formation about the school, but, without recourse to records, even the teacher's knowledge would consist more of general impressions than of accurate facts. General impressions are not sufficient data on which to base a judgment of the efficiency of the school. School boards and the public in general need more accurate information. They need to know the facts about the school — facts that they can examine at their leisure and compare, and from which they can draw conclusions. To Arouse Interest in the School. If school officials and patrons are given such information about the school as we have referred to, the result will be, in many instances, a deeper interest in the school. To arouse such an interest is one of the reasons for making reports. Indifference on the part of patrons is often due to lack of information about the school. It is necessary, therefore, that we have an accurate record of the things that are important about the affairs and condition of the school and that we make these facts known to the public. A report that fails to arouse any interest in the school fails to accomplish one of its main functions. To Lead to Improvement. The final function of records and reports is to lead to the adoption or the continuance of the measures necessary to make the Records and Reports 309 school most efficient. There are, perhaps, very few- schools that are not in need of improvement in some respect. But the first step toward improvement is to know the conditions that exist at present. These conditions are, or ought to be, revealed through the school records and reports. Furthermore, the reports ought to indicate just what improvements are needed. For instance, a report ought to state not only what the average daily attendance for a given month is, but also what it should have been. In addition to giving the number of volumes in the library, the report ought to state the number needed to enable the school to do its work to the best advantage. By calling attention to present conditions and also to the most urgent needs, records and reports ought to be instrumental in bringing about improvement in those respects in which the school shows the greatest weakness. Summary. School records and reports are intended to ac- complish three main purposes : (1) to furnish to school officials and patrons accurate information concerning the school ; (2) to arouse a deeper interest in the school ; and (3) to bring about such improvements as are shown to be needed. n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED It is a matter of common knowledge among ex- perienced teachers that school records and reports fail, in most cases, to accomplish the purposes for which they are intended. A few of the reasons for this failure are discussed in the following paragraphs. Insufficient Publicity. School records and reports can have very little effect in arousing a deeper interest or in bringing about needed improvements, if the facts they disclose are not made public. As a matter of 310 Rural School Management fact, rural school records and reports are not given very wide publicity. The teacher's- monthly and term reports are made to the school board or the county superintendent. In most instances they are filed away and their contents are never made known to the community at large. It is known that in some cases even the members of the school board do not read the reports. The traditional report cards which teachers give to pupils at certain intervals are intended to reach the patrons. But each of these cards contains only the scholarship and attendance record of the pupil to whom it is given. Consequently no information about the school as a whole can be obtained from this source. In general, then, the facts that pertain to the work or condition or needs of the school do not reach the public through the formal or regular reports. There are, however, occasional exceptions to this rule. A few teachers have their reports published in the local newspaper. This is an excellent practice and should become more common than it is at present. In some city districts school boards are required by law to publish the financial report of the school, and in many rural schools these facts are made known at the annual school meetings. But there are other facts that are just as important and ought to be just as interesting as these financial statistics. To know what the school is costing without knowing what it is doing for the community is not very enlightening. Every patron who helps to support the school ought to know how many pupils are enumerated in the dis- trict, how many of these are enrolled in the school, what percentage of the pupils are in attendance every day, how many pupils are promoted at the end of the Records and Reports 311 term and how many are retained, and so on. In other words, every patron and taxpayer is entitled to have a true picture of just what the school is doing for the community. Significant Facts Not Clear. Another difficulty with most rural school reports lies in their failure to make the most significant facts about the school stand out clearly and distinctly. Among the items usually contained in a regular report are such as these : mmi- ber of boys enrolled, number of girls enrolled, total number of days attended, average daily attendance, etc. These facts are certainly important, but taken alone, their importance is not apparent, does not stand out clearly. To report that there are five or ten boys enrolled is almost meaningless unless one knows how many boys there are in the district who ought to be enrolled. The number of pupils enrolled may be all or it may be only half of those enumerated, and it is very important that people should know which it is. Again, the average daily attendance has much more significance when one knows how many pupils ought to have been in attendance, or what the attendance was for the last month or for the corresponding month last year. Does the aver- age attendance for a given month indicate that the school is drawing the pupils, or does it indicate the opposite? Does it signify growth and improvement, or a decline in the attendance? These are some of the things a patron ought to know about his school, but they are not revealed in the regular reports as they are usually made. The illustrations will serve to explain why so many school reports are not very interesting, or effective in stimulating a desire for school improvement. 312 Rural School Management Records Not Continuous. In general the records kept in rural schools are for one year only and have no connection with the records for previous years. Both the attendance and scholarship records of pupils are usually kept in the daily register. Every year either a new register is procured or some new pages in the old one are used. This method makes it ex- tremely difficult to compare the record for one year with those for other years. A pupil's report card may show that he has failed in a given subject this year, but it does not show what he did in the subject last year or the year before. The report of the pupil's attendance shows how many days he was present during the present term, but it often requires con- siderable effort to discover how many days he was present last term or whether he is in the habit of attending regularly. What we need is a continuous record, a complete history of a pupil's work from the time he enters the school until he graduates or with- draws from it. Furthermore, the present method results frequently in the loss of records. Old registers and reports are sometimes destroyed or misplaced. Consequently, it is impossible, in some instances, to compare the records of one year with those of former years. In order to have a continuous record of the school's work, we need a method of recording and preserving the facts that will make them permanent. Lack of Uniformity. A fourth difficulty is the fact that the methods of keeping records and making re- ports are not the same in all schools. This condition is a serious handicap to educators who wish to make a careful study of different schools and school systems. In order to compare the work of two or more schools. Records and Reports 313 it is necessary to have the same information con- cerning the schools. But this is extremely difficult, if not impossible, when the methods of keeping records and reporting the facts are not uniform in the various schools. Summary. School records and reports often fail to accomplish the purposes for which they are intended. Some of the reasons for this failure are : (1) They are not given sufficient publicity ; (2) they do not bring out the facts about the school that are most significant; (3) they are not continuous for a number of years; and (4) they are not uniform in the various schools. iii. how to keep records and make reports 1. The Keeping of Records The Daily Register. The daily register constitutes one of the most important of school records. It is a book in which are recorded the name, age, attendance, and, in most cases, the scholarship grades, of the pupils enrolled in the school. The pages are so ruled that there is first a space for enrolling the names; opposite each name, spaces for recording the pupil's age and attendance ; also, appropriate places for sum- maries, such as total number of days attended, final grade in the various subjects, etc. The keeping of the daily register is very important. In every school some sort of register must be kept, for it contains most of the data from which the school reports are made. But as a final record of the at- tendance and scholarship of pupils, it is not adequate for three reasons : (1) It does not constitute a con- venient, permanent, continuous record of a pupil's school career ; (2) the facts are not arranged in such a way as to impress one with their real significance; 314 Rural School Management and (3), owing to the different styles or kinds of regis- ters in use, the information recorded is not always uniform in different schools. Registers differ so greatly that no specific directions as to how to use them can be given here. Usually, complete and definite instructions for their use are printed in the registers. The School Census. The school census is a record containing the name, age, sex, color, and the name of the parent or guardian, of every person of school age in the district. The census is usually taken by the district clerk or by some one employed for that purpose by the school board. Such a record of school children is necessary for three reasons. First. In those states where the state school funds are apportioned on the basis of the enu- meration, it is very necessary to know how many chil- dren there are of school age in order to compute the district's share of the funds. Second. Such a list furnishes school authorities with the names of all children in the district who come within the age limit of the compulsory attendance law. A comparison of the names of the children enrolled in the school with the school census reveals the names of all parents or guardians who are not complying with the attendance law. An investigation can then be made to ascertain the reasons why such parents are not sending their children to school. Third. A still wider purpose of the census is to serve as a means of determining the efficiency of the school with reference to attendance. Every teacher should have a copy of the enumeration list. On this list he should check off the names of all who have graduated or married ; those, if any, who are blind, deaf, feeble-minded, or otherwise physically Records and Reports 315 or mentally debarred from the school ; and those who are attending an approved private school or have moved out of the district. This information the teacher can easily get from the district clerk or from some member of the school board. All children whose names are left on the list should be in the school. Even the attainment of the compulsory age limit is not, of itself, a sufficient reason for dropping out of school. If any of those who ought to be in school drop out or fail to enroll, it is the teacher's duty to learn the reasons for their doing so and to find some means, if possible, of inducing them to continue their school work. One of the tests of the efficiency of a school is the extent to which it holds pupils until they graduate. To get a true measure of the school with reference to attendance, we should compare the actual attend- ance with the school census, corrected as we have indicated. To illustrate, suppose there are twenty- five children in the district who ought to be in school and that the average daily attendance is only fifteen. The actual attendance in this case is only sixty per cent of what it ought to be. There may be very good reasons why the percentage is so low, but the school authorities ought to know what these reasons are. Such a use of the census will reveal facts that are very important and often surprising both to teachers and to patrons. The Cumulative Record Card. Educators have long recognized the need for more adequate school records. With a view to overcoming such difficulties as we have named, a committee of leading school men was appointed by the National Education Association to study the problem very carefully and to devise, if 316 Rural School Management possible, a better system of record-keeping. This committee recommended, among other things, the use of a cumulative record card system for keeping the records of individual pupils. This system was constructed primarily for use in city schools, but the cards can be used in rural schools as well. An earnest effort is being made to get all schools to adopt this system. The plan consists in having a separate card for each pupil. The form recommended by the committee of the National Education Association is shown in the accompanying illustrations. 1. Last name 2. First name and initial 3. Place of birth 4. Dateof Birth 5. Vaccinated 6. Name of parent or guardian 7. Occupation of parent or guardian ELEMENTARY SCHOOL REC- ORD SYSTEM— ADMISSION, DISCHARGE, AND PROMO- TION CARD To be kept for every pupil and sent with the pupil when he is transferred to any school, either public or private, in the city or outside the city. Great care should be used to have the names COM- PLETE and CORRECT. Write all dates as follows: 1912-9-25 8. RESIDENCE. (Use one column at a time. Give new residence when pupil is transferred.) 9. Date of Discharge 10. Age Years Months When a pupil is permanently discharged to work, to remain at home, or be- cause of death, permanent illness, or commitment to an institution, this card is to be returned to the principal's office and a full statement of the cause of the pupil's discharge is to be made in the blank space remaining above. 8-304 Front — Admission Card Records and Reports 317 1 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL RECORD SYSTEM-PROMOTION RECORD This card is to pass from teacher to teacher or from school to school as the pupil is promoted or transferred. It is to be filled out and sent to the principal's office when any change is made re- quiring a change in the office records. It is then to be sent to the teacher who has the pupil. a m b § c Age Sept. 1 Years Month d O e 1 f 1 :ii g i h ■^ \ 1 » 1 o W 1 O i 9" O -g \ — — 1 j Reverse — Promotion Record The card is six inches long and four inches wide. One side (front) contains the name of the pupil, place and date of his birth, name and occupation of his parents or guardian, etc. — information about the pupil which the school ought to have on record. The other side (reverse) contains a continuous record of the pupil's progress through school. It shows the different schools attended, the date of entering each, age at or near the opening of each school term, the number of times promoted or " failed,'' the number of days attended each year, the condition of his health, his conduct, and general scholarship. 318 Rural School Management The method of using the card is very simple. When a pupil enters school for the first time, his last name, first name and initial, place of birth, date of birth, etc., are recorded on the admission card. (In rural schools the residence item may be omitted.) The name of the school, the date on which the pupil enters, his age in years and months on the first of September, and the grade in which he is classed are recorded in their proper columns on the reverse side of the card. (In one-room schools the " room " column will be left blank.) When the pupil withdraws from the school permanently, the date of withdrawal and the pupil's age at the time are recorded in the columns provided for these items on the front side of the card. If he goes to another school, he takes the card and gives it to the new teacher. This teacher enters the name of the school and the date of the pupil's admission in columns '' a " and " b " on the reverse side of the card. This process is repeated and similar entries made as often as the pupil changes his residence during his school course. At the end of each year the pupil's attendance, health, conduct, and scholarship records are entered in their respective columns. In schools where this method is used, the cards are filed alphabetically in a cabinet or case made for the purpose. This gives the school a complete, conven- iently arranged record of every pupil for all of the years he remains in school. This record can be con- sulted at any time the information is needed to throw light on any question that arises in connection with the work of any pupil. The information contained on these cards is valuable to the teacher or to any one else who is interested in such problems as the relation of attendance to scholarship, the relation of health to Records and Reports 319 scholarship, the causes of pupils' withdrawal from school, the relation of age to withdrawal, and many others. Physical Condition of Pupils. Every school should have a more detailed statement of the physical condition of the pupils than can be placed on the cumulative record card. It is the custom in many schools to record on a separate card the results of the medical inspection of each pupil. We have already learned that the physical examination of school children may be made either by the teacher or by a special health inspector such as a physician or a nurse. There is at present no standard form of card for recording the results of these examinations. If a regular medical inspector is employed, he will prescribe the kind of card to use. Where the examinations are made by the teacher, some such form as the following may be used : PHYSICAL RECORD Health Record of ; Sex ; Born Date OP Exami- nation Vision Hearing Teeth Nose AND Throat General Health Right Left Right Left Front — Record of Examinations 320 Rural School Management REMARKS The child has had the following diseases at the age indicated below : Chicken pox at the age of . . Diphtheria at the age of . . . Measles at the age of Tonsillitis at the age of ... . Mumps at the age of Scarlet fever at the age of . . PAREN1 Whooping cough at the age of ... . Pneumonia at the age of Typhoid at the age of Smallpox at the age of Tuberculosis at the age of Infantile par. at the age of rS NOTIFIED Date Recommendations Made Reverse — Record of Diseases, etc. On one side of the card are recorded the date of the examination, the keenness of the vision of each eye, the hearing abiHty of each ear, the condition of the teeth, the condition of the nose and throat, and the general health. The other side contains a Hst of the diseases the child has had, the age at which he had each, and the recommendations made to his parents. When the physical record card is filed along with the cumulative record card, the school has a fairly complete description and history of each pupil. With such records at hand, it is easily possible to find almost any fact one may wish to know about the physical Records and Reports 321 condition, attendance, promotion, or scholarship of any pupil at any time in his school career. Library Statistics. As regards teaching equipment, the library is recognized as the greatest aid to the work of the school. There are several reasons why accurate information concerning the library should be kept in every school. First. The teacher needs to know just what material he has at hand to work with. Second. The school board and patrons should be in- formed as to how well their school is supplied with the material needed to enable it to do its work effec- tively. Third. State school inspectors and county superintendents always want accurate information about the library. They should be able to get such information from the records kept in the school. The library statistics most needed are (1) a general catalogue of all the books, (2) special lists of those used in each grade, and (3) a summary showing the main classes of books and the number of volumes in each class. In large libraries the card catalogue and decimal system of classification are usually employed. To use this system successfully one must have had some training in library management. For rural schools a simpler method of cataloguing the books will suffice. The method most generally employed is to enter in a blank book procured for the purpose the title, the name of the author, the name and address of the publisher, the cost, and the date of purchase, of each book in the hbrary. By reference to this catalogue the teacher can tell at once the number of books in the library. He can easily find also the value and the name of the publisher of any book that may be de- stroyed or lost. 322 Rural School Management In addition to this general catalogue there should be a list of the books that are used in each grade. And, finally, there should be a summary showing the number of volumes of (1) general reference works, such as dictionaries and encyclopedias, (2) history and biography, (3) references on science, (4) literature references, (5) works of fiction, and any other classes of books the library may contain. Summary. The records most essential to the successful man- agement of the school are (1) the daily register, (2) the school census, (3) the cumulative record card, (4) the physical record card, and (5) library statistics. 2. The Making of Reports The Teacher's Monthly Report. In practically all schools teachers are required to make monthly reports to the school board. There is as yet no generally accepted form for this report. In some of the states blank forms for this purpose are furnished to all rural schools through the state superintendent's office. In other states the matter is left in the hands of county superintendents. Consequently, the form of the re- port varies with different states and frequently with different counties and schools in the same state. Sample Forms. Following is the form of report used in one of the states where the blank forms are supplied through the state superintendent's office : 1. Enrollment : white — male, ; female, ; total, : colored — male, ; female, ; total, . . . . ; grand total, 2. Total no. of days' attendance by all pupils for the month, ; average daily attendance, 3. No. attending every day, ; No. absent five or more days, Records and Reports 323 4. No. of cases of tardiness, ; truancy, ; corporal punishment, 5. No. of visitors, parents, ; school officers, ; total, 6. Recommendations : A report of this type is so simple that it requires al- most no comment. The second item is, perhaps, the only one that needs any explanation. The total num- ber of days' attendance by all pupils is found by adding the attendance of all pupils for the month. Suppose one pupil attends 20 days, another 18, another 16, another 12, and so on through the roll. The sum of all of these numbers is the total attendance. And this total attendance, divided by the number of days school was taught during the month, gives the average daily attendance. In another state a somewhat more elaborate form of report is required. It is as follows : a. No. of pupils enrolled Boys Girls b. No. of days school was taught (including all days for which pay will be received) c. Aggregate days of teaching d. Aggregate attendance e. Aggregate absence /. Aggregate non-membership g. Average daily attendance h. Per cent of attendance i. Cases of tardiness j. No. cases of truancy k. No. pupils entered during month I. No. pupils left during month m. No. pupils received by transfer during month n. No. pupils perfect in attendance during month A few of the terms used in this form of report may need explanation. 324 Rural School Management The aggregate days of teaching is found by multiply- ing the total enrollment by the number of days school was taught during the month. For instance, if there are 27 pupils enrolled and the school was in session 20 days, the aggregate days of teaching is 540. Aggregate attendance means the total number of days attended by all pupils. Aggregate absence and aggregate non-memhership are explained as follows : In the state where this form of report is used, a pupil who is out of school five or more consecutive days after enrolling, is regarded as not " belonging " to the school. If he returns later, he is marked as " entering." The number of school days between the beginning of his absence and his return to school is known as non-membership. If the pupil is out of school less than five consecutive days, it is called absence. As an illustration, suppose a pupil is in school the first nine days, is out of school the next six days, and then returns and completes the month. The six days the pupil was out constitute a period of non-membership. If the number had been less than five, however, the pupil would have been re- garded as absent. Aggregate non-membership, there- fore, is the total number of days absent by all pupils in those cases only in which the absence is continuous for five or more days. Accordingly, aggregate ab- sence is the total number of days absent by all pupils in those cases in which the absence is for less than five days. The average daily attendance is found by dividing the aggregate attendance (total number of days attended) by the number of days school was taught. The per cent of attendance is computed by " dividing the aggregate attendance by the aggregate attendance plus the aggregate absence." This means that all Records and Reports 325 cases of non-membership are omitted in finding the percentage of pupils who attend the school. A simple little illustration will make this ^oint clear. Suppose there are seven pupils enrolled in the school with attendance records as follows : (1) Present 19 days, absent 1 day (2) Present 18 days, absent 2 days (3) Present 20 days, absent days (4) Present 15 days, non-member 5 days (5) Present 14 days, non-member 6 days (6) Present 16 days, absent 4 days (7) Present 18 days, absent 2 days From these data it is found that the aggregate at- tendance is 120 days; the aggregate absence is 9 days; the aggregate non-membership is 11 days; the average daily attendance (120 divided by 20) is 6; and the percentage of attendance (120 divided by 120 plus 9) is 93. Thus it is seen that the 11 days of non-membership are not taken into account in com- puting the percentage of attendance. Criticisms. There is fairly general agreement that such reports as we have described are not altogether satisfactory. In the first place, neither type of report takes into account, in any way, the pupils who are not enrolled in the school. Patrons have no way of know- ing from the report just how well the school is reach- ing the boys and girls of the community who ought to be in attendance. In the second place, some of the terms used, especially in the second tj^e of report, are not readily understood by patrons and hence convey no definite information about the school. There are, perhaps, very few patrons who know what is meant by aggregate days of teaching and aggregate non-membership, or just what bearing such matters 326 Rural School Management have on the efficiency of the school. Most patrons will probably not understand the distinction between absence and non-membership or why such a distinc- tion should be made. A third criticism is that some of the facts may tend to give a wrong impression of the efficiency of the school. In the illustration given above, the percentage of attendance was found to be 93. Ordinarily, this would be interpreted to mean a very efficient school as regards attendance. But, as a matter of fact, the actual attendance in the school may have been very small as compared with the number who should have been attending. What the Teacher Can Do. In making his reports to the school board the teacher must always use the form of report required by the school authorities. But there are some ways in which he may increase the effectiveness of these reports and accomplish more fully the purposes for which reports are made. First. He can have the re- ports published in the local newspaper as a part of the school news. This will give them greater publicity. Second. He can include in the school news various other matters of interest about the school. Such ad- ditional items as the following, for instance, will give patrons a fairly accurate description of their school and will help to arouse a deeper interest in its work. 1. Number of pupils in the district who ought to be in school. 2. Percentage of the actual attendance of those who ought to be in attendance. 3. The attendance as compared with that of last month or the corresponding month of last year. 4. Improvements in the way of repairs, equipment, etc., made during the month. 5. Additional improvements needed. 6. Important events held at the school during the month. 7. Comments on the regular work being done by pupils. Records and Reports 327 The Teacher's Term Report. The contents of the term report, like those of the monthly report, vary with different states. Owing to the elaborate character of these reports it is not practicable to reproduce in this book a sample of the forms used. In gen- eral, the facts reported fall under the headings listed below : 1. Enrollment Statistics : white — male, female, total ; colored — male, female, total ; grand total. 2. Attendance Statistics: total number days' attendance, average daily attendance, percentage of attendance, tardiness, truancies, etc. 3. Library Statistics: number of volumes in library, number added during year, value, etc. 4. Visitors' Record : number of visits of county superintendent, school officers, patrons, etc. 5. Condition of School Property: repairs made during year, others needed, condition of blackboards, outhouses, etc. 6. Classification and Scholarship of Pupils: names of all pupils enrolled, grade, subjects studied, and scholarship stand- ings, of each. 7. Special Events and Activities: social gatherings, play festivals, boys' and girls' clubs, and other matters of interest. 8. The Daily Program. Such a report, it will be observed, gives a splendid description of the school. There are, however, two points to which attention should be called in this connection. First. The term report is usually made to the county superintendent or some other school official. It should be made, also, or at least a sum- mary of it, to the public through the local newspaper or at a gathering of school patrons. Second. Patrons, as a rule, are deeply interested in the financial affairs of the school. They are entitled to know such facts as: 328 Rural School Management 1. The assessed valuation of the district. 2. The tax rate levied for school purposes. 3. The sources of school funds and the amount received from each source. 4. The purposes for which school funds are used and the amount expended for each. 5. The cost per pupil per day of actual attendance in the school. As the general manager of the school, the teacher ought to have this information in his possession. If no other provision is made for making these matters public, he might publish them as a sort of supplemen- tary report or as a news item. The necessary facts can easily be obtained from the district clerk. The cost per pupil per day can be found by dividing the amount paid for teacher's salary, janitor's wages, and fuel and necessary supplies, by the total number of days attended by all pupils for the term. Reports to Parents. Practically all schools have some method of reporting to parents the character of the work their children do in the school. Practice differs with reference to the frequency of these reports. In some schools they are made monthly, in others every six weeks, and in still others quarterly. Form of Report Card. For making these reports to parents some kind of pupils' report card is generally used. Quite frequently county superintendents devise a special form for use in the schools of their respective counties. These cards are either furnished to the schools along with other blanks, or teachers have them printed at a local printing office. Another very com- mon practice is for teachers to procure ready-printed cards from school supply houses. Methods of Grading. There are two principal methods of recording and reporting pupils' grades; Records and Reports 329 namely, the percentage method, and the letter method. Under the percentage method pupils are graded in per cents, 100 % representing a perfect grade. Practice differs with reference to the scale used. Some teachers use a scale of 1 %, or even less, while others use a scale of 5 % . In other words, some teachers grade so minutely that differences of only 1% are recorded. Such grades as 74%, 75%, 76%, 89%, 90% illustrate this type of grading. Other teachers use only those numbers which are multiples of 5, such as 75%, 80%, 85%, etc. The latter practice is regarded very generally as preferable, on the ground that no teacher can grade so accurately as to recognize a difference of 1 %. Grading, at best, is merely estimating, and about all any teacher can do is to recognize fairly large differences in the character of the work. The use of the 5 % scale enables teachers to group pupils into several classes, such as the 75 % class, the 80% class, and so on. Grading, then, con- sists in deciding to which group or class a pupil belongs. The letter method consists in using certain letters to represent grades. In some schools the letters A, B, C, D, E, and F are used, A representing the highest grade, B the next highest, etc. This plan seems to have no advantage over the 5% scale method. The two methods are alike in that they group pupils into certain classes, and do not take account of minute differences. A more common type of the letter method is the use of the letters E, G, M, P, and F, the initial letters of the words Excellent, Good, Medium, Poor, and Failure. The principal advantage claimed for this method over any of the others is that it tends to place more emphasis upon the character of the work and less upon the idea of the grade than do any of the 330 Rural School Management other sjrtnbols used. The letter E, for instance, since it stands for Excellent, is more descriptive of the work than either the letter A or the symbol 95%. It is an abbreviation, so it is claimed, of the expression '' Your work is excellent in this subject." This method is now quite widely used and seems to be entirely satis- factory. Personal Communications. Certain difficulties are likely to arise in connection with the report card system, no matter what form of card or method of grading is used. It quite frequently happens that the cards are not taken to the parents. Pupils sometimes insert their parents' names and return the card to the teacher. Hence, the information does not reach the parent. Quite often, too, parents become indifferent to the grade cards and do not examine them carefully. No teacher should depend wholly on the report card to correct any deficiencies in a pupil's work or to secure the cooperation of his parents. One of the most effective means of accomplishing these ends is to mail a personal note to the parent calling his atten- tion to the matters that need correcting. A letter from the teacher is a living, personal message to the parent and will receive attention and arouse interest where a formal, impersonal report card might fail. Some teachers send a note occasionally to every parent, even though there are no deficiencies in the pupil's work. A friendly little note informing the parent of the commendable work and conduct of his child, call- ing attention, when necessary, to the things that need improvement, and soliciting the parent's cooperation is the best form of report a teacher can make to a parent. The regular report cards should be sent at the usual times, but they should be supplemented oc- Records and Reports 331 casionally, particularly whenever there is need for special attention to the pupil's work, by a personal communication from the teacher. REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Cubberley: Public School Administration, Chapter XXVI. United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1912, No. 3. Report of the Committee on Uniform Records and Reports. CLASS EXERCISES 1. What means are used in your school for making the school records and reports public? 2. What uses are made of the school census in your school? 3. State three uses that may be made of the cumulative record card of pupils. 4. Write out the following facts about your school library : (a) Number of volumes in the library. (6) Number of volumes on history and biography. (c) Number of volumes used as references in nature study, geography, agriculture, domestic science. (d) Number of volumes on general literature. 5. Examine the monthly and term report blanks used in your school. What items of information about the school, in addition to those called for in the reports, would be of interest to your patrons? 6. Compute the cost per pupil for each day's actual attendance in your school, using the data for the preceding school year. 7. Make a list of the facts stated in the section of this chapter dealing with the making of reports which you regard as most important. CHAPTER XV THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTER I. FUNCTIONS OF A SOCIAL CENTER We hear and read much nowadays about the social center movement in connection with schools. A social center is a place where public meetings are held for any purpose that is of benefit to the people of the community. The fundamental aim of the movement is to make the conditions of life more profitable and more enjoyable for the people at large — for the old and the young alike. It seeks to supply the things the community stands in greatest need of to make the people comfortable and contented. In rural communi- ties these needs are (1) vocational education or in- sight, (2) recreation and social intercourse, and (3) wholesome entertainment. Vocational Education. There are, perhaps, very few rural communities in which the people are not in need of a better understanding of the things they try to do. In agricultural sections the farmers, as a rule, need to know more about their soil, their crops, methods of marketing their products, the keeping of farm accounts, and so forth. Many of our agricultural colleges have a staff of extension lecturers who are available for giving these farmers the information they need. The social center is one means of bring- ing these experts to the community for an occasional lecture. In addition to this, it promotes the forma- 332 The School as a Social Center 333 tion of farmers' clubs, granges, equity societies, and other organizations designed to bring the farmers into closer touch with one another and to cultivate the spirit of mutual helpfulness and cooperation. It has been clearly demonstrated that men engaged in the same pursuits may be of invaluable assistance to one another through frequent meetings for the exchange of views, experiences, and business methods. But the men are not the only people who should be benefited through this phase of social center work. The women, the housewives of the community, are usually in need of help in the solution of problems pertaining to their affairs. The problems of the home- maker are no less important than are those of the breadwinner. To help the housewife in her effort to make a comfortable and attractive home for her family with as little outlay of energy and money as possible, is an important function of the social center. This help can be given through means similar to those employed for helping the men. Almost every com- munity can arrange for occasional lectures and demon- strations by experts in household affairs, and for meet- ings of the women to discuss matters of common interest to homemakers. To bring to both men and women as much help as possible in the practical affairs of everyday life in the community, is one of the chief purposes of the social center movement. Recreation. A striking characteristic of country life in many communities is the lack of opportunities for, and of inclination to seek, sufficient recreation. Coun- try people, as a rule, are over-serious. Life is too often a continuous grind, a monotonous drudgery. Holi- days are seldom observed, and the people rarely meet 334 Rural School Management except for business or religious purposes. The in- evitable results of such conditions are selfishness, narrow-mindedness, and prejudice. But the social center movement is changing these conditions. One of the main purposes of the move- ment is to provide opportunities for, and to encourage, social intercourse and recreation among the people of the neighborhood. At the social center people meet on some occasions for the sole purpose of having a good time together. The results of such meetings are that the people forget for the time their own troubles, get better acquainted with their neighbors, acquire a deeper interest in community affairs, and become more contented with their lot in life. The play festival, the community picnic, the ice cream social, the old folks' spelling match, and various other school events are worth much to the community as means of furnishing needed recreation. They serve to break the monotony of the daily routine on the farm or in the home, afford a wholesome diversion for both young and old, and cultivate the spirit of sociability and friendship among people in general. Entertainment. A community need, closely related to the one just described, is the need for wholesome and cultural entertainment. There are forms of enter- tainment which the best people everywhere enjoy an.d which they are entitled to have. Most people enjoy good music, good literary programs and dramatic per- formances, good lectures, and wholesome stereopticon and moving picture entertainments. Such entertain- ments serve the purposes of recreation in a sense, but they are more than mere recreation. They are up- lifting, refining, and inspiring in their effects. They serve to create, and to satisfy, a desire for the things The School as a Social Center 335 that ennoble character and make life richer in genuine enjoyment. To create a taste and supply the need for entertain- ment of this type is a third function of the social center. The School Should Be the Social Center. It is be- lieved very generally at present that such meetings and entertainments as we have mentioned should be held at the schoolhouse and that the school should take a leading part in providing occasions for the same. There are three reasons why the school should con- stitute the social center for the community. First. The schoolhouse and grounds belong to all the people. The people not only have the right but it is their duty to get as much benefit from their investment as is possible. Since the school is in session only a few hours each day for not more than half the days in the year, the school plant might well be used for other purposes besides the teaching of children. It seems an unnecessary waste to let a schoolhouse and grounds remain unused for so large a portion of the time when there are various ways in which they may be used with profit to the community. Second. The school- house is, in most instances, a good place to hold public meetings. It is usually centrally located with refer- ence to the population. In general, it has room and seating capacity to accommodate sufficiently the crowds that attend the meetings. And frequently, especially in the case of consolidated schools, the roads are kept in good condition. Third. According to our present notion of the functions of a school, it is the school's duty to help the whole community in just as many ways as possible. The school can and ought to be an important factor in providing for the educa- tional, recreational, and cultural needs of the people 336 Rural School Management at large. To bring about this general improvement of the community is the aim of the social center move- ment. Since this is a part of the school's mission, the schoolhouse might well be the headquarters for, and the school authorities the active promoters of, the social center work. Summary. The chief aim of the social center is to supply the things most needed to make life in the community both profitable and enjoyable. Its specific functions are (1) to provide means of practical help for both men and women ; (2) to afford opportuni- ties for recreation and social intercourse; and (3) to cultivate a taste for and to provide wholesome entertainment. There are three reasons why the school should be the social center : (1) The schoolhouse and grounds belong to the people and are available for other uses besides the teaching of children; (2) they are usually well suited for community meetings; and (3) it is the school's duty to contribute in every way possible to the improve- ment of the community. n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED Notwithstanding the rapid progress which the social center movement has made, there are a great many communities that are deprived of the benefits of such work. The main difficulties encountered are (1) the lack of capable leadership, and (2) adverse public sentiment. Lack of Leadership. Attention has been called to the lack of leadership as one of the causes of the slow progress made in rural schools. In most rural com- munities there are people who are capable of taking a leading part in public affairs, but they are not accus- tomed to do so. Owing to the isolation of country homes and the infrequency of public gatherings, people do not learn of new movements until they are informed of them by some one from outside the district. This The School as a Social Center 337 fact applies to the social center movement. People cannot be expected to start such work until they learn of its benefits from some one who is familiar with these benefits. Logically, the person best suited to take the lead in getting social center activities started is the teacher. But frequently the rural teacher is young, inexpe- rienced, and timid. Often, too, he lives outside of the district and returns to his home every evening or at the end of every week. Such conditions have tended, in many instances, to prevent the starting of social center activities at the school. But the task is not so difficult as many teachers think. We shall learn in the next section that there are many things the teacher and his pupils can do to bring the people together at the schoolhouse. Special training or previous experience is not absolutely es- sential. All that is necessary is enthusiasm and a willingness to put forth a little effort; and the extra work required is, in most cases, refreshing and en- joyable. It brings the teacher into closer touch with his patrons and makes for the greater success of the school. The teacher, therefore, stands a chance to gain much in the way of reputation and personal en- joyment by providing for an occasional meeting of his patrons. It is highly probable that in a short time some of the patrons will be willing to cooperate with the school and will take over, in a large measure, the work and responsibility involved in conducting such affairs. Adverse Public Sentiment. Some teachers have found that public sentiment in their communities is opposed to using the schoolhouse for any purpose except the teaching of children. There are people 338 Rural School Management who believe sincerely that nothing should be permitted to take place in the school that will draw the minds of the children away from their studies. They hold that the proper place for young people to spend their evenings is at home, though they do not always put this theory into practice. They look upon public meetings at the schoolhouse as a violation of the sacred purpose of the school; namely, that of teach- ing children to read, write, cipher, and spell. These are a few of the traditions that exist in some rural communities. They are due, for the most part, to the fact that people have not learned of the benefits that may come from the wider use of their school. One of the best methods of handling a situation of this sort is to plan a few events for the specific purpose of giving the people a thoroughly enjoyable time. The old saying " the proof of the pudding lies in the eating thereof " expresses a truth that can be used to ad- vantage here. The very best argument that can be made for the social center is to give the people a taste of its benefits. A few delightful meetings will do more to overcome opposition than any argument the teacher can produce. People can always judge more fairly of a thing after they have had some experience with it. The first step, therefore, is to have a meeting or two planned primarily to be thoroughly enjoyable to the patrons. If there is opposition to a meeting at the schoolhouse in the evening, it may be held on a Friday afternoon. A parents' day planned with the above end in view will make a good beginning. A few such meetings will pave the way for meetings of other sorts and for other purposes. From some such simple beginning the people may be led gradually to take up the various forms of social center work. The School as a Social Center 339 Other Difficulties. (1) Expense. If a method similar to the one described in the last paragraph is used in getting the social center work started, there need be no expense until the work is well under way. As interest grows and the people begin to realize the value of such activities, they will devise some means of raising funds if any are needed. The expense need not be great at any time, and much can be done with- out any outlay at all. (2) Small districts. In states where school districts are small and numerous, it is not necessary that every school shall be a social center. It is better to combine several neighboring districts into a single '' social center district." County super- intendents sometimes divide their counties into such districts, and all of the teachers and schools in each district unite to carry on the community activities. In some cases these activities are held at the most centrally located school, while in other cases the meetings are rotated among the schools in the district. Summary. The greatest hindrances to the spread of social center work in rural communities are (1) lack of leaders and (2) the opposition of some patrons. A teacher who is willing to do a little extra work can easily overcome both of these difficulties. No expense need be involved until the work has aroused sufficient interest to make the raising of funds an easy matter. Frequently several small districts can unite to advantage to form a single social center district. III. HOW TO MAKE THE SCHOOL A SOCIAL CENTER The social activities that may be carried on in connection with the school are of two kinds: (1) oc- casional single meetings held under the auspices of the school, such as spelling bees, play festivals, box suppers, school plays, etc. ; and (2) regular meetings 340 Rural School Management held under the auspices of some organization such as a literary society, a parent-teachers' association, or a farmers' club. For the sake of convenience these will be designated as the unorganized and the or- ganized types of social activities. 1. Unorganized Social Activities Public Meetings Previously Mentioned. There are many ways in which the teacher and his pupils can provide wholesome recreation and entertainment for the people of the community. Several kinds of public meetings have been described in connection with other phases of the school's work. Clean-up Day, Parents' Day, box suppers, ice-cream socials, school exhibits and fairs, play festivals, old folks' spelling bees — these and other forms of public gather- ings have been discussed, but they are mentioned here to emphasize their social value. Whatever other purpose one of these events may serve, whether it is to arouse interest, raise money, promote health, or beautify the school, it is eminently worth while as a means of enriching the social life of the community. Special Day Programs. To the foregoing list many other interesting and profitable forms of entertainment may be added. Special programs in observance of certain days or events constitute an excellent type of community entertainment. A Hallowe'en party, such as has been described, may be made a delightful occasion for adults as well as for young people. A Christmas tree and entertainment has been made, in many instances, a thoroughly enjoyable event for the entire community. Thanksgiving Day, Washington's Birthday, Peace Day, and Columbus Day are all ap- The School as a Social Center 341 propriate occasions for school entertainments to which the public may be invited. Programs at such times as these are not only enter- taining, they are educative both to the pupils and to their parents. Furthermore, opportunity can be given for recreation and social intercourse. The serving of refreshments adds greatly to the spirit of sociability and good-fellowship. Few people can attend a meet- ing of this sort without being helped in various ways. Dramatic Performances. Dramatic performances or school plays are always a popular form of entertain- ment. In one instance the dramatization of Hiawatha created such an interest in the community that the teacher was petitioned by the patrons to have the performance repeated a few days later. One or two school plays could be given every year without any serious injury to the regular class work of pupils. There are a great many excellent plays that are within the ability of country children to produce with good effect. Musical Programs. There are several ways in which the school can give good musical entertainments. If the school owns a phonograph, this may be brought into service. The school chorus or glee club may contribute a few numbers or give an entire program. Where none of these means is available, a community " sing " may be held. This form is especially valuable because all of the people may take part in the program. There are in many communities girls who play the piano or organ and young men who play the violin. Selections on these instruments will add variety and interest to the program. Stereopticon and Motion Picture Entertainments. A considerable number of schools, especially consolidated 342 Rural School Management schools, now own a stereopticon or a motion picture apparatus. These may be used to excellent advantage in the social center work of the school. The motion picture show is probably the greatest single source of recreation and diversion in towns and cities. It seems only fair that country people should have some opportunities of this sort. In giving a stereopticon or motion picture enter- tainment three things should be kept in mind. First. Some of the entertainments or a part of every enter- tainment should aim primarily at giving instruction. The pictures should deal with things the people are interested in and ought to know about. Second. Some of the pictures should be given for amusement. There is a little couplet which says : "A little nonsense now and then Is relished by the best of men." Undoubtedly there is a legitimate place in every com- munity for some innocent, wholesome amusement. But the pictures used for this purpose should never be degrading or demoralizing in their influence. Third. Picture entertainments should be given only occa- sionally. One of the objections to the picture shows in towns is that they often interfere with the school work of children. This should be carefully guarded against in the social center work of the school. Receptions. In some communities it is the custom for the school to hold a reception in honor of a new teacher or newly elected members of the school board. It is not good taste, of course, for a teacher to plan a reception for himself, but he can take an active part in arranging an event of this sort in honor of the board members. A program for such a reception The School as a Social Center 343 might consist of (1) a few musical selections inter- spersed throughout the program; (2) short talks by one or two prominent citizens ; (3) short responses by the newly elected members of the board ; (4) the serv- ing of refreshments ; and (5) an informal social hour. An event of this kind is an excellent form of social center work. Hints on Holding Community Meetings. (1) Ad- vertise the meeting thoroughly. Use the pupils, the local newspaper, and the telephone for this purpose. See that everybody has a cordial invitation to be present. (2) Arrange beforehand with some prominent citizen to preside at the meeting and to have charge of the program. (3) Start the program on time. People will become impatient and restless if they are required to wait long for the program to begin. (4) Be sure to make the first meeting a decided success. Select one of the most popular forms of entertainment for this meeting and see that everything is in perfect readiness. Upon the outcome of the first meeting depends, in a large measure, the success of later meet- ings. (5) Vary the type of meeting from time to time. Do not use one type of entertainment until it becomes monotonous. Plan something new and interesting. (6) After the first meeting or two call on patrons for any assistance they can render. Work gradually toward enlisting the entire community in a coopera- tive effort for the improvement of the conditions of life for all the people. Summary. Social center activities are of two main types, the unorganized and the organized. The unorganized type includes all single meetings held under the auspices of the school, to which the public is invited. Public gatherings held for the purpose of raising money for school purposes, or for cleaning up and beautify- 344 Rural School Management ing the premises, or for arousing interest on the part of patrons ; all special day programs, dramatic performances, musical enter- tainments and picture entertainments and receptions are of this type. 2. Organized Social Center Work Such public meetings as have been discussed should pave the way for and gradually lead to the formation of some sort of organization for carrying on the social center work. The kinds of organizations formed for this purpose vary with different communities. Among those that are most common are literary societies, young people's organizations, parent-teacher associa- tions, and farmers' clubs. Literary Societies. The literary society is one of the most common forms of organization for holding regular community meetings. If rightly managed, it is an excellent means of carrying on community center work. Organizing the Society. When the school takes the initiative in getting the society started, the usual method is for the teacher to confer with the members of the school board and perhaps a few other leading citizens to arouse their interest in the movement. A public entertainment is then given by the school, and at the most interesting point in the program some one previously spoken to is asked for a short talk in which he proposes the formation of a literary society. A few others are asked to express their opinions on the subject. If the sentiment is favorable to the move- ment, a committee on constitution and by-laws is appointed and a date is set for the first meeting. It is a good plan to have a program prepared for this meeting. The adoption of the constitution and by- The School as a Social Center 345 laws and the election of the permanent officers will require only a few minutes. Hence there will be plenty of time for a short program. The exercises prepared for this meeting should be just as enjoyable as it is possible to make them in order to arouse the interest of the people from the very beginning. Constitution and By-Laws. The organization of the society should be kept just as simple as possible. The constitution and by-laws should be brief and so easily understood that there will be no time lost in wrangling over their meaning. The following outlines indicate about what they should contain : Constitution Article I — The name of the society Article II — Its objects or purposes Article III — Officers — method of electing and terms Article IV — Who may be members Article V — Method of amending the constitution By-Laws Article I — Duties of officers and regular committees Article II — Meetings — time and place of regular meetings ; how special meetings may be called Article III — Dues, if any, and when they are to be paid ; how money may be paid out Article IV — Method of amending the by-laws Conducting the Meetings. If the literary society is to serve the purposes of a community center, the programs must be varied to suit the interests and needs of the people at large. No one line of work should be followed to the exclusion of all other lines. Some of the exercises should be educational. To this end there should be debates on important questions and talks by patrons or outside speakers on topics of timely 346 Rural School Management interest to the community. Diversion and recreation should be provided for through such exercises as hu- morous recitations, dialogues, mock trials, etc. In ad- dition, there should be musical selections, choice literary reading, and lectures to furnish wholesome entertain- ment. In some instances it is possible to embody most, if not all, of these features in the same program. Occa- sionally, however, an entire meeting should be given to one kind of entertainment. If the society is con- ducted with these ends in view, it will be attended by adults as well as by young people and the whole com- munity will be greatly benefited by it. Young People's Organizations. A considerable num- ber of our state and national organizations for young people are finding their way into rural communities. Among these may be mentioned the Boy Scouts, the Camp Fire Girls, the Young Men's Christian Associa- tion, the Young Women's Christian Association, and the Boys' and Girls' Agricultural Club. Most of these organizations require a leader who has had some special training for the kind of work involved. But where any one of these societies is being maintained it can be used to excellent advantage in helping to provide social recreation and entertainment for the community. A fuller discussion of the boys' and girls' agricultural club work is reserved for a later chapter. In many districts it is possible to form local organiza- tions including the pupils in the upper grades and the young people of the neighborhood who are not attend- ing the school. If the teacher can lead in music, he should form a chorus society, a glee club, or an orchestra. Such an organization will furnish excellent recreation and training for its members and may be used to give an occasional public entertainment or to enrich the pro- The School as a Social Center 347 grams given by other organizations. Where strictly musical societies are not possible, dramatic clubs, liter- ary clubs, or general culture organizations may be formed and used for social center purposes. Any organization that will unite the young people for their own improvement and enjoyment and that may be used on occasions for community uplift will con- stitute an excellent agency for the social center work of the school. Parent-Teacher Associations. The parent-teacher association has been described in connection with the problem of arousing interest among the patrons of the school. We have learned that one of the chief functions of such an organization is to help make the conditions of life more profitable and more en- joyable for all of the people of the community. Where a parent-teacher association exists, social center work usually constitutes one of its main activities. It makes provision for educative lectures, recreation, and entertainment of various sorts. This is done in some cases through the regular program committee. In other cases there is a standing social committee which has charge of this phase of the association's work. Farmers' Clubs. Some form of farmers' organiza- tion makes an excellent means of providing for the social needs of rural communities. There are several types of such organizations, among which are Granges, Farmers' Unions, Equity Societies, and Farmers' Clubs. These organizations are similar in form, purposes, and methods of carrying on their work. The Farmers' Club has been selected for description chiefly because it is one of the latest, and is rapidly becoming one of the most popular, movements for the improvement S48 Rural School Management of country life conditions. All that is said, however, may be applied to any of the other types of farmers' organizations. Nature of the Club. The farmers' club is an or- ganization to which everybody in the community, from the oldest to the youngest, may belong. In fact, its membership is often numbered by families rather than by individuals. The club meets once or twice a month or every week, as its members may decide. The frequency of the meetings is determined by the keenness of interest shown. Where the clubs are small, the meetings are sometimes held at the homes of the members. Large clubs, however, find it more convenient to meet at the schoolhouse. The officers of the club are usually a president, a vice president, a secretary, a treasurer, and an executive committee of three members appointed by the presi- dent. The constitution is a brief statement of (1) the name of the club, (2) its purposes, (3) officers, (4) who may be members and how they are elected, and (5) how the constitution may be amended. The by-laws state (1) the main duties and the method of selecting officers, (2) the time and place of regular meetings and how special meetings may be called, (3) how members may be expelled, (4) dues and assessments, if any are needed, and (5) how the by-laws may be amended. Activities of the Club. The activities of the club are of three kinds: (1) social, (2) educational, and (3) business. A great deal of emphasis is placed on the social aspect of the club's work. One of its main purposes is to get the people together. To do this it is neces- sary that they have an enjoyable time. Accord- ingly, entertainments are held in which local people The School as a Social Center 349 take a leading part. Duets, quartettes, and chorus singing; piano, organ, or violin solos; readings and dialogues ; the serving of refreshments and an informal social hour — these and such other forms of entertain- ment as are available in the community are used in making up the programs. The above-mentioned entertainment features are varied from time to time and intermingled with the educational aspects of the club's work. The essential educational feature is the exchange of experience and opinions. To this end there are frequent general dis- cussions, short talks, and debates by local people on important farm and household questions. Occasion- ally, too, an outside speaker is brought in to lecture on some topic that is of special interest to the community. This lecture is followed by a general discussion of the topic presented. Matters of interest to women receive equal attention with those of interest to men. Through this interchange of ideas " the grain farmer learns from the cattleman ; the dairyman learns from the gardener ; the woman with home conveniences tells her less for- tunate sisters. All the information of the community is brought to a focus in the farmers' club." To this is added, on occasion, the expert knowledge of the specialist — the county farm agent or the extension lecturer from the agricultural college. The business advantages of the club lie chiefly in the opportunities it affords for cooperation in selling farm products, in buying things needed in large quan- tities, and in conducting enterprises that are of benefit to the community. In some instances the club mem- bers cooperate in the shipping of live stock, potatoes, grain, fruit, etc. In other instances they unite in buying coal, seed grain, fine stock, or a certain machine 350 Rural School Management or implement that will serve the needs of several farmers. In some communities creameries, telephones, and elevators are owned and operated by farmers' clubs. Sometimes several clubs unite to employ a farm agent or adviser for the communities represented by the clubs. What the Teacher Can Do. If there is a farmers' club, a grange, or a farmers' union in the community, the teacher can bring the school and the organization into helpful relations with each other. A good method of accomplishing this end is for the school to give a special entertainment or reception for the club. Ex- tend to every member a pressing invitation to be present. This will do much to arouse the interest and cooperation of the club in the work of the school. The teacher can then offer the services of the school in any way that it can help in the social and educational work of the club. When the school shows its willing- ness to assist the organization in every way possible, it will win the confidence of the club members and may easily become the center of the club's activities. Both the school and the club will profit by means of this relationship. Where there is no farmers' organization in the com- munity, the teacher may take the initiative in getting one formed. One teacher adopted the following plan of procedure. He took up the matter of forming a club with three or four of the leading farmers in the district and got them deeply interested in the move- ment. A date was set for a public meeting at the schoolhouse. At this meeting a short program of especially interesting exercises was given by the school. At the proper place in the program, one of the farmers, who had been previously spoken to, gave a short talk The School as a Social Center 351 explaining the advantages of a farmers' club to the community. Another farmer told of what the clubs were doing in other communities. After a brief general discussion of the question, the people voted almost unanimously to form the club. A committee on con- stitution and by-laws and a program committee were then appointed and a date selected for the next meet- ing. At the next meeting the organization was per- fected by adopting the constitution and by-laws and electing the officers required. A few short talks and a very ' pleasant social hour closed the meeting and marked the beginning of a very successful farmers' club. Summary. In order to make the social center activities most effective, a permanent organization should be formed for carry- ing on the work. Any one of the following organizations, if rightly conducted, will serve the purpose well : a literary society, a parent-teachers' association, or a farmers' club. A young people's society, such as a glee club, a chorus, an orchestra, a literary or dramatic club, may be formed for the special benefit of its members and to assist in supplying the social needs of the whole community. REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Betts and Hall : Better Rural Schools, Chapter XVI. Carney : Country Life and the Country School, Chapter IV ; also pp. 229-239. CuBBERLEY : Rural Life and Education, pp. 117-129 ; 139-146. Button : School Management, Chapter XVII. Kennedy : Rural Life and the Rural School, Chapter X. CLASS EXERCISES 1. What forms of social center work, if any, are being held in connection with your school ? Describe the method of procedure in detail. 2. What opportunities for recreation and entertainment, other than those afforded by the school, do the people of your com- munity have? 352 Rural School Management 3. State the principal hindrances to social center activities in your district. Explain how these are or might be overcome. 4. Name three kinds of school entertainments, in addition to those mentioned in the text, that could be given by the teacher and pupils. 5. Using the outline given in the text, write out a constitution and a set of by-laws for a literary society in your school. 6. Prepare an argument such as you would make to the lead- ing patrons of a rural district to secure their cooperation in or- ganizing a farmers' club. 7. Summarize, in outline form, the main points in the chapter. CHAPTER XVI ORGANIZATION FOR ADMINISTRATIVE PURPOSES I. FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION Functions. Practically all educators now agree that the administration of country schools constitutes one of the biggest problems of rural education. By the term administration we mean the carrying on of the business affairs that are necessary to maintain the school. In every school there are certain business affairs that must be transacted. Some of these per- tain to the finances of the school, such as levying taxes, issuing bonds, ordering and paying school warrants, etc. Others pertain to the ownership, care, and dis- posal of school property. Every school must have the right to own a schoolhouse and grounds, to buy equipment, to sell any of its property that is no longer needed, and to have such property taken care of. Again, there are affairs that pertain to the making of contracts. Teachers and janitors must be employed, sometimes workmen must be engaged to repair the schoolhouse or construct a new one, contracts for fuel must be made, and so on. These are a few of the business affairs that must be transacted from time to time in every school. But to carry on such transactions, some form of organiza- tion is necessary. There must be a school district of some sort, a certain territory or geographical unit within which such business affairs may be carried on 353 354 Rural School Management and to which they apply. There must be a board of directors or trustees empowered to transact business for the school. Provision must be made, also, for annual meetings and other meetings or elections at which the voters may express their views or vote on matters that pertain to the school. To the end, then, that the business affairs of the school may be carried on to best advantage, some form of organization is necessary. There must be a unit of organization; that is, a territorial district, a board of directors to act in certain matters for the people of the district, and also some provision for annual meetings and special meetings of the people to transact such business as is not delegated to the district officials. Such an organization is a device, a means for administering the affairs of the school. Types of School Organization. At present there are three main types of school organization: (1) the district system, (2) the township system, and (3) the county unit system. The District System. The district system is the most common type of school organization. A district, as the term is used in this connection, is a small area, usually not more than two or three miles square, in which a single school is maintained. Each district has its own board of directors consisting, in most cases, of three members, one elected each year for a term of three years. This board has general control of the school. It has the oversight of the property, selects the teacher, furnishes supplies, and orders repairs and other improvements when needed. An annual meeting of the voters is held in each district for the election of directors and the transaction of such other business as may be necessary. Organization for Administrative Purposes 355 In almost all of its affairs each district is independent of all other districts. It has its own school board; fixes, within the constitutional limit, its own tax rate ; determines the length of its school term ; selects its own teacher; and decides what improvements, if any, shall be made and what equipment provided. It is clear, therefore, that there may be very great differ- ences among the schools in different districts. The Township System. The principal feature of this system of organization is that all of the rural schools in a township are under the management of a single school board. This township board takes the place of the local board which each school has under the district system. It may establish new schools as they are needed. It fixes the tax rate and the length of the school term, selects the teachers, furnishes equipment, and orders all needed repairs made, for all of the schools in the township. In some of the states which have this type of organiza- tion, all of the schools in the township, including those in cities and towns, are under the management of the township board. In other states, town and city schools are organized into separate districts and are under the management of different boards. Occasionally, too, under this system each school or sub-district has a local board or director whose duty it is to look after the needs of the school and report them to the township board. The County System. Under this type of organiza- tion the county is the unit for administering school affairs. This means that all of the districts in the county, except independent city districts, are com- bined into one district. All school affairs are adminis- tered by a county board of education elected by the voters at large, and by local district boards. A more 356 Rural School Management complete description of this type of school organiza- tion is reserved for Section III of this chapter. Summary. There are a great many business affairs to be transacted in maintaining a school. These affairs should be transacted in such a way as to get the greatest amount of benefit from the school. To do this some form of organization is neces- sary. There are three main types of organization: (1) the dis- trict system, (2) the township system, and (3) the county unit system. n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED Weaknesses of the District System. The district system of organization is now regarded by all students of rural education as a serious hindrance to the effi- ciency of rural schools. Thousands of country boys and girls are being deprived of a high school, or even an elementary, education because they live in a district that is so small and so poor that proper educational facilities cannot be provided. The principal difficulties of the district system are given by Professor Cubberley as follows : "The chief objections to the district system of school organiza- tion are that it is no longer so well adapted to meet present con- ditions and needs as are other systems of larger scope ; that dis- trict authorities but seldom see the real needs of their schools or the possibilities of rural education ; that as a system of school administration it is expensive, short-sighted, inefficient, incon- sistent, and unprogressive ; that it leads to great and unnecessary inequalities in schools, terms, educational advantages, and to an unwise multiplication of schools ; that the taxing unit is too small, and the trustees too penurious ; that trustees, because they hold the purse-strings, frequently assume authority over matters which they are not competent to manage ; and that most of the progress in rural school improvement has been made without the support and often against the opposition of the trustees and of the people they represent." ^ ^ Rural Life and Education, p. 184. Organization for Administrative Purposes 357 Professor Charters ^ gives the following as the chief weaknesses of the district unit : (1) inequality of edu- cational opportunity for pupils of different districts; (2) unequal and inequitable tax rate and returns from the tax rate ; (3) inequality of cost for service rendered ; and (4) the number of school directors so large as to hinder progress. Let us see how each of these results arises from the district type of organization. Unequal Opportunities for Pupils. As a rule, the wealthier districts have the better schools. They have longer terms, better teachers, more sanitary schoolhouses, and more equipment. Pupils who live in a wealthy district, therefore, have better opportuni- ties for getting an education than those who live in a poor district. An instance is cited in which one school has an eight-months' term, a $50 teacher, a $1200 modern schoolhouse, and $200 worth of equipment, while an adjoining district has a five-months' term, a $40 teacher, a $400 schoolhouse, and only $100 worth of equipment. Clearly, the children who live in the wealthier district are far more fortunate than are their neighbors and relatives who happen to live across the district line in the poorer district. Under the district system a child's chance for an education depends, in a large measure, on the wealth of the district in which he happens to be reared. Unequal and Inequitable Tax Rate. Wealthy dis- tricts almost invariably have lower tax rates as well as better schools than do the poor districts. In the instance just cited the tax levy most generally made is only 40 cents on the $100 valuation, while in the poorer district it is more than 60 cents on $100. The ^ The County School Unit. 858 Rural School Management people who live in the wealthier district not only have a longer school term and a better equipped school, but they have these advantages at a lower tax rate than their neighbors across the district line are paying for an inferior school. Evidently, there is something wrong with an educational system which makes it possible for one to get larger returns at less cost to himself simply by moving across a school district boundary line. Unequal Cost for Service Rendered. A third weak- ness of the system, according to Professor Charters, is found in the high cost per pupil in proportion to the benefits received from the school. Investigations have shown that education costs more per pupil per day in country schools than it does in town schools having two and three years of high school work. It was found in one state, for instance, that the cost per pupil per day in coimtry schools was 12.2 cents ; in town schools having two-year high schools it was 11.5 cents ; and in towns having three-year high schools it was 11.8 cents. In this instance the taxpayers in the country schools are paying more per pupil for the education of their children than is being paid by the people in the town schools. This would be perfectly legitimate if the country people were getting more returns from their schools than the town patrons receive, but as a matter of fact they receive smaller returns. The children in the town schools receive ten and eleven years of train- ing, while those living in the country receive only eight years — a gain of 25% to 37^% to the town pupil. Again, the towns usually have longer terms and better facilities than the rural schools have. It is perfectly clear, therefore, that the country parents Organization for Administrative Purposes 359 are not getting the amount of service that they should get from their schools in proportion to the amount they are paying to support them. Furthermore, the small enrollment and average attendance in many rural schools is the cause of an enormous waste to the district. One teacher can easily instruct twenty-five or thirty pupils. But in a great many country schools the attendance is not more than half that number. One school which is maintained at an expense of more than $600 has an average daily attendance of only three pupils. In this instance the cost per pupil for the year is more than $200. No such waste as the small school dis- trict involves would be tolerated in any private business enterprise. The Number of School Directors Too Large. Under the district plan of organization from 15,000 to 45,000 school directors are required to manage the rural schools of a state, and from 150 to 500 to manage the schools of a single county. This condition is a serious detriment to the schools in two ways. First. It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to elect such an army of school officials without placing some in office who are not fitted for the position of school director. Incompetent directors constitute a serious hindrance to the efficiency and progress of the school. Second. The success of the school depends, in a large measure, on the active interest and cooperation of the school board. Board members should be familiar with the work and needs of their own schools. Further than this, they ought to know what conditions are essential to the highest success of the school. To educate along these lines such a host of officials as the district system requires is an enormous task. The best method 360 Rural School Management is by means of personal contact, heart to heart talks with some one in whom they have the utmost con- fidence. State and county superintendents everywhere are doing all they can along this line. But, with the limited number of assistants with which most superin- tendents are at present supplied, the task is too great to permit of securing the best results. The Township System. The township is very generally regarded as a better unit than the local district for the organization of schools. The chief advantages claimed for the township system are : (1) The tax rate levied for school purposes is uniform throughout the township, and the funds raised are distributed among the various schools according to their needs. (2) Educational opportunities are equal- ized, as far as possible, among the districts or schools in the township. All of the schools in the same town- ship have the same length of term, equally well-qualified teachers, etc. (3) It is more favorable to the con- solidation of schools than is the district system. Since all of the schools are under the management of the same board, there are as a rule fewer of the petty jealousies and prejudices that often prevent the con- solidation of schools under the district plan. Notwithstanding these advantages, most of our leading educators hold that even the township is too small a unit for the satisfactory administration of rural schools. Educational opportunities should be equalized and the burdens of taxation be evenly dis- tributed over a larger area than a single township. One township may be so poor that it cannot maintain an efficient system of schools, even with a high tax rate ; while another township, because of its greater wealth, may have excellent schools with a much Organization for Administrative Purposes 361 lower rate of taxation. Consequently, there may be, and often are, glaring inequalities among schools, even under the township system of organization. Furthermore, the township is, in a vast majority of cases, too small and too poor to provide for the effective supervision of its schools. The consensus of opinion of our leading educators is that the township system may, and often does, improve conditions in some schools, but it is not an effective remedy for the evils of the district system. Equal educational advantages for all pupils, and equal distribution of the burdens of taxation for school support, and the elimination of waste in the maintenance of schools, cannot be adequately attained until our schools are organized and administered on the basis of a still larger unit. Summary. The district system of organization is universally- regarded by educators as a serious hindrance to the efficiency of rural schools. It has a great many weaknesses, among which are the following: (1) It gives rise to unequal educational op- portunities for children ; (2) the rate of taxation and the benefits received from the funds raised are unequal and inequitable ; (3) the cost of maintenance in many schools is out of proportion to the service the schools render ; and (4) the immense number of school directors required is a hindrance to progress. The township system has some advantages over the district system, but it is not an adequate method of administering rural schools. m. BETTER METHODS OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION Having pointed out the difficulties encountered when schools are organized under the district and the town- ship systems, the next question to be considered is: How can these difficulties be overcome ? What method of organization, if any, will give country children the 362 Rural School Management educational opportunities to which they are entitled? Two methods have been found very satisfactory wher- ever they have been tried. These are (1) the county unit type of organization, and (2) the consolidation of school districts. 1. The County Unit Essential Features. Several of the states already have the county unit as the basis of rural school ad- ministration, and in every one of them it is proving satisfactory. The details of the plan vary with differ- ent states, but there are certain features that are found in nearly all cases where the system exists. The County Board of Education. The most im- portant feature is that all of the schools in the county are under the management of a single board of directors usually known as the County Board of Education. The number of members varies in dif- ferent states from three to nine, or even more. In some instances the members are appointed, in others they are elected by the people at large or by dis- tricts. The length of term varies from one year to five years. The powers of the county board include some or all of the following : To elect a county superintendent of schools. To select the teachers for all of the schools. To erect new schoolhouses and condemn old ones. To provide equipment for the schools. To move district boundary lines and designate which school children shall attend. To levy a school tax up to a certain limit. To consolidate schools and make provision for the transporta- tion of pupils. Organization for Administrative Purposes 363 Some educators believe that the county board should have still greater powers. To the foregoing list they would add the power : To control all the expenditures of the entire school fund. To have general control of all school property. To establish and locate high schools. To make provision for assistant county superintendents, super- visors, and all necessary clerical help. To pay all office and traveling expenses of the county superin- tendent and his assistants. The Local District Board. In practically all of the states that have the county unit system there is, in addition to the county board, a local school board for each district. The number of members of this board varies from one to three and the length of term from one to four years. In some instances members are appointed and in others they are elected. In states where the county boards have such powers as we have enumerated there is not much left for the local boards to do. There are, however, a few things for which such a board is needed in every district. Its principal duties are : To hear the complaints of patrons. To suspend or expel unruly pupils. To approve the reports of the teacher. To have immediate charge of local school property. To report to the county board the conditions that exist in the school. To supervise the erection of a new schoolhouse or the repair of the old one. The Supervision of Schools. In a majority of the states having the county unit system the county superintendent and his assistants are selected by the county board. This is regarded as one of the best 364 Rural School Management features of the system. All educators recognize the importance of taking and keeping the office of superin- tendent of schools out of politics. When the superin- tendent is elected by popular vote, there is no certainty that the most competent person will be selected. In cities the superintendent is chosen by the school board. Furthermore, the board is not compelled to make its selection from teachers living in the city. It is at liberty to select the best man for the position regard- less of his place of residence. If this is a good plan for city schools, it ought to be a good plan for country schools as well. One of the greatest needs of rural schools is a more adequate system of supervising the teaching in the schools. It is believed that if all of the schools of a county are combined into a single district, and the power to appoint the superintendent and supervisors given to the county board, a much better system of supervision can be had than is possible under any other unit of organization. The Management of School Funds. Practices with reference to levying school taxes and disbursing school funds are not uniform in states where the county unit prevails. In most of the states money for the support of the schools comes from the state, a county tax, and a local district tax. A few states do not permit the levying of a local district tax, and a few others have no county tax. The following method of handling the school finances is believed to be a good plan : 1. Have the state funds apportioned among the various coun- ties on the basis of actual attendance. 2. Permit the county board to levy a uniform county tax up to a certain limit. 3. Permit the people of the county to authorize by vote an additional levy when such is needed. Organization for Administrative Purposes 365 4. Permit the county board to distribute the funds thus ob- tained among the schools of the county in proportion to the needs of each school. 5. Permit local districts to levy a district tax when the people of the district want more funds than are obtained through the county board. Such a plan seems to have the following advantages : (1) It equalizes the burden of taxation throughout the county; (2) it permits the use of school funds where they are most needed, thus making for equal educa- tional opportunities in all of the schools; (3) it en- courages local interest and initiative by making possible the levying of a district tax for any special equipment or improvements the people of the district may desire. Summary. The essential features of a good type of county unit organization are : (1) a county board of education in which is vested fairly complete control of all the schools in the county ; (2) a local board in each district to report to the county board the conditions and needs of each school ; (3) the appointment by the county board of a county superintendent, assistants, and supervisors with ample provision for their salaries and expenses ; (4) the levying of a county school tax and the apportionment of school funds by the county board. Advantages of the County Unit. A committee of educators appointed by the Missouri State Teachers' Association made a careful investigation of the work- ings of the plan in several states. In their report they enumerate the following advantages of this type of school organization: To THE School Children 1. It means better teachers. 2. It means more and better supervision of these teachers. 3. Teachers will be placed where they can work to best ad- vantage. 366 Rural School Management 4. It means better school buildings. 5. It means better libraries and better school equipment. 6. It means free high schools for all pupils who complete the grade work. 7. It insures properly supervised corn clubs and canning clubs and social center work. 8. It insures more practical work in agriculture and domestic science. 9. It brings the inspiration of trained leaders. 10. It gives an opportunity to attend the most convenient school. 11. It guarantees to all boys and girls equal opportunities. To Teachers 1. More and more helpful and inspiring supervision. 2. Supervisors who can come when needed. 3. Better school buildings. • 4. Better libraries and better equipment. 5. A chance to grow and an inspiration to grow. 6. Adequate salaries that grow as the teachers grow. 7. Promotions based on merit and service. 8. An opportunity to work in a community that is responsive. 9. An opportunity to do the work for which he has prepared. 10. Greater permanency of tenure. 11. The guarantee of a standard school year in every school. To THE Taxpayers 1. An economical and efficient administration of school revenues. 2. More efficient schools, more efficient teachers, and more interest in the local school. 3. The equalizing of educational burdens and opportunities. 4. The saving of the interest now paid on school bonds. 5. More economical purchasing of school supplies. 6. The guarantee of wisely and properly constructed buildings. 7. The establishment of high schools at a moderate cost. 8. Properly selected libraries. 9. The elimination of small expensive schools, when consolida- tion and transportation will be more economical. 10. The adjustment of the present crazy-quilt district system. Organization for Administrative Purposes 367 To THE County Superintendents 1. His position becomes a professional one. 2. He is removed from the influences of partisan politics. 3. He is given an opportunity to grow and is given an incen- tive to grow. 4. His salary grows as he grows. 5. He has his traveling expenses paid and clerical help pro- vided. 6. He has assistants and supervisors. 7. He has a voice in the placing of teachers. 8. He can see that good school buildings are erected and that these buildings are properly located and properly equipped. 9. He is furnished with adequate machinery to make his work effective and can really build up his teachers and his schools. 10. The position of county superintendent is made the most important educational position in the county. ^ What the Teacher Can Do. To get the county unit adopted in any state which does not have this system of organization will probably require the enactment of a county unit law by the state legislatiire. But legislators are nearly always willing to vote and work for the passage of a law which they know their con- stituents want. The first step, then, is to create public sentiment in favor of such a law. It is reported that when taxpayers understand the system thoroughly they are, almost without exception, in favor of it. Herein lies the teacher's opportunity to render a valuable service to rural schools. He can, if he be- lieves in the county unit, conduct a campaign of educa- tion among his patrons to the end that they may understand the features and advantages of this type of organization. It might well be made a topic for discussion on Parents' Day in the school, at a meeting ^ Report of Committee on Larger School Unit. State Superin- tendent's Report for 1914, pp. 380-381. 368 Rural School Management of the parent-teacher association, or at a social center gathering. Literature may be obtained from the sources Hsted at the end of this chapter. A good plan is for the teacher to go over the matter very carefully with two or three of his most prominent patrons with a view to getting them to favor the adoption of the system. These patrons could then be asked to take a leading part in the discussion when the question is under consideration at a public meeting. At the proper time a patrons' committee might be formed to circulate a petition among the voters of the district, or to take such other steps as might seem necessary to get their representative in the legislature to work for the passage of the county unit law. 2. The Consolidation of Schools Meaning of Consolidation. A great deal has been said and written in recent years about the consolidation of schools. In general, this term means the uniting of two or more school districts to form a single larger district. In this larger district, one schoolhouse with two or more teachers frequently takes the place of the one-teacher schools that existed in the former districts. Nearly every state in the union now has laws which provide for some method of combining small schools to form larger districts. How Consolidation Is Effected. The process of bringing about the consolidation of schools varies with different states. In states where the district is the unit of school or- ganization, the usual method is by a vote of the people in the districts concerned. When a certain number of people living in adjoining school districts wish to Organization for Administrative Purposes 369 have their schools consolidated, they petition their school boards or the county superintendent to have the question submitted to a vote. In some instances this vote is taken at a joint meeting of the voters in all of the territory affected and the question is decided by a majority of the votes cast. In other cases the proposition must receive a majority vote in all of the districts, each district voting separately from the others. Under either method, when the vote is for consolidation, arrangements are made for the election of a board of directors to take charge of, and carry on, the affairs of the new district thus formed. In some of the states where the township is the unit of organization, schools may be consolidated at the discretion of the township school board. But in other states consolidation can be effected only by vote of the people in the territory affected. Under the county unit system the matter of con- solidation is placed, in most cases, in the hands of the county board. This board has the power to move district boundary lines, to close or abandon small schools, to combine districts, and make provision for transporting pupils to and from the schools. Educators have observed that the movement for consolidation has made much more rapid progress where the township or the county unit prevails, than it has where the district system is in force. This fact is due in part, no doubt, to the increased powers which township and county boards have in such matters. Another reason is the local jealousies, prej- udices, and rivalries that often exist among schools under the district system. People are not likely to vote to consolidate where such conditions exist. Again, when a school has been maintained for a long time in a 370 Rural School Management community, people become attached to it. A school becomes, in time, a sort of landmark, a community- tradition, which the people dislike to give up. Finally, and most important of all, perhaps, there is the opposi- tion of the wealthier districts to combining with poorer ones on account of the probability of an increase in the tax rate. Types of Consolidated Schools. Practices vary with different states and with different communities in the same state as to the kind of consolidated districts formed. Consequently, there are different types of consolidated schools. Union Schools. This type of school is formed simply by combining two, and in some instances more, very small districts to form a large one. The essential features of the union school are that the district must not contain more than ten or twelve square miles (not more than three and a half miles on a side), and the schoolhouse must be centrally located with reference to the population of the new district. Its chief ad- vantage over other types of consolidated schools is that no transportation of pupils is necessary. In such a district very few pupils live more than one and a half miles from the schoolhouse. The chief weak- nesses are that such a school furnishes no high school opportunities and very few social advantages. The Town Consolidated School. This is one of the most common types of consolidated schools. It is formed by combining two or more districts, one of which contains a town or village school. The town school becomes the consolidated school, and provision is made for transporting the pupils from the out- lying portions of the new district. Such schools usually maintain a high school department and also Organization for Administrative Purposes 371 afford better social advantages than are found in the union schools. The Centralized Township School. Another type of consolidated school is formed by uniting all, or nearly all, of the districts in a township into a single district with one large school for all of the children. Where this is done, the district schoolhouses are abandoned and sold and a new building is erected near the center of the township. Pupils are trans- ported to and from the school at public expense. The centralized school is both a grade school and a high school. In many instances it is provided with a demonstration farm, adequate playgrounds and athletic fields, and an assembly room for community meetings of various sorts. Many educators regard this as the very best type of consolidated school. Partially Consolidated Schools. Under this plan the one-teacher schools are retained, but are limited to the teaching of the first four or five grades of work, and special schools are provided for all pupils who have completed these grades. When pupils have completed the work in their local schools, they are transported at public expense to the special schools, where they may complete the elementary school course and receive one or two years of high school work besides. The Transportation of Pupils. It will be observed that with every type of consolidated school, except one, the transportation of some of the pupils to and from the school becomes necessary. This constitutes a very important problem in connection with con- solidation. If the methods of transporting pupils are not satisfactory, the consolidated school loses many of its advantages over the ordinary district school. Methods of transporting pupils are of two main types : 372 Rural School Management (1) public conveyances which follow regular routes, and (2) private or family transportation for which parents are paid out of the district funds. Public Conveyances. In a great many consohdated districts children are transported by means of school wagons or hacks which follow regular routes to and from the school. The wagons make regular stops at the places most convenient for the children, and pupils are required to meet the wagons at these places. The wagons are run on schedule time, thus preventing the exposure of the children to bad weather conditions while waiting at the stopping places. Two features are essential to the success of this method of transportation. (1) The driver must be a thoroughly reliable and competent man or woman. He must be a person who can be depended upon to prevent all avoidable accidents, to exercise a whole- some moral influence over the pupils, and to preserve good order among the children while en route to and from the school. (2) The wagon must be both safe and comfortable for children. Vehicles built especially for this purpose are used in many districts. They are usually covered hacks, busses, or automobiles with seats extending lengthwise, curtain sides and glass windows in front and rear. In some sections provision must be made for heating the wagons. This is usually done by means of a coal or oil stove. Private Conveyance. Another plan for the trans- portation of pupils is for the district to pay the parents a certain sum per day for conveying their own children to school. Under this method parents may use any sort of conveyance they wish. Sometimes the children go on horseback, or drive the rig themselves, keeping the horses in sheds or barns at the school during the Organization for Administrative Purposes S73 day. In other instances some member of the family- makes two trips to the school — one to take the children and another to bring them home. In some communities steam railways or electric car lines furnish a satisfactory means of transportation. The method of transporting school children is, in general, a local problem. No rule can be laid down as to which method is the better. Some communities prefer the public conveyance, while other communities can use the private conveyance plan to best advantage. Benefits of Consolidation. Educators who are famil- iar with the work of consolidated schools hold that they have many advantages over one-room rural schools. Mr. N. C. Macdonald, who was for several years state inspector of consolidated, graded, and rural schools for North Dakota, summarizes the bene- fits of consolidation as follows : 1. Increases the attendance. 2. Makes the attendance more regular. 3. Increases the enrollment. 4. Keeps the older pupils in the school longer, giving a form of the continuation school. 5. Provides high school privileges at one-third the cost to the community, and one-fifteenth the cost to the individual patron. 6. Makes possible the securing of better trained teachers. 7. Improves industrial conditions in the country, including improved roads and farms. 8. Results in higher salaries for better trained teachers. 9. Makes possible more and better grade school work. 10. Enriches the civic-social life activities. 11. Conserves more largely the health and morals of the children. 12. Increases the number of eighth grade completions. 13. Provides adequate supervision. 14. Reduces truancy and tardiness. 15. Develops better school spirit. ' 16. Gives more time for recitations. 874 Rural School Management 17. Increases the value of real estate. 18. Produces greater pride and interest in country life. 19. Prevents the drift to the larger towns and cities. 20. Brings more and better equipped buildings. 21. Eliminates the small weak school. 22. Creates a school of greater worth, dignity, and usefulness. 23. Makes possible a more economical school. 24. Provides equal educational opportunities. 25. Gives much greater and better results in every way.^ REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Carney : Country Life and the Country School, Chapter VIII. Charters: The County School Unit (Paper read before the Educational Council of the Missouri State Teachers' Associa- tion.) CuBBERLEY : Rural Life and Education, Chapters VIII and X. FOGHT : The American Rural School, Chapters II and XV. Kern : Among Country Schools, Chapter XII. Macdonald : The Consolidated School in North Dakota. (Issued by State Board of Education.) Monahan : The Status of Rural Education in the United States. (U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1913, No. 8.) Monahan: Consolidation of Rural Schools. (U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, No. 30.) Monahan: County-Unit Organization for the Administration of Rural Schools. (U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, No. 44.) Report of the Committee on a Larger School Unit. (Published in Report of State Superintendent of Missouri Schools for 1914.) Williams: Reorganizing a County System of Schools. (U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1916, No. 16.) CLASS EXERCISES 1. What type of organization for the administration of rural schools is in force in your own state? Describe the organization in detail. 2. How would you justify taxing the people in the wealthy districts to help educate the children in the poorer districts, as is done under the county-unit system ? 1 The Consolidated School in North Dakota, pp. 8-9. Organization for Administrative Purposes 375 3. State the arguments you would use in a campaign for the adoption of the county unit plan in your state. 4. What arguments might be made against this system? 5. Just how is the consolidation of schools effected in your state? Describe the process in detail. 6. What arguments would you use in a campaign for consolida- tion in your district ? State the points clearly. 7. Which, in your opinion, would be preferable for a state having the district type of organization, a law providing for the consolidation of districts, or a law adopting the county unit system? Give specific reasons for your answer. CHAPTER XVII BOYS' AND GIRLS' AGRICULTURE CLUBS I. FUNCTIONS OF BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUBS Meaning of Boys' and Girls' Club Work. The last few years have witnessed the rise and rapid growth of a movement which seems fraught with immeasurable importance to rural life. This boon to country people is known as the Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Club Movement. Club work of the kind here referred to consists in carrying on some definite activity or enter- prise that is of special importance on the farm or in the home. Enterprises for the boys necessarily vary with different localities. In some communities corn growing and beef and pork production are the best projects or lines of work to undertake, while in other communities dairying or poultry or potato raising may offer the best opportunities for the club's activities. For the girls such projects as canning, food preparation, and garment making are appropriate for any com- munity. To the end that the work may be carried on with the greatest interest and effectiveness, the young people are organized to form local clubs. Each local club is under the supervision of a local leader and, in many instances, has its own set of officers. Further- more, these local clubs are federated into county, state, and national organizations. Thus it is seen that the work is highly organized. When one joins a local club, he becomes a member of a national organiza- 376 Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 377 tion and engages in an enterprise in which hundreds of other young people are his associates. The Better Training of Country Youth. The fore- most function of the club movement is to give country boys and girls a better type of training than they are receiving, in many cases, under present conditions. It seems only fair that young people who may be reasonably expected to spend their lives on the farm should be given the kind of education that will enable them to get the largest possible returns from their farms, make their home life most satisfying, and dis- charge the duties of citizenship in the most efficient manner. Club work furnishes an excellent means of supplying some phases of this kind of education. At least three of the educational values of the work to young people deserve special mention : (1) It gives vocational insight and skill ; (2) it serves as an in- centive for other forms of school work; and (3) it affords a good opportunity for social training. Vocational Training. Club work, as we have seen, is the actual carrying on by the boys and girls of some important farm or home pursuit. Through the as- sistance of the local, county, state, and national leaders, the members of the club acquire and apply the best information available concerning the project selected. In a corn club, for instance, the boys learn and put into actual practice the best methods of choosing the seed, preparing the soil, cultivating the crop, and marketing or otherwise disposing of the product. Similarly, in a potato club or pig club or a poultry club, the members acquire such technical knowledge and skill as will enable them to produce the best results at the least expense. The members of cooking, canning, and sewing clubs learn how to per- 378 Rural School Management form these activities in the best way and with the least outlay of labor and money. It is clear, therefore, that one result of this vocational training is to make farm pursuits more profitable and home life more pleasurable — two things that are necessary to make country life appeal to the best type of young men and women. A second, but no less important, result is found in the influence of such training on the character of young people. It is an invaluable means of developing initiative, resource- fulness, leadership. It furnishes pleasurable and profit- able emplojnnent, fixes habits of work and thrift, and stimulates the spirit of progressiveness. In the train- ing of future citizens, the importance of such matters as these cannot be overestimated. A third result of the vocational aspect of club work lies in the insight into, the knowledge of, science that it gives. In conducting a farm project the boys learn important facts about plants, animals, the soil, climate, etc. They come to see the relations ; that is, the dependence, the helpfulness or harmfulness, the fitness, of things in nature. In a cooking club the girls must acquire some knowledge of chemistry, physiology, and hygiene ; for one of the aims of this work is to teach why as well as how certain things should be done. This knowledge of science, even though it is elementary, constitutes a valuable kind of training, regardless of the vocation the young people may follow in later life. An Incentive to School Work. Club work con- tributes greatly to the training of youth by supplying an incentive to study some of the usual common school branches. We have already learned (Chapter XI) that the best incentive to study is to have a definite purpose, the attainment of which requires the use or Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 379 mastery of the things studied. Club work furnishes just such a situation as this. The members are en- gaged in something they want to do; they have a definite purpose to attain. In order to follow the instructions of the leaders and get the information they need, they must be able to read intelligently. Here is a strong incentive to read for the thought contained in the printed circulars, bulletins, etc. In many of the club projects, an accurate account of the cost of production, receipts, and profits is required. This furnishes an excellent incentive for and practice in making arithmetical computations. Generally, too, a written report of how the project was carried on constitutes a part of the club exhibit. The pupil's desire to have a good report is a strong incentive to write legibly, spell and punctuate correctly, arrange his thoughts logically, and state them clearly. This is excellent language training. Social Training. Practically all young people have what psychologists call a gregarious or gang instinct. This is one form of the social instinct. It is the tend- ency or desire of young people, at certain ages, to form teams, societies, or clubs. Educators hold now that instead of trying to suppress this instinct we should cultivate it and direct it in ways that are beneficial to all concerned. Through associating or mingling with one another, young people learn some very important lessons. They become less selfish. They learn the ways of other people, and how to cooperate with and help one another. They become broader in their views and acquire a deeper and more sympathetic interest in other people. These are some of the qualities that make for the best type of citizenship. 380 Rural School Management Local boys' and girls' clubs offer excellent opportuni- ties for the kind of training just mentioned. In most cases it is possible for the club to hold occasional meetings, say once or twice a month. Such meetings have a twofold purpose: (1) to discuss matters per- taining to the club work and transact the necessary business affairs, and (2) to bring young people to- gether for wholesome recreation and enjoyment. If the meetings are rightly conducted, both the business and recreational features will afford invaluable social training. Improvement of Present Conditions. In addition to training the youth who are to be the rural citizens of the next generation, the club movement seeks to im- prove conditions for the farmers and homemakers of the present. It is one of the means now employed for bringing to the rural citizens of to-day the information they need to make their pursuits yield a larger return both in money and in contentment. What the boys and girls learn and achieve through their club projects, spreads throughout the community and results in an immediate iraprovement along those lines. The corn club furnishes a good illustration. According to the president of the Ohio Agricultural Commission the corn club boys of that state were responsible for rais- ing the average yield of corn per acre from thirty-five bushels to eighty-one, a gain of $20,000,000 a year to the state. Jerry Moore, a fifteen-year old corn club boy of South Carolina, raised 228 bushels of corn on one acre of land. " Within three years after that the corn crop of South Carolina jumped from 17,000,000 bushels to 50,000,000. And the yield per acre in every one of the fifteen Southern States has increased since Jerry Moore's exploit." The mother-daughter Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 381 canning club in which hundreds of mothers are work- ing side by side with their daughters is another illus- tration of the influence of the movement upon adults and present conditions. Similar illustrations could be cited from other club projects, but these are sufficient to show that the movement is bringing about an immediate improvement of the conditions of rural life. To bring about, on a widespread scale, just such changes as these is one of the main purposes of the club movement. Uniting School and Home. A third main purpose of agricultural club work is to bring the rural school and the rural home into a more intimate relationship with each other, to make them mutually helpful. It has been charged that many of our country schools are as well adapted to the needs of a mining or a manu- facturing town as they are to the needs of a farming community. The work and the activities of the rural school, it is claimed, ought to be directed more par- ticularly to the training of young people for life in the country and to helping country people improve present conditions. The giving of this vocational training is not the only function of the rural school, but it is an important function and one which is not sufficiently provided for in many schools. And the failure of the school to supply this fundamental need is one of the reasons why it has not received a more loyal support on the part of its patrons. Now one of the objects of the club movement is to demonstrate to teachers some of the ways in which rural schools can render a practical service both to their pupils and to the community at large. In return for this service, it is believed that the patrons of the school will rally to support the school and make it 382 Rural School Management possible for the school to do all of its work in the most efficient manner A school which helps both children and adults to appreciate and to make the most of the possibilities of country life and which is in turn en- couraged and loyally supported in all of its work by its patrons — to bring about this relationship is one of the chief purposes of club work among boys and girls. Summary. Boys' and girls' agriculture clubs are organiza- tions of young people for the actual carrying on of some important farm or home activity to the end that they may learn and put into practice the best methods of conducting such pursuits. The principal functions of these clubs are: (1) to give young people the type of training that will best fit them for life in the country; (2) to improve the present economic and home life conditions of rural communities; and (3) to establish between the school and the home a relationship of mutual helpfulness. n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED The Problem of Trained Leaders. The success of club activities depends, in a large measure, on the efficiency of those who are in charge of the work. The national leaders are experts connected with the United States Department of Agriculture. They are chosen because of their special fitness for this line of work and may be depended on to do their part well. The state leaders, likewise, are specialists in matters per- taining to farm and home pursuits and are, therefore, thoroughly capable of directing the club affairs in their states. But neither the national nor the state leaders can personally supervise club activities in all communities. To offset this difficulty, county and local leaders are needed. The county superintendent of schools is, perhaps, the most desirable person to serve as county leader. Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 383 There are two reasons for this view. (1) Since the club project represents a kind of work which the schools ought to give, encouraging and aiding the club work is a splendid means of promoting the use- fulness of the schools. (2) By combining the func- tions of superintendent of schools and club leader in the same official there is a strong probability that the club work will come to be regarded as a regular phase of the school's work. This combining of the school and the club work is an end very much to be desired. In those counties where there is a county farm agent, this officer makes a valuable assistant to the superin- tendent in this phase of the latter's duties. The lack of special training or previous experience along the line of club work need not prevent the superintendent from serving as county leader. With the assistance of the national and state leaders and the various '' helps " that are now available, the task is not an especially difficult one, and any superintendent who will devote a little time to the matter can easily make a success of the movement in his county. The greatest difficulty arises in connection with the local leader. There are three very good reasons why the teacher of the local school should serve in this capacity. (1) Club work offers the best means of introducing practical agriculture and home economics into the schools. (2) It furnishes an incentive for, and therefore improves, the work of the school in other subjects. (3) Club work is educative in pur- pose and nature and, therefore, logically falls under the supervision of the educational leader of the com- munity. But in many instances the teacher is an inexperienced, timid girl or boy who has had little or no training in 384 Rural School Management either agriculture or home economics. Often, too, he is city-bred, has city ideals, and is ignorant of country- life conditions and problems. But club work is al- ready well organized and is easily managed. National and state leaders furnish definite instructions for conducting the various projects. Any teacher, there- fore, who is willing to devote a little time and energy to the matter may become a successful leader of the club work in his community. Objections to Club Meetings. In some instances local leaders encounter objections to the holding of club meetings. Sometimes parents object to their children being away from home evenings. Occasion- ally, too, especially when the schools are in session, the services of the children are needed at home on Saturday afternoons. Hence it is not practicable to hold the club meetings at these times. Another ob- jection raised by some parents is that the meetings are of no value to the children. It should be understood, in the first place, that very frequent meetings are neither necessary nor desirable. In no case should the meetings occur so often as to make a heavy demand on the time of the members or draw their attention away from their home duties. A meeting once or, at most, twice a month is ample for the purposes for which the meet- ings are held. Secondly, sl little personal work on the part of the teacher or leader will usually overcome any objections parents may have to the meetings. When once the importance of the club work and the value of the meetings are clearly understood, most parents are willing for their children to attend the meetings. A personal interview with the parent is the best method of establishing this understanding. Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 385 Thirdly, in case all efforts to remove the objections fail, the meetings may be dispensed with. Club meetings, as we have seen, constitute an important phase of the work because of the social training they afford. But they are not absolutely essential to the success of a club enterprise. A club project can be carried forward with much profit both to the young people and to the community at large, even though no club meetings are held. Hence the objections of parents to the holding of such meetings should not be permitted to prevent the launching of club work in any community. The Dropping Out of Members. How to prevent members from dropping the work before the club project is completed is a serious problem in some instances. The dropping of club work by members is most common during the summer vacation, when there is no school and no local leader on the ground to help and encourage the members. It is quite common also in those cases where there is no local organization or regular meetings of the members. When young people are deprived of the stimulating influence of a leader and of contact with others work- ing along the same lines, it is quite natural that some of them will become discouraged and drop the work before it is finished. Obviously the best remedy for this difficulty is a local leader who resides in the community, one who can be present at all times to direct the work and assist and encourage the members. The holding of regular club meetings where members may exchange views and experiences is also a good method of pre- venting the dropping out of those who have started the work. Again, contests, exhibits of club products, 386 Rural School Management and prizes have been found to be excellent means of holding members until the work is completed. Methods of conducting these latter features are dis- cussed in the next section. Summary. The chief difficulties encountered in boys' and girls' club work are: (1) the lack of well-trained local leaders; (2) the objections of parents to the holding of club meetings; and (3) the dropping out of members. With the assistance of national, state, and county leaders any teacher who is ambitious to serve his community can become a good club leader. The objections to club meetings can usually be overcome by personal work on the part of the teacher. Much, if not all, of the drop- ping out of members can be prevented by having a local leader in charge all the time, regular meetings of the club, and well- conducted contests and exhibits. III. HOW TO ORGANIZE AND CONDUCT BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUBS We have just learned that the success of the club movement in any community depends, to a consider- able extent, on the local leader, and that the teacher is the logical person to serve in this capacity. The purpose of this section is to point out a few things that may help the teacher to initiate and carry on this important line of work in connection with his school. Preliminary Preparation. In initiating the club movement, the first step is to decide what club or clubs should be formed. Since the farm activities differ in different localities, those projects should be chosen which are of special importance in the com- munity. For the boys there are corn clubs, pig clubs, baby beef clubs, dairy clubs, poultry clubs, potato clubs, garden clubs, farm handicraft clubs, etc. Pro- jects suitable for girls are canning, food preparation, Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 387 bread baking, garment making, and home handi- crafts. Having decided what clubs should be formed, the teacher should write to the county or state leader for membership pledge cards and rules governing the projects selected. If there is no county leader and the name of the state leader is not known to the teacher, the material and the name and address of the state leader can be obtained from the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture at Washington, D.C. The rules and instructions governing the projects should be thoroughly mastered before the date set for organizing the club. The Campaign for Members. Arrangements should be made, if possible, to have the county leader or some experienced club worker present at a patrons' meeting at the schoolhouse. A Parents' Day at the school is a good time to launch the movement. The county leader or special club worker should be called upon to explain the purposes, value, and nature of the club work. In the absence of the county leader or special worker, this explanation may be given by the teacher or, preferably, by some prominent patron who has been previously informed of and won to the teacher's plans. After the explanation opportunity may be given for general discussion and questions. Before the meeting adjourns, the names of all pupils between the ages of ten and eighteen, inclusive, who are willing to join the club should be enrolled. As soon as practicable after the public meeting, a canvass of the district should be made for the purpose of enlisting as many as possible of the young people who are not in school. All young people between the above-mentioned age limits are eligible for mem- 388 Rural School Management bership, and every one should be given an opportunity to join the club. If the county leader or visiting club worker can spare the time to do so, he should make the canvass. Otherwise it may be made by the teacher alone or in company with some interested and influential patron. Forming the Organization. The forming of a local organization is not absolutely essential, but it is highly desirable. In every conimunity where it is possible to hold regular meetings of the club, a definite or- ganization should be formed. Accordingly, as soon as convenient after the canvass for members has been completed, a meeting should be held for the purpose of perfecting the organization. Officers, including a president, vice president, secretary, and treasurer, should be elected from the club members, a constitu- tion and by-laws adopted, and the necessary com- mittees appointed. Complete instructions covering all of these points, especially the constitution and by-laws, should be obtained beforehand from the county or state leader. With these instructions mastered, the forming of the organization will be an easy matter. Conducting the Club Work. With the organization completed, the members are ready to start the work in the projects chosen. When the names of the mem- bers have been sent to the office of the state leader, printed instructions will be sent, at certain intervals, to each member. From this point on, the work will consist in carrying out the instructions received and in supplementing these with information obtained from books, agricultural bulletins, etc. For the purpose of illustration let us suppose that one of the clubs formed is an Acre Corn Club. The work to be done is to select the seed, prepare the soil Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 389 bed, plant and cultivate the corn, weigh the harvested crop, keep an accurate record of the cost of production and receipts, and the writing of an essay on " How I Made My Crop." The information needed in each phase of the work can be obtained from the printed instructions and from books and bulletins dealing with the subject of corn growing. As another illustration let us take the Cooking Club. In this case the work includes such matters as : prep- aration for cooking; the making of measurements; the kinds, uses, and values of foods ; the actual cook- ing of certain foods such as eggs, meats, vegetables, etc. Here, again, recourse is had to the printed in- structions, books, and bulletins for the information needed to carry on the work. Contests, Exhibits, and Prizes. In order to create and maintain a deeper interest in the work, club pro- jects are usually conducted as contests between the members to see who can produce the best results. When the work has been finished, a public display or exhibit of the products is held. Each member is expected to exhibit selected samples of his product or work ; an accurate record of the expenses, receipts, and profits ; and a carefully written report or " story " telling just how the results were accomplished. Com- petent persons are selected to judge the exhibits. To the member who has the best exhibit the first prize is awarded, to the one who has the next best, the second prize, and so on. The giving of prizes necessarily involves some ex- pense. The funds for this purpose are usually donated by business men and societies or organizations, such as bankers, merchants, farmers, railroad officials, com- mercial clubs, granges, etc. In general, public-spirited 390 Rural School Management men are so deeply interested in the success of the movement that they are wilhng to furnish the funds necessary to insure the best possible results. Conclusion. The boys' and girls' club movement is fraught with so much importance both to the young people and to the community as a whole that one or more clubs should be formed in every district where they do not now exist. The teacher is the logical person to start the work. Previous experience or special training in this particular field is not absolutely essential. Any teacher who has the welfare of country life, both present and future, at heart and is willing to spend a little of his time in studying instructions can carry on the work successfully. The United States Department of Agriculture maintains a corps of ex- perts who are devoting their best energies to the cause. Most of the states have able club workers, trained men and women who are doing all they can to promote the movement. In a great many counties the superintendent of schools or some other interested person is striving to bring the benefits of the work to every community in his county. The services of all of these agencies may be had for the asking. The club movement needs the school and the school needs the club. Why not organize one or more in every district? The teacher himself has much to gain and nothing to lose by championing the cause in his com- munity. REFERENCES FOR CLASS READING Betts and Hall : Better Rural Schools, Chapter VI. Carney : Country Life and the Country School, pp. 96-107. CUBBERLEY : Rural Life and Education, pp. 144-146. Boys' and Girls' Agriculture Clubs 391 Curtis : Play and Recreation, Chapter VII. FOGHT : The American Rural School, Chapter XI. Kern : Among Country Schools, Chapter VII. CLASS EXERCISES 1. It is well known that a great many country boys and girls leave the farm and go to the cities and towns to find employment. Why, in your opinion, do they do so ? What effect, if any, would you expect agricultural club work to have on this tendency? How? 2. Of what value, if any, is agricultural club work to boys and girls who may not become farmers or farmers' wives ? 3. In your opinion, what club projects should be started in your community? Why? Procure the opinion of your county superintendent or state leader and see whether it agrees with your opinion. 4. Write to your state leader for copies of all instructions and bulletins bearing on the club projects promoted in your state, and for a list of government publications on the same projects. Make a collection of these, classify them, and place them in your school library. 5. Give the arguments for and against the giving of cash or other valuable prizes for club work. 6. Describe in detail how you would conduct a club exhibit. Give two important values of such an exhibit. CHAPTER XVIII THE TEACHER I. FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER The teacher is by far the most potent factor in the making of the school. All- of the agencies we have named are very important, but none of them counts for so much in the success of the school as does a good teacher. With an efficient teacher in charge, even a poorly equipped school may do a noble work both for the children and for the community at large. But with a poor teacher no school can accomplish its purposes in the fullest measure. In general, the school will do no more for the com- munity than the teacher thinks it ought to do. It is extremely important, therefore, that the teacher have a clear understanding of the functions of the school and of the part he himself should play in the community. He should have a clear vision of his own mission in the community and sufficient initiative and zeal to put his ideas into practice. The Educational Leader. Attention has been called repeatedly to the fact that the primary function of the school is to train boys and girls for efficient citizenship. The foremost function of the teacher, therefore, is to teach the children of the community. By virtue of his position the teacher is the educa- tional leader in his district. He is employed primarily because he is supposed to know how to teach and govern the school. He is regarded as a specialist in 392 The Teacher 393 this work, and the people look to him to give their children the kind of training they need. He is ex- pected to know what sort of training the pupils should receive, what subjects they should study, how the instruction in these subjects can be given most effec- tively, and how to maintain order in the school and on the school premises. But according to our present view educational leadership involves more than teaching classes and governing pupils. To be a real leader the teacher must know how to arouse interest in the school among its patrons. He must know what improvements are needed to make the school premises healthful and beautiful. He must know how to conduct school exhibits and fairs and playground activities, what equipment the school needs, and how to raise funds for purchasing the same. Briefly stated, the educa- tional leader is one who knows what the best present- day school practices are and gets them introduced in his own school. He creates a public sentiment, gradually it may be, which makes possible the condi- tions found in, and the attainments of, the best schools. Community Improvement. But the teacher has other functions besides those that pertain to the train- ing of children. He is, or ought to be, an important factor in the improvement of the community in general. He ought to initiate and take an active part in move- ments that tend to promote the welfare of all of the people. Much of the lack of progi'ess in rural com- munities is due to the fact that there is no one to point the way to better things. Before the advent of good roads, automobiles, and telephones, farm homes were isolated. People had few or no oppor- tunities to meet or to learn from one another and from 394 Rural School Management the outside world. Country people naturally follow the same pursuit in general, and this tends to develop a narrow interest in life. Such conditions have been unfavorable to the development of leaders. Conse- quently, life in the country is, or has been, more or less of a routine, a doing of the same things in the same way from year to year. Because of his position and special training, the teacher is the logical person to take the lead in com- munity improvement. Opportunities for service of this sort have been mentioned in our discussion of the social center work of the school (Chapter XV). Among the things that any teacher can do may be mentioned the giving of entertainments at the school ; providing for lectures by outside speakers on topics of interest to farmers and housewives; conducting a rural lyceum or extension course, play festivals, and other athletic meets; helping to organize boys' and girls' and farmers' clubs, granges, parent-teacher as- sociations, and literary societies. These are a few of the ways in which the teacher may be instrumental in bringing about better condi- tions in the community he serves. The rendering of such service is now regarded as an important part of the teacher's mission. Summary. The success or failure of the school depends in a very large measure on the teacher. Every teacher should have a clear understanding of what his functions are. These functions fall into two groups; namely, educational leadership and com- munity improvement. n. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED It is a well-known fact that rural teachers as a class are not so well trained and efficient as are the teachers The Teacher 395 in town and city schools. The reason for this condi- tion is that many of the best quaUfied teachers leave the country schools for positions in the towns just as soon as they have demonstrated their ability to teach. Our problem here is to see why it is so diffi- cult for rural communities to get and retain well- trained, experienced, and successful teachers for their schools. The Teacher's Boarding Place. One of the most serious hindrances to retaining the best teachers in country schools is the difficulty sometimes encoimtered in finding a satisfactory boarding place in the district. So serious is this difficulty that in some instances teachers have had to curtain off a portion of the school- room and establish living quarters in the schoolhouse. In other instances teachers have had to appeal to the county superintendent to help them get a place to room and board in the district. Teachers have been known to resign simply because they could not procure a place to live. Sometimes the only place open to the teacher is at a great distance from the schoolhouse. Teachers are sometimes forced to share not only the living room but also the sleeping room with members of the family with whom they stay. They have no privacy, no place to study or prepare their school work. It frequently happens that the room assigned to the teacher is poorly furnished, unattractive, and uncomfortable. Conditions are not so bad as this in all districts. Such instances are the exception, perhaps, rather than the rule; but they are more numerous than they should be. It is not at all surprising that good teachers are unwilling to teach in a district where reasonably satisfactory living quarters cannot be obtained. 396 Rural School Management Low Salaries. Teachers' salaries are lower in rural districts than they are in city schools. Rural teachers teach the children of 53.7 per cent of the entire popula- tion, but receive only 45.5 per cent of the total amount spent for salaries. Since the average annual salary for all teachers is $485, it is clear that the average salary for rural teachers must be considerably less than this amount. It is not to be expected that our best teachers will prefer to teach in country schools, unless the salaries in these schools are made more attractive. Large Number of Classes. A great many teachers dislike to teach in rural schools because of the large number of classes they have to handle. Most teachers are earnest and conscientious and like to do their work well. But, because of overwork and a lack of time, they find it impossible to accomplish in a rural school the results they desire. Consequently, they seek positions in the town or city schools where they have fewer classes and can do their work more nearly as they think it ought to be done. This difficulty has been overcome, in a large measure, in many schools by adopting some such scheme of alternating grades as we have described in an earlier chapter (see Chapter VIII). Other Difficulties. Among the other difficulties which teachers encounter in rural schools, the follow- ing are probably the most common : Poorly heated and ventilated buildings. Unattractive grounds. Lack of equipment. No janitor. Irregular attendance. Terms often too short. The Teacher 397 Too much exposure. Little or no chance to attend church. Too few agreeable companions. Too few lectures, entertainments, books, magazines, and news- papers. Little chance for improvement. It will be observed that several of these difficulties could be overcome by the teachers if they knew how to attack the problem. We have already learned how the teacher may be the means of getting the school premises made more hygienic, comfortable, and attrac- tive ; how he may procure needed equipment for the school ; how he may promote regularity of attendance ; and how he and the school may enrich the social life of the community. With the coming of the social center, telephones, automobiles, and daily rural mail service, there are fewer reasons why teachers should find life in a country district altogether disagreeable. Summary. Country districts usually experience some diffi- culty in securing and retaining well-qualified, successful teachers. The chief reasons are: (1) unsatisfactory rooming and boarding places for teachers; (2) low salaries; (3) too many classes; (4) poor buildings, unattractive premises, and lack of equipment ; (5) lack of social intercourse and recreation. m. HOW TO GET BETTER TEACHERS In spite of the difficulties we have enumerated, there are a great many excellent teachers in the rural schools of the country. Notwithstanding this fact, educators agree that the greatest need in education at the present time is a larger number of specially prepared teachers for country schools. To supply this need two things are necessary : (1) Those who teach in rural communi- 398 Rural School Management ties must be better qualified, better trained for their work; and (2) some means must be employed for retaining these teachers in rural schools. 1. The Training of Rural Teachers The problem of training teachers for rural schools involves a consideration of two questions : (1) Just what preparation or training should the teacher have ? (2) How or where can this training best be given ? Preparation of the Teacher. The training given as a preparation for teaching is of two kinds — academic and professional. These we shall consider in the order named. Academic Preparation. The academic preparation of a teacher pertains to his general scholarship. It consists in acquiring a knowledge of the main branches of learning, such as literature, history, science, mathe- matics, music, and art. There is at present no general rule defining the amount of scholarship the teacher should possess. Every rural teacher is expected to be able to teach all of the common school subjects. To do this he must have a reasonably thorough knowledge of these branches. But it is well understood that a teacher should have considerably more knowledge of these and related subjects than he expects to impart to his pupils. This means that the teacher should have an education considerably in advance of that which an elementary or grammar school course repre- sents. Most educators hold that scholarship or train- ing equivalent to graduation from a good four-year high school should be required as the minimum aca- demic preparation for all teachers in rural and grade The Teacher 399 schools. This standard is already in effect in some states and will probably soon become the general rule. The purpose of this academic preparation, from the standpoint of the prospective teacher, is twofold. First. It serves to give him a better grasp of, and a clearer insight into, the common school branches. The person who has studied history, mathematics, science, and literature in the high school will have a much clearer understanding of United States history, arithmetic, geography, nature study, etc., as these are taught in the elementary school. A thorough knowledge of the subjects he teaches is the most essential preparation the teacher can make. It helps him in various ways. It inspires confidence in him, helps him to make the work more interesting, leads to faithful study, promotes good order in the school, and creates a desire for more knowledge on the part of pupils. Second. The academic preparation serves, or should serve, to train the teacher in those so-called special subjects that should be taught in every rural school; namely, agriculture, domestic science, and manual training. The new ruralism demands that country children shall be well trained in the subjects that pertain to the farm and farm life as well as in the subjects that are important for all children irrespec- tive of their place of residence. This training the rural teacher should be able to give. Briefly stated, then, the teacher's academic training should consist of at least four years of study above the elementary school course. This higher training should be rich in those general subjects that throw most light upon, and tend to clarify the teacher's knowledge of, the common school branches. It 400 Rural School Management should also include a study of those special subjects that are regarded as especially important for country children. Professional Preparation. Important as is the academic training which we have just described, it does not constitute the teacher's sole preparation. Teaching is now regarded as a learned profession which requires technical or special preparation of those who follow it in precisely the same sense that physicians or lawyers should have special training. If one wishes to be a physician, for instance, he must have both a liberal general education and a knowledge of those technical matters that all physicians should under- stand. The same is true of lawyers and ministers. No one would think of employing a doctor or a lawyer who had received no technical or special training for his work. The same principle ought to apply to teachers. This technical or special training, which the very nature of his work demands that the teacher shall have, constitutes his professional preparation. Now, in just what does this professional training consist? It should be noted here that the teacher is, first of all, a teacher of children. The first technical requirement, then, is that he shall know something about the nature of the beings to be taught. He should be familiar with those principles or laws of mind that are involved in learning. Furthermore, he should have some knowledge of the mental and physical characteristics and abilities of children, their interests and activities, and the conditions necessary for their growth and development. Hence a study of psychology, and of that phase of it known as child psychology, constitutes a very important element in the profes- sional training of the teacher. The Teacher 401 But since the teaching of the common school subjects is one of the main functions of the teacher, it follows that he should know how this instruction can be im- parted in the most effective manner. A study of the methods of teaching is therefore an essential part of the teacher's professional preparation. From this study, the teacher should learn the purpose or function of the various subjects, how to arouse motive or interest on the part of pupils, how to conduct the recitation and assign lessons, and such other matters as are necessary to get the best results from the teaching work of the school. But the teacher is more than a classroom instructor. He is the general manager of the school. He is re- sponsible for the discipline, must see that supplies and equipment are provided, and that the school is health- ful and attractive. He must look after the attendance, keep records and make reports, and arouse such an interest among patrons as will lead to the making of any improvements needed. Hence, a knowledge of school management is a necessary part of his professional training. We learned in another connection that the teacher is not only the educational leader; he is, or should be, a potent factor in community uplift and better- ment. To this end he should understand the condi- tions and needs of country life. He should Imow, also, what means are available and what methods to employ in his work as a community leader. His training, therefore, should include a study of rural sociology or rural life problems. In addition to the foregoing technical studies, the preparation of the teacher should provide for some opportunities to observe the work done in a rural school and to put the ideas and principles he has learned 402 Rural School Management into practice. This will add greatly to his efficiency when he takes charge of a school on his own responsi- bility. It is not claimed that the above outline contains all of the technical studies usually included in a scheme for the professional training of teachers. The plan here proposed contains what is believed to be the minimum preparation that should be required of all rural teachers. With such training as we have sketched, teaching in a country school ought to be both enjoyable to the teacher and highly profitable to the community. Summary. The training a teacher should have is of two kinds — academic and professional. The minimum academic prepara- tion should include (a) the completion of a four-year high school course or its equivalent, and (6) training in such subjects as agriculture, domestic science, and manual training. The minimum professional training should consist of (a) a study of psychology, methods of teaching, school management and rural sociology; and (6) some observation and practice in a well-conducted rural school. Means of Training Rural Teachers. Having pointed out the kinds and amount of preparation that ought to be required of every rural teacher, our next problem is to find out what means are now employed for giving this training. State Normal Schools. State normal schools are institutions established for the specific purpose of training teachers. Many of them train teachers for all classes of public school positions — for rural schools, grade positions in town and city schools, high school departments, principalships, and superintendencies. For a long time, however, not much attention was paid to the training of rural teachers. But now special pro- The Teacher 403 vision for this phase of their work is quite common in normal schools. The plan most satisfactory from the standpoint of country schools is to have in the normal school a regular department for the training of country teachers. This department is usually presided over by a specialist in rural life and education. As many assistants are employed as are needed to conduct the classes in the department. In a few instances there is a model rural school either on the campus or within reach of the normal school, which is used as a place where the students in the rural department may observe model lessons and teach classes under the direction of an expert rural teacher. The course of study in these rural departments is made up of both academic and professional subjects. The subjects are usually selected with a view to em- phasizing the study of rural life problems. The course contains those branches which all teachers are supposed to understand and provides for special train- ing in agriculture, domestic science, manual training, methods of teaching, rural school management, and rural sociology and economics. These special subjects constitute the distinctive feature of the rural depart- ment. Clearly, the primary purpose of such a course is to train teachers for effective leadership in rural communities. County Training Schools. These are schools es- tablished for the primary purpose of training teachers for rural schools. In one state ^ the plan provides for the establishment of one such school in each county in which there is no normal school. Any student who has completed the elementary school course may enter. 1 Wisconsin. 404 Rural School Management The course of study for eighth grade graduates is two years and for high school graduates one year in length. The academic subjects taught are, for the most part, the branches that are taught in rural schools. The professional subjects include psychology, methods of teaching, school management, and observation and practice in country schools located near the training school. Educators who are thoroughly familiar with the work of county training schools state that they are highly successful in their mission. Graduates of these schools, it is claimed, do far better teaching than do most other country teachers. Teacher Training in High Schools. The pressing need for better trained rural teachers has led, in a con- siderable number of states, to the forming of teacher- training classes in regular high schools. One method of providing for this training is to per- mit those students who expect to become teachers to study some professional subjects in place of a corre- sponding number of regular high school subjects. The professional work offered is, as a rule, psychology, peda- gogy, and a brief review of two or three common school subjects with emphasis placed on methods of teaching these subjects. The professional courses are usually conducted by the regular high school teachers and count for graduation from the high school. But in the states where this method of training teachers is more highly organized, the teacher-training classes constitute a distinct department in the high school. They meet in a separate classroom, have a special library and other equipment, and are taught by specially trained teachers. The professional courses offered usually consist of (1) psychology, (2) school man- The Teacher 405 agement, (3) methods of teaching the common school branches, and (4) observation and practice in a grade room in the city school or in a near-by rural school. The chief purpose of these training classes is to afford an opportunity to those teachers who cannot attend a normal school or other higher institutions to make at least some professional preparation for teach- ing. It is not claimed that the training afforded is all that rural teachers ought to have, and it is expected that those who continue to teach will avail themselves of the larger opportunities offered in the special schools for teachers. State Agricultural Colleges. Within the last few years several state agricultural colleges have established either a department or special courses for training teachers for rural leadership. *' Short courses," sum- mer schools, and extension departments are other means employed for this and other purposes. The professional work offered for the benefit of rural teachers generally includes psychology, rural school methods and management, rural sociology, and eco- nomics. The academic subjects that receive greatest attention are agriculture, home economics, manual training, and nature study. Through their extension courses and lecturers these institutions are reaching a great many rural teachers who are unable to avail themselves of any other means of help. Summary. There is now a clear recognition of the urgent need for better trained teachers for rural schools. To supply this need the following means are being employed: (1) rural departments or special courses in state normal schools ; (2) county training schools; (3) teacher- training classes in regular high schools; (4) special departments or courses and extension work in state agricultural colleges. 406 Rural School Management 2. The Retaining of Rural Teachers It has been stated that the best teachers do not, in general, remain in the country schools, but seek posi- tions in the towns and cities. Teachers who have the kind of training we have described, other things being equal, will prefer to teach in country schools. Our problem now is to find out what rural communities should do to make the " other things equal," that is, to make the rural school as attractive to the teacher as the town or city school. Teachers' Cottages. The problem of the teacher's boarding place, as we have seen, is a serious one in many communities. The best solution yet found for this problem is for the district to own a teacher's residence. One of the most common plans, and perhaps the best one, is to erect a teacher's cottage on the school grounds and furnish it with everything needed to make it a comfortable home. The " teacherage," as such a residence is sometimes called, need not be an elaborate or expensive building. In some instances where a new schoolhouse has been erected, the old one has been remodeled and converted into a home for the teacher. Instead of the cottage, extra rooms are sometimes added to the schoolhouse or a second story constructed for this purpose. The practice of providing a home for the teacher is now quite common in several states, and wherever it has been tried it has given excellent results. The principal advantages claimed for it are the following: (1) It enables the school board to procure and retain good teachers. Teachers are attracted by the prospect of having a comfortable, enjoyable home life, and when once they are settled in such a home they are likely to The Teacher 407 want to remain. (2) By virtue of having his residence in the district the teacher acquires a deeper interest in the welfare of both the school and the community. He becomes a part of the community and consequently has a greater influence and power for good. He identifies himself with the neighborhood activities and is in a position to take a leading part in every move- ment whose purpose is the improvement of the school or of the community in general. Better Salaries. Reference has been made to low salaries as a serious hindrance to retaining the best teachers in country schools. No teacher can be blamed for seeking the position that offers the greatest inducement in the way of compensation. Mr. H. W. Foght, one of our best authorities on rural education, recommends the following remedy for this difficulty : " Salaries should be increased enough so a teacher with family may live on his income without worrying how to make ends meet. Provision should also be made, by legal enactment, for a liberal sliding-scale salary, allowing the teacher's income to increase in direct ratio to length of service in the same com- munity. This is only fair, since teachers of the right sort will unquestionably grow in value to the com- munity year by year." ^ A Larger School Unit. Probably the best means of removing the obstacles that impede the progress of rural schools and prevent the retaining of professionally trained teachers, is the adoption of a larger unit of school organization. The goal for which we should aim is the county unit with a county board of education em- powered to employ and fix the salaries of teachers, con- solidate schools, determine the length of term, repair 1 U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, No. 49, p. 29. 408 Rural School Management and improve schoolhouses and grounds, supply the equipment needed, and provide for competent janitors. With this end attained, rural schools will appeal to well-trained teachers as offering an excellent oppor- tunity for achievement, for real leadership. Summary. Before rural communities can hope to procure and retain the best teachers, three things must be provided: (1) a teacher's residence; (2) a salary scale adjusted to meet the increasing value of the teacher's service in the community; and (3) a unit of organization that will make possible the very best teaching conditions in the school. REFERENCES FOR CL.VSS READING Bagley : Classroom Management, Chapters XVI-XVII. Betts and Hall : Better Rural Schools, Chapters VII-XIII. Carney : Country Life and the Country School, Chapters IX-XI. CoLGROVE : The Teacher and the School, Chapters I-II. CuBBERLEY : Rural Life and Education, Chapter XII. FOGHT : The American Rural School, Chapters V-VI. FOGHT : The Efficiency and Preparation of Rural School Teachers. (U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, No. 49.) MoNAHAN and Wright: Training Courses for Rural Teachers. (U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1913, No. 2.) Salisbury : School Management, Chapters VI-VIII. CLASS EXERCISES 1. Why is it more necessary for a rural teacher than for a town teacher to be a leader in community affairs? 2. Describe in detail the part which you think a country teacher should play in the educational, business, and social life of the district in which he teaches. 3. What difficulties not enumerated in the text have you known to be encountered by teachers in country schools? Suggest a remedy for each of these difficulties. 4. What are the academic and the professional qualifications required by law for teaching in rural schools in your state? 5. Give any arguments you can think of both for and against The Teacher 409 the policy of requiring graduation from a high school or its equiva- lent as a qualification for teaching in a rural school. 6. State three specific reasons why a teacher should have some professional training for his work. 7. Should the professional training of rural teachers differ from that of any other class of teachers? Why? 8. Describe the means employed in your state for the training of rural teachers. 9. What measures besides those named in the text should rural communities adopt in order to retain well-prepared teachers in their schools? 10. Discuss the following topic: What the Teacher Can Do to Bring about Better Conditions for Teachers in Rural Districts. CHAPTER XIX SUMMARY OF PRINCIPLES Our study thus far has served to point out some of ' the things the teacher should know in order to manage the affairs of the school in the most successful manner. Now, in closing our investigation, let us gather up and state in a connected order the main facts, the principles that should guide the teacher in his effort to make of the rural school the type of institution which present-day interests and needs demand that it shall be. The Functions of the School. Clearly, one of the first duties of the teacher is to know the purposes or functions of the school he manages. A knowledge of its functions is necessary in order that the work, the activities, of the school may be directed toward the attainment of these ends. What these functions are has been pointed out in a previous chapter, but for the sake of emphasis they are restated here. The special function of the school is to help children to he- come efficient citizens. Its secondary function is to improve the conditions and enrich the lives of all of the people in the community. This is the mission of the modern rural school, and to the attainment of these ends its activities should be directed. Interest and Cooperation of Patrons. Every teacher should understand clearly that a school is a partner- ship, a cooperative enterprise, in which teacher and parents work together to educate the children and 410 Summary of Principles 411 promote the welfare of the whole community. If the school is to accomplish the task set for it, this relation of teacher and patrons is essential. Some methods of arousing a public interest in the school and securing the cooperation of patrons are given in an earlier chapter. The fact we must fix clearly in our minds is that the success of the school is in proportion to the interest of its patrons. The School a Health Agency. Good health is the greatest asset people can possess. Hence, the greatest service the school can render is to promote the health both of its pupils and of people in general. To this end the school surroundings must be sanitary, medical inspection of school children provided, warm noon lunches served, and a general public health campaign conducted. Every well-managed school is a health- promoting agency. The School an Agency for Training Children. We must not lose sight of the fact that schools are main- tained primarily for the training of children. To know how to make the school serve this purpose in the greatest measure involves a knowledge of several very important matters. Beautifying the school prem- ises, providing opportunities for plays and games, arranging a daily program, selecting the material for the course of study, promoting regular attendance, making use of the best incentives to study, maintain- ing good order, measuring the results of teaching, keeping records and making reports — the way in which these matters are managed has an important influence on the success and efficiency of the school. Our discussion of these topics in previous chapters is an attempt to show how to make the school an efficient agency for the training of children. 412 Rural School Management The School an Educational Extension Agency. One of the foremost tendencies in education at present is to make the school serve a wider mission than it has heretofore performed. It is believed now that the school is not limited in its usefulness to the training of children, but that it should extend its influence and activities to include the education and improvement of the entire community. We have seen that the school may be the means of imparting health instruc- tion to parents as well as to children ; that the school ground may be a public park to be used for community recreation ; that the playground may be a common rallying place where all may meet for athletic sports, play festivals, and general good fellowship ; that the schoolhouse may be used for lectures, club meetings, entertainments, and various other forms of educa- tional, business, and social gatherings. Judged by present standards the most efficient school is the one that reaches the entire community in the most helpful ways. The Unit of Organization. To accomplish their true purposes, schools must have the most efficient unit of organization for administering their affairs. Educational opportunities and the burdens of taxation for the support of schools should be equalized, eco- nomic waste eliminated, and adequate supervision provided. The small district unit has been found inadequate to meet these demands. The county unit with authority centralized in a county board of educa- tion and the consolidation of small schools are believed to be the best means at present attainable for accom- plishing these ends. The Training of Rural Teachers. It is especially important that the teacher have a clear conception Summary of Principles 413 of his functions in the community and sufficient aca- demic and professional training to put his ideas into successful operation. What the teacher's mission is and what training he should have are discussed in the preceding chapter, and so need not be restated here. The fact we wish to emphasize is the urgent need for more well-trained teachers, teachers who have a vision of the possibilities of the country school and a zeal to realize this vision. 414 List of Material for Collateral Reading LIST OF MATERIAL FOR COLLATERAL READING I. Books Bagley, W. C. : Classroom Management. The Macmillan Com- pany, 1908. Bagley, W. C. : School Discipline. The Macmillan Company, 1914. Baldwin, Joseph : School Management and School Methods. D. Appleton & Company, 1904. Betts, G. H. : New Ideals in Rural Schools. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1913. Betts, G. H., and Hall, O. E. : Better Rural Schools. The Bobbs- Merrill Company, 1914. BuRRAGE, S., and Bailey, H. T. : School Sanitation and Decoration. D. C. Heath & Company, 1899. Carney, Mabel: Country Life and the Country School. Row, Peterson & Company, 1912. Charters, W. W. : Teaching the Common Branches. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1913. COLGROVE, C. P. : The Teacher and the School. Charles Scrib- ner's Sons, 1910. CuBBERLEY, E. P. : The Improvement of Rural Schools. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1912. CuBBERLEY, E. P. : Rural Life and Education. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1914. CuLTER, H. M., and Stone, Julia M. : The Rural School: Its Methods and Management. Silver, Burdett & Company, 1914. Curtis, H. S. : Play and Recreation for the Open Country. Ginn & Company, 1914. Curtis, H. S. : The Practical Conduct of Play. The Macmillan Company, 1915. Dewey, John and Evelyn: Schools of Tomorrow. E. P. Button & Company, 1915. Dresslar, F. B. : School Hygiene. The Macmillan Company, 1913. DuTTON, S. T. : School Management. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1904. Eggleston, J. D., and Bruere, R. W. : The Work of the Rural School. Harper & Brothers, 1913. Foght, H. W. : The American Rural School. The Macmillan Company, 1910. Johnson, G. E. : Education by Plays and Games. Ginn & Com- pany, 1907. Kennedy, Joseph : Rural Life and the Rural School. American Book Company, 1915. Kern, O. J. : Among Country Schools. Ginn & Company, 1906. Morehouse, Frances M.: The Discipline of the School. D. C. Heath & Company, 1914. List of Material for Collateral Reading 415 Rapeer, L. W. : Educational Hygiene. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1915. Salisbury, Albert: School Management. Row, Peterson & Company, 1911. Shaw, E. R. : School Hygiene. The Macmillan Company, 1901. Strayer, G. D. : A Brief Course in the Teaching Process. The Macmillan Company, 1911. White, E. E. : School Management. American Book Company, 1893. II. Bulletins and Pamphlets A Handbook Containing Suggestions and Programs for Community Social Gatherings at Rural Schoolhouses. State Department of Education, Charleston, W. Va., 1915. Alabama School Improvement Association. Bulletin 41, State De- partment of Education, Montgomery. A Study of the Rural Schools of Saline County, Missouri. Uni- versity of Missouri Bulletin, Vol. 16, No. 22, Columbia, 1915. Beautifying Our Schools. State Department of Public Instruc- tion, Richmond, Va., 1911. Consolidation of Rural Schools and Transportation of Pupils. United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, No. 30, Washing- ton, D.C. County Organization and Administration of Schools in Alabama. State Department of Education, Montgomery, 1916. County School Unit, The. Paper read by Professor W. W. Charters before the Educational Council of Missouri State Teachers' Association. Published in Report of State Superintendent of Schools, for 1913, Jefferson City, Mo. County Unit Organization for the Administration of Rural Schools. United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, No. 44, Washington, D.C. Efficiency and Preparation of Rural School Teachers. United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, No. 49, Washing- ton, D.C. Handbook for Rural Teachers. Bulletin of Education, Vol. II, No. 1, State Board of Education, Boise, Idaho, 1915. Health Esse' 'r Rural School Children. Dr. Thomas D. Woe-' ^e Committee on Health Problems of the 'ication. New York City. 1916. '^ , Youth's Companion, Boston, Vit of Recreation, Rv \3. wersity of lov' \nds. 416 List of Material for Collateral Reading Neighborhood Cooperation. Service Book No. 3, "The Fanner," St. Paul, Minn., 1914. Outline for the Organization of School Improvement Associations. State Department of Public Instruction, Little Rock, Ark. Parent-Teacher Handbook. State Commissioner of Education, Dover, Del., 1916. Place of the Teacher in the Community. State Department of Public Instruction, Richmond, Va. Relation of Physical Defects to School Progress. Division of Edu- cation, Russell Sage Foundation, New York City, 1909. Reorganized Playground, The. United States Bureau of Educa- tion, Bulletin, 1912, No. 16, Washington, D.C. Reorganizing a County System of Rural Schools. United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1916, Washington, D.C. Report of Committee on Larger School Unit. State Department of Education, Jefferson City, Mo. 1914. Report of Committee on Uniform Records and Reports. United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1912, No. 3, Washing- ton, D.C. School Buildings, School Grounds and Their Improvement. State Department of Education, Topeka, Kan., 1911. School Improvement Association. Bulletin V, State Department of Education, Jackson, Miss., 1910. Social Activities for Rural Schools. Bulletin, Vol. 8, No. 2, State Normal School, Lewiston, Idaho. Sources of Information on Play and Recreation. Department of Recreation, Russell Sage Foundation, New York City, 1915. South Carolina School Improvement Association. Bulletin VII, State Department of Education, Columbia, 1915. Standards Employed in the Determination of Teaching Efficiency. Normal School Quarterly, Series 14, No. 58, State Normal School, Normal, 111. Status of Rural Education in the United States. United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1913, No. 8, Washington, D.C. Suggestions and Program.s for Community Meetings at Consolidated and Rural Schoolhouses. State Department of Education, Jefferson City, Mo., 1914. Suggestions for Community Centers. Bulletin ^^6 State Depart- ment of Education, Olympia, Wash The Consolidated School in North Dak -^f Edu- cation, Bismarck, 1915. "^he Making of School Programs Trenton, N.J., 1913. ' '^ew Country School. ' ool Beautiful. P ^Q07. — An