fe^^ 1 Hi a Book GopyrigfitN^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. NEW AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO SAM FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Lto. TORONTO NEW AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS IN THREE PARTS I. FROM THE OLD WORLD TO THE NEW IT. THE BIRTH OF THE NATION in. THE NATION'S LIFE AND PROGRESS BY ]VIARGUERITE STOCKMAN DICKSON THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1914 AS rtghtt rcaerved Copyright, 1911, 1914, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1911. Reprinted Juiy, 1912; May. 1913. New Edition published September. 1914. SEP 2b 1914 ©CI,A379716 Eo Mv. (Cfjtltrrcn aEallare, Ittatijarinc, anti Htultn PRKFACE 'fiiE author of this history woiihl call attention to the follow- ing points in res'anl to it. They may be verified l)y reference to the text anywhere. 1. An effort has been made to make the style interesting by use of vivid, clear, continuous, and at times dramatic narrative. The aim has been to produce, not catalogued facts, but historical literature. 2. The chapter rather than the paragraph is considered a unit. This prevents the assemblnge of unrelated facts, which paragraph headings encourage, and j)roduces a readable text. It is deemed important that the pupil shall read each chapter as a whole before proceeding to detailed study of any part of it. In no other way can he avoid learning isolated facts, and these are not history. Marginal headings have been used simply to facilitate review and reference, and have been made as inconspicuous as is consistent with their purpose. 3. The cha})ters have been so planned that the end of each is a logical stopping place, where what has been read may be worked over, added to, and assimilated. At each of these stopping places, use has been made of the educational devices of enlargement, repetition, analysis, and tabulation, to fix the main facts of the narrative. 4. The grouping of facts has been made a prominent feature. The book is divided into three parts to emphasize the natural division : into (1) discovery and settlement ; (2) the formation of the repuV)lic; (3) national history. Each of these parts in its turn is subdivided into certain main topics, few in number and logical in succession, so that they can be easily grasped. These main VIU PREFACE topics are placed at the beginning of each part for easy reference. More detailed outlines of each topic are given at proper intervals throughout the book. 5. No attempt has been made to include all the facts of United States history. That would be manifestly impossible as well as unwise. The author even pleads guilty to the exclusion of certain incidents and events usually found in grammar school textbooks. It required some courage to do this, but it is believed that by doing so the book has been strengthened. Some events — such as the War with Tripoli, the Burr Conspiracy, the Anti-Masonic party — merely serve to confuse the young student. They do not affect the general issue. It is by the omission of such things as these that space has been obtained for sufficient detail to make clear and vivid the events we have considered. 6. A unique feature of the book is its grading. Most history textbooks assume as much mental capacity on the part of the child when he begins his study as when he is at its end ; or, stated inversely, as little capacity when he finishes his work as when he began it. This cannot be true, if the child does any work at all. In recognition of this fact, this book has been planned to take advantage of the child's growth and to aitl it. A brief comparison of a chapter in the early part of the book with one near the close will show this plainly. American history lends itself readily to such a plan. Changing as it does from the simple story of primi- tive life in a new land to the record of to-day's complex civilization, it makes excellent material to produce in the child growth from merely reading a story to thinking and reasoning about historical problems. 7. The purely arbitrary division of the national period according to administrations has been discarded. In the consideration of the period since the War between the States, it has seemed best to treat one problem at a time — the tariff, western development, civil service — rather than to attempt the study of these important things bit by bit in passing from one administration to another. The grammar school boy of to-day will be the voter of to-morrow. We PREFACE ix mast give him some definite knowledge of the questions men vote upon. Mere casual references will not do 8. Many references for outside reading are given at the close of the chapters These are not in most cases to books written for adult history students, but for boys and girls. The purpose of many of them is to stimulate interest quite as much as to add to information. In no case is a pupil referred to a historical volume without definite instructions where to find what he seeks in it. 9. The maps in the book deserve a word of mention. They were selected and nearly all of them sketched especially for this book by Mr. George W. Dickson, District Superintendent of Schools, New- port, New Hampshire, a practical schoolman and teacher of history. Many of them are original in conception, and all are carefully designed to eliminate confusing and unnecessary details, to show forth essentials boldly, and to give the child the necessary help in placing correctly on the continent detailed Local maps. This last both Mr. Dickson and the author believe an especially valuable feature. It would be impossible to name in the brief space here accorded me all those who have been of assistance to me in preparing the book ; but I am most appreciative of their kindness. To my hus- band, whose v/ork on the maps I have already mentioned, and whose suggestions and criticism have modified the book in many ways, I desire to express my thanks. MARGUERITE STOCKMAN DICKSON. CONTENTS PART I FROM THE OLD WORLD TO THE NEW CHAPTER I. IL in. IV. V. VI. vn. VIIL IX. X. XL XIL XIII. XIV. XV. Foreword . . . . The Vikings ....... Europe and the East ..... Columbus and his Work .... Following where Columbus Led America Avr> its Inhabitants Spain's Attempt at Colonizing North America French Explorations and Settlements England's First Attempts at Colonization Virginia ........ The Pilgrims at Plvmouth .... The Dutch Colony of New Netherland Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, Connecticut Maryland, Delaware, Neav Jersey, Pennsylvania Indian Troubles iv \r,w England PAGE 1 13 26 31 35 41 48 .54 64 72 HI 86 92 PART II THE BIRTH OF THE NATION I. Foreword CONDITIONS IN EUROPE AND AMERICA II. English Colonies and Colonists. .... III. Life in New France ....... IV. A C LANCE at England and France .... xi 101 lOG 114 118 XIV CONTENTS THF, XKW UNION CHAPTER XXVII. The Dkvei.ui'ment uf thk West . XXVIII. Changes in 1nikt.striai> Conoition«( XXIX. The New Sooth XXX. Politics since the Wah . I. Gk ant's rHESlDENCV . II. ClHI!EX( Y (UksTIONS . III. The Tahii i- . IV. CiviE Sehvk i; Uefokm y. L.UiOK I'Uolil.K.MS XXXI. FoHEiGN Relation- sin* i; the Wa '1'he Stanish Wau XXXII. Ameuka as a Would I'owek. XXXIII. The A.mekhan People PA(iE . 466 . 416 . 48« . 4!>2 . 4i)2 . 4'X, . 4'.l'.» . .';U:; . 500 . All 514-522 . 527 . 635 APPENDICES I. Chronological Charts: DlSCOVEKIE.S AND E.\ I'LOK ATIONS ...... i The Struggle or En<;lani> anh Fkani e i'()r America . iii Stkl'ggi-i: joii Im)i;i-;:ni)Ence ..... . iv Review oe National Period dy Ar)AiiNi>TRATioNS . , viii Slavery and the War hetween the States . . . xi II. Growth of the United States : Table of Thirteen Original Colonies .... xiii Table of States and Territories ..... xiv Population at Each Census ....... xvii III. Table of Presidents and Vice Presidents . . . . xviii IV. Reviews xix V. Declaration of Independence xxii VI. Constitution of the United States ...... xxvi VII. Pronouncing List of Proper Names xlii 3X COLOR MAPS Distribution of Indian Tribes ....... European Claims in North America at tlie Tim*' of tlie Foundiu}: Last English Colony, Georgia, 1738 America at the Close of the Last French War North America at tlie Outbreak of the Revolutinn North America at tlie Close of the Revolution (Treaty, 1783) Claims ami Sessions United Stales in 18():^, . United States in IHID . United States in 18:]() . Territory claimed l)y Texas wlien Compromise of 18-JO Slave and Free Territory, 1854 United States in 1860 . Map showing the Three Secessions Territorial Expansion of the United States .... betueen United States in rj09 . admitted to the Union, 1845 facing 02 of the iiKj 128 148 172 239 247 287 314 32! > 360 3(52 3(52 370 380 522 and 623 facing 627 PART I FROM THE OLD WORLD TO THE NEW "A land waitinir for its people, wealth waiting for possessors, an empire waiting for the nation-builders." XVII PART I FROM THE OLD WORLD TO THE NEW DiSCOVEKV 1. 'I'he Norsemen 2. Europe and the East — •• How shall we reach the Indies?'' 3. Columbus 4. Vasco da tiaiua 5. Early followers of Columbus Cabot, Vespucius, Calboa, Magellan IL EXPLOUATIOX 1. Spain Cortez Pizarro Ponce de Leon De Soto Coronado France Verrazano Cartier Chaniplain Marquette Joliet La Salle 3. Holland Hudson III. Colonization 1. Spain Saint Augustine Santa F6 France Canada Louisiana 3. England ^ Mrginia IMj'nioulh Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut Maryland New Jersey Pennsylvania North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Holland New York PART I FOKKWORD I (HcE upon a time, as the storybooks say, a great thing hap- pL-nc'il in this old world of ours. Perhaps you know already what this great event was, and will tell me that I mean the discovery of America. And if I ask how and when and by whom this dis- covery was made, perhaps you will be ready to tell me that too. But you must remember that so great a thing as the discovery of a new world was not accomplished by one man alone, nor was it accomplished in the single day when Columbus first saw land after his long voyage. Sometimes we' think of it as if a great curtain had been rolled away from before the eyes of Columbus, disclosing the whole continent of America; so that he had only to go home and tell the king of Spain that the New World was discovered. This is a \'ery wrong idea. We must look back many years before the time of Columbus to find the beginning of the great work, and we must study on to a time many years after his death l)efore we can say that Europe had really found America. Years of toil, great sums of money, the suffering and death of many brave men, were necessary before the work was done. And even then it took centuries more to find what the new continent was like, to settle it with white people, and to make it useful to the world. It is not one story, but many, that we must read, if we are to know how it all came about. We must read about old Europe B ) 2 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS and the people there before we can know about America and the new nations that were planted here by European hands. So let us set out upon our journey, following the white-winged ships on their voyages across the blue waters, from the Old World to the New. II THE VIKINGS "Lords of the waves we are — Kings of the seething foam — Warriors bold from the Norseland cold — Far o'er the sea we roam." Far away, in the cold northern countries that we know as Nor- way and Sweden and Denmark, lived a race of men who called themselves Vikings. They ar-e often called Northmen or Norse- men, but I like best their own name for themselves. Viking means "son of the bay," and the name helps us to know what kind of people they were — bold and hardy, fond of adventure, and full of love for the great blue ocean that crept up into the thousands of bays along their shores. They built many ships, and we hear of their daring voyages in almost every part of Europe. If we could have followed these Viking sailors, we should have found some of them going to England and to France; some to Ireland and the smaller islands near by; but perhaps more than to any other place they went to build up a Viking colony in Iceland. Their settlements there grew rapidly, and we may read about their farms and hay crops, their sheep and cattle, and, as we should expect, about their ships and their trade with all the countries round about. Would you like to see a Viking ship? It would not look much like one of our ships to-day, nor would it travel so fast as ships 3 A Norse sea king AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS ' ^ ^-''-T^i^v do now. The bow antl the stern rose higli out of the water, but the middle was lower and iuul no deck. Each vessel carried from thirty to sixty oarsmen, who used oars twenty .feet long. A single mast and but one sail, both of which could be taken down when not in use, completed what would seem to us a strange ship. But they were well built, and in them the Northmen used to spend many weeks at a time upon the sea. Only two years after Iceland was settled, one of these ships was driven westward by a storm, till it reached the land we now call Greenland, and many years later a Viking colony was made there. * Then comes a story of a Viking ship which sailed even farther into the unknown west than this. The vessel had started on a voyage from Ice- land to Greenland, and the cap- tain had set out, steering by the sun and stars, Viking fashion. But a thick fog came, and neither sun nor stars could be seen. Still, on and on sailed the Viking ship, and after a time the welcome land was seen. It was not snow-bound Greenland the ship had reached, however, but a The finding low woody shore of which the captain knew nothing, of Vinianj gg he turned back, and it was left for another man to land on the new-found shore. This man was Leif, son of Eric, or Leif Ericsson, as he is often called. In the year 1000 Leif set out to search for the new land. After a short voyage Leif and his thirty-five followers saw the shore, and sailed along beside it for some distance. They called one place they saw Slate- ■:iK ^•- "=))! Viking ship Both ships and sails were gayly oolored. Notice the dragon's head on the prow. THE VIKINGS land, because of its large flat rocks Another they called Wood- land, and another Vinland, because of the wild grapes they found there. In Vinland they spent the winter, and on going home in the spring, told fine stories of the pleasant land they had found. "Where was Vinland?" you would like to ask, and I should like to tell you, if I could. That it was in America somewhere, probably between Nova Scotia and Long Island Sound, we may be almost sure, but just where we cannot tell. That no last- ing settlements were made in Vinland by the Nortli- men we ai'e sure. Homo voyages were made to its shores to obtain wood, but encounters with the na- tives, of which the old Norse stories tell, kept the Vikings from making homes in the land the,y had found. In time they stopped sailing to Vinland, and came even almost to forget about it. They deserted even the Greenland colonies after a time, and the New World was left once more to its savage owners. Meeting of Northmen with natives THINGS TO REMEMBER 1 The Vikings or Northmen lived in northwestern Europe. They were great sailors 2. The Vikings made colonies in Iceland and Greenland. 3 In the year 1000 Leif Ericsson, a Norseman, made a voyage to a place he called Vinland. 4 Vinland was probably somewhere on the northeastern coast of North America. THINGS TO RE.\D 1. " Viking Tales," Hall. 2. Legends of the Northmen, from "Young Folks' Book of American Explorers," Higginson, pp. 1-15. 6 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 3. Harald the Viking, from " Tales of the Enchanted Islands of the Atlan- tic," Higginson, pp. 16S-1S5. 4. " Studies in American History," Sheldon-Barnes, pp. 6-12. 6. The Saga of the Land of Grapes, from " Wandering Heroes," Price, pp. 151-170. 6. The Northmen in Europe, from " Story of the Middle Ages," Harding, pp. 104-113. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the exact meaning of explore, settlement, colony. 2. Make a map showing Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, Greenland, Nova Scotia, Long Inland Sound. 3. Write an imaginary account of Leif Ericsson's voyage, supposing ycmrself to be one of his men. The following topics may help you. My love for the sea — my many voj^ages — a voyage I once made with Leif many years ago — why we went — what we saw — what we called the land we found — the place — the people — our return. 4. Make spears and shields like those the Northmen used, and play at being Vikings. Ill EUROPE AND THE EAST We may wonder how it happened that the knowledge of Vin- land did not spread to the other countries of Europe, and wii>- no other people made voyages to explore and settle the new land. There were many reasons for this. One was that the Northmen, in spite of their many voyages, had little knowledge of geography, and so had no idea that they had found anything strange or wonderful. Another reason was that in Europe this was a time of great confusion and many wars. People were not thinking much Camels on the desert Caravans sometimes have as many as 1000 camels, which follow each other in single file, covering a mile or more in length. A camel can carry from 300 to 600 pounds, and can travel from 18 to 25 miles a dav. about expl(jring new countries. And still another was that Europeans did not care much what lay to the west of them. What little attention they had to spare from their troubles was 7 8 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS turned toward the East; toward India, the land of spices and diamonds and pearls; toward Cathay, the land of silk; toward that mysterious ishmd which they called Cipango, which, though none of them had been there to see, was believed to be the richest of them all. There had been for many hundreds of years some trade with the East. Caravans from Asia brought goods to the shores of the Red Sea, the Caspian, and the Persian Gulf. There they were met by European traders, who brought the goods, partly by land and partly by sea, to Europe. Constantinople had become a great commercial city, the center of much of this eastern trade. ^ , Her shi})s sailed up through the Strait of Bosporus Trade routes i' » i and th(.' Black Sea to meet the caravans which had come across the mountains and the deserts lying between the people of Europe tmd those of the great East. In the eleventh century Europe was threatened by a great danger, which made people think more than ever of the countries to the east of them. The Turks, a fierce and warlike people, began to come in vast companies from their homes in central Asia, and soon took possession of the whole eastern end of the Mediterranean. The Holy Land, to which Christian pil- grims journeyed to worship, was no longer safe because of these intruders. Christians everywhere throughout Europe became alarmed. Armies were formed, and the Crusades, or "Wars of the Cross" were begun, to drive back the Turks from the Holy Land, and to keep them from capturing Europe itself. One crusade followed another for nearly two centuries; but the Christians never A Crusader really succeeded in driving the Turks away. EUROPE AND THE EAST 10 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Marco Polo One of the great results of the Crusades was to interest people even more in the East, and to increase the commerce with India. Venice and Genoa became great trade centers, and the Mediter- ranean was filled with richly laden ships. Great fortunes were made. Wealth and learning spread throughout Europe. There grew up much curiosity about the Indies and Cathay. The men who came with the caravans often told the traders strange stories about their countries in the East. Marco Polo, a Venetian, who had really been in these far-away countries, came home and told wonderful tales of the richness and splendor of what he saw. He told of beautiful rivers with hun- dreds of great cities on their banks, of the rich products of the countries, and of a great ocean away to the east of Cathay, in which la}' the lovely island of Cipango. During all these years, while the stories about Asia were arous- ing more find more interest, the Turks had been gathering strength once more, and now, after hard Capture fighting, they had of Con- capturf>d Constanti- stantinople ^^^^^ rpj^.^ ^^^ ^ great blow to European commerce. Just as people were beginning to find out something about the East, the way was closed. They could no longer meet the caravans from India on the shore of the Black Sea; they did not even dare to go l)y way of the Red Sea, for fear of the Turkish vessels always on the watch for them. What should they do? Must they do without gold and pearls and diamonds, without spices and ivory and silks? Some of the learned men began to wonder if there was no other way to India. Marco Polo EUROPE AND THE EAST II Some one remembered about the great ocean Marco Polo had told them of. What ocean was it? How could they get to it? Or could they, perhaps, sail around Africa, and so through the In- dian Ocean to India? This was not entirely a new idea. The western coast of Africa had been explored for a short distance, before this time. Prince Henry of Portugal, afterward known as Henry the Navigator, had sent many ships down the coast to search for gold and to see if an ocean route to India could not be found. Henry the Now he tried harder than ever. The story of the Navigator voyages would be a long one. It was slow work ; but year by year the ships crept a Uttle farther south. The sailors were easily fright- ened and often wished to turn back. Many of the captains themselves be- lieved that in the Torrid Zone the ocean was of boiling water, and the air was filled with flame. But still they went on, encouraged by Prince Henry, who was a great man, and one tliat we should honor for his zeal and steadiness of iiur))osp. When he died, in .14(53, the Gold Coast had been reached, and we find our- selves wishing that he Henry the Navifjator could have lived to see the good work go on. Each year the ships sailed farther south. In 1471 the Equator was crossed, and in 1486 the Cape of Good 12 AMEK.OAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Hope was discovered. The Portuguese seemed likely to be the ones who would answer the question, " How shall we reach the Indies?" THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. At the time when the Northmen found Vinland, most people in Europe were interested in the East, with which there was much trade. 2. After the Turks captured the Holy Land, the Crusades were under- taken to recover it. 3. In 1453 the Turks took Constantinople ; commerce with the East was stopped. It became necessary to find a new routp to India. 4. Henry the Navigator sent ships down the coast of Africa. These ships passed the Equator in 1471 and the Cape of Good Hope in 1486. THINGS TO READ 1. "The Adventures of Marco Polo," Atherton. 2. "Story of Marco Polo," Brooks. 3. "Marco Polo," Towle. 4. "Studies in American History," Sheldon-Barnes, pp. 12-16. 5. The Crusades in "The Story of the Middle Ages," Harding, pp. 114- 136. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the exact meaning of caravan, commercial, Christian. 2. Find out what years mark the beginning and the end of the eleventh century. 3. Find out what you can about the Turks. 4. Map study : Look up the location of the Red Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Persian Gulf, Constantinople, the Bosporus, the Black Sea, the Mediter- ranean Sea, the Holy Land, Venice, Genoa, Portugal, the Gold Coast. 5. Make a map showing the roxitos of trade with India before Constan- tinople was taken. 6. Write about Marco Polo, teUing about: where he traveled; his book; some of the wonderful things he described; what people thought of his stories. IV COLUMBUS AND HIS WORK " He gained a world; he gave that world Its grandest lesson: On ! sail on ! " Miller. Just when the idea that the earth is round came into men's minds we cannot tell, but we know that it had been beUeved by learned men for many years be- fore the times of which we have been reading, though the com- mon people probably had no idea of such a thing. There had been men, too, who had thought that if the earth is round, Cathay might be reached by sailing west. After 1471, when the Portuguese ships suc3eeded in sailing beyond the Equator, and it began to be seen that the voyage around the coast of Africa would be a long one, more men took up these ideas of a western route. Portugal was the great gather- Coiumbus ing place for those who were in- There i. no reaUy authentic portrait. of Colum- '=' ' bus, though several, of which this is one, terested in these questions, and are usually accepted as likenesses. The there we find a man who grew original of this picture i« a painting m the " Marine Museum, Madrid. to be very sure that sailing west was the best way to reach Asia. This man was Christopher Columbus. 13 14 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS He was a native of Genoa, and had come from that place to Lisbon, where we hear of him making his hving sometimes by- voyages on the sea, and sometimes by making maps for other sailors. We do not know much about his early life. He was fairly well educated, and had a great love of geography, probably because he had spent much of his life on the ocean. He was the first of those who believed in the western route to think of really trying it himself. It took a good deal of courage to be willing to attempt such a voyage. There were many diffi- Toscanelie's Map ; drawn from his Description culties to be overcome. The ships of that time were small and easily wrecked. The fear of the miknown ocean, which was called the "Sea of Darkness," was great. No one knew, of course, how far this ocean extended, but the geographers had reckoned, as nearly as they^could, the size of the earth, and some of their estimates were not far from right. Columbus thought the earth smaller than it really is. He believed that by sailing west only twenty-five hmidred miles, he would come to Japan. The actual distance from Portugal to Japan is more than twelve thousand miles. Perhaps if Columbus COLUMBUS AND HIS WORK 15 16 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS had known how large the earth is, Up would not have been so eager to start on his voyage. The king of Portugal wa.s anxious to know of a shorter route to India, so Columbus applied to him for assistance in getting money and ships. The king became interested, and might have helped him, if Columbus had not asked for such great rewards in return for what he might discover. These the king refused, but he determined secretly to try the route, and so find out whether Columbus was right or not. He sent out a ship with copies of Columbus's maps and charts, but he gained nothing by his decep- tion. The sailors were frightened by the great ocean, and soon came back, saying, "You might as well expect to find land in the sky as in that waste of waters." When Columbus heard of the trick the king had played upon him, he at once left Portugal. This was in 1484. He deter- mined to apply to the king and queen of Spain, and we soon hear of him traveling with his Uttle son on his way to the Spanish court. It was a long time before he «ould get the king and queen, who were busy with a great war, to pay much attention to him. The years slipped by. While he was still waiting and hoping, the news came in 1487 that a Portuguese ship had sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and into the Indian Ocean. Can't you imagine how impatient Columbus must have been to show people that his way was a better one than this? It was more than four years later, however, that his time came. In 1492 the war that had kept the king and queen busy came Columbus's to an end, and Queen Isabella became interested in first voyage Columbus and his plans. He came very near losing this chance, as he had lost the one in Portugal, by wanting too much in return for his work. But at last the matter was ar- ranged, and preparations for the voyage were begun. It was hard work to find sailors who were willing to go upon the ships the queen provided. The queen forced some to go whether they wished to or not. She even released criminals from ^ I v^^ ^;^ % \^i>^ "-^^.^m 17 18 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS prison to help make up the crew. At hi.st all was ready, and Columbus set sail from the little town of Palos, on the morning of August 3, 1492, with ninety sailors on board the three ships that formed the fleet. Of these three ships the Santa Maria was the largest, and was the flagship. The Pinta and the Nina were smaller, and had no decks. They were not much, if any, larger than many of our g-,. R''>^ ^M f' ■'. - "V^^ Hi [ fc!>^BBBy.' ' ^y^ ^jf 4 Wk<-: ^^^H^IRsi i IH|^'' ' ' ^^^^^^^^JtaMj 1 The Fleet of Columbus pleasure boats of to-day, but Columbus was glad to have any ships at all, so I do not believe that he found any fault with his fleet. It was a strange voyage. After leaving the Canary Islands, September 6, they were soon out of sight of land. Then it was that loneliness and terror of the great waste of rolling waters took possession of the poor sailors. Nothing but sea and sky '— the sea glittering in the sunlight by day, or rolling black and awful by night ; the sky filled with far-away stars, or glaring with the hot rays of the pitiless sun. COLUMBUS AND HIS WORK 19 Columbus did not dare to tell the sailors how far away they were from home, so each day he gave the number of miles they had sailed as less than it really was. Anxiously, as the days went on, did the admiral look for signs of land. Sometimes he saw weeds floating in the water, sometimes birds flying overhead, sometimes a crab, once a whale; always something to keep up his courage, and something to tell the sailors as a sign that land was near. Twice they were disappointed, finding what they had believed to be land to be only banks of clouds. They had been on the great ocean a month. But there were always new signs, — floating logs, a branch with berries on it, a stick carved by hu- man hands. Late one night Columbus thought he saw a moving light. Every eye was strained, gazing out into the darkness, every sailor intent upon securing the reward offered to him who should first see land. The signal agreed upon was the firing of a cannon on the ship where the sharp-eyed sailor should prove to be. It was two o'clock. The moon was near its setting. The Pinta was ahead. Boom ! sounded her great gun. How the hearts must have beat when the sound was heard. Land at last ! To the homesick sailors it meant that the weary voyage was over, that they would soon be on their homeward way. To Columbus it meant success; it meant wealth, power, and fame! With hearts filled with happy thoughts, they furled the sails of each little vessel, and lay down to wait the coming of the dawn, and their first sight of the long-sought land. Early in the morning — it was the morning of ()ctol)er 12 — preparations were made for going ashore. Columbus, with a small company of officers and seamen, carrjqng the royal banner of Spain, set off in a little boat to take possession of the land for the queen. What land was it? Colvmibus could hardly tell so goon. It seemed to be a beautiful little island, with green trees 20 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS and wonderful fruits, with silvery streams, and away in the dis- tance a little lake. There were no towns nor great buildings to be seen. A few strange-looking men had been seen among the trees. It must be some island to the north of Cipango, thought Landing of Columbus From Vanderlip's painting in the Capitol at Washington. Columbus, He named it San Salvador. We know now that it was one of the Bahamas, probably Watling's Island. Reaching the shore, the company fell upon their knees, thanked God for their success, and, holding high the royal banner, pro- The landing, claimed this land a part of the dominion of Queen October 12, Isabella. A crowd of natives had gathered near, ^^^^ watching the strange movements of the newcomers, and the Spaniards suon made friends with them. They gave the red men beads and bits of colored cloth, and tried to talk with them about the country. Believing that he had found the long- sought Indies. Columbus called the natives Indians. This was not, to be sure, much like the land of riches and splendor he had COLUMBUS AND HIS WORK 21 expected to find, but surely Cipango was not far away, and there he would see the great cities, and find tlie pearls and the gold. For three months he sailed about among the islands, which we know now to have been the Bahamas. He touched upon the shore of Cuba; he explored Hayti, and named it Ilispaniola. But he found no spices, no gold, and no place that seemed to be quite like Cipango. At last the Santa Maria struck a sand bar, and could not be saved, Columbus saw that it would be best to start for home. He built a fort at Hispaniola, and left there forty men with provi- sions for a year; then, with the rc^st of the men, he set sail for Spain. It was a great day for Columbus when he stood before the king and queen, telling them of the strange sights he had seen, and showing the wonderful things he had brought home, — curi- ous plants, l)rilliantly colored birds, and even several of the cin- namon-colored men. Preparations were at once l)egun for a second v 03^ age. Columbus was hap- pier then than ever afterward, I fear. The second voy- age took place in 1493. A Second fleet of voyage seventeen vessels, with fifteen hundred men, set out from Cadiz to found a colony and to continue the work of exploration. The record of this voyage is much like that of the first ; they found many islands, but could not discover to what country they belonged, nor could they find very much gold. Departure of Columbus on his second voyage 22 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Columbus's third and fourth voyages The success of Columbus made the Portuguese try harder than ever to reach India by saiUng down the coast of Africa. In 1497 Vasco da ^ A^^t commanded by Vasco da Gama set out on Gama's the voyagp that was to answer the old question, voyage " How are we to reach the Indies?" In 1499 the Portuguese joyfully announced to the world that Da Gama had succeeded in getting to India, and had returned with a cargo of gold, ivory, spices, and rich silks. Da Gama became a hero in the eyes of Europe, and results of Columbus's enterprise looked smaller than ever. In the meantime Columbus was sailing westward a third time. This time he reached the mainland of South America. On his way home he stopped at the Hispaniola colony. There plots were formed against him, and he was seized and sent to Spain in chains. This was the greatest sorrow of his life. He was released as soon as the queen heard of it, but he could never quite forget his disgrace, and it is said that he kept the chains as long as he lived. The old admiral made but one voyage more. For the last time he turned the prow of his ship to the west. This voyage, Uke the second and the third, ended in disaster. Columbus was shipwrecked, and it was a year before ships came to take him home to Spain. Of what use, thought the people, had his discoveries been? What had he found that was worth finding? Beautiful islands, strange birds, curious plants, and copper-colored men — but what use were all these? By Successive Steps the Portuguese reached India COLUMBUS AND HIS WORK 23 24 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS The Portuguese had reached India, and were already growing rich from their trade with the countries of the East. Why had Value of ^^^^ Columbus found the Indies, or Cipango, or Columbus's Cathay? He was only an idle dreamer, after all, ^°^^ they thought, and had spent the queen's money and his own time for nothing. And what could Columbus say in answer to all this ? Nothing, for he did not know how great was the work he had done. It must have seemed, even to him, much like failure. Poor, old, discouraged, forsaken, he lived only for two years more, then died, and was for a time forgotten. It was only in after years, when the great truth became known that not Asia, but a new" continent, lay to the west beyond the "Sea of Dark- ness.'' that he was honored as one of the world's great men, and it Avas said of him that he "gave to Castile and Leon a new world." THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Many people became interested in the search for a new route to India; some men believed the earth to be round, and that Asia could be reached by sailing west. 2. Christopher Columbus was one of the men who thought this. Unlike the others, he wished to try it for himself. 3. He needed help in getting money and men. No one would help him, until at last Queen Isabella of Spain gave him three ships manned by ninety men. 4. He set out on his voyage August 3, 1492; on October 12, his ships reached land. 5. Columbus took possession of the new land for Spain. He could not tell what land it was, but he believed it to be part of Asia. He went home proud and bappy, and was received with great honor by the king and queen. But his other oyages accomplished little, and he died poor and forsaken. 6. Columbus never knew that he had found, not Asia, but a New World. THINGS TO READ 1. "Columbus and Magellan," Lawler, pp. 1-93. 2. "Pioneers on Land and Sea," McMurry, pp. 122-160. COLUMBUS AND HIS WORK 25 0. •• The Storied West Indies," Obei\ pp. l-(). 1. " Indians and Pioneers," Hazard and Dutton, Chapter VI. .">. ■' Younsi Foli is women's work. In the forest he follows a trail that to you seems invisible; hv hunts, with an eye so keen and a hand so skilled tliat seldom does an arrow miss its mark; he writes on the bark of a tree a message for his friend, in a strange language of picture and sign ; or he waits in the shadow of the tree trunks for his enemy, with a patience that knows no bounds. At the council fire he sits silent, smoking his long pipe, listen- ing to the words of his chief, or himself speaking words of solemn counsel. In war, hi(l(M)us with paint and feathers, he steals Indian Moccasins Indian Picture Writing through the shadows of the forest to strike down his foe, burn- ing, killing, torturing, scalping. He knows how to hide himself away among the trees, so that, though the woods seem as empty as they are quiet and lonely, the traveler may enter them only to find an Indian behind every tree, and his deadly arrows twang- ing by on every side. If the Indian is taken prisoner, he calmly accepts his fate, proud that no one can see any fear or any sorrow in his face. Just when these people began to live in America and where 32 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS they came from, you must not ask, for I cannot tell you; but they had probably been here many thousands of years when the white men came. Strange heaps or mounds of earth have been found in various parts of the country, which were evidently built by some very ancient people. These mounds and their contents have been very carefully studied. It was at one time believed that they were the work of a race of people much older than the Indians and quite different from them. Scholars now, however, generally believe the "mound builders" to have been merely the forefathers of the tribes of Indians who were found in the neigh- borhoods near the mounds when the white men came. Learned men have tried hard to dis- cover where the ancient home of the Indians may have been. Some of these men think that perhaps they came from Asia, and they ask us to notice how shallow Bering Sea is; adding, that if, " as it seems, this was once land instead igwam ^£ water, the people of that ancient time might easily have crossed to America. Others think that perhaps they came from Europe, and they tell us strange stories about a great ridge in the Atlantic Ocean, which was probably once above the level of the sea, and connected Europe and America. However the red men may have come, here the white men found them. There were many tribes, differing in language, in customs, in dress. Some lived in wigwams or tents of skins, and some in strange clay dwellings high on a rocky cHff. It would seem as though the fierce warlike Indians of the northern part of America could not belong to the same race as the Pueblo people or the Aztecs of Mexico. These people raised crops of corn, beans, and squashes. They knew how to spin and weave, using cotton and other plant fibers. The Aztecs built houses of stone, covered with plaster, which was often brilliantly AMERICA AND ITS INHABITANTS 33 colored. The Spaniards told wonderful stories of the riches and splendor of the Aztec cities, and they looked upon the people as scarcely less civilized than Europeans. We know now, however, that tliey had no real civiHzation, and that their "cities" were far less like the cities of Europe than the Spaniards at first thought. 1 s 1 ' •' » hi W^^KBSmt^^^^^^ ■ v^. '..v,-'; ,.- .t Pueblos of New Mexico However much the many tribes are known to differ, it seems to be beyond doubt that they are all of one race, and in many ways ahke. We are now to begin the story of the lives the white men lived among them. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The land we call America was once a great wilderness. Only red people lived here. 2. Some of these red people were fierce and warlike. Some of them lived less savage lives, building stone houses, farming, weaving, and doing many things such as civilized people do. THINGS TO READ 1. "American Indians," Starr. 2. "The Making of New England," Drake, pp. 10-12, 16-18, 49-51, 142-148, 184-186. D 34 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 3. "The Making of the Great West," Drake, pp. 20-28, 39-52. 4. "The Making of Virginia," Drake, pp. 40-42, 90-107. 5. "Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the West," McMurry, pp. 165-200. 6. "The Spanish in the Southwest," Winterburn, pp. 9-42. 7. "Wigwam Stories," Judd. 8. "Indians and Pioneers," Hazard and Dutton, pp. 11-88. 9. "Indian Folk Tales," Nixon-Roulet. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the exact meaning of dusky, invisible, ancient, customs, civilized. 2. Make a list of places in America that have Indian names. Find out the meaning of as many as you can. 3. Think of a possible reason why the Indians of South America and the West Indies were less warlike than those of North America. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Find pictures of Indians and their homes. 2. Draw pictures of Indian wigwams and canoes, writing to accompany each a short description of how the Indians made it. 3. Make a picture of an Indian village : show the forest, (ho camp fire, the wigwams, and a little stream or lake, with canoes. 4. Write about any Indian relics yoii have seen — arrow heads, hatchets, etc. 5. Tell about the life of the Indians of the Southwest. VII SPAIN'S ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZING NORTH AMERICA Spain liud Ictl in the discovery of the New World, and for a time it seemed as if she would lead also in building colonies there. At this time Spain was the strongest nation in Europe, especially on the sea, and she soon set out to make the new countries really her own. Colonies were planted on the islands of the West In- dies, and governors appointed. Exploring expeditions were sent out, and wonderful stories were told in Spain of the riches of the new possessions. In 1519 a Spaniard named Cortez found the land of the Aztecs in Mexico. The Spaniards were astonished at the wealth of the Aztecs, and they could not rest until the treasure was made their ouii. So Cortez entered upon the conquest of the coun- try. The Aztecs were treated very unjustly and often very cruelly. The Indian city of Mexico, which contained ^ •^ "^ ' Cortez many temples and palaces, was entirely destroyed. A few years later Francisco Pizarro found and conquered the land of the Incas in Peru. Like the Aztecs, the Peruvians pos- sessed great wealth, and they were treated with much cruelty in order to force them to give up their gold. At last the Spaniards had found the gold and silver they sought. Ships laden with treasure went home to Spain; every one was eager to seek a fortune in the New World. Most of the explorers turned to the South, where the gold and other treasures were said to be found. For some years no one paid much attention to the lands north of the West Indies. In 1513, however, a Spaniard, an old man named Ponce de Leon, sailed north from Hispaniola, searching for an island containing 35 36 SPAIN'S ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZING NORTH AMERICA 37 a fountain which he had been told would bring back his lost youth again. It was a vain search, but his voyaging brought him to the beautiful land of Florida, of which he took possession for Spain. Although the Spaniards made several _. ,. attempts to settle Florida, it was many years before and settie- they established a successful colony. In 1565 the ment of beginnings of the Spanish town of St. Augustine ^^"""^^ were made on the Florida coast. St. Augustine is thus tlie oldest town in the United States. De Soto's Discovery of the Mississippi From Powell's painting in the Capitol at Washington. Nearly twenty years before this time, in 1539, a large party of Spaniards under Hernando de Soto had sailed to Florida, and had set out from there to make a journey across the country in search of gold. Three years they wandered, having fearful 38 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS battles with the Indians and seeing none of the treasure they had expected to find. De Soto's great work was the discovery The Missis- ^^ ^^^'^ Mississippi. He crossed the great river with sippi discov- his men, and turning north traveled along its bank ered by De foj- many miles. Still finding no gold, De Soto was o o in 1541 overcome with disappointment. He grew sick and died. His body was laid to rest in the waters of the river, and his men, building a few rough boats, sailed down the stream, finally reaching a Spanish colony in Mexico. Several exploring parties set out from Mexico in search of the treasure which ever shone before the Spaniards' eyes. Rumors of seven wonderful cities to the north across the desert fired their imaginations, and various attempts were made to find and plunder them, as Cortez and Pizarro had done in Mexico and Coronadoin Peru. The most important of these was led by the Southwest, Coronado, governor of a Mexican province. Gayly 1540-1542 jjg gg^ Q^^^ with more than a thousand men, making a long march across the desert lands ; eagerly he listened to the tales of Indian guides, and at last the seven cities were in sight. But alas for Spanish greed ! — they were but Indian villages, the clay-built houses of the Zufii cliff dwellers. Great was the disap- pointment, but Coronado pressed on, lured })y other stories of splendor and wealth. For many weary months they marched, until they reached the broad prairie lands of Kansas or Ne- braska. They saw millions of buffaloes, but of gold and silver there was none. Until 1565, as we have al- ready said, no lasting settle- ment was made. Following vSt. Augustine, other settlements were made, but they were in most cases merely missions for the conversion of the Indians to The Spanish Gate, St. Augustine SPAIN'S ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZING NORTH AMERICA 39 the Catholic faith. The most important of these was Santa F6, estabhshed in 1582. Of colonies, to which Spaniards came to make homes, there were none. In spite of many failures in her attempts at colonizing North America, Spain continued to claim it. In South America she became i)owerful. The power that she once had there is shown b}' the fact that, though Spain no longer owns any of the New World, the Spanisli language may be heard from Mexico to the southernmost point of South America. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Spanish colonies were early plant(»d in the West Indies. Spanish adventurcM-s set out to explore the mainland, and wonderful stori(« were told of what they found. 2. Mexico and Peru were conquered, and gold and silver found. Spain became rich from the treasure she obtained from them. 3. Ponce de Leon found Florida; De Soto found the Mississippi; Coro- nado explored the desert and prairie lands of the Middle West. 4. St. Augustine was founded in 1565; Santa Fe in 1582. THINGS TO READ 1. "Discoverers and Explorers," Shaw, pp. 54-101. 2. "The Spanish in the Southwest," Winterburn, pp. 43-222. 3. "A Book of American Explorers," Higginson, pj). 121-140. (De Soto.) 4. "Pioneers on Land and Sea," McMurry, pp. 186-226. (Cortcz, Ponce de Leon.) 5. "Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the West," McMurry, pp. 225-248. (Coronado.) 6. "De Soto in the Land of Florida," King. 7. "Pioneer Spaniards in North America," Johnson, pp. 129-192. 8. "Pizarro," Towle. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the exact meaning of expedition, imagination, plunder, lured. 2. Look for Spanish names in the parts of the United States where the Spanish made early attempts at settlement. 3. Find out all you can about St. Augustine. 40 AIVIERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 4. Try, with your teacher's help, to think out reasons why the Spaniards did not succeed in making permanent settlements in North America. Why did they succeed better in Mexico and South America? FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Show De Soto's journey on a map. 2. Make a hst of Spanish discoverers and explorers. Use the form given below. Date Explorer Regions Visited Settlements Made 3. Write about St. Augustine. Tell when and by whom the city was f(iunded ; how old it is now ; what the city is like now ; traces of the Spaniards. VIII FRENCH EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS Very soon after the voyages of Columbus we begin to hear of fishermen who came across the Atlantic to the great fishing' banks off Newfoundland. As early as 1504 we know that they came, and from this time on their numbers steadily increase. There were not many Spanish vessels among them; the Spaniards would rather sail to the south for gold than to the north for cod- fish. The French and the Portuguese did most of the fishing, and soon built up a profitable business. In 1524 a sailor named Verrazano explored, in a French ship, the coast of North America from North Carolina to New Eng- land, and ten years later Jacques Cartier began his verrazano, voyages up the St. Lawrence. He sailed up the 1524 river, and, feeling sure that it was a strait to the Pacific, thought he had found a northwestern route to China. He turned back when winter approached, without finding his mistake. The next year he came again, and went farther up the river, past the cliff upon which the quaint old city of Quebec now stands. There were then only a few wigwams to be. cartier, seen on the great rock, and Cartier sailed on to find a 1534-1535 village which the Indians told him was the greatest of their nation. He found it on an island, nestled at the foot of a lofty hill which he named Mont Real (Mount Royal) . To-day a beautiful city occupies the place of the Indian village of long ago. Now noisy steamers rush through the waters disturbed then only by the silent paddle of the Indian canoe. The forests where the hunter drew his bow are gone. Where the slender silver thread from the Indian campfire pushed its way upward through the 41 French Explorations Compare the small continent with that showing Spanish explorations on page 36. Notice how French and Spanish claims overlap. FRENCH EXPLORATIONS AKD SETTLEMENTS 43 trees, the smoke of a great city now hangs. But it keeps the name the early voyager gave it — Montreal. A few years later an attempt was made to establish a colony on the St. Lawrence, but it was a failure. The ])eautiful river was deserted, and for many years no vessels sailed to Canada except those of the fishermen. War and confusion reigned in France. New religious beliefs were springing up, and the friends of the established Cliurch were fighting bitterly to crush them. The Protestants, as the believers in the new reUgion were called, were increasing in numl^ers in almost every country of Europe. They suffered much for their religion, for Huguenot in those days rulers thought it their right to settle attempts at the ])eliefs of their suljjects, and to cause all to colonization support the "estal)Hshed church." Some of the Huguenots, or French Protestants, tried to escape persecution by going away from France to make new homes in the New World. A colony was begun on the coast of Brazil in 1555, but it failed. A second attempt was made in 1562, at a place on the coast of South CaroHna, called by the French Port Royal. This, too, was a sad failure. Yet again, however, did the Huguenots make the trial in 1564. And this time was the last. For after the hardest days in the new settlement on the St. John's River in Florida had been lived through, there suddenlj^ appeared in the harbor a fleet of grim black ships flying the banner of Spain. Menendez, the cruel commander, had come to destroy the settle- ment, and every man, woman, and child in it met death at his hands. The fishermen went steadily on with their voyages to the north, however, and after a time a new industry grew up. Furs could easily be obtained from the Indians, who would exchange valuable skins for a knife or a few beads. Fur trading ])ecame an important business, and interest in New France grew once more. At last, under the leadership of Samuel dc Champlain, 44 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS who was one of the greatest men of his time, a colony was formed at Quebec, in 1608, which did not fail. And from this Founding of ^^^^® ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^® French who Quebec in explore most of the unknown 1608 by land of North America. Champlain -r-. • ^ j-i mi Deep mto the wilderness they travel, up and down the great valleys, finding the Great Lakes, sailing down the IMississippi, and everywhere claiming what they find for France. Spain no longer owns all the New World. Face to face with her stands France, holding aloft the banner of the lilies, which is to wave over the valleys and the mountains, the broad plains and the blue waters of New France. The story of the French in Canada is the story of a few brave men, — of Champlain, La Salle, Marquette, and of their faithful followers ; of the black-robed priests, who toiled to convert the Indians, and to ex- plore the land. It is a story of wild adventure, and often of bitter disappoint- ment. Champlain hoped at first that he might find the passage to the western ocean which Cartier had tried to find. He Quebec in Early Days questioned the Indians eagerly, and they told him many stories of the "great water" to the west of the St. Lawrence. These stories, confused as they were, encouraged Champlain to explore the FRENCH EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS 45 Finding the Great Lakes country. He first saw the lake that bears his name the year after Quebec was settled (1609). In 1615 Lake Huron was found. It was first seen by a priest, who was on his way to establish a mission among the Indians, and ten days later by Champlain himself. A few weeks after this Champlain first saw Lake Ontario. These great "fresh-water seas" filled the explorers with won- der. But the Indians still talked of more "great waters," and sometimes of the "Father of Waters." There must be more wonders beyond. The French adventurers were becoming used to the wild life now, and made many journeys through the great forests, making friends with the Indians, buying furs, and living lives as free, and sometimes xhe French almost as savage, as those of the as wood- red men themselves. In their rangers canoes they explored the rivers and the smaller lakes, and sometimes made great dis- coveries. In 1634 Lake Michigan was found l)y one of these woodrangers, in 1659 Lake Sup(^rior by two more, and ten years later Lake Erie by still another. The wonderful chain of Great Lakes was complete. And all through these years the priests had been as busy as the woodsmen. Many of them had gone into the forests to live among the Indians, and to show them a better way of life. "Blackgown," as the Indians sometimes called a priest, was usually welcome in the Indian village, and often the Indians would help him build a httle chapel of bark. Farther and farther into the forests went the priests, as they heard of new tribes to whom they might preach their rehgion. In their journeys they learned much about the country, and so Canadian Fur Trader 46 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Joliet find the Missis- sippi, 1673 talked of. helped along the work of exploration. One of the best kno^vn of these missionary priests is Father Marquette. His short life hero Marquette and ^^^ America was full of sorrow, yet full of courage and devotion. Together with Johet, the woodsman who had found Lake Erie, Marquette set out to find the great river — the " Father of Waters " that the Indians To these two, the trader and the missionary, belongs the honor of exploring the Mississippi. In their canoes they followed the great river for hundreds of miles, stopping finally near the mouth of the Arkansas, at almost the very place where De Soto had died, more than a hundred years before. Then they turned back to carry the news of their dis- coveries to Canada. This was in 1673. Only a few years before this Robert La Salle had come from France to Canada, determined to explore thoroughly the great waterways of New France. It was he who reached the mouth of the Mississippi, and who took possession of the whole river valley for France. He named it Louisiana in honor of King Louis. The adventures of La Salle make an excit- ing story. His plan was to build a line of forts all the way from Canada to his settlement in Louisiana. But misfortunes over- took him, and he did not live to see his plans carried out. It is in stories like that of La Salle that we may see the courage and perseverance of the men who made New France. By the year 1700 there were probably about ten thousand settlers in Canada and Louisiana. France had left Spain far behind in founding North American colonies; but while she was doing so, she herself had been left behind by the country whose colonies La Salle reaches the mouth of the Missis- sippi, 1683 A French Missionary FRENCH EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS 47 \V{^ shall study next, — by Englaiul, who began iicr work of colonizing later than eitluT France or Spain, but whose colonies came at last to be the most important on the new continent. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. In 1524 Verrazano explor(;d the eastern coast of North America for France. 2. In 1.534 and 153o Cartier explored the St. Lawrence. 3. Trading in furs on the St. Lawrence led lo the founding of Quebec l)y Champhiin in 160S. 4. Marquette and Joliet exj)lored (he IVIississippi as far as the mouth of the Arkansas in 1073. 5. La Salle reached the mouth of the Mississippi, and took possession of the whole valley for France, in 1683. THINGS TO READ 1. "Discovery of the Old Northwest," Baldwin. 2. "Heroes of the Middle West," Catherwood. 3. "The Story of Tonty," Catherwood. 4. "Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley," McMurry, pp. 1-67. 5. "A Book of American Explorers," Higginson, pp. 97-117, 143-166, 260-278. 6. "French Pathfinders in North America," Johnson. 7. " Story of the Great Lakes," Channing and Lansing, pp. 1-84. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the exact meaning of industry, wilderness, convert, perseverance. 2. Questions for brief or written answers : — With what two rivers are the eai"Iy exphjrations of the French connected ? What lakes were discovered by Frenchmen ? When and by whom -was Quebec founded ? What two products of Canada led Frenchmen thither ? What kind of work did the French priests undertake in the new^ country ? 3. Look for P^rench names which still survive on the map of North America. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Make a list of French explorers, using the form given you at the close of Chapter VHI. 2. Make a map, showing in color the regions claimed by France in America. 3. Write briefly the story of one of the French explorers: Cartier, Champlain, Joliet, Marquette, La Salle. IX ENGLAND'S FIRST ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION While Spain was finding gold mines in the mountains of South America, and sending home ships laden with treasure, which made her more than ever the richest of European nations, and while France was exploring and laying claim to the fertile valleys of the St. Lawrence and Mississippi, what was England doing? She had, to be sure, sent out Cabot and his son at the very beginning-, but they brought home little in return for the ex- pense of their two voyages; so no one followed where they led the way. The English showed very little interest in America for nearly a century. English sailors had entered early upon the slave trade started by the Portuguese, and under the leadership of Sir John Haw- Hawkins kins trade in slaves became a common and a profit- and Drake able business. In 1652 Captain Hawkins started upon a voyage to get a cargo of negroes from their African homes, and to carry them to the West Indies. He found the ^Spanish planters very glad to buy the negroes for slaves, and he soon sailed home Avith his ships laden with the rich products of the islands. On a later voyage Hawkins met a Spanish fleet, whose cap- tains treacherously attacked him after they had agreed not to iire on his ships. Three of his vessels and many of his men were lost. You can guess how angTy the English were when the story was told at home. There had been, ever since Elizabeth became queen of Eng- land, a growing hatred between Englishmen and Spaniards. Ajid now, after this attack upon Hawkin's fleet, English sailors would 48 ENGLAND'S FIRST ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION 49 seize a Spanish ship wherever they coukl find one. The EngHsh government decided to help the Dutch in Holland, who were try- ing to gain their independence from Spain. Many Spanish treasure ships were captured by Hawkins, Francis Drake, and other bold seamen. It was Drake wlio dt^vised the plan of sailing around Cape Horn into the Pacific to attack the rich Spanish colonies on the western coast of South America. He would dart suddenly into a quiet harbor, when the Spaniards had no idea that there was an Englishman within two or three thousand miles, seize the valuable cargoes of the ships preparing to sail, and be out again and off to sea before the Spaniards had time to recover from their sur- prise. Finally he sailed across the Pacific, around the Cape of Good Hope, and back to England. War was declared between Spain and England in 1585, and then the Spanish king determined to punish these daring men who were cutting off the supplies from his rich colonies over the ocean, and to show them that Spain was still mistress of the seas. So he set to work to get together a great fleet. Meanwhile an Englishman, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, had become in- terested in the idea of building up a new Eng- Gilbert and Raleigh Sir Walter Raleigh lish nation in America. Twice he sent out colonists, going with them himself the second time, but neithr^r attempt succeeded, and when the second band of colonists was returning to England, Gilbert lost his life in a storm at sea. His half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, who was a great favorite with the queen, obtained her permission to go on with his brother's 50 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS work. He thought that building a colony was too great a work for one person to attempt ; that it ought to be done by the government. There were many reasons why Raleigh thought a colony in America would be a good thing for England; and he asked a friend to write out some of these reasons in the hope of interesting Queen Ehzabeth and her courtiers in the land across the sea. Some of these reasons why an English colony in America was desirable were very good reasons indeed. England was growing to have a great many people, he said, and since it was so small an island, the time would come when not enough grain and other food could be raised there to supply them all. This was especially true since so many English farms had been made into pastures for sheep. If England had a colony in America, there would be plenty of room in that broad country to raise enough and to spare. It would be a good place to send the poor people who could not find work in England. In a new country there would be work for all who came. Then, too, think what a fine market such a colony would make for English goods. It would trade with England and thus help her to grow richer. It would also be a good stopping-place for the ships that were sailing to find a northwest passage to Asia. And it would be a great help in weakening the power of Spain. \ Queen Elizabeth quite agreed that all these things were true, but she was not at all inclined to spend the nation's money for such an enterprise, so Raleigh had to go on without her aid. He First settle- chose the part of the country we now call North ment at Carolina, and in 1585 he sent out a band of one hun- Roanoke (\x:e(\ persons, who made a settlement on Roanoke Island. At the end of a year they were suffering from lack of food, and when Sir Francis Drake, with a fleet of twenty-three vessels, appeared, they were glad enough to accept his offer to take them home. ENGLAND'S FIRST ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION 51 The next year Raleigli tried it again, and the iskmd of Roa- noke was; once more occupied by busy settlers. But the second colony, like the first, came to nothing. Soon after Ral(Mgh made this second attempt, England was tiirown into great excitement by the news that King Philip's fleet, the "Invincible Armada," as the Span- colony" iards called it, was on its way from Spain. English- men everywhere were hastily summoned to give King Philip a Raleigh's Colonists on Roanoke Island rousing welcome. English ships and English sailors gathered in the Channel to await the foe, until there were about as many vessels as in King Philip's fleet. They were smaller, however, and had fewer guns, but were easier to Arj^ada manage than the Spanish ships. Then there were the *'f3ea kings." King Philip did not have men hke Drake and 52 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Hawkins or any of the bold company that had ranged the seas and struck terror to the hearts of Spanish seamen. It was a great battle. When it was over, it seemed at first impossible to beUeve that Spain, the mistress of the seas, had been beaten. But it was true! Awa}^ up through the North Sea the Englishmen drove the Spanish ships, and many of them Meeting of English Ships with Spanish Armada From an old tapestry in the English House of Lords. were lost on the stormy voyage around Scotland and back to Spain. The year 1588 was a great one for England, for then she brok(i the power of her rival on the sea. In the next three years she followed up this victory by others. More than eight hundred Spanish ships were destroyed. Nothing could now keep the English from sailing when and where they pleased. But the little colony at Roanoke! When at last the sea was safe for English ships, they found no trace of the settlers at Roa- noke. Nothing has ever been known of them to this day. ENGLAND'S FIRST ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION 53 THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The English became interested in America later than the other nations of Europe. 2. In 1562 Sir John Hawkins began the slave trade by seizing negroes from their homes in Africa and selling them to the planters in the West Indies. 3. The English and Spanish people hated each other. They seized each other's ships wherever they could find them. 4. Francis Drake, Hawkins, and others seized many Spanish ships. Because of their daring deeds these men were sometimes known as the "sea kings." 5. Sir JliiniphiTy (lilhcil died (wicc to found a colony in .Xnicrica, })ut failed. (5. Sir Walt<'r Raleigh tried twice also, and also failed. 7. In l.'iHS English ships defeated the S])anish Armada. The power of Spain on the sea was broken forever. THINOS TO READ 1. "Book of American Explorers," Higginson, pj). 177-200. 2. " Drake and His Yeomen," Barnes. 3. "Raleigh," Towle. 4. "Raleigh and the Potato," in Wide Awake, Vol. 2S, p. 313. 5. "American Hero Stories," Tappan, pp. 24-37. 6. "Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the West," McMurry, pp. 201-224. 7. " Founders of Our ('ountry," Coe, pp. SO-110. S. " Vikings of the PaciHc," Laut, pp. 133-171. 9. "Students' History of the United States," Chaiming, pp. 40-4(). THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning oi fertile, profitable, invincible , Armada. 2. Find Roanoke Island on a map in your geography. 3. Find out all that you can about the two plants brought from America by Raleigh's colonists. Were they good things to discover? FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Write a story about Drake. Imagine you were a Spaniard living in a Spanish colony on the west coast of South America. Describe Drake's raid upon the place where you lived. 2. Ask your teacher to tell you the story of little Virgim'a Dare. Write the story in your notebook. X VIRGINIA Gilbert's failures and Raleigh's failures had accomplished at least one thing. People in England had become interested in America, and since Spain was no longer "mistress of the seas," several voyages were made to explore the coast, which the English had come to call "Vir- ginia." Times were changing, and the old days of searching for gold and treasure were almost over. The sixteenth century had been an age of discovery, an exploring age. Much had been found that was new and wonderful, and the countries of Europe had hastened to claim as much as they could of the New World. It had been shown, however, that the new continent had few gold mines, and no great cities with whose people the merchants of Europe could build up trade; and the people of Europe began to see that their new territory would be valuable only if they made it so by occupying the lands they claimed, and building up for themselves the trade they desired. 54 Charter of 1606 provided for Two Colonies The first might be made anywhere on coast between 34° and 41°; the second anywhere between 38" and 45°. The two colonies must not however be within 100 miles of e;ich other. VIRGINIA 55 The English were perhaps the last to see this, but with the begin- ning of the new century many of the business men of the country had come to see the value of making colonies, and so interest in Vir- ginia grew. Finally some of these business men asked permission of the king to send out colonists, and he granted them a charter, or a statement of the rights they might have in the new land. Two conipani(>s were at once formed, one to settle each of the two colonies for which the royal charter gave permission. The one interested in the southern colony was known as the London Company, because most of its members lived in London. The other was called the Plymouth Company. The Plymouth Com- pany tried to make a settlement on the Kennebec River in what is now the state of Maine, but it failed, and the company never accomplished much. The London Company sent out a fleet of three vessels, with about a hundred colonists, just before Christmas, 1606. The colonists carried with them The London a paper telling them many Company important things al)Out choosing a place for the settlement, and how to deal with the Indians. They had also in a sealed box the names of the members of the council appointed by the company from their own number to rule them. This box was not to be opened until they reached land. Among the colonists on one of the vessels was a man named John Smith, who afterward became such an important person in the colony that it will be well for us to take time to find out what sort of man he was. Many storied are told of his early life and his strange adventures. Just what part of these stories we are to believe it is hard to tell. John Smith Captain John Smith 56 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS We know that he had been a soldier, and that he fought in Holland against the Spaniards. After that it is said that he spent several years in fighting against the Turks, and doing many- strange and wonderful things. Once he was captured and held as a slave by the Turks, but he finally escaped, so the story goes and came home to England not long before the London Com- pany's ships were to start for Virginia. He was the sort of man to hke the adventurous life of a new settlement, so we find him on board ship, sailing toward the new land. It would be interesting to know what it was that led the men on the httle ships to leave their homes for a wild country so far away. Perhaps one was poor, another discontented, another longing for adventure. It was a chance to see the world, perhaps to make a fortune. Not many, I fear, had any thought of mak- ing homes in Virginia, where they should live always, and where their children should live after them. There were no women in the party, nor were there many men who were used to hard work. More than half of the number did Character of not even know how to chop down a tree. There colonists were men whose business it was to refine gold, but alas! they were to find no gold to work upon. There was even a man who could make perfumes; but farmers, who would know how to raise. food for the settlement, and strong laborers, who could fell trees and build houses, were entirely lacking. Even before they landed, quarrels broke out among the men. They accused Smith of trying to start a rebellion, and he was kept in irons during the rest of the voyage. After two months of sailing the fleet approached the land. A storm drove them to take refuge in what we now call Chesapeake Bay. They ex- plored it a Httle, and finding the mouth of a river, sailed up the stream, which they named James, in honor of the king. They determined to settle on the shore of this river. It was not a very good place for a settlement, being low and marshy. But it was a beautiful spot, and the colonists were well pleased with it. VIRGINIA 57 They opened the box which contained the names of the coun- cil, read the names, and the members were sworn into office. Work on the fort was begun, and it was soon Jamestown finished. The settlement of Jamestown, or James settled, 1607 Cittie, as it was often called, was really begun. The first success- ful EngHsh colony was thus planted in 1607. The first summer at Jamestown was a hard one. There was soon very little left of the food brought in the ships, and the corn the colonists had planted was not yet ready for harvesting. The low, marshy land upon which they had built was unhealthfu!, and most of the settlers were sick. Many died, so that by the end of September only half the company was left. Smith, who was placed in charge of the supplies, showed himself very skillful in getting corn from the Indians, and so, no doubt, kept the settlers from great suffering, and perhaps from starvation. At first the settlers found the Powhatans, their nearest In- dian neighbors, friendly, but there were other tribes not far away which gave them trouble. Even the Powhatans were not always to be trusted. Once during the winter wdien Smith was exploring the country, they attacked him, and after killing his two companions, prepared to kill him. He was tied to a tree to be burned, but it is said that he showed them his little pocket compass, which so delighted them that they let him go. Another time they were about to kill him, so an old story tells us, when the chief's daughter, Pocahontas, begged her father to let him go, and the old chief consented. The second summer was easier than the first. One hundred new settlers had come to join the company, and not so many died during the hot months. Smith was made president of the council, and things seemed to be going very well. In September another band of colonists arrived. But the London Company was getting impatient. Where was the gold that was to pay them for the expense of settling Vir^nia? \A^ere was the passage to the Pacific that they had 58 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS expected the colonists to find ? Where were the traces of Raleigh's lost colonists they had been told to look for? "What was Vir- ginia good for?" they asked. When Smith was told all this, he said, with more truth than politeness, that the London Company were fools ! Soon after this some one found a Imnk of bright yellow dirt, and the news spread rapidly. Gold was found at last ! All other work was dropped and every one set to work to jDrepare a cargo of gold to send home to England. But it was wasted labor. When the ship reached England, it was found that the "yellow stuff " was not gold at all, so that the company was more disgusted than ever. In 1609 word was brought to Virginia that the London Company had obtained a new charter. Hereafter there was to be no council in Virginia. A governor appointed by the council in London was to rule the colony. Lord Delaware had been appointed governor, and would soon start for Jamestown. Already a fleet of nine vessels was on the way, bringing many new colonists. These new arrivals proved harder to manage than the others had been. They were mostly idle adventurers, who had no intention of doing any hard work. Matters grew worse when Smith, who had been injured by an explosion of gunpowder, had to go home to England. The newcomers soon made trouble with the Indians, who began to murder settlers whenever they found London Company's Charter of 1609 VIRGINIA 59 a chance. When winter came, there was not enough shelter for all the men, and food became scarce. Then came a time when the last handful of corn was gone. The people tried to live upon roots and herbs; they ate their dogs ; they even devoured rats ; at last they became The starving cannibals, eating the bodies of their dead companions. ti™e In the time between October and May, the number dwindled from five hundred to sixty, and they were almost starved, — so weak that they could scarcely move about. Was this to be another failure ? It seemed so. Captain New- port came in May, after a long voyage, during which he had been wrecked on one of the Bermuda Islands. He brought food, but not enough to last long. It would be better to give up and take the miserable sufferers home to England. All the work, all the sorrow and suffering, had been for nothing. Virginia must be left once more to the red men. Sadly the little cabins were deserted, and the unhappy settlers taken on board the ships. The sails were set, and slowly the ships moved down the river, the colonists looking back for a long farewell to the land of their bitter disappointment. But the voyage was a short one after all, and when they landed once more, it was not in England, the home across the sea, but in the new home they had left three days before. For, as they sailed on their sorrowful way down the river, there came a wel- come sight — Lord Delaware's ships, pushing their way sturdily along, with Lord Delaware standing on the deck, thanking God that he had come in time to save Virginia. After this the colony prospered under the rule of Lord Dela- ware and the governors he appointed. Each settler was made to work for his own home instead of for the common welfare of the settlement. The raising of tobacco was begun, and was found to be profitable. Settlers moved fartluM- and farther away from the to^vn, so that they might have room for their great fields or plantations of tobacco. 60 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS To make the men of the colony more contented, and to help them in making homes, the company in England sent over two shiploads of young women, who were to be married to the settlers. Each man was to pay the company about a hundred pounds of tobacco for his wife. This seems a queer arrangement, but it proved to be a good one. FamiUes grew up on the lonely plan- tations, better houses were built, and at last Virginia began to be a country of real homes. In 1619 a Dutch ship, returning from a voyage to the West Indies, came to Jamestown, with twenty negroes, wlio were sold The beginning ^o the settlers as slaves. This was the beginning of of slavery, negTO slavery in our country. It was found that ^^^9 these black men and women, who had hved in the hot parts of Africa, could bear the heat of the Virginia summer better than the white people, so they were eagerly sought for to work on the tobacco plantations. Slaveholding became a feature of plantation life, and the number of slaves rapidly increased. Westover, an Old Virginia Mansion V I IK UN T A 61 In the same year that shives were introduced tlie first lawmak- ing body of the Virginia people came together. This was" an as- sembly of men who came from every part of Virginia to Jamestown to make the laws for the colony. The plantations were by this time so widely scattered that it would have been impossible for all the men of the colony to meet at Jamestown. So the peoi)le of each neighborhood selected one or two of their The House of number to represent them in tlie House of Burgesses, Burgesses as the lawmaking body was called. This was the beginning of Wealthy Virginians of Later Colonial Days self-government in America. When, in 1624, the charter of the London Company was taken away by the king, and Virginia became a royal colony, the people were afraid that they would no longer be allowed to have their House of Burgesses, but the king did not interfere with it. Mrginia was on the road to prosperity. During the next cen- tury it became a large and thriving colony, peopled by rich planters who owned great plantations and many slaves, and who were 62 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS known everj^where for their loyalty to the Church of England and to the king. As wealth increases, life in Virginia becomes a pleasant thing, even though the wilderness and the Indians are close at hand. In his boat, manned by well-trained slaves, the planter, with the ladies of his household, may be swiftly rowed from his little wharf on some one of the hundreds of little creeks opening upon the James, to some neighboring plantation, only a few miles distant. A cordial welcome will await them, and we shall hear the gentle laughter of the ladies mingled with the tapping of their high-heeled shoes upon the oaken floors, while the heavier tread and the louder voices of the men may be heard as they wander about outside, smoking their pipes of Virginia tobacco, and talking of the crops or the latest news from Jamestown, or from "home," as they still call England. We need fear no longer that the colony in Virginia will not succeed. There are homes there, with peace and plenty reign- ing in them, and in the busy world of work about them. The hard days for Virginia are over. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Some business men of England obtained permission from the king to found a colony in Virginia. 2. A settlement was made in 1607. It was called Jamestown. 3. The settlers were not well fitted for the work they had to do. 4. Captain John Smith did a great deal for the colonists. Sometimes they would have starved but for him and the way he ruled them. 5. At one time after Smith went home to England food became so scarce that the colonists were near starvation. This was known as the "Starving Time." The colonists gave up and had started for England when help came to them. They returned to Virginia. 6. After this the colony grew strong and prosperous. 7. Slavery was begun in 1619. VIRGINIA 63 THINGS TO READ 1. "Stories of tho Old Dominion," Cooke, pp. 2-64. 2. "American Pioneers," Mowry, pp. 34-46. 3. "Indians and Pioneers," Hazard and Dutton, pp. 138-161. 4. "The Colonies," Smith and Dutton, pp. 11-40. 5. "A Book of American Explorers," Higginson, pp. 231-265. 6. "The Making of Virginia," Drake, pp. Sl-3.5. 7. "Colonial Stories retold from St. Nicholat^," pp. 3-2(). S. "Colonial Children," Hart, pp. 63-64; 71-79; 98-104; 149-152; 165- 170; 175-177. 9. " Richard of Jamestown," James Otis. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the exact meaning of charter, council^ to refine gold, marshy, compass, slavery, assembly, represent. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK Virginia 1. Virginia was first settled in the year The first settlement was at . Among the first colonists • was the man best adapted to govern- ing the colonists. The settlers were — — • fitted for life in the wilderness. It was many years before the colony became . The raising of be- came an important industry. slaves were brought to Virginia to work on the . The first shipload of slaves was brought in the year 2. Imagine yourself to be one of the settlers of Jamestown. Write a letter to some friend in England, describing your new life. Tell about the country; compare it with England; tell about the town; about the way you have to .spend your time; about the hardships of your life; whether or not you arc contented in America. XI THE PILGRIMS AT PLYMOUTH Long before Virginia had reached the prosperous days of which we have been reading, there were other colonies estabhshed along the Atlantic shore of the new continent. The settlement of Vir- ginia was from the first a business enterprise. The next colony we are to study was estabhshed for very different reasons. To understand them we must know some things which had been going on in England for many years before 1620, when the settle- ment was made. We have already spoken of new religious beliefs, which had caused disagreement in various parts of Europe. In England the Protestants became powerful, and under Queen Elizabeth the services of the Church of England were conducted according to the Protestant ideas. All the Queen's subjects were ordered to attend these services. The Roman Catholics must give up their Church or be punished, said the Queen. But now it came about that many people in England were not much better satisfied with the Church of England than they had been with the Roman Catholic Church. The Church still had too many forms and ceremonies to please them. They wished to do away with these. This they said would "purify" the Church; so they were called Puritans. They were people that read the Bible a great deal, and tried to live as the Bible told them. They condemned many of the fash- ions and amusements of the time ; they dressed in sober colors, and instead of wearing immense wigs, which wore fashionable at 64 THE PILGRIMS AT PLYMOUTH 65 that time, they wore their hair cut short. Because of this, their enemies called them Roundheads. After a time there grew up among the Puritans a class of people who decided that it was of no use to try to reform the Church of England, and that it would be better to form new churches of their o\vn, where they could worship God in what they believed to be the true way. These people were called Sepa- The Separat- ratists, because they wished to separate from the ists established church. Some of them tried to carry out their plan, and they formed a congregation in London. This was broken up by order of the queen, however, and many of its members sent to jail. But this did not keep the number of Separatists from increasing. When Queen Elizabeth died, and King James took her place in 1603, both Puritans and Separatists were treated more harshly than ever. The members of one Separatist congregation suffered so much that they fled from England in 1609, and separatists settled in Holland. In the city of Leyden they re- settle in mained for eleven years, increasing from three hun- ^^^^^'^^ dred to a thousand in that time. They were called Pilgrims because they had journeyed from their homes for their rehgion. Before the eleventh year had come to an end, the Pilgrims had decided to set out once more in search of new homes. The Dutch people in Leyden had been very kind to them, but the Pilgrims did not like to think that as their children and grand- children grew up they would learn to speak Dutch instead of English, and marry Dutch husbands and wives, until after a time they would almost forget that they were English people. It would be better to go away somewhere by themselves, and build up a new nation, whc^e they could bring up their children to be real English men and women. . America seeined the very place for them, so they decided to settle there on the Delaware River. They obtained a grant of land from the London Company, and asked King James for a charter, 66 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS but he would not give them one. However, he said they should be let alone "as long as they behaved properly," In 1620, those of the Leyden congregation who had volunteered to go first and try the new plan sailed from Holland in a rather The voyage rickety old ship, the Speedwell; touching at South- of the May- ampton in England, they were joined by another jfoiver. 1620 gi^ip^ ^Yie Mayflower. This ship had on board a few friends who were to join the company in England. The Speedwell Embarkation of the Pilgrims proved to be unsafe for such a voyage, and they had to come back to port with her, and leave her behind. All but twenty of her passengers were crowded on board the Mayflower, making one hundred and two in all. Among these was Captain Miles Standish, who, although not a behever in their church, had become attached to the Pilgrims in Holland, and now went with them to build a new home in the forests of America. It was a long voyage, and a stormy one. The little ship was THE PTLORIMS AT PLYMOUTH 67 sadly tossed al)Out by tho groat waves, and when it finally reached North America, it was many miles north of the Delaware River, Turning the ship southward, they tried to go on, but a storm came, which forced them to take refuge in Cape Cod Bay, Being tired of the crowded vessel, it was proposed that they make a home here instead of wandering farther, and the plan was adopted. For five weeks they remained in the harbor, while exploring parties went to look for a good place in which to begin their httle town. At last the question was settled, and building began. The place chosen was one that had been called Plj'm- OUth, on a The settlement map made by at Plymouth Captain John Smith, and the Pilgrims kept the name. You may see there now the rock upon which some of the colonists are said to have landed. It is called Plymouth Rock, and is famous throughout the whole country. As the weather was very cold, the Pilgrims built but a single house at first, and in this the great family gathered, and waited for the spring. The Indians were not troublesome, though they were often seen prowling among the trees of the forest. One day in the spring the colonists were surprised by the sight of an In- dian warrior, who walked boldly into the little village, and in English welcomed the "palefaces" to his country. It was after- ward found that he had learned his few English words from some fishermen. The colonists treated him kindly. Not long after this he came Plymouth Routes indicate search for site. 68 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS again, bringing Massasoit, the chief of a neighboring tribe, with a group of his painted and feathered braves. Captain Standish, who was the mihtary leader of the Pilgrims, led the Indians with great honor into the village, where the governor came to meet them. Massasoit agreed that there should be peace between the ■■■■■j^^ '^^nv' ''- ^ %i 'M^'J ^ S \^-''^:^ ■ ^^^Klf^l., ^^ if^ Landing of the Pilgrims redskins of his tribe and the palefaces. This agreement was faithfully kept for more than fifty years. But while the Indians did not trouble the settlement, there were other enemies, grimmer and more awful than they. Dis- ease and death went hand in hand among the settlers. By spring half the company were dead, and almost all the others sick. At one time there were but seven well enough to take care of the sufferers. But with the beautiful spring came renewed courage. Fields were planted with corn, houses were begun, a fort was built. THE PILGRIMS AT PLYMOUTH 69 Fish and gainc were brought in from tiie streams and woods. By autumn seven houses were finished, and others begun. The Captain Miles Standish and his Soldiers liarvesting of the corn showed a good crop. The people of the Httle colony felt that they had many things to be thankful for. Pilgrims going to Church From Bouphton's paintiny. 70 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS The governor appointed a day in November to be set apart as a Thanksgiving Day. This was but lately over when a shi}) was sighted in the har- bor. This praved to be the Fortune, bringing about fifty more of the Pilgrims to join the company. Families were reunited ; friends and neighbors who had been parted met once more. There were sad hours spent in talking of those who had been laid to rest in the little burying ground on the hill. For fear that the Indians might grow bold when they saw how many graves were there, wheat had been sown above the little mounds, and many a tear was shed as eyes were turned toward that field of waving grain. But with courage and trust in God, they again faced a cold winter. For two years the struggle was an anxious one. The little colony grew slowly, but still it did grow. Often dis- couraged, but never willing to give up, the brave men and women toiled and endured, until there was no longer any doubt that Plymouth would succeed. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Many people of England wanted to "purify" the Church of England. These people were called Puritans. 2. Among the Puritans some people wished to leave the church alto- gether and make a new church of their own. They were called Separatists. 3. • A company of Separatists left England, and after living in Holland for eleven years, came to America. They are known as the Pilgrims. 4. In spite of many hardships, their settlement at Plymouth, begun in 1(520, grew and prospered. THINGS TO READ 1. "Pilgrims and Puritans," Tiflfany, pp. 20-91. 2. "Pilgrims in Their Three Homes," Griffis, pp. 81-96, 117-132, 150- 100; also Chapters XVII, XX, XXI, XXII. 3. "Stories of the Old Bay State," Brooks, pp. 9-81. 4. "Colonial Massachusetts," Dawes, pp. 13-22. 6. "American llcro Stories," Tappan, pp. 59-72, THE PILGRIMS AT PLYMOUTH 71 6. "Standish of Standi.sh," Jane Austin. 7. "Soldier Rigdule," Beuhih Marie Dix. 8. "The Making of New I<:ngland," S. A. Drake, pp. G7-14S. 9. "Colonial Children," Hart, pp. 25-30; 57-G3; 133-13G; 152-155. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the exact meaning of prosperous, congregation, volunteered. 2. Make a list of things we all have in our homes that the Pilgrims never heard of. 3. Think of words you might use to describe the Pilgrims. Be able to show why you think the words you choose really describe them. If you say "the Pilgrims were brave," prove to the class that they were. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Obtain and mount in your notebook pictures relating to Plymouth and the Pilgrims. 2. Plymouth. It was settled in . The people who made the settlement are called . They came to America to make new homes where they might . They were • in their rc>]igion. Their homes had been in . They were people, and in doing their duty. 3. Write about "The Mayflower." Tell what the Mayflower was; about one voyage that she made; about the people who were on board of her; where they were going; what they intended to do there; about the end of the voyage; the landing; the new home; what kept the people from giving up when their life was hard. XII THE DUTCH COLONY OP NEW NETHERLAND In 1609, while the English at Jamestown and the French at Quebec were struggHng with the great questions of hfe in the wilderness, a new nation was entering the field of American colo- nization. This was Holland, and we must go back to Europe to know how and why the Dutch people first came to our shores. We know what kind of country Holland is now. It was the same then, with its low, marshy land, from which the ocean was kept out only by walls of earth and stone, with its canals and its windmills, its fine cattle, and its plentiful crops. We know from the story of the Pilgrims that no one in Hol- land was persecuted because of his religion; and we know that the Dutch people fought hard to win their independence from Spain. But perhaps we do not know that the Dutch were the Holland as a greatest traders of their time. The position of their trade center country, midway between the northern and the southern countries of Europe, made it a natural center of trade for these nations. Silks, spices, India shawls, — all the products Scene in Holland Notice the high-roofed houses, the canal, canal boata, and windmills. THE DUTCH COLONY OF NEW NETHERLAND 73 of the East, — came to Holland, and were there exchanged for goods sent from the North. It was during their war with Spain that the Dutch began to go themselves to the East Indies. From the time when Portuguese ships were the first to sail around the Cape of Good Hope, trade with the East had always remained in Portuguese hands. Their ships brought the goods to Lisbon. There they were reloaded on Dutch ships and carried to Holland. But Portugal became a part of Spain, and the Dutch, who were at war with Spain, could no longer go to Lisbon to obtain goods. What next ? Why, to the Indies, of course. The very thing that cut off Dutch trade from Lisbon opened to Dutch trade the door to the rich islands of the East. The Portu- guese islands of Java, Sumatra, and the Molucca Islands, were Portuguese no longer. They belonged to Spain, and Holland need wait only until she was strong enough to attack them before making them her own. Nor had she long to wait. You remember that England was helping the Dutch in their struggle for independence, and you remember that with the glorious day in 1588 on which the "Invincible Armada" of Spain was defeated, Spain's power on the sea was broken forever. Scarcely had the smoke of battle cleared away before the busi- ness-like Dutchmen were laying their plans for conquering the East, and it was only a few years before their plans were carried out. By 1607 they were in possession of the islands that had been owned by the Portuguese. Tea and coffee were introduced into Europe, and Dutch merchants grew rich from their sale. "A short route to the Indies!" became the cry of Dutch navi- gators, as it had been the cry of Portuguese and Spaniards in Columbus's time. The Dutch East India Company, Hudson sent which had been formed by men interested in Eastern to find north- commerce, resolved to send out a ship to look for a ^^^t passage, northeast passage around the coast of Russia. Henry ^ °^ Hudson, an Englishman, was asked to take charge of this ship. 74 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS He set out in 1609 with but one small vessel, called the Half Moon. Although he first turned toward the North Cape, it was not long before he was sailing along the coast of Maine, then down to the Chesapeake, then back to New York Bay. After trading with the Indians, whom he found most friendly, he entered the mouth of the river that was after- ward named for him. He thought it might be a strait through to the ocean beyond. It is Hudson who has given us our first descriptions of this The Hudson beauti- River found, f ul ri ver ; 1609 the Pali- sades, a high wall of rock along the west- ern shore, the Cats- kills farther up, the woodlands, the broad stream itself, have charmed many a visitor since the day of the Half Moon, but Hudson and his men were the first to tell us of them. Up the stream, almost as far as the place where Albany now stands, the good ship drifted with the tide, or sailed in the occa- sional puffs of wind from the mountainous shore. They stopped now and then to trade with the Indians, who, when friendly, The Half Moon in the Highlands THE DUTCH COLONY OF NEW NETHERLAND 75 would excluiiigo otter aiul beaver skins for trifles. At other times the sailors were kept busy making tlie guns of the old ship ring out in answer to twanging arrows from some hidden enemy on the shore. At last they turned back, and sailed down again to the mouth of the river, then out on the broad Atlantic, then back to Hol- The Palisades land. There the sailors told their story of purple mountains crowned with the glowing lights of the setting sun, of the great river which flowed down between the mountains to the sea, of a harbor shut in from the wild ocean on every side, and bordered by pleasant meadows and flowery fields. "All very good ! " said the business-like Dutchmen, "but what about the passage to India?" Alas! they had found none. Perhaps it was then that the sailors brought forth the furs they 76 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS had obtained from the Indians, to show that the voyage had not been all in vain. The East India Company was disappointed. Hudson had disobeyed orders. He had not found the northeast passage he had been sent to find. So they went on with their trade in the East, and paid no further attention to the beautiful river or the island at its mouth. It was the cargo of furs brought from America by Hudson's men that led to its settlement by the Dutch. There were mer- Fur trading chants in Holland who were interested in these furs, begun jf ii^Q Esisi India Company was not, and who sent out ships to "Hudson's River" to obtain more skins. By 1613 there were four rude huts on Manhattan Island for the use of these traders, and during the next few years the fur trade grew rapidly. An old fort built by French explorers on the bank of the river where Albany now stands was repaired, and bargains were made with the Indians, muskets and ammunition being exchanged for skins. Still there was no permanent settle- ment. In 1621 it was decided to organize another trading company in Holland, to be called the Dutch West India Company, and in Manhattan ^^23, three years after the Pilgrims reached Plym- isiand settled, outh, a shipload of colonists sent out by this com- 1623 pany landed at Manhattan. The party was divided : some were ' landed on the island ; some were carried up the river to the old fort; some went to the Connecticut, where Hartford now stands; others settled on the western end of Long Island, close to Manhattan; still an- other party set out for the Delaware River. The fur trade flourished, and the company's boats sailed all along the neighbor- ing shores, obtaining skins from the Indians. But the colony grew very slowly. The traders came and went, but not many homes were made in New Netherland, as the colony was called. The members of the West India Company shook their heads solemnly over the question of getting farmers to go to New THE DUTCH COLONY OF NEW NETHERLAND 77 Notlierlaiul. In 1G2U they tried a new plan. The company offered to give a great estate on the river to any one who would induce fifty grown people to go with him to the colony and live on the estate. The owners of these great estates were called "patroons," and had much power over the colonists they brought to the colony. These people were to till the patroon's land. H;. jjerniisnon Titl II -it Cn. New Amsterdam They were forbidden to move from one estate to another or from the country to the town at Manhattan for ten years. In this way it was hoped that the country might be made into farms. The government of the colony was not like that of Plymouth, where the colonists had their town meeting in which laws were made. Xor was it like that of Virginia, where the Government planters elected men to represent them in the House of New of Burgesses. There was no self-government in the ^^theriand Dutch colony at New Netherlands A governor appointed by the 78 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS West India Company in Holland had full control of the colony, although the patroons had many privileges. The town that grew up on the island of Manhattan was called New Amsterdam, in honor of the home city in Holland. It soon New Amster- grew to look like a Dutch town, with its houses of ^^^ many-colored brick, with steep roofs and tiny win- dows. We hear no stories of suffering from hunger here. The soil was fertile, and great crops of grain were raised, as well as ^ vegetables and fruit in abundance. The Dutchmen were fond of good things to eat, and the women were famous cooks. After a hearty meal, the families might l)e seen sitting on the "stoop," or front doorsteps, the goodman peacefully smoking his long Dutch pipe, while the v.omen gossiped together, and tlie children p 1 a >' e d about. Even the clothes of these settlers were of l)right colors, very different from the plain, sober garments of the Pilgrims in their Plymouth homes. Peaceful, happy lives were led in old New Amsterdam, but there was trouble brewing for the colony, nevertheless. The Eng- lish had always felt that the Dutch had no right to settle on the land claimed by England. And several times the Dutch had been reminded that they were on forbidden ground. In 1636 the English who came to settle on the Connecticut drove the Family Life in New Netherland From an old woodcut. THE DUTCH COLONY OF NEW NETHERLAND 79 Dutch away from their fort there. Then came EngHsh settle- ments on the eastern end of Long Island, and frequent quarrels between their people and the Dutch at Brooklyn. At last the English king xletermined to surprise the Dutch colony at New Amsterdam and take possession of it. A fleet was prepared, -and in 1664 it set out across the Atlantic. England seizes The eye of Holland was upon him, so King Charles New Neth- had a good deal to say about his unruly colonies in ^^land, 1664 New England. He was sending out a fleet to inquire into mat- ters. And sure enough it was to Boston that the ships sailed. Old Peter Stuyvesant, who was then the governor of New Nether- land, began to breathe easily again. He sent away the warships he had been keeping in the harbor ever since he had heard of the English fleet upon the sea ; it was all right. The English ships were in Boston harbor. They had been there for a month. But what are those strange ships sailing so proudly up the bay? What flag is that which floats upon the breeze? Spy- glasses are leveled; the old governor stalks about on his wooden h'g, crying that the English shall never take the town. But the |)e()i)le know it is useless to fight, and they l)eg the old man to give uj) th(^ town without l)loodshed, since they must give it up at last. Finally he consents, sorrowfully saying, "Well, let it be so. I would rather be carried to my grave." The fleet, which has waited in the harbor, now sails up by the town. A white flag flutters above the fort. Dutch rule is over. Without the shed- ding of a drop of blood, New Amsterdam has perished. New York has taken its place. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Dutch traders rarricd on iimch of the trade with the East Indies. 2. In 1609 the Dutch East India Company sent Henry Hudson to look for a short route to the Indies. He was told to look for a northeast passage around the coast of Russia. 80 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 3. Hudson could find no northeast passage. He turned his ship to the west, reached the coast of America, and discovered the Hudson River. The East India Company was disappointed, and paid no attention to the river he had discovered. 4. The Dutch West India Company was formed in 1621 by mcrcliants who wished to enter the fu: trade. They sent ships to "Hudson's River" to get furs. 5. A settlement was made on Manhattan Island in 1623. It was called New Amsterdam. The colony grew slowly. It had no self-government. It Vv."! ; ruled by a governor appcinted by the company. ; The English and the Dutch both claimed the land where the Dutch h!;,d settled. The English seized the town in 166 I. They changed its name to New York, THINGS TO READ 1. "Book of American Explorers," Higginson, pp 2S1-307. 2. "The Land of Pluck," Dodge. 3. "Brave Little Holland," Griffis. 4. "Indians and Pioneers," Hazard and Dutton, pp. 230-250, 5. "The Colonies," Smith and Dutton, pp. 111-219. 6. "American Hero Stories," Eva M. Tappan, pp. 73-83. 7. " Peeps at Many Lands — Holland," Jungmann. 8. "Peter of New Amsterdam," James Otis. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the exact meaning oi colonization, persec uteri, products, introduced, elected, represent, permanent, estate. 2. Study the picture of "The Half Moon in the Highlands." You will find much to interest you ; study also the old Dutch town shown in the picture of New Amsterdam. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Make a map showing the Dutch colonj' of New Netherland, the Hud- son River, Manhattan Island, New Amsterdam. 2. Write about Henry Hudson: tell for whom he was sailing; what he was sent out to find ; where he was to look for it ; where he went ; what he saw; what the Dutch East India Company thought of his voyage. 3. New Am,sterdam. Write all you can about the old city: how it looked; its people; liciw they lived; what bename of the Dutch city; what is there to-da3'. XIII MASSACHUSETTS BAY RHODE ISLAND — CONNECTICUT Soon after Plymoutli was I'ouiuletl, \vc hoar of little settlements (lotted along the coast of New England, made up mostly of fishermen. In 1028 the first settlement of the Massachusetts Bay colony was made. There were by this time many Puritans in England, and because of their religion, and their belief that the people of a country should help to rule it, they were not at all in favor with the king. Tlie Puritans began tO be afraid that tilt' time might come when England would no longer be a safe place for t hem to live, and they resolved to start a Puritan colony in America, xhe Massa- The Massachusetts Bay chusetts Bay Company was organized, a colony grant of land and a charter obtained from the king, and the first settlement made at Salem. In 1629 Salem, only a year old, was larger than Plymouth. In 1630 more than a thousand Puritans came to the colony, among them the governor, John Winthrop, and the members of the Massachusetts Bay Company themselves, with their precious charter. Boston, Charlestown, and neighbor- ing towns were settled. The colony became so large that it was found impossible for all the men to meet together to make the laws ; so the plan of electing men to represent each town was adopted. This assembly was somewhat like the Virginia House Q 81 The Puritan Statue l)y J. (J. A. Ward. 82 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS of Burgesses. It was called the General Court of the Massachu- setts Bay Colony. The colony was almost from the first strong and sturdy, with good farms and busy traders. There were many churches, with ministers who preached the Puritan doctrines. There were also many educated men. In 163G a college was established. It be- came known as Harvard College, and is to-day famous every- where in America as the first college established in the country. Roger Williams's Church, Salem You will be surprised to learn that these Puritans, who had left England because they wished to think for themselves about Rhode Island religious matters, should not have been willing for founded by others to think as they chose, but they were not. Roger wii- Qne of their own ministers, Roger Williams, was lams ordered to leave the colony because he differed from the other ministers and the town officers in his opinions. The town officers even planned to send him to England, l)ut he left his home very hurriedly, l)efore the officers coming to arrest him reached it. After spending the winter with the Indians, with MASSACHUSETTS BAY 83 whom he was a favorite, hv set out with a few friends to niak(» a settlement outside tlie limits of the Massaehusetts colony. They decided upon a place on the shore of Narragansett Bay, and when the little settlement was begun, Williams named it Providence, because ( Jod had provided a home for him. Only a short time after this, another person was ordered to leave Massachusetts because of religious beliefs. This time it Ro{;er Williams among the Indians was a woman, Mrs. Anne Hutchinson. With a few followers she settled on an island not far from Providence. These two settle- ments were afterward united into the colony of Rhode Island. This is the story of the principal colonies of New England. But there were new towns springing ap all the time. New Hamp- shire had been first settled as early as 1623. In 1636 a company of people from Massachusetts walked through the v.-ilderness to 84 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS the Connecticut River, where they made new homes. By 1637, eight hundred ])eople were settled in the towns of Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor. New Eng- land was fast growing into importance. Slaves were brought into Massachusetts as early as 1636 by the ship Desiir, one of the vessels built for the slave trade at Marble- head, Massachusetts, and was not a private enterprise, but was conducted by the Plymouth Colony. The institution re- mained in full force in Massachusetts for a period of one hun- dred and fifty years. Previous to the introduction of African slaves, numbers of Indians had been captured and held as slaves. Rhode Island also had her slaving vessels, but sold the pick of her cargoes to the West Indies, only bringing the least desirable ones to be sold in Boston. Leading Towns in New Eng.and in the Seventeenth Century THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. In 1630 many Puritans left England and settled the towns of Boston, Salem, Charlestown, and others near. 2. This Puritan colony was called the Massachusetts Bay Colony. It grew very rapidly. 3. The Puritans would not let Roger Williams live among them because of his religious beliefs. For the same reason they obliged Mrs. Anne Hutch- inson to leave the colony. 4. In the spring of 1636, Williams, with a few friends, began a settle- MASSACVrrSETTS BAV 85 iiu'iit oii tlio shore of \;u r;ii;aiisett Ba\'. Tlify callrd it I*ri)\id(>iicr". Ppnplo (>r any roliKio'i weic wi'Irotnc theiv. T). Mrs. Hutchinson and her followers settled not far from Providence. These two settlements were afterward joined into the ooionj^ of Rhode Island. (j. Puritans from Massaclinsetts settled Hartford and nei(;hl)orint^ towns in lt):{(). THIN OS TO RKAl) I. ■■ Indiun.s and Pioneers," Hazard and Dutton, pp. 194-229. *2. "The Colonies," Smith and Dutton, pp. 2r):i-;^27. ."). " Colonial Massachusetts," Dawes, pj). 2;]-:)2. 4. "Pilgrims and Puritans," TifTany, pp. 92-l.")2. .'->. " American Pioneers," Mowry, pp. 47-.")7. 0. "Tlie Making of New Em-land." l)rak<>. pp. 104-141, 149-190,214- 24:;. 7. "A Book of American E.xplorers," Higginson, pp. 341-351. 5. " Old Times in the Colonies," Coffin, pp. lo2-l76, 187-199. 9. "'Colonial Life in New Hampshire," Fas.sett. 10. "Colonial Children," Hart, pp. 136-142; l.")2-ir).i; 177-188; 192- 19(>; 206-210. THINOS TO DO Discuss in class with your teacher the following question : " Why would ii be impossible to-day for the officers of any town to compel a person to leave the town l)ecause of his religious belief?" FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Make a list of the JCngli.sh .settlements in America, u.sing form below: Enqlish Settlements By whom Made Le.\ding Men 2. Make a map to accompany the above list. 3. Write about the Massachu.setts Bay colony : tell by whom the colony was begun — when and where the first settlements were made ; the most important town of the colony, and anything of interest you know about it. XIV MARYLAND, DELAWARE, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYL- VANIA It was not long before there were new colonies established near Virginia, as there had been new ones begun in New England near Plymouth. In 1629, Lord Baltimore, one of the members of the London Company which had colonized Virginia, decided to estab- lish a colony of his own. He was a Roman Catholic, and wished to Settlement of ^^^'^^e his colony a refuge for men of his faith, since they Maryland, were as much disliked in England at this time as ^ ^'*' Puritans and Separatists were. In 1629 he obtained from the king a grant of land, which he named Maryland in honor of the queen, Henrietta Maria. The first settlement was made at St. Mary's in 1634, and since people of all religions were welcomed, many settlers came, and the colony grew rapidly. Freedom in religious matters, such as Lord Baltimore offered, was rare enough in those days to attract many settlers. In their way of living the people of Maryland came to be much like the people of Virginia, living on large plan- tations, raising great quantities of tobacco, and keeping many slaves who were infinitely better off than they were in the colder climate, or in their native jungles. Their Southern owners chris- tianized them, civilized them, and taught them many useful arts, and, except in rare instances, they were treated with the utmost kindness and forbearance. The government of the colony was entirely in the hands of Lord Baltimore, and when he died, the power was to pass on to his son, just as it does in a kingdom when the king dies. Indeed, Maryland was much like a little kingdom, with Lord Baltimore as its ruler. He was given the right to coin money, to appoint judges, and to regulate all the affairs of the colony. 86 MARYLAND, DELAWARE, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANLV 87 •. It was not long hcfoiv otlu>r setllcnicuts were made along the coast. Delaware was settled in 1638 by tlu; Swedes. Their colony was soon conquered by th(^ Dutch, and became a part of X(>w N(»therland. In l()5.'i came the bc^ginning of the settlement of "the Carolinas," and in 1(563 a charter was obtained for these s(>ttlements. These came to have a sturdy population, made up of people of manj^ religions antl from many lands, — Huguenots, Scotch and Irish, Germans and Dutch. The next year, 1664, marks the beginning of New Jersey; and in 1(J81 Pennsjdvania was settled. This colony grew to be one of the most important of them all, so we must turn -our attention to England once more to find how the settlement came to be made. Of all the forms of reiigion that had sprung uj) during the seventeenth century, it is sais to say that the belief of the people called Quakers was hated the most. Their own name for themselves was "Friends," and they believed many things that shocked the people of that day. They thought that all meii were equal in the sight of God. They would not take off their hats even in the presence of the king, believing kings to l)e no better than other people. They believed that each man must answer to God for his sins, so they wished to do away with priests ami ministers. Any one could preach, they said, if the spirit of God moved him to do so. Because they read in the Bible, "Thou shalt not kill," they refused to fight in time of war. They were often arrested and sent to jail for teaching their beliefs. Still they went on teaching, because they thought it their duty tO ppread their Ukm ;,everywhere. The Quakers. Typical Quaker AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Among the Quakers in England was a man named William Penn, who was devoted to the Quaker faith. His father had „,.,,. left him a great fortune, and he determined to use William 111., Penn's his wealth to found a colony in America, where colony. Quakers could come and lead quiet lives. It was easy for Penn to obtain a grant of land, as the king and the Duke of York, the king's brother, had been friends of Penn's father. Not only this, but the king owed Penn a large amount of money. A grant of land in payment of the debt would be easy for the king to give, and was just what Penn wanted. So William Penn was made proprietor of a large piece of land in America between the Delaware River and the Mary- land colony. His charter was somewhat like that of Lord Baltimore, though not quite so many powers were given to him. He wished to call his colony "Sylvania," which means woodland, but the king insisted on using Penn's name too, in honor of his father, so the colony was called Pennsyl- vania, as the state is to-day. The first settlement was made in 1681, many years, you see, after the settlement of the other colonies we have studied. But it did not take long for Pennsylvania to grow. Before many years had passed it stood third among the colonies in the number of its people, only Massachusetts and Virginia being larger. The freedom in religious matters in Penn's colony, as well as bis plan of selling small farms to colonists at a low price, helped Wiiliam Penn MARYLAND, DELAWARE, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANLV 89 to draw people there. Many came from Germany. Many came also from Scotland and Ireland. In 1683 the city of Philadelphia was laid out, and it has been said that the streets were straighter and the land more level than in any city the New World had yet seen. Trees Avere planted along the streets, and before the end of the 3'ear there were three hundred dwellings in the new cit}'. Penn was Aery wise in dealing with the Indians. He made a treaty with them that wa.s not broken for more than sixty years. In 1732, fifty-one years after the founding of Pennsylvania, the thir- Georgia set- teenth colony on the Atlantic coast was chartered, tied in 1733. i^ ^^.^^^ named Georgia in honor of George II, who was then king of England. General James Oglethorpe, an English General Oglethorpe Savannah in the Eighteer'.h Cer.tury 90 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS soldier, was at the head of the movement. He phmned the colony as a new home for poor people, where they might lead happier lives than they could in England. The settlement was also in- tended to serve as a military outpost, whose people would keep back the Indians and the Spanish settlers of Florida, who had been troubling the colonists of South Carolina. The first settlement of Georgia was on the Savannah River, and the name of the river was given to the town. At first Ogle- thorpe would not let the colonists have any slaves, nor would he allow any alcoholic hquors in the settlement. The people of the colony did not like either of these laws, and after a while they succeeded in having their own way about the matter. After this the people were more contented, and the colony flourished. When it was twenty years old, the proprietors — that is, Ogle- thorpe and his friends — ■ gave up to the king their right of govern- ing the colony. It thus became a royal province. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Lord Baltimore, an English Catholic, obtained a grant of land just north of Virginia, on which in 1634 the first settlement of the colonj^ <»f Maryland was made. 12. In Maryland people of all religions were welcome. :i. Delaware, North and South Carolina, and New Jersey were settled within a few years. 4. William Penn. one of a religious sect called Quakers, founded a colony in America. It was. called Pennsylvania, and was on the Delaware River. 5. Pennsylvania was settled in 1681. Philadelphia was founded two years later. The colony grew very fast. 6. Georgia was settled about fifty years after Pennsylvania was founded. THINGS TO READ 1. " Indians and Pioneers," Hazard and Dutton, pp. 252-262. 2. " The Colonies," Smith and Dutton, pp. 2,33-262. 3.. " The Making of Virginia," Drake, pp. 63-85, 169-216, 4. "Stories of Pennsylvania," Walton q,iic} Qrurnbaugh, 5. "Stories of New Jersey," Stockton, MARYLAND, DELAWARE, NKW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA 01 (). "Stories of deorgia," Harris. 7. "Palmetto Stories," Means, pp. 1-1U3. 8. "History of the TTnited States," Elsoii, pp. 75-97; 140-159. THIXC^S TO DO 1. Find the e.xact lueaiiinn of rejulute, proprietor, (ilcokollc. 2. Write the names of the "'thirteen original colonies." Learn tlic list. Tell how each of the thirteen obtained its name. li. For your notebook. (1) Add to your list of the English .settlements in America. (2) Make a map to accompany the above list. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Copy the followinu; dates, writins:; after each the event which makes I lie date important : 11)00, 1453, 1492, 151:1, ](i07, KIDS, 1620, MV2A, HiSl, 1 732. 2. Copj' the following names, writin^' after (>ach some fact which makes the p(M'son famous: Leif Ericsson, Henry the Navij;ator, Christopher Columbus, Americus Vespucius, Ferdinand Magellan, Balboa, Hernando De Soto, .Jacques Cartier, Samuel de Champlain, .John Smith, William Hradfoni, John Winthrop, Peter Stuyvesant, Lord Baltimore, Williani I'eim, Roger Williams, James Oglethorpe. XV INDIAN TROUBLES IN NEW ENGL/ND r "Were the Indians always friendly?" you ask. , 'And are the stories we have heard about them and their attacks upon the colonists not true at all?" No, the Indians were not always friendly, and they did many dreadful deeds. Most of the Indians among ,vhom the colonists , , , made their homes belonged to one of two great fami- Indian tribes , . i • i i t • rr^i lies — the Algonqums and the Iroquois. The map will show you where they lived, and the most important of the tribes belonging to each family. The Iroquois, made up of six allied tribes, were known as the "Six Nations." They had large villages and cornfields. They were skillful in the hunt and powerful in war. We are told that they were the terror of their Algonquin neighbors. The Algonquins were less fierce than the Iroquois, but, like them, were cruel and often treacherous. In New England the colonists were not disturbed for a long time, but the trouble came at last. The Pequots, a very fierce and powerful tribe, lived in the eastern part of Connecticut. They made many of the neigh- „. _ boring tribes pay tribute to them, and were hated The Pequots , ° , , ,, i i t i- <> tvt t-< i i and feared by all the other Indians oi ^i^w England. Several white men had been murdered by these Indians, when the governor of Massachusetts decided that it was time to put an end to such things. He sent three vessels around the coast to Connecticut to punish the offenders. The Pequots were ordered to give up the murderers, but they refused. The English killed about twenty of them, and set fire to their homes. We know enough of Indians to know how they would be likely 92 IMDIAM TkOlBLHS IN NK\V KNdLAXD 93 to lU'i after tliis. TIic people of the little towns which had lately been Hettled on the Connect ieut spent their first winter in a state of constant alarni. Men were killed on tlieir way to work. One man was captured and burned alive. The Indians grew bolder every day. Tlie P(^quots tritxl to induce the Narragansetts to Indians setting Fire to a House at Brookfield From an old print. join them, l)ut Roger Williams persuaded them to help the Eng- lish instead. There was to be war, and the poor little tow^ns on the Con- necticut, being nearest to the Indians, seemed likely to get the worst of it. They appealed to Massachusetts and Plymouth for aid, and a small force of men started out to attack the Pequots. On a moonlight night in May, 1637, the English landed near the Pequot stronghold, and so well did they do their work, that in less than an hour only five Indians were left alive of the several hundred in the fort. The Pequot tribe was gone, crushed out in 94 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS a single night. It was an awful act, but it was necessary to make the Connecticut Valley a safe place for the settlers there. This victory made the Indians fear the English, so that it was thirty-eight years before they dared attack them again. -^i> X. ' Pequot Fort Then, in 1675, began what is known as King Philip's War. Philip was the son of Massasoit, and since the death of his father. King Philip's he had become chief of the tribe. He is said to have War suspected the white men of poisoning his brother. Because of this, he plotted for years to have revenge. Thirteen years passed after Philip l^ecame chief before he was ready to carry out his plans. Just what these plans were we shall probably never know, nor just how many Indians Philip had interested in them. The Indians everywhere were getting INDIAN TROUBLES IN NEW ENGLAND 95 tired ol" tlic white men, who were every clay coming to hold more and more of the land that had once belonged to the Indians alone. They did not like the way in which the white people watched them, nor did they like being sent for to come to the towns whenever they were suspected of any wrong. Most of the tribes were glad enough to join Philip in his plan to get rid of the whites. At last the awful struggle began, at the little village of 8wan- zey, in Massachusetts, not far from Philip's home. The people were murdered, and their houses burned by the savages. This New England Blockhouse was the first of a long list of such deeds. In the Connecticut \'alley town after town was destroyed, and men, women, and children were murdered or carried off as captives. It began to look as if New England would be a wilderness again before this awful war was over. The Narragansetts, who had at first been friendly to the Kng- lish, were no longer so. They sheltered Philip's wounded war- riors, and seemed to be waiting only for the spring to make war for themselves. A thousand white men were gathered to attack them, and there was another dreadful scene like that at the Pequot fort. The Narragansetts were thus subdued ; the rest gi the Indians were more wary, ancj kept out of the way of their 96 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS English pursuers. But their murderous work went on. Still, a little at a time, the English gained, and at last Philip was cap- tured and killed. This did not end the war at once, but by 1678 it was all over, and peace reigned once more in New England. It had been a terrible time to pass through. Twelve towns had been entirely destroyed, and more than forty had been at- tacked. A great war debt was to be pair', but New England was free from Indian attacks. The dai^er from the fierce red man was gone forever. We must not at once without thought condemn the Indians for these attacks on the white men. Was the fault all theirs ? For thousands of years the red man had wandered in the forests, free as the birds in the trees overhead, or the wolves prowling through the crackling underbrush. Was it not all his, this beau- tiful land of green woods and golden sunlight, with rustling, leafy roof and babbling brook and silent river ? Were not the meadows and the green hillsides his home, the forests his hunting ground, the streams his, and the mountains, and the lakes ? Why should he be driven back year by year, giving up all these to the strange white men from over seas ? At first it was only along the shore of the Great Water, and the Indian accepted his new neighbors and did them no harm. But the white men were never satisfied. Year by year, almost day by day, they moved farther into the forests, frightening away the red man's deer, cutting down the red man's trees, and building their ugly wooden houses where the Indian for centuries had pitched his tent of skins. Why should not the red ni^n fight to preserve his home and his ancient freedom ? Shall we, then, after thinking of these things, say that the fault wa^ with the white men, after all ? Not yet ; we must look at their side too. Here was a great country, how great no one at that time knew. Here were fertile valleys, wooded hillsides, rivers, harbors, — and all unoccupied save for a few wandering tribes of red men. Should these savages be allowed to stand in INDIAN TROUBLES IN NEW ENGLAND 97 the way of the march of progress, of civilization ? What could the Indian do to develop the resources of a great country ? Must he not step aside, then, and leave the work to those who were better fitted for it ? These are questions that have puzzled older heads than yours, and whatever we may think about them, we cannot decide how they should be answered. And whether we believe that the Indians or the white men had the right of the question, we must all see that the struggle between them had to come ; and coming, it could end only as it did — in the final vic- tory of the whites. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The people of these early colonies .sometimes had great trouble with the Indians. 2. The Pequot Indians inoiestod the whites, and in 16.37 the white men attacked a Pequot fort, and killed almost the whole tribe. 3. In 1675 occurred King Philip's War. The colonists finally conquered, and the Indians made no more serious trouble in New England. THINGS TO READ 1. "Colonial Massachusetts," Dawes, pp. 80-87. 2. "The Colonies," Smith and Dutton, pp. 328-343. 3. "Four American Indians," Whitney and Perry, pp. 9-50. 4. "Stones of the Old Bay State/' Brooks, pp. 82-91." 5. " The Young Puritans of Old lladley," and "The Young Puritans in King Philip's War," Smith. 6 " How Our Grandfathers Lived," Hart, pp. 173-215. THINGS TO DO 1. F'ind the exact meaning of preserr", a vcicni, fertile, progress, civiliza- tion, develop, resources. 2. Find out whether there were CA-er any Indians near where you live. If there is a museum in your town, look for Indian arrowheads and other weapons. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK Write the story of an Indian attack on some New England village. Your reading will give you the material for your story. Make the story as real as you can. H PART 11 THE BIRTH OF THE NATION 99 PATiT 11 THE BIKTH OF THE XATIOX 1(189-1789 FEBIODS I. The Conditions in America nkak the End <>f the Seventeenth Centitkv, II. The Struggle between England and Fkance in the New Woklu, 1689-176;3. III. The Struggle for Independence, 17ni-178;^. IV. The Critical Period of American History, 1788-1789. 133 PART II THE 13IRT1I OF THE NATION I FOREWORD Taa'O centuries liad now passed since Columbus caught his first ghmpse of the New World. It was no longer a world unknown to the people of Europe; no longer a world inhabited only by roving trilies of red men. The whole eastern slope of North America, from the St. Lawrence to Florida, was occupied by the white men who had come from Europe. We might have heard Spanish in Florida, French on the shores of the St. Lawrence and the mighty Mississippi. We might have heard Dutch and German and Swedish in the settlements along the Atlantic shore. But it was England that owned that shore. It was a good thing for England when she obtained New York from the Dutch. There, in the middle of that eastern shore, New York made a link in the chain of England's possessions, where New Amsterdam would have served only to cut that chain in two. We must remember that, in spite of two centuries of colony making, a large part of the New World was still unsettled and even unknown. Few if any of the English settlers had passed beyond the natural wall formed by the Allegheny Mountains. The English territory was but a narrow strip of land along the Atlantic coast. The French, as we have already learned, were few in numl)er compared with the English, and though they claimed most of the interior of the continent, had made few settle- ments except on the St. Lawrence. The Spanish, led by the iiope of finding gold and treasure, had failed again and again, and had only St. Augustine and Santa F^ to show for all their labor in North America. 101 102 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS "^93 ,i3 Resource Map THE BIRTH OF THE NATION 103 Corn A struggle for the continent was at hand, and in this struggle the English and the French were to be the chief actors. It is in them, therefore, and the part of the continent they had settled, tliat we are at present most interested. We know, or we think we know, our country so well — we are so accustomed to thinking of its wonderful resources, its wealth, and its suitability for many j^^t^^ai re- and varied industries — that sources of it is a little hard for us to see North it with the eyes of the early ^^^^^^ settlers. Much of the continent, as we have already said, was unknown to them ; l)ut they had seen enough to realize that here Avere opportunities for enterprising men to find wealth in the wilderness. First of all, in size' — as the size of North America began to be realized vaguely l)y the people — it was truly a great land. Here was territory in which France, or Germany, or any coun- try of Europe might be almost lost. And because of its size, here were climates to suit the tastes of the most diverse of people : Canada, cold and snowy, yet abounding in wealth for the hardy fortune seeker ; Georgia and Florida, sunny, almost tropical, and presenting attractions to those who loved an easier life; between, all the varjdng degrees of heat and cold found in a temperate clime. And again, as the climate varied, there varied too the products of this wonderful New World. There were furs in Canada, cotton in the South, tobacco and Indian corn in the middle portion, with great forests of valuable timber almost every- where. Nor were these all. There were great tracts of rich land, — fertile river valleys, — where the crops of Europe might be taught to flourish; mile after mile of grassy prairie, where the Rice 104 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS cattle of the Old World might be brought to roam; mountains with the wealth of mines concealed beneath their rugged sides. And still these were not all. There were thousands of little streams which could be harnessed to the mill wheel ; there were quarries of granite, slate, and marble, as yet untouched by Forest showing Trees Valuable for Timber human hands ; there were millions of fish swarming in the rivers and the sea. There were all these, and more, that the colonists had never seen nor even imagined. To-day we know something of the pos- sibilities of our land, and it may be that even we have more to learn. That it was a good land, and that it might become the seat of a grsat nation, could be seen even two hundred years ago. THE BIRTH OF THE NATION 105 THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Franco and England alono of European nations gained a real foothold in America. A struggle for possession of the continent was sure to come between them. 2. The continent covered a great stretch of territory, and possessed varied and valuable productions. THINGS TO READ 1. CoiiNult your getjgraphy for information as to the physical features of North America. Read what is said of the climate and productions under each group of states, and under Canada. THINGS TO DO 1. Make a list of the natural products of the country known and used fo-day. 2. Look up pictures illustrating the industries of the country at the present time, 'i'hese may be mounted to form a very interesting class collection. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Copy the production map. 2. Make a diagram showing the comparative size of North America and Europe; of Canada (present territory) and P' ranee; of the United States and England ; of Mexico and Spain. CONDITIONS IN EUROPE AND AMERICA II ENGLISH COLONIES AND COLONISTS By the end of the second century after the New World was discovered, all of the "thirteen original colonies" except Georgia End of second had been settled. Virginia, the oldest of them, was century after not far from her hundredth birthday ; and Massa- discovery chusetts, New York, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island were not many years behind. Pennsylvania, although the youngest of the twelve, had grown so rapidly as to be larger than many of the older colonies. There were about two hundred thousand people in the English settlements. Year by year the settlers were pushing westward, until the mountain wall was almost reached. The years had been years of progress in all the colonies. In spite of differing ideas and beliefs, the colonists were becoming more like one an- other, and more unlike the people of the countries from which they had come. Their life in America, making new homes, and fighting the dangers of the wilderness, did much to make the settlers self-reliant; and this self-reliance served to increase the spirit of independence in political affairs for which Englishmen at home and abroad have ever been noted. There were three kinds of government in the colonies. Massa- chusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut had charters. Vir- Kinds of gov- gi^ia, once a chartered colony also, since 1624 had ernmentinthe been a royal province. Maryland, Delaware, and colonies Pennsylvania were still under the rule of proprietors, the heirs of those to whom the land had been originally granted. 106 ENGLISH COLONIES AND COLONISTS 107 The rest of the twelve, though they had been at first pro- prietary, had become, hke Virginia, royal provinces. This means that their governors were appointed by th(^ king. In the char- tered colonies the governors wore usually elected by the people. In the proprietary colonies they were appointed by the proprietors. In each of the colonies there was an "assembly" of the people, which miidv laws and managed the monc}'' affairs of the colony. There were many struggles between the assemblies and the royal governors. If the governor opposed the will of tiie people, he was sometimes brought to terms by refusing him necessary grants of money, or perhaps even his salary. Some of these quarrels were long and bitter. Such was that between Governor Berkeley of Virginia and the peo[)l(^ of the colony. The gov- ernor's rule was harsli, but a House of Burgesses friendly to him made him quite secure in his position, and for many years the people could only suffer. At last, however, in 167o, many of the Bacon's people, under the leadership of Nathaniel Bacon, rose rebellion against the governor, and what is known as "Bacon's Rebellion" demanding from Berkeley Permission to fight against the Indians From a painting by Keiley. 108 AMKRTC'AN PflSTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLK followed. There were exciting times in Virginia during the few months that the uprising lasted, but Bacon died, and the governor and his friends triumphed. But though the attempt had been a faikire, the spirit of resistance to oppression was born in the hearts of the men of Virginia. Another royal governor who came into conflict with the people under his rule was Sir Edmund Andros, sent b} King James II to become governor of Massachusetts, Plymouth, New Hampshire, and Maine. Later Rhode Island and Connecticut, New York and New Jersey, were put under his care also. Andros made his headquarters in Boston, and sent Francis Nicholson to rule for him in New York. There was soon trouble for l)oth Nichol- Rebeiiion *^t)n and Andros. They ear- under ried out most faithfully the Leisler king's orders to disregard the people's assemblies, and the peojjle hated them accordingly. In New York a German named Leisler placed himself at the head of the militia, and forced Nichol- son to leave the town. Leisler then made himself governor. For two years he remained in power, but when a governor appointed by the new king arrived, Leisler was seized and hanged for treason. Meanwhile Andros himself had been seized by the people of Boston, and after being imprisoned for some time, had been sent to England. Thus we see the spirit of resistance to oppression again asserting itself in the English colonies. It is a spirit of which we shall see more hereafter. There were other traits in these early Americans which were as strong, and which affected their later history as much, as their love of self-government. They wTre a sturdy people, slow to change their ways of life; content to reach the goal of their am- Sir Edmund Andros ENGLISH COLONIES AND COLONISTS 109 bitions step by step ; extending their territory only as it became necessary to make room for the settlers ; not dreaming of a great empire, but intent upon making homes. These homes — nestled among the rugged hills of New England, along the shores of the Hudson and the Delaware, or surrounded A Colonial Farmhouse by the widespread tobacco fields of the South — these explain to us the wonderful vitality of the English settlements. Life in the The old homesteads of New England became centers English of life, centers of industry, centers of training. The Coio'"®^ children, and the children's children settling near, made large and t hriving communities of the little towns. The green vallej^s became fields of waving corn. The wooded hillsides rang with the sound of the woodman's ax. The waters of the harbors reflected the masts of gallant ships, built in America and manned by American seamen. In the South each plantation was a little world by itself. Per- haps there, even more than in New England, all life and activity was centered about the home. As the years went on, the planta- 110 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS tions developed, but towns were few and small. While New England built ships and entered into trade, Virginia and her southern neighl)ors tilled their broad fields. Both found strength and i)rosperity. Many books have been written which describe for us life in these far-away colonial times ; and you will find them well worth reading. They tell us tales of roomy old kitchens, witli huge fireplaces around which the family gathered at night, popi)ing corn, roasting apples, cracking nuts ; the children listening eagerly to stories of old England, or perhaps to wild tales of bears and panthers and stealthy, catlike Indians, or still more weird and lK)r- rible stories of witches and wizards, while the red firelight glowed over all, and the steady lumi of the spinning wheel made a drowsy accompaniment to the story. We shall find stories of the Sundays of long ago — of the bare, cold churches, so cold that sometimes the minister preached in overcoat and mittens. We shall hear of the tithingman, whose duty it was to keep drowsy folk awake when tiie s<'rm()n proved too long and dry, for sermons were long in those days — three or four hours was not at all unusual. We shall read of harsh laws for the punish- ment of crime, and of the stocks and pillory that stood on every village green; of the duck- ing stool, where scolding women were shown the error of their ways ; and of many other strange ways of punishing peo[)le for doing wrong. We shall be told of the way people traveled wIumi the\' madt; their long-aiiticipat<'d visits to Boston or Philadelphia, and of the tim(> it took to go from place to place. W(^ shall hear of a Flax Spinning Wheel Stocks ENCJ.ISII COl.OMKS AM) COLON IS TS 111 stagpconc'h wliich was calhMl "the fixing inachinc," IxH-aiise it could go from Now York to Philadelphia in two days. The books will tell us, too, of fashionable l)alls and l)an(|Uets in tlu' gayer towns; of ladies and gentlemen in gorgeous costumes and witli wonderfully powdered hair ; of their sedate and digniHed maiuieis, and'of theii' stately minuet. There will be stori(^s, too, of the belief in witchcraft, and the cruel deeds that were done because of it. \\ v shall hear of the dreadful days in Salem, when nineteen so-called witches were hanged on "(Sallows Hill," and no one knew who would be the next to i^. IJi piMllWm^m^^ ll„.,^j Weshall shudder, and be glad that the "1^ I lay of l)elief in witchcraft has gone forever. Yes, there are wonderful stories awaiting us in these rc'cords of colonial days, and we shall know our forefathers better when we have read them. Then, 3'oung folks, let me introduce you to your own great-great-great-great grandfathers. You will find them shut in lu'tween the covers of tlie books on the library shelves, and very glad to come out and have a chat with you. Among other things, you will leai'ii that in 1711. there flourished a slave market in New York City, on the site of old Wall Street, which was sujiplied by Nexv England trading vessels, an best. King Louis tried very hard to make the colony grow. Francis Parkman, a great liistorian who has told the story of New France, says, "Tlie new settler was found l)y the king, sent over by the king, and supplied by the king with a wife, a farm, and sometimes with a house. Well did Louis XIV earn the title of 'Father of New France.'" 8ome of these colonists sent over by the king were peasants, while many were soldiers whose regiments the king ordered to Canada and then caused to ])e disbanded there, hoping that the men would remain and jjccome colonists, as most of them did. The wives provided by the king Avere sent out from France, a hundred or two at a time, much as was done in A^irginia in the early days. There was nothing to be paid, however, by the settler for his wife, as in Virginia. He was, on the contrary, almost driven to marry, l)y the orders of the benevolent king. King Louis believed, and there was nuich truth in his theory, that the colony would never prosper until families were estab- 114 LIFE IN NEW FRANCE 115 lishod, and the children born in Canada grew up to become the men of the next generation. A pension was offered to any man who should have ten children, and a greater sum to the father of twelve. Successful, however, as the king's matrimonial {)lans were, he did not succeed in building uj) the great population that h(i dreamed of for Canada. Tlu^ woods wer(^ too near, the great i-iv(>rs and the lakes seemed always calling the young men to the wild life beyond. Farming was slow work, and often discourag- ing work. Why should one toil in the fields, coaxing the back- ward crops, when the forest teemetl with game and the wat(>rs with fish, always ready for the hunter or the fisherman ? Why plod on day after day in the same stuj)id njund of cares and troubles ? In the forest one could l)e free ! And so we hear of deserted farms, of abandoned homes and wives and children. In vain were laws made and penalties ordered to overcome the evil. The French colonist was made of different stock from the English — more impulsive, less ready to give UJ) his present desire for the sake of some later good, less self-reliant in matters of government, having been trained by centuries of absolute rule, to l)e guided by those in authority. Nowhere is this absolute go\'erninent more clearly shown than in Canada. The king made liiinself in truth the "Father of New France," and he governed tiie colonists as though they were un- ruly children. Tliey were not, it is true, capable of self-govern- ment as the English were; but tlieir training in the N(>w World was doing little to make them more ('apal)le of it. One of the most noticeal)le results of the adventurous life of the Canadian woodsmen was their fri(>ndship with the Indians. With the exception of the Iroquois, wlio liad been the foes of all Frenchmen since the time when Champlain IkuI given thtMr enemies aid against them, all the northern tribes were fri(udly, and even more than friendly, with the men of Canada. Often the woodsman visited his "red brotliers," sotnetim(>s he lived among 116 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS them and married an Indian wife. All the secrets of the forest became his, and he forgot the ways of civilization. Sometimes, however, he did not live entirely among the In- dians, but returned once in two or three years to the settlement. Here he sold the furs he had gathered together (often against the orders of the king), and after a few days of wild drunken revelry would make his way back to the woods again. It seems strange that through all this wild, lawess life the Church should have kept its hold upon even the most adventurous of the settlers, but such is the case. The Church and the king, — these were the forces that guided the fortunes of New France. The colonists grew to depend always upon the king for aid and the priest for counsel, and even in the smallest affairs of govern- ment to follow the guidance of the officers of Church and Crown sent to rule them. This habit of dependence upon others was perhaps the reason why the French colonists did not become self-supporting and self-governing hke their English neighbors. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The French colonies differed from the English in natural resources, in government, in religion, in the character of the people. 2. There were fev/er villages and settled communities than in the English colonies. Most of the settlements were trading posts and missions. 3. The Canadian woodrangers were friendly with the Indians. 4. Self-government was unknown in Canada, The church and the king held much power. THINGS TO READ " France in America," Thwaites, pp. 124-142. (Selections.) THINGS TO DO 1. Find the exact meaning of contracts, natural resources, regiments, benev- olent, theory, generation, 'pension, matrimonial, teemed, abandoned, penalties, impulsive, suppression, peasants. LIFE m NEW FRANCE 117 2. The English colonists might be described as slow, steady, horac-loving, self-reliant, interested in politics. Select words to describe the French colonists which shall show the contrast between them and the English. 3. Discuss in class with your teacher the following question : — Why should a colony whoso men lived in the woods as hunters and ad- venturers prosper less than a colony of homcmakers ? 4. Study the furs and fur-bearing animals of Canada. A class collection of fur specimens, accompanied by pictures of the animals, would be most interesting. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. A Canadian Woodranger. Where he made his home; why he did not remain in the settlement; what he often left behind; how he spent his life; his "red brothers"; an occasional visit to the settlement. 2. "The Father of New France." To whom this name was given; why; how he tried to make the colony grow; the result of his cfTorts; the reasons for this result. 3. Comparison of the French and the English colonists. IV A fiLANCK AT K\(!LAND AND FRANCE Leaving for a time the rival colonies in America, let us glance at the mother countries in Europ(\ In the first half of the seven- Civil War in teenth century there luul ])vvn a great civil war in England England. Resistance to oppression was a trait of Englishmen at home as well English king, ("harl(>s 1, wa.- as in America. In 1649 the beheaded, and the victorious army declared that henceforth the land should l)e ruled by Parliament alone. For four years Parliament ruled ; ])ut be- iiind Parliament was the army; and behind the army was its leader, OHver Cromwell, and it was only a question of time when Cromwell should become the acknowledged ruler. The rule ople were (luite ready to liave a king again. They invited Charles, son of the king whom they had beheaded, to return to iMigland as their ruler, and he was glad enough to accept. It seemed as though the ci\-il war and the determination of the people to rule thcmscK-cs had been cjuite forgotten. Hut Charles JI. the new king, was nun ti like his father in wanting to ha\(' his own way, and befoi'c his reign of twenty-fi\-e >('ars was over, the people had Ix'gun lo repent (jf asking him to reluin. His brother, James II, who became king in 1(»S."). was still worse, oiiver Cromwpii and M'as so hated by the people that after HuUt of England dur three years tliey would beai' his rule no longer. They asked ^^'illiaIn, Prince of Orange in Holland, to come over to England and l)econie king. I'nlike his immediate predecessors, who liad been Roman Catholics, >\'illiain was a Protestant. Wil- liam's wife Alary was a daughter of James, so she had some claim upon the throne. New liberties King JaUKS was will- gained by Eng- ing now to make all "^^ people sorts of promises to observe the liberties of the j^eople, but it was too late: he was deposed, and was obliged to tlee from lOngland. Much of the power that had been the king's was given to Parliament, and 't seemed at last as though the liberties of the English peoplg were assured. Charles 11 Became kins of Englaiul in UKiO, :ift.s in Iho government of England were nuule near the end of the seventeenth century. The power of Parliament was much in- creased, that the people might hereafter share in governing themselves. 2. In France the pi-ople had no share in the government. Louis XIV made his people poor by foreign wars. In these wars the Dutch and the English were his chief enemies. THINGS TO READ L " The Story of the English." Guerber, pp. 260-288. 2. " Little Stories of France," Diitton. pp. 118-124. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the exact meaning of Parliament, realm., ministers, absolute, monarch. 2. Discuss in class the question : In war time which would j'ou expect to find the better soldiers, the people of a self-governing nation, or those of a country ruled by an absolute monarch? (Remember that an opinion without reasons is valueless.) 3. Find out if possible what modern nations are absolute monarchies. Are tliey the progressive nations of the world? FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK \. Com»?are the governments of EngL'ind and France at the end of the seventeenth century. OOVEBNMKNT FhANCE | EniJLAND Power o' king Power of people \ 122 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 2. Obtain und mount a picture of tho English Houses of Parlianiml. Explain what the Parh'anient is. OVTJANE I. Conditions in Europe and Anierieu near I he end of (he seventeentli centvuy. A. The English colonies. 1. Government. 2. The people — their strongest traits. 3. Events which show one of these traits. B. New France. 1. Government. 2. The people — their pi'ominent traits. ('. Comparison of the French and English colom'es. J). The mother countries. 1. Governments of France and England eonip;ired. 2. Louis XIV's wars. 3. Effect of Louis's government on his people. THE STUrrUU.E von the rONTLNEYr V AMERICAN EC^HOES OF EIJIIOP^^AN WAJiS It is easy to see that the (litlVreiices we have noted between the French and the Knj>;Hsh colonists might cause distrust, sus- picion, even hatred, l)etween them. A\'hen we con- French and oider that the mother countries in Europe were bitter English coio- foes, we begin to understand the concHtion of tilings "'^*^' ^^^^ in America in 1()89. Here were the c(jloni(\s of two great European nations, planted side by side in a new land. With no natural boundary between them, it could hartlly fail to liapi)en that sooner or later they would come into conflict. The PVench in America were dream- ing of a great empir(>, as great as the continent itself. The}' were spreading out their forces and building their little forts up and down through the great central plain. For here was the prize — the great river whose owners might some day control the coinmerce of the whole interior. Every movement of the French was toward this end, — the control of the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. And now the English were beginning to see the value of the great valley. They were attempting to build up a trade witli the Indians; they were even beginning to cross the mountain wall in search of homes. There is little doubt that the struggh' for the continent would still have come, had there been no Euro- pean wars to set it in motion. But the tumult across the Atlan- tic could not but hasten it. In 1()89, then, we see the opening of the conflict. War was 123 124 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS declared between England and France. In America the colo- King Wii- nists, patriotic, true to their governments at home, liam's War and perhaps not unmindful of their own prejudices, 1689-1697 |.qqJ. yp ^Yie quarrel as their own. The war in America was not like that in Europe, where great armies met Pioneer Home in the Ohio Valley warfare in America and fought the battles which were to win or lose the day. The Kind of battles in the New World were most frequently' fought in the night, and were usually \'ery one-sided affairs. Some lonely settlement on the border between New E^ngland and Canada, perhaps, — once it was Schenectady in New York, — would be wrapped in the heavy slumber that follows days of toil. Sometimes sentinels would be on guard, but oftener all would be asleep. Through the forest, over th«- dead loaves or AMERICAN ECHOES OP EUROPEAN WARS 125 t he noiseless carpet of snow, would come a dusky band — French woodsmen such as we have read of, and their Indian allies and friends. Silently stealing into the village, the warriors would surround the houses, then, sending forth their horrible war cries, would rouse the people within to fight for their lives. Over and over again this happened, and some- times every inhabitant of a village would be killed or cap- tured. The captured would Intercolonial Wars be led away to Canada, and many of them never saw their homes again. Some of the w'omen married French- men or even Indian warriors, and became like the savages they lived among. When in 1697 jDeace was declared between France and Eng- land, the colonists of New York and Xew England on the one hand, and of Canada on the other, were glad enough to stop fight- ing. New York had suffered most, and though she had pro- tected the colonies south of her, they had done but little to aid iier in her struggle. .The peace, however, did not last long. In 1702 war l)egan 120 AMERICAN HISTOKY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS again, and soon all Europe was drawn into the quarrel. The wearied colonists at once began preparations for renewing the Queen Anne's fight. The raids of the Canadian "war parties" War, 1702- were begun once more. This time Massachusetts, "713 Xew Hampshire, and the struggling settlements of Maine had to bear the heaviest burden. We can scarcely read without a shudder the stories of these unhappy days in New England. In the winter of 1704, a dreadful raid was made upon the little town of Deer- field, in the Con- necticut Valley. The three hundred settlers were peace- fully sleeping when the war whoop sounded and toma- hawks came crash- ing against the doors. In a moment all was confusion. Doors were broken in, and the inmates of the houses were killed or dragged forth as captives. Houses were set on fire, and the crackling flames added terror to the scene. Shouting savages swarmed everywhere, while the screams of frightened children and th(^ cries of the tlying filled the air. As the gray dawn l>egan to break over the distant hillsides, a sorrowful band was led away toward Canada. Over a hundred prisoners — men, women, children, even babies among them — set out on the long journey. Many died from cold and weak- ness, and many, when their strength failed and they could go The Attack on Deerfield AMERU^AN ECHOES OF EUROPEAN WARS 127 no farther, were killed by tlie liuliaus. Months of dreary and I)ainful marching had to be endured before Canada was readied This attack upon Deerfield was only one of many such hap- penings. Nowhere along the northern frontier of the New Eng- land colonies could the people feel secure for a single day or night. The war dragged on until 1713, in both Europe and Ameri('a. In 1710 the English colonists, after several attempts, succeeded in taking Port Royal, , _ and so gaining con- trol of the i^rovince of Acadia. In Europe, Louis XIV had met with man}' disasters, and the French people were over- whelmed with a great war debt, l^oth Eng- lish and French were glad to stop fighting. The treaty which closed the war gave to England Hudson liay. Newfoundland, and Acadia. Tiiis was a great gain for iMigland, and a great loss for France. The old ((uarri'l was, however, almost untouched. The bound- ary between Canada and the English colonies remained unsettled. The hatred between the French and the English KingGeorge's settlers l)urncd as fiercely as ever. It needed only War, 1744- an excuse to break out into war. Tlie excuse came '''"^ in 1744, when a new war broke out in Europe, and foinid I'lance and England, as usual, on opposite sides. Immediately the governor of the P^rench town of Louisburg in America decided to attack the English in .Vcadia. This terri- tory, you will remember, had come under iMiglish rule at the On the Road to Canada 128 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS close of the preceding war. The French expedition against Acadia succeeded in capturing a httle fishing town, and attacked Port Royal, or Annapolis, as the English called it, but without success. --^ ) i:, '":,h7?m76-T.a Claims of European Nations before the French had reached the Mississippi These attacks so enraged the people of New England that they formed no less a plan than an attempt to capture Louisburg itself. Capture of The rashncss of this plan lay in two things, — the Louisburg strength of the town, and the entire lack of trained soldiers to attack it. The town was only thirty years old, but it was generally acknowledged to be the strongest fortress on the continent. The people of Massachusetts became wildly enthusiastic over the plan. No one seemed to consider a chance of failure. Ben- jamin Franklin wrote from Philadelphia to his brother in Boston AMERICAN ECHOES OF EUROPEAN WARS 129 tliat " t'ortifiod towns are liarcl nuts to crack, and your teeth are not acx'ustonied to it; but some seem to think that forts are as easily taken as snuff;" but I liave no doubt that his letter was greeted with laughter and shouts of derision. A writer of that (lay says of the expedition that "it had a lawj^er for contriver, a A View of Boston, 1744 The year before Louisburg was taken. merchant for general, and farmers, fishermen, and mechanics for soldiers." Perhaps the strangest part of the Avhole story is that the ex- pedition did succeed. The French soldiers in the fort were not in good condition, and their commander was a man of httlc force of character; powder was scarce, and the help expected from Canada did not arrive. So, somehow, in spite of their lack of discipline, and in spite of the clumsy old guns they carried, the New Englanders captured the town. There was great rejoicing in Boston wlien the news came. Bells rang, cannon were fired, 130 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS and the shouts of the people filled the air. Louisburg, the French stronghold, was taken. The succeeding years of the war sliow little but tales of "war parties" sent out by the French and opposed by the inhabitants now of this village, now of that. No event of importance oc- curred until, in 1748, both England and France, ready to make peace, agreed to return all conquests to their original owners. Great was the indignation in Boston when it was known that Louisburg was to be given back to the French. But such was the decision of the English government, and so it had to be. THINGS TO -REMEMBER 1. The people i>f the English colonies and tho.sc of N(>\v France became rivals for the po,ssessiy. 2. Both French and EngHsh sent men to occupy the valley. The.-burg now stands, and blood was shed. (Jeorge Washington, then a major in the Virginia militia, was in connnand of the defeated Englishmen. 3. No united action on the part of the English colonies against the French was possible because of their jealousy of one another. At the Albany Convention a plan for united government for the colonies was dis- cussed. The plan met with no favor from either colf)nists or English government. 4. General Braddock Mas sent from England to take charge of the fighting against the French. He brought trained English soldiers. Four expeditions against the French were planned. They all failed. Braddock himself was badly defeated not far from P'ort Ducjuesne. RIVALS IN THE GREAT WVI.LF-V 1.S9 THl\(iS TO RKAf) 1. ••Montcalm and Wolff," Parkiiiaii, Vol. I, pp. 131-1:30, 213-221, 224-226. 2. "Stories of tli(,' Olfl U(jmiiiion," Cookr, pp. 91 1.3!i. 3. "Old 'limes in the Colonies," Coffin, pp.- 3(13 373, 3S()-;i,s.S. 1. "(ieoi-^c! U'ashinjrton," Scudder, pp. 7-!)4. 5. "(Jeorge Washington," Hale, pp. 1-S.5. (J. "(iiinge ^\"ashington," Hapgood, pp. 1-70. 7. " Life in the Kighteenth Century," Eggleston, pp. .■)2-S;!. THINGS TO DO 1. lind the exact meaning of surremJer, (leleyutc.s, convention, clisxolu- iwii, niortallt/, retreat, rallf/. 2. Think over or talk over in clas.s the following qui'stion : AN'hich nation, French or English, had the better claim to the Ohio Valley "/ ^N hen you have formed your opinion, write it briefly with j^our reasons. 3. Di.scuss : - (1) Which nation, Fi-ench or English, seemed likely to make the l)etter use of the territory? (2) ^^'hat finality in deneral Braddock's character made his defeat probable 'i" (3) ^\'hat qualities are necessary to make a successful general? 1. Hy c<)nsulting your geograph}', try to discover why the place where Pittsburg now stands was important to botli French and English. ."). Imagine yourself to bc^ one of the Virginia militiamen who accom- ]),niieil Hr;i(i(lock. Wiiie or tell the story of the battle as you might have told it to your friends and neighbors on your return. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Draw a map of North America. Color with crayon or water colors the territory claimed by 1h(^ French; then in a contrasting color show that claimed by the English. The pait of the map where the two colors overlap will show the territory in disj)ute. Place on your map all the places men- tioned in the chapter. 2. Write about Washington's j(jniiH'y to the French fort : his errand ; the country through which he had to pass; his ci mpanions (what kind of men were chosen) ; some of their adventures. (Do not write this until you have done some of the reading about \\'ashington suggested in the "Things to Road.") VII PROGRESS OF THE WAR In only one of tiie plans for the year 1755 were the English successful ; and the story of this success is even sadder than the The removal story of their failures. We have already spoken of of the Acadia, and of the trouble the English had there in Acadians trying to make loyal English subjects of the people. The French did everything in their power to keep the people discontented, and succeeded so well that the pro ince was in a state tinual turmoil, ist it was decided by the ^lish to send sol- Acadia ; then once more to in- to take the oath of allegiance to the English king, those who refused must be punished. The peo- ple were more obstinate than ever. They flatly refused to take the oath, and the punishment fell. Such a punishment ! one that 140 Acadia PROGRESS OF THE WAR 141 ^ ".' -_ An Acadian Farm lias roused tlie syiuputliy of tlie world ever since that dreadful day. For it was decreed that the rebellious Acadians should be taken away from their pleasant homes, and carried, shipload after ship- load, to the colonies of the hated English — there to live, scattered among the feared and dreaded heretics, to begin life anew, with all their wealth of .?, l)arn and storehouse left behind. The simple-minded Acadians could not believe that the cruel sentence would bo carried out, until the ships arrived, and the people Avere forced to go on board. It was a sorrowful scene. Friends, neighbors, sometimes even members of the same family, were separated in the confusion. The shrill cries of children, searching vainly for their parents, mingled with the feeble complaints of the old and helpless and with the harsh voices of the soldiers urging all to haste; while the whole gloomy picture was lighted by the lurid glow of flame — for the unhappy peasants were forced to watch their homes fall in heaps of ashes, to show them how useless it would be for them to attempt to return and begin the old life again. More than six thousand were carried away, and were landed in the various English colonies from Maine to Georgia. Their lot was a hard one, for they were homesick and unhappy, besides being unwelcome in their new homes. The whole affair was in- deed the saddest of successes. In May, 1756, after almost two years of actual fighting in the New World, England declared war upon France; the struggle in the woods of America now became part of a great European war, in which almost every nation on the continent had a part. There 142 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS were many quarrels and many jealousies which led to this array- ing of all Europe on one side or the other, and we need not ask what they were. It is enough to know that England, with a single ally, Freder- ick of Prussia, was to face the armies of the rest of Europe. Nor need we fol- low the course of the war, except in North America. P'rom now on the French were able to give little aid to Canada, though a new commander, the Marquis de Montcalm, was sent from France. Montcalm was a good soldier, and under him the French entered upon two years of victory. The English generals who opposed Montcalm were quite unequal to their task, and it is said that the end of 1757 saw not a single village or hamlet of English-speaking people in the Ohio Valley or the basin of the St. Lawrence. With the new year — ■ 1758 — there came a great change in the management of the war. In England, William Pitt, a man of wonderful ability, had become prime minister, and nowhere is his ability shown more than in his conduct of the American war. More soldiers, under carefully selected officers, were sent over, and the tide of events began to turn. In July, 1758, Louisburg was again taken from the French, and in November Fort Duquesne fell into English hands. A new name — Fort Pitt — was given to the place, in honor of the great English statesman. Embarkation of the Acadians PROGRESS OF THE WAR 143 In July of the next year Fort Niagara was taken, and at al- most the same time Ticon- deroga. And now not only the Ohio country, Attack on but Canada, — Quebec, Quebec itself, the '759 center and stronghold of the French, — was attacked. We almost wonder at the daring of the EngUsh in trying to capture Quebec, doubly fortified as it was by its position on a high bluff overlooking the river, and by a strong citadel guarded by the best of the French soldiers under the leadership of the com- mander-in-chief, Montcalm. But they did try it, and in the spring of 1759 nine thousand men were placed on shipboard to sail up the St. Lawrence to Quebec. Their leader was General James Wolfe, a man but little over thirty years of age. He had already proved himself a gallant soldier, how- ever, and he gladly undertook the cap- ture of the French stronghold. In the early summer, 1759, the English vessels came to anchor in the river below Quebec. Soon all was in readiness, and the English cannon began to boom forth a summons to the French to give up Quebec. The Lower Town — that is the part of the town at the foot of the bluff — was soon in ruins, and even the General Wolfe Upper Towu, about the citadel, was William Pilt From an old print. 144 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS made to suffer from English shells. But the citadel — the strong old fortress — showed no sign of giving up. Wolfe moved his camp nearer to the city, and a few v/eeks later a severe battle was fought not far from the camp. The English were driven back, and seemed farther than ever from capturing Quebec. It was resolved to move the camp to a place on the river above the city, and to try there to find some way up the steep cliff, thus gaining the plains behind the town. The bank of the river was searched for a pathway, and at last it was found. Careful prepara- tions were made. On a dark night in September the men were silently rowed to the place selected, and still more silently led up the narrow, dangerous path. There were French guards at the top, but they were easily overpowered. And when the pale light of morning broke over the citadel, it fell on the red-coated English soldiers, drawn up in battle line on the plains outside the town. There was great excitement in the fortress. Montcalm has- tened to make ready for battle. His soldiers were poorly equipped — indeed, it had been almost impossible for Mpntcalm to obtain any supplies. But he had done all he could, and he entered upon the battle with a brave heart. It proved impossible, however, to drive the English back. Wolfe led the charge, and his men carried everything before them. The French broke into confusion. Montcalm did his best to stop their flight, and received a mortal wound. Wolfe, too, was struck, and again, and yet again! Both of these valiant Quebec and Vicinity Look at the picture on page 44. T'KOC.KKSS OF THK WAR 145 commanders were to die — the one victorious, — happy, as he said when dying, because he could know that the French were "flying everywhere": the other sad, though he had done his duty nobly, and thanking God that he should "not live to see the surrender of Quebec." F'ive (lavs after the batth^ the Kniilish soldiers entered the ; ;;e Death of General Wolfe From the painting by Benjamin West. town and placed their garrison in the fortress. Wolfe's victory was the greatest achievement of the war. With Quebec lost, it could not be long before all of Canada would fall into British hands. And so it proved. About a year after the fall of Quebec, Montreal surrendered, and New France had become only a name. All through the long struggle which was to decide the fate of the French in America, their Indijui allies had looked on anx- iously. Now that the end had come, they found it hard to believe 146 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS that their friends were really conquered, Pontiac, chief of the Ottawas, resolved to strike one more blow for the French, and at Xhe the same time to rid the country of the hated English, conspiracy Where the English came, the red man was driven out, of Pontiac ]j^|^ French and Indians could live in peace and har- mony, Pontiac 's conspiracy was well planned, but it ended after all in failure, and the English were left in undisputed possession of the land they had conquered. Meanwhile the struggle in Europe went on. The genius of Pitt had been shown, however, in the Old World as well as in the New ; in 1757 the English had gained a great victory in the fai-off land of India, where they and the French had been fighting for the mastery. And now the English fleets captured the French West India islands, and Havana, the Spanish stronghold in Cuba. It began to seem best to the French to make peace before they lost anything more. It was hard for them to face the fact that the empire of which they had dreamed was not to be theirs, and harder still to think of their territory as adding to the power and glory of their hated rivals, the English. There was, however, little hope of getting it back, even if they kept on fighting. A treaty was signed in 1763, and the war — called the Seven Years' War in Europe, the French and Indian War in America — was over. In the long struggle for the continent of America, the English had won at last. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Acadia had been under English rule since 1713. The Acadians, however, were not willing to submit to their new rulers. In 1755 the English sent soldiers to Acadia. IT'.cier their direction the people were put on board ship, and carried away from their homes to the English colonies. 2. After two years of fighting in America, war was at last declared by England against France. This brought about a great European war, of which the American struggle became only a part. 3. After two years of French success, the tide turned in favor of the Eng- lish. During 1758 much of the Ohio Valley was reclaimed for England. PROGRESS OF THE WAR 147 4. In 1759 the war was carried into Canada. Quebec was besieged and taken by General Wolfe. This victory really decided the war in favor of the English. 'y. England gained some important victories in the European war. France became willing to make peace. THINGS TO READ 1. "Montcalm and Wolfe," Tarkman, Vol. I, pp. 234-284. 2. "Old Times in the Colonies," Coffin, pp. 374-380, 437-453. 3. "Grandfather's Chair," Hawthorne, Tart II, Chapter VIII. I. " I'^vangeline," Longfellow. 5. "Stories of New France," Machar and Marciuis, pp. 204-304. 6. "Speech of Pontiac," in the Old South L(>aflets. 7. "With Wolfe in Canada," Henty. 8. "American Hero Storie«," Tapi)an, pp. 12()-143. \K " Life ill the EightecMith Century," Eggleston, j)p. S4-l()(i. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of loijal, subjccis, heretics, oath uf allegiance, decreed, lurid, peasants, hamlet, citadel, achievement, conspiracy. 2. Discuss in class : ■ — (1) Were the English cruel and unjust in their treatment of the Aca- dians, or did the Acadians deserve the treatment they received ? (2) What wen; the reasons for the final failure of the French ? 3. Study thc! Chronological Chart of the struggle between England and France in America in appendix. You liavc already learned 1689 as the date of the beginning of the struggle. You should now learn 1763 as the 3'ear which marks the end of French power in the New World. 4. Find out what you can about Quebec. If possible, obtain pictures of the city for your notebook. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Write about: The Removal of the Acadians. The people of Acadia; their homes; how the province came iinder Eng- lish rule; the feeling of the people toward the English; the part taken in the trouble by the French ofTicers of Church and State in Canada; the pun- ishment of the .\cadians. 2. Make a map on which you show all of the places taken from the P>ench in 1758 and 1759. 3. Obtain and mount a copy of Benjamin West's picture of the death of Wolfe. Write beneath it a short account of the career of this great general. VIII LOOKING BEYOND THE TREATY France England Spain Gave Gave Gave to England, all terri- to Spain, Havana. to England, Florida. tory east of the Mis- sissippi, except Ne\\- Orleans; to Spain, all the province of Lou- isiana not given to England. Retained Retained Retained West India Island> all former possessions. all former possession.s and two small island; in America except in the Gulf of St. Florida. Lawrence. Received Received Received nothing. from France, all t! ^ Louisiana west of the territory east of the Mississippi, and New Mississippi except New Orleans. Orleans. from Spain, Florida. No great war can come to an end without leaving behind it more and greater results than can be seen in the treaty which marks its close. So we must look for the results of the war whose story we have just laid aside. Looking upon the map which shows the American possessions of France, England, and Spain in 1763, it is easy for us to see that the days of French power in the New World are at an end. 148 America at the Close of the Last French War LOOKING BEYOND THK TREATY 149 With her vast territory divided between her friend Spain and her enemy England, France must seeiv a new field for colonization, and will trouble North America no more. Spain and England, then, are left to share tlie continent. Shall we compare them for a moment? Spain, never having recovered her old power in Europe since the defeat of the Invincible Ar- mada, was at this time a rival little to be feared. You will re- member that the Spanish settlements in what is now the United States were few and feeble. The gradual decline of Spanish power made them still feebler. By exchanging Havana for Flor- ida at the close of the w^ar, England secured peace and security for her soutliern colonies, and made the whole Atlantic coast her own. In proportion as Spain had been growing weaker during the last century, England had been growing stronger; and there was little doubt that she was the most powerful nation in the world. This fact could not but establish one of equal importance, — it was to be the English language, English customs, English laws, and English people, with all their sturdy, freedom-loving traits, that were to flourish in this western world. It w^as the colonies that could make their own laws that were to thrive. It was these colonies that were to govern and control the continent of North America. And now that the enemies of the English colo- nies had been removed, we shall see how rapidly the love of self- government asserted itself. The war time had been a time of great growth for all the colo- nies. Never before had the colonists taken part in affairs of such real importance. Never before had they fought with bodies of men large enough to be called armies. Never before had the assemblies voted on such important questions, or levied and col- lected such heavy taxes. And never before had they dared so obstinately to oppose the will of their royal governors, and thus indirectly the will of the king. They were growing stronger and bolder — they dared to think and to speak their thoughts. These, then, were the people who were to enter on the next 150 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS great conflict — for the shadow of a new war was already hang- ing over America, a war that was to make Americans of the colonists, and a new nation in the New World. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The disappearance of French power in America left the continent to England and Spain. Spain was now a rival little to be feared. England was at this time the most powerful nation in the world. 2. The people of the English colonies grew stronger because of their part in these colonial wars. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of levied. 2. Discuss the questions: Why was the victory of the English important to the world ? Why was their victory important to the English colonists ? 3. Learn the dates of the last French war, 1754-17G3. 4. Find out what you can about Francis Parkman, the historian, who has given us the best accounts of the French in North America. OUTLINE II. The Struggle between France and England in the New World, 1689- 1763. A. The eai'ly wars (King William's, Queen Anne's, King George's). Causes ; results. B. The last French war. 1. Cause. 2. Important events. a. The building of Fort Duquesne. b. First bloodshed. c. Braddock's plans; his defeat; his death. d. The removal of the Acadians. e. The war becomes a European conflict. /. English successes; capture of Quebec. 3. Peace. The treaty. 4. Why the victory of the English was important to the world. 5. Why it was important to the English colonists. THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IX THE SHADOW OF WAR The danger of French control in America was past, and other questions which had been overshadowed by this danger were not long in coming to the front. The constant quarrels between assemblies and royal governors had alread}^ borne fruit. The assemblies were upheld by the colonists, while the governors made constant and bitter complaints to the Lords of Trade — the men in whose hands the general oversight of the colonists had ])een placed by Parliament. The Lords of Trade came to consider the Americans as a quarrelsome people. The colonists chafed con- tinually under the control of the Lords of Trade. The Navigation Acts were a source of constant trouble. As far back as 1645 the home government had begun to control American commerce, and again and again had added Navigation to the laws on the subject. By these laws (1) all Acts colonial trade was to be carried on in ships built or owned in England, or in the colonies themselves. That is, the colonists were not to allow the cargo of a Spanish, a French, or a Dutch ship to be brought to America to be sold, nor to sell goods to the owners of such a ship to l^e carried to Europe. (2) A long list of colonial products was made ; these products the colonists were forbidden to send to any except English ports. That is, no tol:acco nor sugar could be sent to Holland or France, no matter how largs a quantity the colonists had to sell, or how good prices they might be offered in those countries. If the planters had more tobacco to sell than was required by the 151 152 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS English market, they could not sell it at all, according to the law. This seemed, and no doubt was, a great hardship to the people. (3) All European goods must be bought in England; indeed, even colonial goods sent from one colony to another must, if they were goods which might have been bought in England, be taken to that country first, and then brought back to the colony for which they were intended; or, if this was not done, a duty must be paid to the home government on the goods. (4) The colonists were forbidden to import sugar and molasses from any place except the British West Indies, without paying a tax upon them. This, of course, cut off much of the colonial trade with the Spanish and French West Indies, and the colonists pro- tested loudly. Many of the merchants and shipowners of America — especially in New England — broke these laws over and over again. Goods from Holland were often cheaper, and sometimes better, than those from England, and the thrifty New Englanders always wanted to get their money's worth. So smuggling became com- mon, and it was often quite impossible to find out where it was going on. The laws had never been rigidly enforced, but in 1761 a serious effort was made to have them observed. In that year a custom- house officer in Boston asked for and received papers giving him permission to search houses for smuggled goods. These papers Writs of were called Writs of Assistance. The people of Bos- Assistance, ton were indignant over the issuing of the writs; ^"^^^ they really were unjust, since they were general search warrants, giving the officer a right to enter any house he chose, whether he had any evidence of smuggled goods there or not. James Otis, of Boston, made a speech about it, in which he said many bold things. But the writs were issued, nev&itheless. After the end of the French war a new cause for disagreement came up. It was decided in Parliament to send a force of ten thousand soldiers to America, and to keep them there in case of THE SHADOW OF WAR 153 attack by England's enemies in some later war. The colonists were not pleased with this plan. They did not want the English soldiers in the comitry. And when they were informed that a small tax was to be laid by Parliament upon the colonies to help support these soldiers, they were not only displeased, but angry. Parliament had never before taxed the colonies; when- ever money had been required from them, the colonial assemblies had attended to the matter. The tax was to take the form of a stamp duty. All papers, such as deeds, mortgages, marriage certificates, — even almanacs and newspapers, — must have a stamp placed on The stamp them, or be written on stamped paper made in Eng- Act, 1765 land. Stamps and paper were to be on sale everywhere. This law, known as the Stamp Act, was passed by Parliament in 1765. Immediately great excitement was aroused in the colonies. "What right," said the colonists, "has Parliament to tax us? We have no members in Parliament. Let our own assemblies, to which we send representatives, lay our taxes. If we must give money to support these soldiers, let Parliament ask our assem- blies for a grant. We will do our part. But taxation without representation is not just! " There were men in England who believed that the colonists were right; some of these men were members of Parliament, and they voted against the Stamp Act. But these friends of America in England were fewer than those who upheld the Parliament ; while in America those who believed that Americans had no right to protest against laws made for them by Parliament were fewer than those who took the other side of the question. It soon became clear that the stamp tax could not be so "easily and quietly raised" as had been supposed by its advocates. In- deed, anything less quiet than the behavior of the colonists can scarcely be imagined. The assemblies of the various colonies passed solemn protests against the act, and appointed delegates 154 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS to a convention to consider the question. Meanwhile, riots oc- curred in Boston and New York, images of the officers appointed to sell the stamps were burned, and other acts of violence were committed. In some places the stamps were burned or thrown into the sea. The ''Sons of Liberty," secret societies formed to uphold colonial rights, suggested that Americans stop buying British goods, and the idea met with much favor. The "Stamp Act Congress" met in New York in October. Almost all of the colonies were represented, and in most cases by The stamp their ablest men. The feeling in favor of united Act Congress action by the colonies had grown since the days of the Albany Convention in 1754. "There ought to be no New England man, no New Yorker, known on the continent: but all of us Americans," said one of the delegates. A "Declaration of Rights" was drawn up to be sent to the home government, and the Congress adjourned, after resolving that all the colonies must stand by one another, whatever misfortimes might come. It began to be seen in Parliament that their "quiet little stamp duty" was raising a tempest about their ears. Many of the The stamp members wished to repeal the act, and the question Act, repealed was fiercely debated. At last it was voted to repeal 1766 if^ and great was the joy in America when the news came. It is said that the people of London, many of whom sym- pathized with the colonists, were rejoiced at the victory of their kinsmen over the sea. William Pitt, who was strongly in favor of the American ideas in regard to "ta.xation \A-ithout represen- tation," was loudly cheered as he passed along the streets. The quarrel was over, it seemed, and the colonists were ready to forgive and forget. And so passed the first shadow of war. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The Navigation Acts passed from time to time by Parliament inter- fered seriously with American commerce. '2. To e^■ade these laws, smuggling became common. The laws were not rigidly enforced until nearly the close of the French war. Then THE SHADOW ()l<' WAR If^f) "Writs of Assistance" were issued to Boston custom-house officers. 'I'Ik- people were very indignant. 3. After the French war the home government decided to keep ten thousand soldiers in America. Tlie colonists strongly opposed tliis. 4. To help support tliese soldiers, Parliament planned to tax the colonists. The Stamp Act was passed in 17G5. The colonists protested loudly against the Stamp Act. There were riots because of it. Parliament repealed tht; act the next year. But it still asserted its right to tax the colonies. 5. The feeling against the Stamp Act did much to increase the senti- ment of union and united action in the colonists. They all objected to "taxation without representation." THINGS TO READ 1. "The War of Independence," Fiske, pp. 1-58. 2. "A Short History of the Revolution," Tomlinson, pp. 1-21. 3. "Grandfather's Chair," Hawthorne, Part III, Chapters II ;uid III. 4. "Stories of the Old Bay State," K. S. Brooks, pp. 109-1 17. 5. "From Colony to Commonwealth," Tiffany, pp. 19-38. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of navvjalion, duty, import, smngglimf, deed, mort- gage, riots, violence, declaration, repeal. 2. There are many questions concerning this chajjtcr which it will be well f(jr you to discuss in class Below are some of tlu^m : — - (1) Are people justified in breaking laws they cortsider unjust, as the colonists did in smuggling goods ? (2) What are the dangers of riots? Have they advantages? Do they ever occur now ? (3) At the time of the Spanish War the American Congress laid a stamp duty. Why was it not opposed by the pecjpk;? 3. Prepare yourself to write a clear answer to the question: What is meant by "taxation without representation"? FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. The Navigation Acts. (Write as clearly as possible what these laws required.) 2. The Stamp Act. This law wius made by in the year . 1 1 i-c(iuired (hat . Its purpose was to raise money for use The colonists opposed it, becau.se . They showed their disapproval by and . The act was repealed by Parliament in , because . Parliament, how- ever, still claimed the right to . X KING GEORGE AND HIS FRIENDS The good feeling produced in America and among America's friends in England by the repeal of the Stamp Act did not last long. Few of the members of Parliament understood New taxes — " the Town- that any plan of taxing the colonies was likely to fail, shend Acts, A few far-seeing men like Pitt and Edmund Burke ''^^^ and Colonel Barre could see that it was the familiar English principle of self-government that the colonists wished to preserve; and they warned Parliament to let the whole question alone. But Parliament would not be advised. In 1767 a new taxation act was passed. Duties were placed upon glass, painters' colors, and other materials, also upon paper and tea. Once more there was excitement in America, but this time there were no rjots. The trouble was evidently too deep to be reached by "mob law." There was, however, plenty of opposition, although it was not of a violent kind. The assemblies drew up protests against the law, while the people at large resolved once more to stop buying British goods. Some money was paid in duties to the custom officers, but the amount was so small and the cost of collecting it so great that, like the Stamp Act, the plan had to be given up. But while Parliament promised to repeal the rest of the act, the tax on tea was kept to show that Parlia- ment still maintained the right to levy taxes if it chose. Since 1688, when the throne of England had been taken from James II and given to William and Mary, Parliament Influence o j^^^j j.(ir^jiy j-ujed the country. But there was now on the Enghsh '^ ^ king, the English throne a king who was not satisfied to be George III anything less than a real ruler. He took an active 156 KING GEORGE AND HIS FRIENDS 157 part in political affairs. He set to work to make friends among the members of Parliament. Whom do you think he chose for his friends? The wisest and best men of England ? No, for if they were wise and honest, they would not be willing to be led by the king, but would wish to l)e leaders themselves. So the "king's friends," as they came to be known, were usually the weaker men, who would do just as the king wished, or even bad men, who cared nothing for right and wrong, but wanted to be in favor with the king. It was one of the "king's friends" who proposed the tax on tea, glass, and the other articles; and the king was perhaps the loudest of any in saying that the colonists must be made to see that Parliament could rule them in any and every way. There was one reason why the king and his followers were anx- ious to have this question of taxation and representation in the colonies settled. If it were once decided that Parliament could make laws for people who had no representatives in Parlia- ment, it might also settle a troublesome question at home. For there were in England itself many thousands of people who elected no representatives to Parliament. No change had been made in the assignment of members for two centuries, and in that time many new towns — large towns, some of them, such as Leeds and Birmingham and Manchester — had sprung up, and Taxation with- had no members in Parliament at all. On the other out repre- hand, some members in Parliament represented old sentation in towns which had dwindled away until there were no ^^^^^ voters left to elect a representative. These places were some- times called "rotten boroughs," and the men who represented them usually obtained their seats in Parliament because they paid money to the men who owned the land. Thus the British Parliament no longer truly represented the people, and many men in England were demanding reform. For many reasons King George wished no reform. He preferred Parliament as it was; whether the people were truly represented 158 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS or not did not disturb liim. "Taxation without representation" seemed to him perfectly proper if by it he could gain his own ends. So we find the king and his friends in Parliament always against the colonists on this question, and from this time on it is really the king and his friends who are responsible for the coming of war. The two great political parties at this time were the Whigs and the Tories. The king's friends were chiefly among the Tories, so the Tory party became the war party, and the Whigs the champions of American liberty. The names Whig and Tory soon came into use in America — Whigs for American rights, Tories for loyalty to the king and the British Parliament. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Parliament passed a new taxation act the year after the repeal of the Stamp Act. It placed a duty on many articles imported into America. After much opposition in America to the law, Parliament removed the tax from all the articles except tea. 2. The English king at this time was George III. He wished to have more power than English kings had had since James II was driven from the throne. 3. The question of "taxation without representation" concerned Eng- land as well as America. There were many towns in England not repre- sented in Parliament. The king and his friends in the Tory party did not wish these towns to have representatives. 4. For this reason they opposed the Americans in their struggle for liberty. If the American demands were refused, it would help to settle the question at home. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of 7na]'ority, mob law, poliiical, cabinet, assignment. 2. Discuss the questions: Why did Parliament keep the tax on tea? What harm can it do for a government to admit that it is wrong, and take back its acts ? 3. Prepare a portfolio to contain pictures illustrating the Revolution. Cut sheets of light-weight mounting paper (tailors' draughting paper an- swers well and is not expensive) 7 by 10 inches. Punch holes in one of the short sides for a cord. Letter some appropriate title on the cover. Do it all so neatly that when the year's work is over you will be glad to keep the portfolio as a memento of your study. XI REDCOATS IN BOSTON The members of Parliament were now determined to have their own will, and they showed this determination in several disagree- able ways. The soldiers whom they had planned to Troops sent send for the defense of the colonies had never come ; to Boston, but now two regiments were ordered to Boston in the ^'^^^ autumn of 1768 to enforce the Townshend Acts. The king and Parliament regarded Massachusetts as the "hotbed of rebellion." The people of the town were ordered to find quarters for the troops. The town officers offered the old barracks at Castle William to the commander of the soldiers, but he refused to send the soldiers there. The town officers were firm in refusing quar- ters in the town, and finally tents were pitched on the Common, and the soldiers had to content themselves with camp life. When the weather became too cold, buildings were hired for them at the king's expense. Thus the people gained at least a partial victory. How those soldiers hated the people of Boston ! And how the people hated the soldiers ! The soldiers would swagger along the streets when off duty, crowding against the passers-by, ex- changing threats and insults with the rougher class of men, and "paying back" the boys who worried and tormented them. On quiet Sundays they would shock the people with their noisy drunken songs and laughter. Trouble was sure to come, and come it did. Quarrels l^etween soldiers and citizens were becoming common. One night, when the soldiers had been a year and a half in the town, one of these affairs took place in which James Otis, the 159 160 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS brilliant young Boston lawyer, was involved. Otis was so severely beaten by a party of British officers that he afterward lost his mind. Street quarrels took place over trifles or over nothing at all. There began to be much excitement in the town. On an evening early in March, 1770, a large crowd gathered near the soldiers' quarters. There was much loud talk by both The Boston soldiers and citizens, and soon snowballs and sticks Massacre, were flying. The soldiers were ordered into the bar- ^770 racks, and the crowd turned to torment the sentinel who was pacing back and forth in the snow-covered street. Cap- tain Preston, the officer of the day, thinking the sentinel might need assistance, crossed the street with seven soldiers. There, drawn up in line, they faced the angry crowd. The sight of the soldiers seemed to destroy what little self-control the men in the crowd had. Taunts and insults flew faster than before. Sud- denly in the midst of the clamor, gunshots rang out. In an instant the noise was hushed. Nearly a dozen forms lay prostrate on the snow. The clamor broke forth again, and this time the cry was that murder had been done. With one accord the crowd dashed upon the soldiers, but the governor had already arrived to arrest Captain Preston and his men. The soldiers were led away. The bodies of the four dead and seven wounded men were borne to their homes. The "Boston Massacre" was over. Probably the best-known man in Boston at this time was Old Statehouse in Boston As it looks to-day. The massacre took place just before this building. REDCOATS IN BOSTON 161 Samuel Adams. He was the ccaliul tiguic in the excitement that followed the Boston Massacre. At the great mass meeting held next day in the Old South Meetinghouse, he was the lead- ing spirit. He insisted that the soldiers must be removed, and the governor was finally ol)liged to order them withdrawn. At first the governor agreed to remove onl}^ one of the regiments ; but Adams, expecting this, had passed the watchword "Both regiments or none" among the crowd, so that when the (luestion was put to vote, a deafening shout went up, "Both regiments or none !" And the governor had to agree. Great was the indignation in Parlia- ment over the affair. It w^as proposed that Samuel Adams be brought to Eng- land to answ^er there for his "crimes." It is said that they called the two regiments in Boston "the Sam Adams regiments. " ' Whose was the fault of the Boston Mas- sacre ? Was it a massacre at all ? How was it different from any other street fight in which men have been wounded or killed? These are questions which both then and now have received many and various answers. To the quiet people of Boston, massacre seemed none too strong a name for it. To them it seemed, also, that the fault w^as all with the soldiers. In England they would have told you that the unruly people of Boston should bear all the blame. It is difficult to say that the responsibility lies here or there. Most of us will decide to leave the question an open one. But one thing we may say, that the Boston Massacre produced a feeling in the people of Boston which was not easily forgotten, and which made excellent soil for the springing up of revolutionary ideas. *-^a f-y^^^^Tij^a/yo'X.d 162 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Parliament sent soldiers to Boston, which was considered the center of rebellious notions. 2. There was much quarreling between the soldiers and the people. 3. In a street fight some soldiers fired into the crowd, killing and wound- ing a number of people. This is known as the Boston Massacre. 4. The people of Boston were very indignant. They demanded the removal of the soldiers, and the governor was obliged to comply. THINGS TO READ 1. "The War of Independence," Fiske, pp. 71-75. 2. "Grandfather's Chair," Hawthorne, Part III, Chapters IV and V. 3.- "From Colony to Commonwealth," Tiffany, pp. 39-49. 4. "Stories of the Old Bay State," Brooks, pp. 118-126. 5. "Colonial Massachusetts," Dawes, pp. 42-50. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of quarters, barracks, citizens, prostrate, mass meet- ing, responsibility. 2. Place in your portfolio pictures of the Boston Massacre, Faneuil Hall, the Old South Church, and the Old Statehouse, before which the Massacre took place; also a portrait of Samuel Adams. 3. Imagine yourself to be a Boston boy in 1770, the year of the Massacre. Imagine that you saw the whole affair. Write an account of it, as you might have told it to your mother on your return home. 4. Discuss : Who should be blamed for the Massacre ? 5. If you live near Boston, try to see the place where the Massacre occurred, the Old Statehouse, the Old South Church, and the monument erected in memory of the victims of the Massacre. XII THE WAR CLOUD GATHERS Going back once more to the question of taxation, we remem- ber that by the latest act of Parhament there was left only the tax on tea. It was a very small tax, and if it had been a ques- tion of money alone, probably the colonists would have paid it without protest. But it was not a question of money alone, and the colonists were as quick to resent a small tax laid by Parlia- ment as a large one. Once more the English government had mistaken the Ameri- can people. Once more the American people were showing the determination which had made the Pilgrim, the hardy backwoods- man of Virginia, the sturdy Dutchman of New York, the Quaker of Pennsylvania, what he was. Everywhere in the colonies the people said, "We will buy no tea." The king was taking with each succeeding year a larger part in the government. He had succeeded in getting a ])rime minis- ter. Lord North, who was willing in all things to follow the king's wishes. In fact, some one has said that during the years of Lord North's holding office " the king was his own prime minister." "And so the Americans will buy no tea! We must see about that," thinks the king. "Tea is spoiling in the storehouses of the East India Company because of the falling off of American trade ! And the East India Company may be ruined all because of those rebellious colonists of ours ! Something must be done !" And the king makes a plan. According to this plan, tea was to be sold so cheaply to Ameri- cans that even with the tax added, the price would still be lower 163 164 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS than that of tea from Holland, which was now being smuggled into the colonies. Ships were loaded and sent out by the East India Tea shi s Company to several of the larger seaports in America sent from in the autumn of 1 773. Letters were sent appointing England, some one to receive the tea in each of these places, "^^^^ and the king confidently expected success for his plan. When the news reached America that tea ships were on the way to the principal American ports, there was stronger feeling than at any time since the passage of the Stamp Act. In Phila- delphia, Charleston, and New York the people appointed to receive the tea were forced to resign, but those in Boston refused to do so. What should be done ? Many town meetings were held, and advice was asked from many sister towns. The an- swer of all was: "Stand firm. Do not allow the tea to be put on shore." At last the ships made their appearance. The time for stand- ing firm had arrived. The captains antl the owners of the ships were asked to send them back, without unloading, to England. They replied that they could not do so, but if the colonists would permit them to put the tea on shore, they would see that none was sold until word could be received from England. This was not enough, and a constant watch was kept upon the wharf, where the ships laj^, lest an attempt should be made to put the tea on shore. John Fiske, who has written a history of the time, says, "Senti- nels 'were placed in the church belfries, chosen postriders, with horses saddled and bridled, were ready to alarm the neighboring towns, beacon fires were piled all ready for lighting upon every hilltop, and any attempt to land the tea forcibly would have been the signal for an instant uprising throughout at least four coun- ties." They were in earnest, these men 'of Boston. Attempts were made, again and again, to get permission from the custom-house officers for the ships to sail without unloading. The officers refused. At last a great mass meeting was hold in THE WAR CLOUD (JATHKRS ^e)r^ the Old South Meetinghouse. The owner of one of the ships was sent to ask the governor for a pass for his ship. The meeting would wait. The afternoon wore away. Speeches were made, votes taken. It was resolved that whatever the governor's reply, the tea should not be put on shore. It grew dusky — now it was dark. Candles were brought in, and cast their flickering, uncertain light among the shadows. The assembly grew quiet. Now a bustle of enter- ing men tells that the ship-owner has returned. The governor's answer? It is "No." Then Samuel Adams, in a calm voice, which nevertheless reaches every corner of the dimly lighted room, says, "This meeting can do nothing more to save the country." What is that — a war whoop? It seems almost as though the word of the patriot leader i.j,g Boston had been a signal, the Tea Party, sound follows so close ^"^"^^ upon it. Whose are those dusky forms marching so silently by the church and down to the wharf? Have Indian days come again in Boston ? Now they board the ships — chest after chest of tea is handed up from the hold. Hatchets splinter the frail wood, and the tea is unloaded — into the sea ! Scarcely a sound is heard from the crowd gathered upon the wharf, and on board the ships everything is quiet save the sound of the hatchets and the soft rustle of the tea leaves as they find their way to the surface of the water. Now it is over. Old South Church, Boston 166 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS The ships are unloaded at last. The "Indians," who are really Boston citizens in Indian dress, leave the ships and disappear in the crowd. And this is the "Boston Tea Party." Was this "tea party" a riot ? Was it the act of lawless men, who, forgetting that might does not make right, attempted to gain by force what they should have sought by law? Shall we class it as an " act of violence," " an outrage," as some historians have done? Or shall wo saj- with Fiske, ''the moment for using force had at last, and through no fault of theirs, arrived ; they had reached a point where the written law had failed them"? Whatever our opinion may be, there is no doubt as to what the king and his ministers thought of it. "A fitting end to years of riot and lawlessness," said Lord North; and in spite of the protests of Edmund Burke, who made a great speech in the House of Commons, and of Fox, Barre, and other men Avho saw the dangers into which the government was blindly stumbling, Parliament proceeded to punish the "lawless town." The port of Boston was ordered closed to all vessels until the town should THE WAR CLOUD GATHERS 167 pay the East India Company for the tea destroyed. The govern- ment of Massachusetts was put entirely into the hands of the royal governor. Discussion of any sul)ject in town meeting was forbidden. Faneu;i Flail Still standing in Boston and known as the "Cradle of Liberty." Parliament now passed several laws relating to American affairs. By one of these, the port of Boston was j^e ^ive in- entirely closed to commerce. With the passage of tolerable Acts, these "Intolerable Acts," as they were known in ^^74 America, the last possibility of a peaceable settlement of the quarrel seemed to have disappeared. There was a general feeling in Parliament that the Americans, as they soon came to be called, could be easily frightened into submission. General Gage, who was at home for a visit, boasted 168 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR (iliAMMAR SCHOOLS that with four regiments he could very shortly make an end of the whole trouble. Parliament seems to have taken him at his word. Under the new law he was made governor of the re- bellious colony of Massachusetts, and speedily embarked with his four regiments for Boston. As soon as he arrived, the Port Bill went into effect. Scarcely any punishment could have been harder for tlu; people of Boston to bear. Commerce was Boston's chief industry. Effect of Without it there could not fail to be liardship and The Boston suffering. But we know the people well enough by Port Bill ^j-^jg time to feel sure that they would endure the hardship rather than submit to what they considered injustice. Quite contrary to the opinion of the king and his followers, sympathy for Boston was quickly expressed, not only by surround- ing towns, but by all the colonies. The people of Virginia or New York could not tell what day their own liberties might be attacked. "Bos- ton is suffering for us all," they thought. "If Boston is subdued, it will be our turn next. We must help Boston to resist these unjust laws." And so droves of cattle were sent to Boston, and provisions of all sorts, as free gifts to the people. Of course nothing could come by sea. The gifts were sent either by land, or, if by water, were landed at Marble- head or Salem. These towns had offered the use of their wharves to Boston merchants quite free of charge. Patrick Henrj* of Virginia, who had become known at the time of the Stamp Act as a fearless advocate of American rights, now made a speech in the Virginia assembly which roused the THE WAR CLOUD (lATHERS 1()0 whole country. He cried : " The war is actually begun ! The next gale that sweeps from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms ! Our brethren are alreaily Patrick in the field ! Why stand we here idle ? What is Henry's fa- it that gentlemen wish ? What would they have ? ^'^^^ ^^^^'^^ Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery ? Forbid it. Almighty God ! I know not what course others may take; but, as for me, give me liberty OK GIVE ME DEATH ! " The excitement was intense. It was decided that a Congress should be called to discuss affairs in Massachu- setts, as had been done in the j^e First time of the Stamp Act. Mas- Continental sachusetts was invited to ap- Congress, point the time and place for the meeting. Philadelphia was selected, and there on the 5th of September, 1774, came together what is known as the First Continental Congress. All the colonies except Georgia sent delegates, and Georgia agreed to indorse whatever the Congress might do. Each colony sent her ablest men. We find on the list of mem- bers not only Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry and George Washington, of whom we have already heard, but John Adams, John Jay, Richard Henry Lee, and others of whom the world has heard many times since that day. "And what did the Congress do?" you are thinking. A¥hat could it do ? It was not a lawmaking body. Its office was not government. It had come together to protest against the action of the English government, and that is what it did. A "Declara- tion of Rights" was passed. An address to the people of Eng- land was drawn up, and another to the king. Then the members c/inWt c/hJ!yln-yv/ 170 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS agreed that they would buy no British goods, and after appoint- ing a second Congress to meet the next May, if affairs had not improved, the Congress adjourned on October 26. Probably the greatest good done by its meeting had been the increase of good feeling among the various colonies. They were now ready to work together for a common cause. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. There was still a tax on all tea imported into America. For this reason the colonists would buy no tea. 2. Several ships, loaded with tea, were sent to America by the East India Company. None of this tea was bought by Americans. In Boston the people refused to allow it to be landed. When the custom-house officers refused the request of the people that the ships should be sent back to Eng- land without being unloaded, a band of Boston citizens, disguised as Indians, boarded the ships, broke open the tea chests, and poured the tea into the harbor. This act is known as the Boston Tea Party. 8. Parliament now passed five laws relating to American affairs ; all of these laws angered the colonists. 4. The Boston Port Bill, one of these five laws, closing the port of Boston, caused great suffering in the city. 5. The people of the whole country grew bitter in their feeling toward the home government. A Congress was called to consider what might be done. A closer sympathy grow among the colonies. THINGS TO READ 1. "American Leaders and Heroes," Oordy, pp. 146-163. 2. "Stories of New Jersey," Stockton, pp. 93-101. 3. "The American Revolution," Fiske, pp. 85-90. 4. "The Story of the Revolution," Lodge, pp. 1-12. 5. "The War of Independence," Fiske, pp. 75-87. 6. "Early American Orations," pp. 59-54. (Patrick Henry's speech.) 7. "Stories of the Old Dominion," Cooke, pp. 158-179. 8. "Colonial Massachusetts," Dawes, pp. 51-60. THE WAR CLOUD GATHERS 171 THINGS TO DO 1. Find tho monninp; of post-riders, beacon fires, outrage, submission, in- dorse, adjourned, intolerable. 2. Dcsfribe as clearly as possible the king's plan for overcoming the objection of the Americans to paying the tax on tea. Tell why it failed. 3. Find out the duties of custom-house officers in regard to ships which enter or leave a port. Why are such rules necessary? 4. Review the events which mark the growing fec^ling of r(>sontmcnt between colonists and English go\-eruin(Mit. Prepare yourself to recite on (1) Navigation Acts; (2) Snuiggling in the colonies; {:i) Writs of Assistance; (4) The Stamp Act: passed, its object, opposition, repeal; (5) British soldiers in Boston, and the Massacre; (6) New Taxation Acts and their result ; (7) The Tea Tax and the Tea Party. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK A Chronological Table of Events pointing toward War 1645-1696. Navigation Acts. 1761. Writs of Assistance. 1765. The Stamp Act. 1766. The Stamp Act repealed. 1767. Tl^e Townshend Revenue Acts. 1768. Quartering of troops in Boston. 1770. The Boston Massacre. 1773. The Boston T(>a Party. 1774. The "Five Intolerable Acts." The First Continental Congress. XIII THE STORM BREAKS Instead of being frightened into submission by General Gage and his four regiments, it began to look as if the people of Massa- Preparations chusetts were even daring to think of resistance with for war in guns and swords, if need be. There was, indeed, New England scarcely a village in all New England in which mili- tary preparations might not be seen. All through the fall and winter the militia companies were drilled. Certain men in each company were set apart as " minutemen." These were to hold themselves ready "at a minute's notice" to drop plow or ax or hammer, to spring from their beds at midnight if need be, when the alarm should come. For the colonists were waiting for General Gage's soldiers to strike the first blow. Hand in hand with the drilling of the militia went the gathering of military stores. This was slow work, for ammunition was not easy to obtain, safe places for storage were hard to find, and General Gage was on the alert. In the winter, orders had been sent to Gage to seize Samuel Adams and his friend, John Hancock, another Boston patriot 172 The Colonies at the Outbreak of the Revoluti THE STORM BREAKS 173 whose deeds were rousing the wrath of the king and his friends. Adams and Hancock were to be sent to England to be tried there for their misdeeds. Gage found it a Httle hard to carry- out these orders, but at last he believed his opportunity had ', * .-- I, ,, ' , '-^ .MAiJSACnrsSKTTS J' K ^ %, 0" \ 1 - ■■! 4 ft Boston and Vicinity The first blow of the war was struck at. Lexington, April 19, 1775. The British troops withdrew from Bos- ton, Marcli 17, 177(5. come, \\ hen he li(!ard that the two friends would pass the night of April 18 in the village of Lexington, eighteen miles from Boston. General Gage planned a double expedition. Eight hundred men were to set out by night, and, if pos- Gage's expedi- sible, without the knowledge of the townspeople. ,'°" "^ exmg- Going first to Lexington, they were to seize the rebel cord, April i8, leaders. Then they were to march to Concord, a 1775 174 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Warning given by Paul Revere and William Dawes neighboring village, where they were to destroy the military stores which General Gage knew the colonists had been collecting there. The night of the 18th came. The British soldiers silently formed outside the barracks, and as silently began their march. But stealthy watchers, who were Sons of Liberty, saw every movement, and the soldiers were not the only men to leave Boston ^ that night. While the " regulars " were marching, at first cautiously, with no sound but hushed footfalls, then, when the town lay like a heavy shadow behind them, more freely and with heavier tread, two horse- men were speeding along two lonely country roads, — William Dawes and Paul Revere, — going out to warn Adams and Hancock to escape their would-be captors, and to give the alarm in Lexington and Concord, that the minutemen might be as- sembled and the stores safely hidden Now known as Christ from prying British eyes. On through the dark night they rode, and wherever either paused to shout his message of alarm, lights began to twinkle in farmhouse windows, doors to clatter, and hastily dressed men to appear and hurry off into the night. Soon bells began to ring, adding their notes of alarm to the un- usual disturbance. Dawes and Revere met at Lexington, and, together with a third horseman, hurried on to warn the people along the road to Concord and in Concord village itself. Their work was well done — to realize how well, we must wait until the story of the day just breaking in the east is done. The Old North Church From which a signal was shown to Paul Revere. Church. THE STORM BREAKS 175 It is sunrise. When the first rays shine upon the green in J.exington, they fall on fifty or sixty Lexington minutemen, with a brave p^g^t at old soldier Lexington, who had April ig, been with '^^^ Wolfe at Quebec, at their head. They show dusty columns of red-coated soldiers just coming in sight along tile road; they will soon disclose the first bloodshed of the American Revolution. ''Stand your ground. Don't fire unless you are fired upon," says Captain Parker to the minutemen; "but," and I fancy his face grows stern as he speaks, "if they want a war, it may as well begin here." The redcoats are close at hand, with Major Pitcairn at their head. " Disperse, ye rebels, disperse," Lexing'ton Common Stouo marking line of luiuutenieu. r% 1 k 4fl HBWff -'i!£f^' ,-'■''.,' jh^'M ^^^M The Battle of Lexington 176 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS he cries. The iniiiutemen stand firm. Angrily Pitcairn repeats his command, and follows it by an order to his men to fire. They hesitate. The major fires his own pistol. Then the muskets of the regulars ring out, and the minutemen are l^eginning to return the shots. But Parker orders them ])a('k — the fight is too un- equal. Eight men are killed, and ten wounded. The war has begun ! Adams and Hancock cannot Ijc found, and there is nothing to keej) the soldiers longer in Lexington. The first part of the expedition is a failure. They hurry on to Concord to destroy the stores. Here again failure awaits them. The stores, like the rebel leaders, have disappeared. A few cannon and some barrels of flour are all the soldiers can find. These they destroy, and are busy chopping down the liberty pole and setting fire to the courthouse, when some- thing not in the British plan happens. While the sun has been creeping higher in the blue April sky, minutemen have been Fight at hurrying to Concord from all Concord the countryside. There are now more than four hundred of them gathered on the hill just over the river from the village. Two hundred British soldiers guard the bridge across the river. The minutemen sweep down upon them. There is firing on both sides. The minutemen charge across the little bridge. The redcoats yield — are driven back. The bridge is won. The minutemen rest on their arms. The soldiers fall back into Concord village. It is noon. The soldiers are beginning their march back to Boston. The things they were sent to do they have not accom- pUshed. They are tired and hungry; but they dare not rest, The Minuteman at Concord THE STORM BREAKS 177 for the country seems swarming with minutemcn. They must get back to the shelter of the men-of-war in Boston harbor. Even now as they start muskets begin to rattk>, and an occasional ball to fall among them. As they march along the road the minute- men follow through neighboring fields and orchards. Behind trees, kneeling in the shadow of the stone walls, — everywhere, The Struggle at Concord Bridge it seems to the tired and confused soldiers, — the rebels await them. They must march faster. Now they turn and fire a volley against their almost unseen pursuers. Now on again - all order is lost. The British soldiers are flying for their lives. It is two o'clock. The soldiers have reached Lexington. Here they are met by Lord Percy with twelve hundred men. These are formed into a hollow square, in which the exhausted men are inclosed, and shut away from their pursuers. After an hour's N 178 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS rest, the march is resumed. The old story is repeated. So large is the number of Americans swarming before, alongside, behind the soldiers, that one officer says, "It seems as though they have dropped from the clouds." Faster and faster go the troops, and no attempt is made to keep the order of the lines. Again it is a flight for life. It is sunset. The troops are at last in sight of Charlestown and the protection of the men-of-war. They are running now at full speed. The road for miles back is strewn with dead and wounded, but there is no time to stop for them. Muskets are thrown away, and the scarlet coats are powdered with dust and spattered with mire. At last the town is reached and the shelter of the guns. The day of Lexington and Concord is done. It has been only a little battle, scarcely a skirmish, but a great day for the world. It is the people's day, and it means that in years to come it shall be the people who will rule the world. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The colonists began preparations for a possible war. Companies of militia were drilled, and military stores collected. 2. General Gage planned an expedition to Lexington and Concord, to capture Samuel Adams and John Hancock, and to destroy American mili- tary stores. 3. The British soldiers left Boston on the night of April 18, 1775. The following morning they exchanged shots with a party of minutemen as- sembled on Lexington green. Later, in Concord, the British were at- tacked by several hundred minutemen, who drove the British back, and who followed them all the way back to Boston, so that the British retreat became really a flight for life. 4. This day, April 19, 1775, marks the actual beginning of war. THINGS TO READ 1. "The American Revolution," Fiske, pp. 120-125. 2. "The Story of the Revolution," Lodge, pp. 25-40, 42-52. 3. "American Leaders and Heroes," Gordy, pp. 165-174. THE STORM BREAKS 179 4. "The Boston Tea Party," Watson, pp. 22-43. 5. "The Boys of 76," Coffin, pp. 17-41. 0. "From Colony to Commonwealth," TifFany, pp. 70-11 i. 7. "Paul Revere's Ride," Longfellow. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the nioanins; of veteran, military stores, stealthy, disperse, volley, skirmish. 2. Discuss the meaning of the inscription on the statue of the minute- man : "Here once the embattled farmers stood, and fired the shot heard round the world." 3. Discuss the results of the Lexington and Concord fights. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK April 19, 177."), the Revolution began at Lexington and Concord. (If possible j)iace a picture of Revere's Rido here.) A hurry of hoofs in a village street, A shape in the moonlight, a bulk in the dark. And beneath, from the pebbles, in passing, a spark Struck out by a steed flying fearless and fleet: That was all ! And yet, through the gloom and the light, The fate of a nation was riding that night; And the spark struck out by that steed, in his flight, Kindled the land into flame with its heat. In the books you hav(> read, How the British regulars fired and fled, — " How the farmers gav(! them ball for ball, From behind each f(>nce and farmy.ard wall, Chasing the redcoats down the lane, Then crossing the fields to emerge again Under the trees at the turn of the road, And only pausing to fire and load. — Longfellow. Obtain pictures of the Old North Church, Lexington green, the fight at Lexington, Concord bridge, and the statue of the minuteman. Place these in your portfolio, or in your notebook. XIV CONGRESS IN PHILADELPHIA — WAR IN BOSTON The news of Lexington and Concord spread like wildfire through- out New England. Men from at least twenty-three towns arrived in time to have a share in the fight, and more were coming all the time. In less than a week General Gage found himself and his soldiers shut up in Boston l)y a long semicircular line of sixteen thousand Americans, extending from Charlestown to Jamaica Plain. And thus matters stood when the Second Continental Congress assembled in Philadeli)hia early in May. Many of the members of this Second Congress had at- tended the first. The most promi- nent among the patriot leaders were all there, and with them a man perhaps better known to-day than any of them except Washington. Benjamin Franklin was already an old man when the Revolution began. He was in his seventieth year, but strong in mind and body, and with a long life of usefulness to his fellow-men to look back upon. You must read something of that 180 Second Conti- nental Con- gress, May, 1775 Independence Hall, Philadelphia CONGRESS IN PHILADELPHIA — WAR IX BOSTON' 181 life, so that you can understand the respect and veneration his fellow-Americans had for him. Much had happened since the First Congress had come to an end in the autumn. The news from Boston was still uppermost in every one's mind, until the story of Ethan Allen ^ ^ , •^ ' '' Capture or roused new opinions and discussion. Allen, with a Ticonderoga, party of his "Green Mountain Hoys," had cros.sed ^^y ^o. from Vermont into New York, and, surjjrising the ^^^^ garrison at Fort Ticontleroga, had seized the fort and with it a large quantity of arms and amnumition. At the same time an- other company of the Green Mountain Boys had captured Crown Point. The Hudson Valley was in the hands of the Americans. This deed of Allen and his men at first met with disapproval from many. This was not "defensive warfare"; it was a direct attack upon the British. But the spirit of war was growing rapidly, and at length Congress voted to garrison the forts, and soon after, to adopt the army at Boston as a "Continental Army." In selecting a commander for this newly adopted army the Congress performed one of the wisest acts of its whole existence. The choice fell unanimously upon George Washing- ton, and we know to-day how nobly he performed the made Tom- duties of the position. Modest in his acceptance, as mander in the truly great are always modest, Washington said: chief, June i6, "Since the Congress desire, I will enter upon the ^^^^ momentous duty, and exert every power I possess in their service and for the support of the glorious cause. But I beg it may be remembered by every gentleman in the room that I, this da}", declare with the utmost sincerity, I do not think myself equal to the command I am honored with." A few days after his election, he set out for Boston, but before he reached the town, still another blow had been struck for free- dom. A new British commander, General Howe, had arrived with soldiers enough to make the British force ten thousand men. The New England army, ill-supplied and undisciplined as it was, 182 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS The battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775 still remained in its position, shutting the British inside the town. The object of the Americans was to force the British to take to their ships and leave Boston, Of course, with no fleet, this was the most the Americans could hope to accomplish, and even this was to be slow work. The location of Boston is such that the British could not be safe in the town without holding two posi- tions of impor- tance in the neigh) )orhood. These were, either Breed's Hill or Bunker Hill in Charles- town, and Dorchester Heights on the other side of Boston. The Americans, eager to drive the British from the town, re- solved to fortify Bunker Hill. On the night of the 16th of June, sixteen hundred men were sent out under Colonel Prescott to fortify it. On reaching the spot, Prescott resolved to go a step farther and take possession of Breed's Hill. There his men began throwing up earthworks. In the morning the British generals saw with astonishment what had been done. It would never do to allow the rebels to remain there. With a few cannon on that high ground they could drive the British to their ships. Preparations to attack the hill were made. There was one sure way of dislodging the Americans. The British had only to go around by sea, and, taking possession of Charlestown Neck, keep the Americans The Spirit of "76 CONGRESS IN PHILADELPHIA — WAR IN BOSTON 183 where they were, and wait until liunger forced them to surrender. Prescott liad not thought of tliat when he selected Breed's Hill instead of the one he was sent to fortify. Prescott's blunder, however, was more than balanced by that of the British generals. The sea route was too slow for them. It would l)e easy enough to charge the rebels on the hill and drive them off. There wasn't any fight in them. So thought the British generals. So soon had they forgotten Lexington. General Howe took command of tlie attacking party. Up the hill came the soldiers with their scarlet coats bright in the sunshine. Prescott's command to his men had been, "Don't fire until you can see the whites of their eyes.'"' The men obeyed. When they did fire, even trained Ikitish regulars could not long withstand such fearful volleys. The ranks were broken ; and the soldiers retreated down the hill. Again they formed, advanced, met the American fire, and retreated ; the Americans were jubilant. So long a time elapsed it was thought the soldiers were not going to try it again. But they did, and the Americans now found with dismay that their powder was almost gone. There was nothing left but retreat or capture. The Americans retreated, and left the British in possession of the hill. This then was a British victory, but it was a hardly won vic- tory after all. "I wish we could sell them another hill at the same price," said Nathanael Greene. The Americans were any- thing but downcast at their defeat. Had they not twice driven back trained British soldiers ? And the British were not very joyful over their victory. Their respect for the Americans as fighters had grown amazingly. \iM^ - ■ ■'■"1 !;;"-■"'] wm i -J l^r - i Prescott Statue, Bunker Hill 184 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Messengers bearing the news of Bunker Hill met Washington not far from Philadelphia. He listened to the story, asking but one question, "Did the militia fight?" then pressed on toward Boston. Arriving there, he took formal command of the troops, and entered on a slow and difficult piece of work, — to make an army of the fourteen thousand undisciplined men before him. The autumn and winter in Boston were uneventful, but Washington's work during that time cannot be too highly praised. Until Fel^ruary he had not powder enough to dare attempt an attack, but he used the time of waiting so well that when the moment to act came, the army, as well as its commander, was ready for it. Meanwhile Washington had sent an expedition to Canada. _ .... . It was hoped that Expedition to ^ Canada, in the Canadian the winter colonists might be of 1775 induced to join in the war, but this hope was never realized. The expedi- tion had as its object the tak- ing of Montreal and Quebec, and the command was given to two able ofiicers, Montgomery and Arnold. They were to approach Quebec by two different routes, and to meet in an attack on the city. The story of their adventures — of Arnold's terrible journey through the woods of Maine, of the night attack on Quebec in the midst of a blinding snowstorm, of Montgomery's death — is one of thrilling interest, but it is the story of failure, nevertheless. _ -L,-'- -V-'- / i \V /■ c A N,^ r' A D \-A h /' , CO N. M 1/ 1; Like t- If- ~f. -t^ — -_'?f:' ^ ' ;M : M a\1t N 1'. li.. '[ 1 m Nj I Jij r~ '^ ' j I'lTtl: ,', 1 ■■'^^tr^ !..(,, ' ■' r U. ) ^ f^' >; ^ t ' rtsmuuth 6q ^ — :l ^ All.a Ir T^ T.ur^fpyrt ^ ^ I,,-'CC^ ^;' A s k.^Jticliti'''^- y. J. Cod s 1 ■ 1* i iv^ H. s VINEYABO , '^<>^^, SCALE OF MILE ^--^-^^ '. 40 60 ^^j^^-^V-^l-ONO ISLAND *iai»M£ EN(iR**'IN3 CO„N.Y. The Expedition to Canada and Washin^on's Line of IVIarch to New York CONGRESS IN PHILADELPHIA — WAR IN BOSTON 185 To return to affairs in Boston — Howo made a blunder in not fortifying Dorchester Heights. Washington, as soon as the arrival of the cannon from Ticonderoga made it Fortification possible, seized the heights, and once more the of Dorchester British awoke one morning to find American earth- Heights, works overlooking the town. Once more the British ^^ ' ^^^ prepared to attack, but several days of storm delayed them, until the works were too strong. Washington's cannon could now be fired into the British camp. Howe was obliged to give up, and he agreed to leave Boston. On March 17, 1776, the British sol- diers boarded their ships, while Washington and his men entered the to^^^l. The war in New England was over. It remained to be seen what plan the British would adopt next. THINGS TO REMEMBER L. Minutoincn continued to arrivo on the outskirts of Boston until the British were quite shut in the city by thcMn. 2. A party of New P>nglanders seized Crown Point and Ticonderoga. 3. The Second Continental Congress met a short time aft(>r the fighting had thus actiuilly begun. 4. The Congress adopt(>d tiic militia at Boston as llie "Continental Ai-my," electing George Washington as commander iii chief. 5. Before Washington reached Boston to take command, a real battle had taken place there, on Breed's Hill, in Charlestown. The Americans were driven from the hill, but only after hard fighting by the British, and when the Americans had exhausted their supply of powder. 6. In the spring, by fortifying Dorchester ITeights, Wasliington .suc- ceeded in forcing the British to leave Boston. THINGS TO READ 1. "The American Revolution," Fiske, pp. 1.36-144, 165-169. 2. "The Story of the Revolution," Lodge, pp. 70-90, 97-117. 3. "Children's Stories of American Scientists," Wright, pp. 66-89. 4. "American Leaders and Heroes," Gordy, pp. 175-187. 5. "The Printer Boy," Thayer. 6. "George Washington," Scudder, pp. 131-155. 7. "George Washington," Ilale, pp. 137-185. 186 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 8. "George Washington," Hapgood, pp. 89-144. 9. "A Short History of the Revolution," Tomlin.>m were taken prisoners, and the rest driven into the works on Brooklyn Heights. At this point, as night was approaching, Liberty Be 190 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Howe concluded to wait until the next day before storming the works ; and the next day he still delayed, perhaps re- membering Bunker Hill. Washington had meanwhile come over from New York with more men, but when he saw that Howe was preparing to besiege the fort, he knew that he could do nothing but withdraw. He saw, too, that Howe might at any mo- ment bring up his fleet so as to cut off all chance of re- treat, and he re- solved to act at once. On the night, then, of the 29th, we might have seen a strange fleet of boats gathered on the Brooklyn side of the East River. There were row- boats, scows, yachts, fishing smacks, — boats of every description, The New York Campaign General Howe landed at Staten Island, June 28, 1776 ; crossed to Gravesend, August 22 ; battle of Long Island, August 27 ; Washington retreated across the East River, August 29, and proceeded up the Hudson ; Howe took possession of New York, September 15 ; attacked Washington at White Plains, October 28 ; Washington retreated to North Castle and then into New Jersey. CUTTING THE COLONIES IN TWO 191 large and small. Vrashiii<>;ton had gathered them to ferry his troops across the river. All night long the l)oats plied silently back and forth. Men, cannon, provisions, ammuni- Washington's tion, — everything was safely removed except the retreat from heaviest of the guns. Long island During the first part of the night, the moon shone brightly, but the British were so sure that the enemy were safe within the Washini it from Long Island fort, that they took no trouble to watch them. And later, as the dawn was approacliing, and might have shown only too plainly what was going on, a thick fog came up, and dropped its gray cur- tain all about the scene on the shore. All night long Washington had been in the midst of the embarking soldiers, watching, directing, encouraging, and it was only when at seven o'clock the last boatload of men was on its way that he crossed the river 192 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS himself. The British soldiers stirred into life at last, only to find that they were besieging an empty fort. Their astonishment knew no bounds. Washington knew that having lost Brooklyn he could not hope to hold Washington's New York, but he in- retreat across tended to make the British New Jersey work as hard for it as pos- sible. The story of the next six weeks is the story of Washington's retreat from one position to another, holding each until it was safe to do so no longer, and then always escaping the traps Howe set to catch him. Not a victory did Washington gain, but his defeats were almost as good as vic- tories. The middle of November found Washington in New Jersey, and the first campaign in New York at an end. The first British blow at the center had been struck, and though Howe Avas in possession of New York City, and though every movement of his troops had been apparently a success, the end of the war was as far away as ever. The American army was not crushed. The line of the Hudson was not in British hands. Howe had taken NcAv York — and that was all. Nathan Hale A youiig American who was hanged aa a spy by the British. He died bravely, saying, "I only regret that I have but one life to give for my country." THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. On July 4, 1776, Congress passed the Declaration of Independence, which declared the colonies free from British rule. 2. The British attacked New York, hoping to obtain control of the Hudson, and so cut off a]) communication between New England and the other colonics. CUTTING THE COLONIES IN TWO 193 3. Howe succeeded in taking New York City, but Washington, by a skillful niglit retreat, withdrew his army, thus saving it from capture. 4. Washington was obliged to retreat into New Jersey. Howe was left in possession of New York, but the upper Hudson was in the hands of the Americans. THINGS TO READ 1. "The American Revolution," Fiske, pp. 210-212. 2. "Stories of the Old Dominion," Cooke, pp. lSO-187. 3. "A Short History of the Revolution," Tomlinson, pp. 85-95, 102-131. 4. "Campaign of Trenton," Drake, pp. 11-49. 5. "The Children's History Book," pp. 43-164. 6. "Independence Bell," Anonymous. 7. "Supposed Speech of John Adams," Webster. 8. "The Boys of 76," Coffin, pp. 91-110. 9. "The Patriot Schoolmaster," Butterworth. 10. "Two Spies," Lossing. 11. "The War of Independence," Fiske, pp. 97-115. 12. "George Washington," Hapgood, pp. 1.53-1.57. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of debafeil, confer, oratori/, foreif/n, hesieijc, scows, campaiijn. 2. Learn the date of the Declaraticjn of Indcpcirdence. 3. Prepare yourself to write a clear answer to the cpuvstion : AVliy did each side consider it important to control the Hudson? 4. Discuss the question: Did Washington accomplish any good by the New York campaign ? Defend your opinion. 5. Compare Washington and Howe as generals, from what you have seen of them in the two campaigns studied. What quality in each impresses you ? 6. Questions for brief or written answers: — How long had war been in progress (November, 1776) ? What two cam- paigns had been carried on ? What had the British accomplished ? What had the Americans accomplished ? 7. Ask your teacher to tell you the story of Nathan Hale. 8. For your portfolio: Tiamibull's Declaration of Independence, In- dependence Hall, the Liberty Bell. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Make a map to illustrate the New York campaign. 2. Write a paragraph describing the retreat after the battle of Long Island. Make the picture as real as possible. o XVI SOME HOLIDAY HAPPENINGS IN NEW JERSEY To us, to-day, looking back upon the events we read of in the last chapter, it is easy to see that Washington did all that could be done with the forces at his command, — that he really did a great deal, in fact. The people of the newly formed United States, however, saw merely defeat and disaster, and discourage- ment was everywhere felt. The soldiers of the Continental army shared this feehng, began to lose hope, and to long for their homes again. The first great excitement was over. The terms of enlist- ment of many of the companies of militia expired, and the men could not be induced to remain. The main army, under Washington, had been obliged to con- tinue its retreat across New Jersey, closely followed by a large body of the British under Lord Cornwallis. By the time the Americans reached Princeton, there were but three thousand of them left. It would never do to risk a battle, and Washington could only retreat once more. He led his little army across the Delaware early in December, and, to prevent the British from following, carried with him every boat that could be found on the east bank of the river for miles. The British reached the river, and Cornwallis was eager to gather boats and follow the Americans into Pennsylvania; but Howe, who had just come on from New York, thought it best to wait a few days in the hope that the river would freeze over, and so save the trouble of finding boats. The army was spread out along the river, with its center at Trenton. There seemed nothing to do but wait, so Howe and Corriw^llis both returned to New York for the Christmas holidays. 194 SOME HOLIDAY HAPPENINGS IN NEW JERSEY 195 The (lifficulties \\'ashiii<2;toii had to face during the last month of tlie dying year of 177G would have daunted a man less hrave than he. He had to watch his artny dwindle away day by day; he had to remember that on New Year's Day many more of them woukl reach the end of their terms, and would General probably go home. He had to suffer from the plot- Charles tings and disobedience of one of his genin-als, Charles ^^® Lee, who had l)een placed in charge of half the army, and who was the cause of great troul)le to the commander. Lee had l)een left b(>hind at North- castle with his division, and w'hen, early in the retreat across New Jerse}^ Washing- ton had sent word to him to join the main army, Lee had l)retended not to understand, or to regard the orders as mere advice. Later, in the face of repeated and positive orders, he still disobeyed, and when he finally did set out, he wasted day after day on the road, until Washington's pa- tience was sorely tried. Fortunately for Washington and for the American people, Gen(^ral Lee was somewhat (careless one night in sleeping at a wayside tavern several miles from his army. Here he was captured by a party of British scouts and carried off, rather scantily clad, to the British lines. The Americans at the time thought this a great misfortune, but time has proved that it was not. It is now known beyond a dou})t that Lee was doing all he could against Washington, in '^i^^^- A Continental Soldier 196 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS order that he might secure the great commander's position for himself. These were dark hours for Washington and for the success of the Revolution. It seemed as though any day might see Wash- ington without an army, and the people with no heart to continue the war. The British commanders offered to i)ardon all who during the n(\\t sixty days slunild jiledge allegiance to the British government; and in less than ten days more than three thousand of the people of New Jersey ac(H'i)ted the off(>r. Washington saw that something must l)e done to revive the sinking courage of his countrymen, to inspire confidence in Con- gress, to show the British that America was not yet crushed. And this is what he did. The forces that had been under Lee's command had reached the main army at last. Washington now had six thousand men. The British had thirty thousand in New York and New Jersey, with three strong divisions facing the Americans on the Delaware. The center of the British force consisted of twelve hundred Hes- sians under Colonel Rahl at Trenton. Washington believed that he could make a successful attack upon them, and he carefully laid his plans to do so. On Christmas night, while the Hessians were celebrating Christmas in good German fashion, four detachments of the The attack American army were to cross the Delaware, and to on Trenton, Combine in an attack upon the town. By the time December 25, ^]^g Americans reached Trenton it was expected that the Hessians would be sleeping off the effects of their gayety, and it would be easy to capture them all. The appointed day came, cold and stormy. By night the air was full of sleet and snow. The biting winds blew the floating ice here and there in the river, making it almost impassable. When Washington reached the river bank, word was brought to him that for one reason or another every one of the thre(> detach- ments that were to aid him had failed. But neither storm nor SOME HOLIDAY HAPPENINGS IN NEW JERSEY 197 danger from tho floatinji; ice nor failure to receive the aid he had expected could keep him ])ack now. It took ten hours of terrible labor to get the men safely across, and it was four o'clock in the morning before the little army was ready to begin its march of nine miles to Trenton. Everything took place as Washington had expected. The Hessians, roused from the heavy sleep which followed their carousals of the night Washington crossing the Delaware I'Voiii I.ovitze's painting in thi Metropolitan Museuiii "f Ar(, New York ('its. before, \vei-e too bewildered to tight, and nearly a thousand of them, \\itli all their arms, were captured. The Americans lost, but two men in the fight, and (wo who were frozen to death on the way. Here, at last, was a victory, and its effect upon army antl people was as great as even Washington could have wished. And the general had not finished yet. Cornwallis cut short his Christ- mas festivities in New York, and hastened to attack Washington 198 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS at Trenton. Leaving two thousand men at Princeton, Corn- wallis marched toward the American camp "to finish this busi- ness up." All along the road the British were worried by skirmishing parties sent out by Washington, so that it was nearly night Avhen they finally reached the American camp. It seemed best to Cornwallis to wait until morning to make an attack, as it had seemed best to Howe at Brooklyn. And, as on that occasion, it seemed best to Washington not to be there when morning came, Cornwallis sent for his two thousand men at Princeton to join him in the morning, and went comfortably to bed, saying, " Now we have the old fox," never dreaming that the "old fox" was even then creeping away with his army toward Princeton. It is quite true that the British sentinels heard the noise of men work- ing on the American intrench- ments all night, and saw all night the light of American camp fires. But this only showed the slyness of the "old fox," who had left these few men there on purpose to mislead the British, Washin^on's Retreat across New Jersey SOME HOLIDAY HAPPENINGS IN NEW JERSEY 199 Toward daybreak they stole off through the woods, and it was a dreary, tleserted camp wliicli met the astoiiislied eyes of the British when morning came. The sound of guns in tlie direction of Princeton now warned Cornwalhs of the direction Washington had taken. Pie must be fighting with Cornwaliis's reenforcements. Corn- „ . ° ° . . Battle at waUis started at once to the assistance of his troops. Princeton, It was, liowever, too late. Washington had met January 3, them, and had (entirely defeated them. Then, feeling ^^'^'' sure that he could not be overtaken, since he had taken pains to cut down every bridge his army had passed over, Washington proceeded leisurely to the heights around Morristown, There he was quite safe from British attack. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The Amcric'uii ai-my rapidly decreased in iminbers; l)()1h soldiers and people were diseouraj^ed. 2. Washington led his army across New Jersey, and across the Delaware into Pennsylvania. The British followed to the river, but stopped there for lack of boats. 3. Washington recrossed the river, and attacked Trenton, capturing the thousand Hessians stationed there. Cornwallis hastened to Trenton, but Washington by another night retreat escaped, and proceeding to Prince- ton, attacked and defeated two thousand of Cornwaliis's men who were setting out to join him. 4. Washington then made his way to the heights of Morristown, where he was safe from attack. THINGS TO READ 1. "The Story of the Revolution," Lodge, pp. 208-227. 2. "George Washington," Scudder, pp. L56-169. 3. "Hero Tales from American History," Lodge; and Roosevelt, pp. 45-55. 4. "A Short History of the Revolution," Tomlinson, pp. L'^0-153. 5. "George Washington," Hale, pp. 196-203. 6. "The Campaign of Trenton," Drake, pp. 50-112. 7. "Stories of the Old Bay State," Brooks, pp. 1.36-144. 200 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS S. "The Boys of 76," Coffin, pp. 129-151. 9. "Stories of New Jersey," Stockton, pp. 117-213. 10. "Thankful Blossom," Bret Harte (a story). 11. "The War of Independence," Fiske, pp. 116-122, 12. "Geort^e Washington," Hapi^ood, pp. 169-17.'! THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of enlistment, daunted, detachments, revelers, ca- rousals, skirrnlshiuy parties, reenforcements, leisurely. 2. Discuss the question: In what ways did Washint^ton show himself a gi'eat general in this campaign ? 3. Prepare yourself to write an answer to the (lue.sj^ioii : What were the results of the New Jersey campaign ? 4. Think of words which you might use to describe each of the following persons: Washington, Lee, Howe, Cornwallis. .'). For your portfolio: Leutze's' Washington crossing tht; Delaware, Faed's Washington at Trenton, Trumbull's Battle of Princeton. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Make a map to illustrate the New Jersey campaign. 2. Make a "running outline" of th(; cam{)aign. 3. Write the statement for which you prepared in No. 3, above. XVII THK BRITISH I'i.AN VO\i 1777 For a time, in (he autiuuii of L77G, all Euji;lautl was ringing Avitli "Howe's great victories in America," and it was supposed tiiat the war was practically finished. The events, therefore, of the last days of the year came with something of a shock to the British ministry. It ])egan to seem that there was still some- thing to !)(> done in America. A new campaign was at once planned. The plan of cutting the colonies in two by getting control of the Hudson must he tried again. This was certainly the wisest thing for the British to attempt, and should it succeed, would prove a severe blow to the Americans. It had failed once. It must be carefully planned and still more carefully executed this time, that it might not fail again. The main army was still in New York, with Howe in command. The Northern army was in Canada, whither it had returned after an unsuccessful effort to get control of Lake Champlain. Both of these divisions were to be used in the new plan. There were three distinct parts to the plan. 1. The main body of the Northern army was to be sent under Burgoyne, by way of Lake Champlain, to seize Crown Point and Ticondcroga, and then march down the Hudson to Albany. 2. At the same time a smaller division under Colonel St. Leger would go by way of the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario to Oswego. PVom there St. Leger would set out to overcome Fort Stanwix, in the Mohawk Valley, and when this was done, would follow the Mohawk to the Hudson, and so join Burgoyne at All)any. 3. The main army under Howe, or part of it under some general 201 202 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS he might select, was to come up the Hudson and complete the union of the British forces at Albany. This, then, was the plan, as it was worked out on paper in Eng- land. How it succeeded when ) i,.A-. ' v;^^^* ADIRONDACK] „ , j>, M T.S. ■ ^ transferred to the wildernesses of New York we shall later discover. There was, of course, the danger that any one of the three divisions might suffer defeat and so never reach the meeting place. But the min- istry had much faith in the strength of the Tories and Indians in New York, and l)e- lieved that both Burgoyne and St. Leger would be marching- through a friendly country. Our next question must be, — What force had the Ameri- cans to withstand this triple invasion ? They, too, had their Northern army, a body of about five thousand men, under the command of a general in whom AVashington had great confidence, — Philip Schuyler. From the beginning of the war Schuyler had been guarding the New York frontier. Now it began to look as though he would soon be in the thickest of the fight. Washington was still at Morristown. He did not dare come north to take part in the new campaign, not knowing just what the British were planning, and so not thinking it safe to leave Howe and his army unguarded. The British Plan for 1777 TllK BRITISH PLAN FOR 1777 203 In June Burgoyne started south with about eight thousand men, finely equipped and confident of success, while St. Legcr led his force of a thousand toward the west. Both divi- sions were accompanied by Indian allies. At first everj'thing went well with Burgoyne's undertak- ing. Reaching Ticonderoga, the British found a high rock overlooking the fort, which the Americans had failed to Burgoyne's invasion, begun June, 1777 Kuins of Ticonderoga fortify, b(>lieving that it was too steep for any one to clinib. This was a mistake, however, as the American garrison found, when they looked up at the rock and saw red-coated men moving about on it, and the mouth of a cannon yawning grimly before their eyes. To stay meant capture, so St. Clair, the American officer in command of the garrison, decided to leave the fort. Burgoyne's army marched in, and news of Burgoyne's first vic- tory was quickly dispatched to Canada and England. Meanwhile Schuyler had come up to Fort Edward, and here 204 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS St. Clair joined him. Burgoyne, who was highly elated by his victory at Ticonderoga, was anxious to follow it up by meeting and overcoming the whole of the American force. He was sure that he could do this easily, and perhaps he might have done so if he could have reached at once Schuyler's poorly equipped army. Schuyler, however, had no intention of allowing the British to reach him at once. Time was what he needed and what he deter- mined to have. Already the Indian allies of the British were beginning their in- human deeds, and already the militia in the towns along the line of the British march were rising to protect their homes. Every day that Bur- goyne could be de- layed would increase their numbers. The roads along which the British would come from Skenesboro to Fort Edward were not very good at their best, and Schuyler immediately went to work to make them still worse. His men exchanged their guns for spades, hatchets, and pickaxes, and when Burgoyne had passed Skenesboro he began to see the fruits of their labor. Great trees blocked the way, with their l)ranches intertwined and tangled. Rough stones and heaps of brush were scattered everywhere. The little streams which might have helped the progress of the men were choked with sticks and stones. The bridges over larger streams which must be crossed were carefully hewn down. Burgoyne had to rebuild forty of them between Skenesboro an(J Burgoyne's Army on the Road from Lake Champlain to Fort Edward THE BRITISH PLi\.N FOR 1777 205 Fort Edward. It took him twenty-four days to cover twenty-six miles, and when he reached Fort Edward it was only to find that Schuyler hud moved down the river to Stillwater. For several reasons affairs did not look so bright as they had looked a month before. The army was delayed by lack of horses to drag the cannon, and the men were even begin- gattjg ^f ning to feel the lack of food. General Lincoln of the Bennington, American army was busy in Vermont collecting stores August 13, and organizing the militia, which, it was rumored, ^"^"^"^ would presently attack Burgoyne from the rear, thus cutting off his communication with Canada. Burgoyne's idea of seizing the little town of Bennington, where the American stores were, was no doubt a good one. He could so obtain the horses and pro- visions he .so much needed, and at the same time disturb the plans of the farmer soldiers of Vermont, and perhaps put an end to that danger. Accordingly, li\e hundred ( leruiau soldi(>rs were seat out to capture the stores at Bennington. The militia, however, was ready for them; and when darkness put an end to the day's fight t he \'ermont men wen> the victors, and almost all of the (lerman force wen^ their prisoners. Rurgoyne was worse off than before, and it would not be strange if his imi)atience were fast changing to discouragement. Leav- ing him at Fort Edward, where he remained for some weeks, we nmst (consider the second part of the plan besieees Fort — St. Leg(!r's expedition -and its success or failure, stanwix, Reaching O.swego without difficulty, St. Leger and his August, men — about seventeen hundred, including Tories ^'^^^ and Indians - set out on their wilderness march to Fort Stan- wix. Reaching the fort, he demanded its surrender. But the garrison had no idea of surrendering, and there was nothing for St. Leger to do but to besiege the foit. Two expeditious were at once organized to relieve the besiegetl garrison. One of these was a force of twelve hundred men under 206 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Benedict Arnold, sent out by Schuyler from Stillwater. The other, and the first to reach the scene of action, was a hand of militia recruited from the Mohawk Valley and led by (leneral Nicholas Herkimer. St. Leger was to find that though there were many Tories in the Mohawk Valley, as he had been told, there were also many men ready to rise and protect their homes against the savage invaders he was bringing into the valley. Herkimer and his eight hundred men reached a closely wooded hollow in the forest, only a few miles from the fort, when a war Battle at whoop told them that they were surrounded. A Oriskany, frightful battle followed. Fighting hand to hand, August 6, against Tory neighbor or savage foe, Herkimer's ^^^■^ brave men held out for hours. The old general was wounded, but ordering his saddle placed on an old stump he sat coolly issuing orders and smoking his pipe, as though he had no thought of danger. In the midst of the fighting a heavy shower came up; torrents of rain fell, putting an end to the battle. It was hard to tell which side was victorious. Each had lost many men — Her- kimer so many that it was useless to think of renewing the attack. The patriots of the Mohawk Valley sadly returned to their homes. They had done their part, however, and had helped along St. Leger 's final overthrow. That came about two weeks later, and strangely enough was accomplished without a blow. Arnold's party had marched from End of St. Stillwater, and was nearing the fort. Rumor of the Leger's part coming of a great force of Americans, carefully cir- of the plan culated by Arnold, produced great fright in the British camp. The Indians deserted, as did many of the soldiers, and finally St. Leger with the little remnant of his army took to the woods, and returned to trouble Fort Stanwix and the Mohawk Valley no more. The second part of the plan — St. Leger's expedition — was thus a complete failure. When the news reached Burgoyne, ho THE RRITISIT PLAN FOR 1777 207 was iiioic profoiiiKlly (liscoiiraji'cd tliaii vvvv. !lis situation was hccomiii};- (IcspcM-atc Lincoln's volunt(M>rs had succeeded in cut- ting oti" his only source of suj)|)Hes, and th(> question of food for his soldiers was one that must be answered. His only hope now lay in the third part of the plan, — Howe's expedition up the Hudson. But here again he was doomed to disappointment. When Howe's share in the Northern campaign was first suggested to him by the ministry, he had mentioned in his reply a plan of his own which might interfere. In response to this the ministry- had written positive orders to him to let nothing interfere with his aiding Burgoyne at the proper moment. Still Burgoyne, anxiously waiting, saw nothing of Howe or Howe's army. What could be the reason ? It was a long time before this question could be answered. Then the answer was found in the shape of a dusty paper in one of the pigeonholes of a London desk. The "positive orders" had been entirely over- looked, and had never been sent to Howe at all. Howe, meanwhile, was as busy as a man could be in carrying out the "plan of his own" he had mentioned. This was nothing less than the taking of Philadelphia. He started across New Jersey early in June, intending to capture . " , , paign around Philadelphia and return in time to meet Burgoyne at Philadelphia, Albany. But the "old fox" was on the watch for June to him, and Howe found it impossible to get by the ^'^'°^"' 1 777 American army. After wasting nearly a month, the British returned to New York and started once more, by sea, knowing that the Americans could not trouble them there. When Howe landed his army at the head of Chesapeake Bay it was already late in August. The day of Bennington had come and gone. St. Leger's force had been scattered. Burgoyne was in great danger, and Howe was hundreds of miles away from him. Washington saw that if he could delay Howe still more, Burgoyne must surely surrender or his army be entirely crushed. So he set to work to delay Howe, and though the Americans were 208 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS twice defeated at Brandywino and Germantown in th(^ campaign that followed, it was the end of September before Howe took possession of Philadelphia, and another month had passed before he obtained control of the Delaware, so that he could be sure of keeping what he had gained. There was no longer any question of returning to help Bur- goyne. It was too late. About the middle of Septemlier, Bur- goyne, weary of wait- ing for help which did not come, and driven b}' the lunger o his men, hud cnjssed the Hudson and prepared to at tack the Amer Burgoyne's defeat; his surrender, October 17 1777 ican army. This was now under t h e com- mand of Gen- era 1 ( J ii t e s, Schuyler having been removed only a few days before. Two battles were fought. In the first of these the British claimed the victory, since at the close of the fighting they held the ground where the battle took place; but it was a poor victory. Only three thousand of the Americans took part in the battle, under the command of Benedict Arnold, the hero of Quebec. In the second battle, which took place at Stillwater, near Saratoga, the British were entirely defeated, and were forced to retreat. During the battle, Arnold, who had been removed from command by Gates, had been watching from the heights, until at last, seeing an opportunity to drive back a division of the British, Philadelphia and Vicinity THE BRITISH PLAN FOR 1777 209 he could rcniaiu away no longer ; flinging himself upon his horse, he galloped into the midst of the fight. His men shouted with joy at sight of him, and SCALE OF MllES ::o i'i 00 du ICO •.\i/\i^ . it rlClmmi,\,i,l Y;f'c,V- AOmONDACK- |«Cii.«n V MTS: •'- (j-A/, charged with n^newed vigor. Arnold himself fought with furious en{>rgy, and it is be- lie\'ed by many that the vic- tory was reall}' due to his efforts. Burgoyne attempted to retreat across the Hudson, but the way was now closed. He was surrounded on every side by soldiers of the Con- tinental army, or by New W)vk and New England mili- tia. He still heard nothing from New York, and, on October 17, being unable to wait longer, he surrendered with his whole force. It was agreed that the British sol- diers, after leaving their arms at Saratoga, should march across Massachusetts to Bos- ton, there to take ship for England, promising to take no further part in the war. And so came to an end the carefully studied ''British plan for 1777." THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The BritLsh plan for 1777 had three parts. Burgoyne was to descend Lake Champlain and the Ilud.son to Albany, securing the Hudson Valley for the British. St. Leger was to set out from Oswego to take possession of the Valley of the Mohawk and to join Burgoyne at Albany. The End of the British Plan 210 AMERICAN ITLSTOUY FOR CRAM MAR SCHOOLS IIowc WAS (() (■(line willi III- .send pjirt of his Toi-cc from New \'iiik, captuiin^ llic luwci- iludson mihI cniiiplctiiii; (lie uiiiun nl' llic British fui\'i'«. 2. Burguyne was .successful until he reached the lower end of the lake. From there on his progress was very slow. He needed horses and pro- visions. A detachment sent out by him to seize supplies at Bennington was captured by the Americans. Burgoyne was somewhat disheartened. 3. St. Leger's expedition came to nothing. 4. Howe, having undertaken to capture Philadelphia, was so delayed by Washington that he sent no aid to Burgoyne until too late. 5. Burgoyne, desperate for want of food and supplies, attacked the Americans. He was defeated, and his surrender completed the failuie of the "plan for 1777." THINGS TO READ 1. "The American Revolution," Fiske, pp. 272-285. 2. "A Short History of the Revolution," Tomlinson, pp. 173-22G. 3. "Burgoyne's Invasion," Drake, pp. 27-142. 4. "Hero Tales from American History," Lodge and Roosevelt, pp. 59-G7. 5. "The Boys of 70," Coffin, pp. 122-244. (). "The War of Independence," Fiske, pp. 12r)-137- 7. "Our Country's Flag," Holden. S. "Paul and Persis," Brush (a story). 9. Selections from' "In the Valley," Frederic (a story). 10. "American Fights and Fighters," Brady, pp. 71-83. 11. " Revolutionarv Stories Retold from St. Nicholas." THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of executed, triple, invasion, frontier, rumored, re- cruited, source of supplies. 2. Discuss in class the weak points in the British plan. 3. Compare Burgoyne with Howe. 4. Gates was much praised for his victory in the North, and Washington blamed for the defeats near Philadelphia. Think out why it was that Washington's work was really a great aid to the Northern army. .'3. Make a list of the battles of the war thus far, marking each to show which side claimed the victory. TIIIO BRITISH PLAN FOU 1777 211 G. K('\io\v all (lie dates you have been asked to learn. 7. Place in 3'our portfolio a picture of Burgoyne's surrender. S. Discuss the cjuestion: What was the etrect of the use of Indians in this eanipaign of the British? Did it help or hinder them? y. Form an opinion as to the method used by Arnold to scare St. Leger's men. ^^'hal is your opinion of the old saying, "All is fair in war" ? 10. II is said that the "Stars and Stri[)es" was first used In' the be- sieged garrison of Fort Stanwix. Find out when this flag \\as arloptcMl l)y Congress, by whom it was designed, and what flags had been in use by the .\ui('ricans during the earlier part of the war. 1 1. Learn tlu; dat(! of Burgoyne's surrender, October, 1777, as the end of the British attempts to secure the Hudson. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Outline llie British "plan for 1777." Tllusti'ate by two maps, one showing the |)l;ni, tin' other the campaign which resulted. 2. Mak(> an outline, under thre(! main headings, of the second campaign in Xcnv York. 3. Write a short history of the flag. Tell what each part of the desig?] means. If you can illustrate your composition by a water-color sketch or a drawing, do so. XVIII ANOTHER SIDE OF WAR In carrying on a war there are many things besides the actual fighting to be considered. Men must be found to make up the army which is to fight. Money must be raised with which to pay these men and to purchase supphes. Supphes* must be col- lected to provide the soldiers with food and clothing, with guns and powder and bullets. Horses must be obtained to convey these supplies to the camps of the army. It is sometimes neces- sary to ask aid of foreign nations, and men must l)e sent to carry on negotiations with their governments. All of these things arc important, and for all of them a strong govcn-nmeni which can make laws and enforce them is needed. All through the Revolution the lack of a governmenl, was oiu; of the worst troubles the new nation had to face. The C'ontinen- Lack of a ^^^ Congress was not a government, and it could i\o central gov- little except advise the states what it was best to do. ernment in Men, money, and supphes were absolutely ncces- the colonies t. r^ i i j. c sary, yet Congress had no power to procure any or them. The soldiers sent to the Continental army ])y tlio states were usually enlisted onl}^ for short terms, so that the army was constantly changing, and Washington often desi)aired of ever getting a well-organized force of men. The matter of money, too, was a very serious one. If Con- gress had had the right to tax the people, money might have Money been raised, as in our own time it was raised to carry difficulties on our war with Spain. But Congress could only recommend to the states that they should each raise a cer- tain amount, of which very little was ever paid. The next thing 212 ANOTHER SIDE OF WAR 213 to be tried was borrowing, but not. many })eo])le like to lend unless they feel some certainty of being repaid. Some money was raised in this way, however. The French government ad- vanced some, being quite ready in a quiet way to injure her old enemy, England. Then, too, some public-spirited Americans did what they could, — PVanklin, who lent Congress his little sav- ings; Washington, who refused pay for his services and offered TH IS BI L L entitles the Bear<^r to receive SrW&'J^''9"^ d}::ncS:i m^Pr'J 2)Oil.Ce/?^<5', or the Value thereof in i^t'Cd or Si^er, accordino; to the Refo- lutions of the G0'^<0*C<«>0<0»0<©<<2>o©*(i^©-0*C<'© ►^)C)oC)OJte>«©''C'^'< S^ A Piece of Continental Currency his private fortune- to pay his soldiers should Congress fail; and Robert Morris, a Philadelphia banker, who did more than any one else to provide funds for the war. Still much more was needed, and because there seemed no other way Congress began, early in the war, to issue paper currency; that is, to- pay its debts with promissory notes which were to be redeemed in gold when the war was over. As the war went on, more and more of this paper money was issued. People began to ])e afraid that Congress could never redeem these notes, and to refuse to accept them in payment of debts. A paper dollar was no longer worth a dollar. In 1778 it took six or eight of them to buy a dollar's worth of goods, and before the war was 214 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS over ten paper dollars were worth only one cent. Still Congress kept on issuing more notes, until a piece of "Continental mone}'" became the symbol of worthless things, and we still soinetinie.s hear people say, "not worth a Continental." M^ ^ §KMKt^§^-i^Mi mm^'^ ' it^^^Ks^m-.: #^->^ Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge Of course it was hard to get soldiers to reenlist when their terms expired, since only worthless paper money could be given Winter at them to Send home to their families, and Since even Valley Forge, food and clothing were almost impossible to obtain 1777-1778 jj^ ^}^g camps, for, in the matter of supplies, the army suffered terribly in the winter which followed Howe's taking of Philadelphia. Late in the autumn, Washington had taken his soldiers into camp for the winter at Valley Forge, a natural fortress in the hills, only about twenty miles from Phila- ANOTHER SIDE OF WAR 215 dclphia. Tlie winter was a dreary one. Little huts of boughs were built by the men, who clustered about the camp fires to keep from frcezin<>-, and often sat up all night because they had no blankets in which to wrap their shivering forms. The snow was deep, and many of the men had no shoes, so that they left bloody tracks behind them on the snowy ground. Many were sick, and many died from lack of clothing. The worst of this sad story is that much of the suffering was unnecessary. Congress was making many mistakes in these days, and one of them was in its management of army supplies. In- competent men were appointed to take charge of them, with the result that men suffered and died sometimes for lack of things which they might have had if aff'airs had been properly managed. Congress was no longer the body of great men it had once been. Many of the greatest of its early members were now serving in other fields, — in the army, as was Washington; in the state governments, as were Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry; or abroad, as was Franklin, who was in France, urging the French government to come out openly as the ally of the United Statf^s. The Congress had lost much in power and influence, and it often did very foolish things. The winter at Valley Forge was a dreary one for Washington as well as for his soldiers. Not only did he have to see the suffer- ing he could not relieve, and the mistakes of Con- piots against gress that he could not rectify, but personal enemies Washington were appearing in his army and in Congress, who plotted at nothing less than his downfall. Gates, the "hero of Saratoga," as he was called, though he had done little to deserve the title, was very popular at this time, and his vain, jealous ambition led him to believe that he might be commander in chief. His schemes, and those of his friends, were finally overthrown, and Washington i)lace(l more firmly than ever in tlu^ hearts of the people, but the matter was a source of worry to tlu^ great com- mander through nmch of the winter. 21G AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS There was a silver lining even to the dark cloud which hung over Valley Forge. In February Franklin succeeded in making a French treaty of alliance with France. That meant money alliance ^nd soldiers and a fleet to aid Washington and his army. The French had come at last to believe that the Revo- lution might succeed. The news of the treaty put renewed courage into the hearts of the -men at Valley Forge, and new vigor into their daily drill ; for they were drilling, in spite of cold, and snow, and suffering. A foreign officer. Baron Steuben, had lately joined Washington's staff, and he was the driilmaster. Few better could have been found, and so heartily did he work, and so faithfully did the men follow his commands, that when the army left Valley Forge the next June, it was a stronger, better army than it had ever ])een e. u before. Baron Steuben So miivh fault had l)een found in England with Howe's conduct of the last year's campaign, that in the spring of 1778 he resigned his position, and went home to explain matters. This left Sir Henry Clinton in The new ^ . . '' British com- charge of the British forces. All winter the British mander, Clin- soldiers in Philadelphia had remained idle. Indeed, ton, makes there was nothing that they could do with Wash- ington close by in his snow-bound camp at Valley Forge. So it was a winter of idleness, of comfort and merry- making in the Quaker City, — all of which may have been pleasant, but did not accomplish much toward conquering the Americans. In June Clinton resolved to leave Philadelphia, and rejoin the rest of the British forces in New York. The Philadelphia Tories, ANOTHER SIDE OF WAR 217 who hati been spending a gay winter entertaining the British officers, did not dare remain behind when the soldiers went, so CHnton sent three thousand of them with his fleet to New York, while he set out with his army to march across New Jersey. Washington saw a enhance to strike a blow at Clinton's retreating army, and so perhaps win a great victory. After taking i)osses- sion of Philadelphia he set out with his now well-trained soldiers, and by rapid inarching gained a position where he could attack Clinton. The battle of Monmouth followed, and but for one thing n\ight have been the brilliant victory for which Washington hoped.. This one thing was the prescn(;e of ( General g^^^jg ^^ Charles Lee. This mischief-maker had not made Monmouth, trouble enough, it seemed. When exchangcnl by the June 28, British he had come l)ack unqu(>stioned to his place ^'^'^ in the army, since no one knew (jf his treacherous dealings with Howe, and sincc^ Washington was generous enough to overlook his former disobedience. The battle of Monmouth ended his career in the (continental army, however; for, through his flat disobedience of orders, the Americans came noar suffering a dis- astrous defeat. This would probably have hav)|)(>ne(l had not Lafayette, seeing the strange behavior of L(V', hastened to warn Washington. Coming up with all haste to the scene, Washing- ton sharply reprimanded Lee, and ordered him off the field. Then rallying the retreating men, he prevented defeat, though it was too late to think of a real victory. Something had been accomplished, however, and Lee had failed of any result except his own downfall. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The new nation suffered from lack of an effective government. 2. Money for expenses was hard to obtain. The paper mone}'^ issued by Congress soon became worthless. 3. France at last entered into a treaty of alliance with the United States. 218 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 4. Washington's army spent the winter following Howe's taking of Philadelphia at Valley P^orge in Pennsylvania. The soldiers suffered nuich from lack of food and clcjthing. They, howevei-, spent the winter profitably in drilling under Baron Steuben. 5. The following summer the British left Philadelphia and took their force back to New York. Washington attacked them on the way, but neither side could claim a victory. THINGS TO READ 1. "The Story of the Revolution," Lodge, pp. 303-300, 312-324; Vol. 11, pp. 169, 170. 2. "The American Revolution," Fiske, Vol. II, })p. 50-56, 197-199. 3. "George Washington," Scudder, pp. 170-193. 4. "X Short History of the Revolution," Tomlinson, pp. 227-248. 5. "George Washington," Hale, pp. 21.3-225. 6. "Famous American Statesmen," Bolton, pp. 38-66. 7. "Boys of '76," Coffin, pp. 254-261. 8. " George Wa.shington," Hapgood, pp. 179-182, 189-193, 212-217. 9. " Benjamin Franklin," More. (Riverside Biographical Scries.) THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of negotiations, advisory, currcncij, pruniissori/, redeemed, symbol, incompetent, rectify, treacherous. 2. Review the war to this point by means of your maps. 3. Contrast the condition of the British and the American soldier.-; dur- ing the winter following Burgoyne's surrender. 4. Write on the subject, "War is not all Fighting." [Reread the first half of Chapter XVIII before you write.] I. Obtaining soldiers — keeping them when once enlisted. II. Supplies — necessity — management. III. Money — why needed — ways of obtaining it. XIX BATTLES ON LAND AND SEA Since the failure of Burgoyue's expedition, the idea of gaining control of the Hudson had been entirely abandoned by the British, One of the first results of Burgoyne's surrender was a proposal by Lord North in Parliament, to send over commissioners to America who should try to l)ring about a peace. He proposed to repeal all the acts that had made the trouble and to give up forever the right to tax the colonics. The Tory party was still anxious to carry on the war, believing that the Americans must l)e conquered first, and then, if ever, given the rights for which they were fight- ing. Among the Whigs some believed that it would l)e l)etter to let the colonies become independent, as they proposed; others that England would lose forever her commercial power if the colonies were lost, and that they must, therefore, be kept at any cost. Parliament voted to carry out Lord North's proposals, and the commissioners came to America. It was too late — Con- gress refused to listen to any proposals which did not first ac- knowledge independence for the states. The commissioners could do nothing Init return to England. There was great wrath in the Tory party, and espe(ually among the king's friends at this, and it was resolved that the rest of the war should be so carrier(' only about ek'ven huiKhx'd in lunnber, began to retreat with all possible speed, but it was too late. Finding that he nuist fight, Ferguson took up his fine's position on King's Mountain, whi(;h seemed from its Mountain, height and position impossible to storm. The Ameri- October 7, cans, however, succeeded in their attack upon it, ^^ ° though the British bravely defended the })()sition. It was a com- plete victory for the backwoodsmen, and of the entire British force all were either killed or captured. Then, the danger to homes and loved ones being over, the backwoodsmen returned to their usual employment. Great as the services of these men w(>i-e, however, they alone could not keep the I^ritish from carrying out their plans. Still another army must be raised, and once more Washington had the hard problem to face. We shall be glad to turn from the story of disaster in the South to an account of success in the Northwest. We reniem})er tliat by the Quebec Act, passed by Parliament in 1774, the Ohio Valley was made part of Canada. And it ciark in the was now most important to the British to keep this Northwest, wild country, especially if the Americans should gain ^"^"^ ""'^'^^ their independence. To do this, every effort was made by the British to drive American settlers out of the valley, and to keep the country in the hands of their own soldiers. But it was equally iinportant to the new AnuM-ican nation to get control of the country for which the colonists had fought so well in tiie French war. And though the British were in full possession, and I hough no men could be si)are(l fi-om the Con- tinental army to attempt the work, a brave and daring l)ack- woodsman of Virginia, George Rogers Clark, determined to und(>r- 224 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS take it. He gathered a band of two hundred volunteers, and set out to capture the British posts. The story of his adventures is full of interest, and the work he accomplished for America is worthy of our admiration. For, thanks to his courage and per- severance, the spring of 1779 found the Ohio Valley in American hands, where it was destined ever to remain. Leaving for a time these American battle fields, let us consider some of England's difficulties on her side of the ocean, and some stirring events which have taken place on the Expedition of George Rogers Clark by the great Euro- pean powers. W(; have already seen how glad France was to tak(^ the field against her ancient enemy. Since the beginning of 1778, England had then not only the American war, l)ut one with France on her hands. The next year the French government had persuaded England's still more bitter foe, Spain, to join the company of England's antagonists. Spain had, it is true, no love for the American states, and the Spanish government would form no alliance with them; but it was ready enough to join France in humiliating England. Nor was this all. Even with the American states and France and Spain against her, England — and England means the king, Lord North, and their friends and advisers — proceeded to pick a BATTLES ON LAND AND SEA 225 quarrel with Holland which speedily led to war. It began to look as though England would have to fight single-handed against the whole continent of Europe. Nothing but her great strength on the ocean could have made it possible for her to oppose so many foes, and even as.it was, the scatter- ing of her ships and her soldiers in many parts of the world threatened to cripple her resources. The .thought of Englantl's naval power leads us to consider the little navy of America and its war on great hero, Paul Jones, the ocean At the beginning of the war there was no American navy, and this lack was keenly felt in many of the critical moments of the war. In most of their movements the British soldiers were supported by their ships of war, which offered a pro- tection the Americans could not overcome. Plans for establishing a navy were early made by Congress, but we hnve already seen how seldom Con- gress was able to carry out its plans. In the course of the war some forty vessels were enrolled in the Continental navy, most of them small, all poorly equipped, and manned by crews gathered wherever men could be obtained. But these poor vessels, with their ill-assorted crews, did some good work during the war. They were often aided by private cruisers, and did much to disturb the commerce of the ''mistress of the seas." In 1779 occurred the first battle of any importance between English and American ships of war. Paul Jones, with a fleet of ^ve vessels, had been sailing about the coasts of England, doing Q PVom a painting by Charles I'oiile in Indppendi^noo Hall, Pliilnrlelpliia. 22C AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS more or less damage. His flagship was an old merchant vessel, bought by the French government, made over, renamed the Bon- The Bon. homme homme Rich- Rlchard ard and the in honor ''"""' ofFrank- lin, and lent to the American navy. His crew is -said to have included, not only men from al- most every country of Europe, but several Malays. While cruising about the coast, a fleet of English mer- chant ships, guarded by two ships of war, was sighted. Jones immediately gave chase, and the two frigates turned about, ready to fight. Leaving the smaller of the two, Jones attacked the Serapis, a larger, newer ship than his own, well equipj:)ed and manned by a well- trained crew. The fight lasted for more than three hours. At the end of the first hour the two shij^s came together with a crash. In the moment before they drifted apart, the captain of the Sera- pis called out, "Have you struck your colors?" "I have not yet begun to fight," was Jones's reply. Battle between Serapis and Bonhomme Richard BATTLES ON LAND AND SEA 227 Once inori! the ships coUideil, uiul Jones was ([uick euougli this time to have them lashed together before they should sepa- rat(^ The battle became a desperate hand-to-hand encounter. Both ships were disabled. Moi'e than half the men eno;af>;ed were killed. Hut Jones's doij;.ii;ed perseverance won Ihe day, and his fame (|uickly .spread throut^h lOurope as well as in the land he was fighting to save. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. A new policy of "deytriu'tivc warfiirc" on the part of the British resulted in the destroying of inudi life and property. 2. The conquest of the South was attempted; Geoi-gia was conqueied and a strong foothold in South Carolina gained. The entire Southeiii division of the American army was captured; and a seeond Southern army under Gates shared the same fate. 'A. The South was left with no defenders save small bands of fightei's under such men as Marion and Sumter. 1. A party of volunteers under George Rogers Glark cai)tured the Ohio \':i!ley for the United States. .5. England was now at war with the Americans, the French, the Spanish, and the Dutch. This scattered her ships and her soldiers to all paits of the world. 6. The Americans fought some battles with the British on the sea. Of these the most famous is that between the Bonhomme Richard, and the Sera pis. By this Paul Jones became famous as a naval commander. THINGS TO READ 1. About the war in the South. "Tlie Story of the Revolution," Lodge, Vol. IL PP- •18-5.'). "Stories of the Old Dominion," Cooke, {)p. 289-297. "The Boston Tea Party," Watson, pp. 126-134. "A Short History of the Revolution," Tomlinson, pp. .'>19-.T2(). "Hero Tales from American History," Lodge and Roosevelt, pp, 71-78. "Song of Marion's Men," Bryant. " The War for Independence," Tomli.ison, i)p. ] 1 1 17S. 2. About the con<|uest of the Northwest. " The {'onic' tiiresque, (tiUagoni.stfi, eqtdpiteil, friyalc.s. 2. Preparer youi'.self fo write cleaily an outline of the new British j)lan. 3. Try to think out why the British failed to "tire the Americans out." 1. l)is(uiss the question: Why would the South he likely In be moic easily conquered tiian the North ? f). Find th(! meaning of Lee's allusion to laurels and vnlloirs. 6. Find the meaning of Bonhomme Richard, and why giving that name to Jones's ship should have been considered an honor to Franklin. 7. Discuss the question : Why would it not have been better for Wash- ington to leave some one in charge of the troops who were guarding the Hudson and to take command hiiuself of the Southern army ? FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK Write an account of one of the following: Clark's Conquest of the Northwest. Massacres at Wyoming or Cherry Valley. The Fight between" the Bonhomme Richard and the Serapis. XX AN AMERICAN MOUSE TRAP AND A BRITISH MOUSE The aid expected from tlu^ French luitl thus far not heen of much assistance to the Americans. The tieet, which would have helped Washington so nuich, had made only two H^yinjj; visits, in both of which it had failed to be of any use; and of soldiers, France sent none until July, 1780. Even then the six thousand who came under the connnand of Count Rochambeau were de- tained for a year where they landed in Rhode Island, before they could 1)(^ of any service to Washington. It was almost a hojx'less moment for the Americans when, through the stupidity of (lat(>s, a second Southern army was destroyed, and Cornwnllis left mjister of the South. Arnold's And .scarcely had this l)low fallen when another treason, Sep- eame to .startle the country and to sadden the h(>art, *^"'''^'' '^^^ of the great comtnander. This time it was treachei\- in ;in officer who had been honored for his liravery and trusted, even admired, by the great chief himself. Benedict Arnold, the hero of Queljec and of Saratoga, beloved by his men, and known even among the British as the '^fighting general," had somehow been tran.sformed into the blackest of traitors. This is the story: — Even before his part in the campaign against Burgoyne, Arnold had felt that he was unjustly treated by Congress, as no doubt he was. In that campaign we remember his treatment by dates, and have no difficulty in believing that he gnnv more dissatisfied under it. Returning to Washington's camp after the Northein campaign was over, the great general assuretl him of his contiiuicd respect and approbation; and when Clinton left Philadeli)hia in June, Arnold, who was still unfit for active duty because of his 229 230 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS wouml received at Saratoga, was placeil in coiiimaiul tiierc. Just when the evil thoughts which afterward proved his ruin first began to come into his mind we cannot tell; but ])erhai)s his falhng in love and his marriage with a beautiful young lady belonging to a Tory family may have had something to do with it. Congress still continued to regard him with disfavor, and he The Hudson at West FuiiU grew bitter in his feeling toward it. He resolved to have revenge. ()l)taining from Washington the command of West Point, the strongest American position on the Hudson, he seems to have deliberately planned to betray it to the enemy. Letters jiassed between him and Clinton, and at length a young Uritish officer, Major Andre, was sent to me(^t Arnold, and make the final arrangements. On his way back Andre was captured, and the papers Arnold had given him were found in AN AMEPJCAN MOUSE TRAP AND A BRITISH AIOHSK 231 hi.s stockinj^s. l\('C('i\iMd, and Arnold had succeeded only in accomplishing his own downfall. Joining the British army, he fought against his country m(>n, and when the war was over went to live in England. Neither he nor those who knew him could ever forget his black deed. Despised by others and even by him- self, he led a miserable life. On his deathbed he asked for his old ('ontin(Mital imiform; putting it on, he added the epaulets and shoulder knots presented him by Washington after Saratoga. "Let me die in this old uniform," he said, "in which I fought my battles. May God forgive me for ever putting on any other." Andre was hanged as a spy. No one who reads the sad story of this handsome and accomplished young officer can but feel saddened at his untimely fate; but the law of war-time is in- exorable. As a spy he was captured, as a spy he had to die. In spit(> of treachery and disaster, in spite of the discontent of liis soldiers, who were still scantily clothed, half starved, and receiving little, if any, pay, Wasliington set to work on the prob- lem waiting to be solved in the South. Gates had succeeded in gathering together again about fourteen hundred of his soldiers. The militia of the neighboring states were beginning to assemble to defend their homes. To this foundation of an army Washing- ton again sent reenforcements, and best of all, a Greene given corps of the ablest officers in the service. Greene command in was in command, and under him Morgan, who had ^ °^ been with Arnold in Canada and at Saratoga, and who was renowned for his courage and daring; Henry Lee ("Light- horse Harry" he was called), a young officer who was a vmiversal favorite, because of the deeds he and his perfectly trained cavalry had done; and Colonel William Washington, another fine cavalry officer, and a distant relative of the conunander-in-chief. Baron 232 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Stfuhcu was sent to Virginia, and later Lafayette, "the boy," as Cornwallis called him, was placed in the same state. At last the South was to see something accomplished. The dark days of winter and disaster were soon to give waj^ to the brighter light of spring and victory. Scarcely had the new year begun when Morgan with half Battle at ^^^ ^'^^^'' ^rm}' WOU the Cowpens, a brilliant victory January 17, j^f, the Cowpens, 1781 r • • V over a division 01 llie British forces sent by Corn- wallis to oppose him. Hope l)egan to revive, (ireene, meanwhile, by a series of re- treats worthy of Washington himself, had been luring Corn- wallis to follow him farther and farther to the northward. In February Morgan joined him, and after a month more of eluding every effort of Cornwallis to fight, reenforcements arrived, and Greene was ready for battle. And when the fight was over, though Greene could not claim a victory, he had succeeded in cutting down Cornwallis's force to scarcely sixteen hundred men, — an army too small to risk another battle, too small to dare attempt the long march back to South Carolina, and too small to stay so far from the fleet and among a people as unfriendly as those of North Carolina. Hastening to Wilmington, Cornwallis decided that the only thing for him to do was to abandon the Carolinas for the mo- ment and to start anew in Virginia. He accordingly set out for that state. Much to his astonishment, Greene did not follow him, but turned once more to South Carolina, where he soon AN AMERICAN MOUSE TRAP AND A BRITISH MOUSE 233 succeeded in winning back the whole state except Ciiarleston, which was guarded by the British fleet. Cornwaliis, meanwhile, with reenforcenients wliicii gave him a force of five thousand men, was all intent upon conquering Vir- ginia. First of all he would defeat Lafayette. "The Cornwaiiis at boy cannot escape me," he said. But the boy not ^orktown only escaped, but \vd Cornwaiiis up and down the state until the British general was quite exasperated. He was getting too far from the sea. He must place himself where the fl(H't, which he daily expected, could reach him. Early in August he took up a position at Yorktown, on a pen insula between _ the York and ^ ^ the James. ( lix-«»,l_ During X'N O R^t H these months, k'^ashing- was not idle in the orth. He and lambeau were ng a combined )on New York, came that the >'-*coniu'aius long-cxpectcd French fleet was on its way from the West Indies, A daring, almost a wonderful, plan leaped into Washington's mind. If the French fleet could be sent to Yorktown, if Lafayette's force on the land could be made too strong for Cornwaiiis to break 234 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Miroujili, if Wasliiiiglon liimsclf with 1-iis jirniy and thai of Kochainboau could only get there in time — it was the chance of a lifetime ! And the great commander decided to make the attempt. It was a hazardous game; but, if it should succeed, it would be the greatest achievement of the war. Should it fail — but it Washington's Headquarters at Newburg should not fail ! On the last day of August the great French fleet appeared in the Chesapeake. No escape for the British ])y sea, unless the British fleet could destroy that of the French. That was tried, and it failed. Across the narrow neck of the penin- sula Lafayette now took his stand with a force numbering eight thousand men. Cornwallis was in a trap. Should he try to break through Lafayette's line? It would m(>an a heavy loss of life. Surely the British fleet would return and let him escape by sea. If not, he would then attack "the boy." AN AMP]RICAN MOITSE TIiAI> AND A BRITISH MOUSK 235 NEW Y O R JK P E N >' S V^L V A N I A '-^ > I'rlV •■(..n X.-AC^jersey / -'4 VI R G-J_N I^ul though Coruwallis had no idea of such a thing, Wash- ington himself was Washington's on thr way. Leav- great march ing only a small toYorktown guard at West Point, Washing- ton had begun the march which was to make his daring plan a brilliant success. Not a man in the force of six thousand men knew where the swift march was to lead them. Washington dared trust the S(^cret to no one save Rochambeau. Clinton was uneasy, and feared an attack upon New York. Washington was halfway across New Jersey before it became clear that New York was not his destination. He had reached Philadelphia before the greatness of his plan was apparent. Clinton saw the game at last, but it Avas too late. He was powerless. On the 5th of September the army had reached the head of the Chesapeake. From this point the soldiers were carried in ships to the place which was now being watclu^l with breathless inter- est. Cornwallis had lost his last chance. Day by day fresh troops arrived to strengthen the door of the trap, until, by Sept(>niber 26, sixteen thousand men were massed across the peninsula's narrow neck. n'he game was won. ("oruwallis could do iiolhing l)ul surrctidrr. Closer and closer the Americans ap- Washington's March to Yorktown u^ -° AN AMERICAN MOUSE TRAP AND A BRITISH MOUSE 237 preached the British force. The roar of cannon added its sum- mons to the besieged commander. On the 17th of October, 17?1, the end was reached, and Cornwallis's whole force „ , • r. 1 Yorktown was surrendered to the alhed armies of the United surrendered States and France. October 17, Even as in 1776 the campaign around Boston had ^"^^^.y failed ; as the same year the attempt to break through the hne of the Hudson had proved fruitless; as in 1777 the carefully planned campaign of Burgoyne had ended in utter disaster; so now the plan to redeem the South must take its place with the rest, an absolute failure. More than six years had passed since the war began, and the British held no state but Georgia, and outside that state no foothold, save only Charleston and tha city of New York. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. A third Southern army was formed. Greene, with a corps of able officers, went to take charge of it. 2. General Morgan gained a brilliant victory for the Americans at the battle of the Cowpens. 3. Greene drew Cornwallis into North Carolina, far from the British fleet. 4. Cornwallis decided to go on to Virginia. Greene did not follow him, but returned to recapture South Carolina. 5. Cornwallis took up a position at Yorktown, on a peninsula in Virginia. 6. Washington, with the aid of the French troops and of the French fleet, succeeded in hemming him in there. Cornwallis was obliged to surrender. THINGS TO READ 1. "The American Revolution," Fiske, Vol. II, pp. 275-278. 2. "Stories of the Old Dominion," Cooke, pp. 298-334. 3. "American Leaders and Heroes," Gordy, pp. 189-207, 211-220. 4. "George Washington," Scudder, pp. 194-202. 5. "The Boys of 76," Coffin, pp. 303-333, 380-395. 6. "George Washington," Hale, pp. 244-247. 7. "A Short History of the Revolution," Tomlinson, pp. 264-316, ^33-386, 238 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 8. "The BostoQ Tea Party/' Watson, pp. 135-151, 205-209. 9. " Hero Tales from American History," Lodge and Roosevelt, pp. 1-15. 10. "True Story of Lafayette," Brooks. 11. "Two Spies," Lossing. 12. "A Great Treason," Hoppus. 13. "The Hero of Cowpens," McConkey. 14. "The War of Independence," Fiske, pp. 167-181. 15. "American Fights and Fighters," Brady, pp. 84-116, 143-159. 16. " George Washington," Hapgood, pp. 239-248, 258-268. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of approbation, corps, cavalri/, luring, eluding, exasperated, hazardous. 2. Discuss, the question : In what ways did Greene show himself a great commander in his Southern campaign ? 3. Place in your portfolio a portrait of Lafayette and a copy of Trum- bull's picture of Cornwallis's surrender. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Show by a map how Cornwallis was hemmed in at Yorktown. 2. Make a list of the generals on each side during the war, as far as you know them. Try to recall briefly the career of each. 3. Write an account of the siege at Yorktown. I. Cornwallis's position at Yorktown. II. Who was there to oppose him — his force. III. Washington's plan. IV. How this plan was carried out. North America at the Close of the Revolution (Treaty 1 783) XXI PEACE When the news of Yorktown reached England in the latter part of November, there was great excitement and dismay. ''It is all over," said Lord North. Such, indeed, seemed to be the opinion of every one except the king. He protested loudly that the war should go on, and to show how much he was in earnest began at once to plan a new campaign. Many people in Eng- land wei-e, however, glad to see a chance of the war's coming to an end, while the friends of America in Parliament openly re- joiced. There had been other news scarcely less distressing to the ministry than that from America. Misfortune seemed to come from all sides at once. There was revolt in the British posses- sions in India and trouble in Ireland. Spain had captured the last British' post in Florida, and one of England's treasured islands in the Mediterranean. France was creating havoc in the West Indies, and was aiding Spain in besieging Gibraltar. Ships and soldiers were needed everywhere at once. It was in vain that the king asserted he would give up his throne rather than acknowledge the independence of the United States. Public feeling was against him. Even Lord North re- fused any longer to carry out the king's ideas. There was no course open but to yield, so the king at last agreed, saying that the Americans were a wretched set of knaves and he was glad to be rid of them. The work of making the treaty which should bring the war to a close was begun in the spring of 1782. There were many things to be considered, and since not only America, but her allj'^, 239 240 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS France, and not only France, but her ally, Spain, must be thought of, there were times when it seemed as though no conclusion Negotiations would ever be reached. Franklin, John Adams, and for peace, John Jay represented the United States, and by their 1782-1783 skill the new nation gained everything that it could reasonably ask, — independence, the territory between the Alle- ghenies and the Mississippi, and fishery rights off Newfoundland. Washin^on Resigning his Commission The treaty was finally concluded at Paris in September, 1783. At last the American states were free. The liberties they had asserted in the Declaration of Independence, and for which they had fought so long and so well were theirs at last. The last page of the story of the Revolution was completed. But, as always happens, a new story was beginning, even before the old one reached its end. There is still a chapter in the story of the nation's birth to be told. PKACK 241 THE TREATY England made, of course, three treaties, — with the United States, with France, and with Spain. We need take special note only of the American treaty. England Acknou'lcdijcd independence of the thirteen states. Gave the territory between the .\lle- ghenies and the Mississippi. Received United States Gave assurance of the payment of private debts. Beceived acknowledgment of independence, territoiy between AUeghenies and Mississippi. assurance thai private debt.s ' Retained would be paid. right to fish on the banks of New- I foundland. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The news of Cornwallis's surrender wa.s received with dismay by the British ministry. 2. England's European wars were also unsuccessful. '.^. The people of En!j;land were anxious to have peac^e. The king was obliged to submit. 4. A treaty of peace was final!}' concluded in 1783, England acknowl- edging the independence of the United States. THINGS TO READ 1. "George Washington," Scudder, pp. 203-218. 2. "A Short History of the Revolution," Tomlinson, pp. 398-407. 3. "The War of Independence/' Fiske, p. 182. 4. " American History," Ashley, pp. 183-186. 5. "George Washington," Hapsood, pp. 280-282. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of revolt, havoc, knaves. 2. Review the Struggle for Independence, using the outline on page 242 as a basis. 3. Review Washington's career as commander-in-chief. What qualities did he show? R 242 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR (IRAMMAR SCHOOLS I'OR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Make a map to show the boundaries of United States territory, ac- cording to the treaty. 2. Copy the treaty for your notebook. .'}. Write about some hero of the Revolution. [Do not forget that the common people, who were neither generals; nor statesmen, the soldiers whose highest service was obedience to orders, the women who struggled to till the little farms and to support their families while "father was gone to war," even the boys and girls who did the small things which fell to their lot to do in helping the great cause, were as much heroes in their way as the brilliant and the famous.] OUTLINE II L The Struggle for Independence. ^4. Cause. B. Events which led to the war. C The war begun — ■ campaign around Boston. L Lexington and Concord, April 19, 1775. 2. Bunker Hill. 3. Expedition to Canada. 4. Evacuation of Boston by the British. D. Independence. E. Campaign around New York. 1. Importance of New York to each side. 2. What the British accomplished in the campaign. 3. What Washington accomplished. F. The New Jersey campaign. 1. Washington's retreat; the British pursuit. 2. Trenton ; Princeton. 3. Results. G. The campaigns of 1777. L Burgoyne reaches Fort Edward. Victories — Crown Point and Ticonderoga. Delay and defeat — Bennington. 2. St. Leger besieges Fort Stanwix ; his force is scattered. 3. Howe's campaign around Philadelphia. 4. Burgoyne's defeat, October, 1777. //. The winter at Valley Forge. PEACE 243 /. Money affaii's. ./. The French alhunce. K. The British in Philadelphia; their winter; why they left the city; battle of Monmouth. L. Conquest of the Northwest. M. War on the ocean. 1. The American navy ; Paul Jones. iV. War in the South. 1. Georgia conquered. 2. Charleston taken, and the Southern army of the Americans captured. 3. Gates utterly defeated at Camden. 4. Greene's campaign. a. Morgan's victory at the Cowpens. b. Greene and Cornwallis. .). Cornwallis in Virginia. 6. Yorktown; the siege; the surrender. 0. Peace. 1. The treaty. 2. Boundaries of the new nation. THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF AMERICAN HISTORY XXII THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION Throughout the story of the war for independence we have seen again and again the trouble which came from the lack of a government in the United States. There were the state govern- ments, it is true, but if the states were to be united, and to act as one nation rather than thirteen, there must be some central power to make and keep them a harmonious whole. At the time the Declaration of Independence was adopted, Congress recognized this need by appointing a committee to draw up a plan of united government which should be submitted to the states for their approval. This was no easy task. Though united against a common foe, the states were far from united in spirit. There had always been jealousies between Puritan New England and gay, pleasure-loving New York; between staid, sober Pennsjdvania, and aristocratic, slaveholding Virginia. There were real quarrels, sometimes of long standing, over the boundaries of neighboring states. The Ohio country was claimed by no fewer than four of the thirteen. Each state was afraid that she would lose some of her rights if she agreed to a strong central government. None of the number was willing to be taxed by a central power. It was indeed a hard task to make a government which should please thirteen such warring elements, and at the same time be a government worthy of the name. Difficult as the task was, however, the committee drew up what were called the Articles of Confederation, and not long after 244 THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 245 Burgoyne's surrender, in 1777, the Articles were sent to the states for approval. There was much discussion, but in March, 1781, about six months before Cornwallis surrendered, the last of the thirteen states ratified the plan. „, ._,. , ^ The Articles The Articles of Confederation are often spoken of of Confeder- as the " League of Friendship." Each of the thirteen ation adopted, members of the League was still to be a "sovereign ^'^^^ state," and the central govenlment was to be a Congress, made up of delegates appointed yearly by the states. The number of delegates representing the various states varied from two to seven, but the number made little difference, since, however many there were, the state had but one vote. No law on any subject could be passed without the consent of nine of the thirteen states. Congress was to declare war and make peace, make treaties, and regulate the value of coins. It was also to control the army, but could raise soldiers only by calling upon the states for them, as the Continental Congress had done during the Revolution. The power of taxation was to be exercised entirely by the states. Spanish Coin French Coin In use in America during tho Revolution. Congress again might ask for money, assessing each state in pro- portion to the value of its real estate, but it was quite powerless if the states did not pay the tax. The states, also, as well as Congress, were to have the power of coining money or of issuing 246 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS paper currency and requiring its acceptance in payment of debts. Last of all, the Articles could be changed or amended only by consent of all the thirteen states. This, then, was the government under which the United States began its independent existence. It is worthy of study if we would understand the story of the years immediately following its adoption. I'liWKHS HKLl) HV CcJNUKKSS AND THE StATES DNDKR THK AkTIOLES OF Confederation Congress States Lawmaking (with 9 votes out of L3). Raising money by taxation. Declaring war and peace. Imposing duties on imports. Making treaties. Raising an army. Controlling army. Coining money. Maintaining navy. Regulating all commercial affairs. Coining money. Asking states for money and soldiers. r— — T-T-: -■ 1 under the Confederation The weak points in the Articles of Confederation were not Government long in showing themselves. All through the war the country had suffered from having no govern- ment, but its sufferings were small in comparison with the utter confusion which soon succeeded the coming of peace. There were commercial difficulties and financial difficulties and quarrels between states. The people everywhere were poor, and in many cases their farms had been ruined or their business en- tirely stopped by the war. Commerce with England was at a standstill, and in spite of the efforts of John Adams, who was sent as our first minister to Eng- land, the English government would do nothing to change the navigation laws which had made so much trouble. Indeed, the ^ oC_ , /f 1 > \Ilalcigh TV soItth\ \ ^<— >" sCAimiNX \ ^ o /JCapeJMteras_ I Of M e JT I c o ^^9 SCALE OF MILES. 100 200 300 400 i^-~ New York, elaioied 'western laml as far south as the Tennessee River. 86° Lougitude Weat 80° from Greenwich CLAIMS AND CESSIONS. THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 247 English government looked with apparent satisfaetion upon the coniniereial distress in America. Many English statesmen pre- dicted a speedy falling apart of the Union, and the return of the states one by one to ask the protection of the mother country. There Avas no way in which the new nation could compel Eng- land to enter into fair commercial relations with her. She could not even make laws against British ships and owners, as the British had done against those of America. If any such laws were to be made, it would have to be done by each of the thir- teen states, since Congress was given no power in regard to commercial affairs. And there was little likelihood of the thirteen states agreeing upon the matter. They could not even agree in regard to conmiercc among themselves. Connecticut had laid a duty upon goods brought from Massachusetts; Pennsylvania, on those from Delaware; while New York and Rhode Island were like greedy children, reaching out to seize whatever they could lay their hands on. Fortunately one source of dispute had been adjusted at the time the Articles were adopted. This was the ownership of the North- west Territory, The people of Maryland had done a great service to the country by insisting that all conflicting claims to the Ohio country be given up to the general government. All had fought for it, therefore all should share in the benefits from it. And since Maryland refused to agree to the Articles of Confederation unless these claims were abandoned, the states gave them up. In 1787 Congress passed laws providing for the government of the Northwest Territory. It was, as settlement warranted, to be divided into five states. Freedom in religious matters The Ordinance was provided for ; education was to be encouraged ; of 1787 and, most important of all, slavery was forever prohibited. This Ordinance of 1787, as it is known, was the most important act of the government under the Confederation. The feeling between the various states grew more and more 248 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS bitter, and the boundary disputes were waged more fiercely. Congress was powerless to settle any of the difficulties. It could not even collect the money necessary to pay the government ex- penses. Many of the states paid no attention to the calls of Congress for money, and when they did notice these demands it was almost impossible to collect taxes from the poverty-stricken people. There was very little money in the country, and that little was made up of all sorts of coins, — ^English, German, Spanish, French, — making a confusion of values that was somewhat distract- ing to an ordinary mind. Nor was this all. Many of the states, in the hope of bettering affairs, began issuing paper currency. Thus to the con- fusion of foreign coins, which had at least some value, was added that of half a dozen issues of paper money, which soon came to have no value at all. The country was in a sad state. The government, distrusted at home, despised abroad, was almost worse than no government. The people everywhere were in debt, and they grew daily more Shays's and more discontented. Finally a large body of Rebellion Massachusetts farmers tried to lessen their troubles by rising against the state government. They banded to- gether, with Daniel Shays, a Revolutionary captain, as their leader, and for six or seven months they marched about west- ern Massachusetts, preventing the courts from meeting and plundering the country wherever they went. Alexander Hamilton THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 249 The whole nation became alarmed. What had happened in Massachusetts was likely to happen in any of the states. Clearly the Confederation was not a success. Washington and Franklin urged that something be done to strengthen the national govern- ment before it should be too late. Two younger men, Alexander Hamilton of New York, and James Madison of Virginia, worked persistently toward the same end. Most of the states still opposed a strong central government, but it was evident that something must be done. Reluctantly, therefore, all the states except Rhode Island sent delegates to Philadelphia to devise means for improving the govern- ment. These delegates made up what is known as the Federal Convention, and the work this convention did gave us the foun- dation of our government to-day. If we would understand the years of progress and prosperity which came when the Federal Convention had done its work, and the states had taken the Constitution it devised as the law of the land, we must diligently study that Constitution, the corner- stone of our national life. James Madison THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. • Under the Articles of Confederation the states held most of the power, and Congress A^ery little. 2. Congress was especially weak in the fact that it could not enforce its own laws, and had no part in controlling commerce. 3. The Articles of Confederation were not a success. 4. Commerce with foreign nations was almost entirely stopped. Con- gress could of course do nothing to improve this state of affairs, and it 250 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS seemed impossible for the states to agree on anything relating to commer- cial matters. 5. The states were jealous of one another, and made laws which de- stroyed domestic commerce. The people every where were poor and in debt. Money was scarce, and taxes could not be collected. There was great dis- tress. The issuing of paper money by Congress and by many of the states made things still worse. 6. There was in Massachusetts a rebellion of poor people against the state government. It was feared that this might happen in any or all of the states. 7. The necessity of a new government was at last acknowledged by most of the people. THINGS TO READ 1. "George Washington," Scudder, pp. 219-225. 2. "The Critical Period of American History," Fiske, pp. 108-112. 3. "The Story of Massachusetts," Hale, pp. 300-303. 4. "Stories of the Old Bay State," Brooks, pp. 156-165. 5. "The War of Independence," Fiske, pp. 182-190. 6. " American History." Ashley, pp. 180-199. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning oi financial, plundering, persistently, devise, critical. 2. Discuss the questions : Why would the issue of paper money afford no real relief? Why should this time be called the "critical period" ? 3. Prepare yourself to write clearly your opinion as to the reason for the failure of the Articles of Confederation. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Copy the statement of distribution of power under the Articles of Confederation. 2. State the faults of the Articles. XXIII FRAMING THE CONSTITUTION In May, 1787, the delegates to the Federal Convention as- sembled in Philadelphia, in the old Statehouse, where the Con- tinental Congress had held its meetings. Once more the staid old Quaker City was to .see the meeting of some of the country's greatest men. Once more the walls of "Independence Hall," as we call it now, were to ring with the discussion of great ques- tions. For now, no less than in the days preceding the Declara- tion of Independence, was America facing a crisis. The work to be done was serious work, and upon it was to rest the history of the future. Should it be shameful history of civil war and anarchy, or the glorious story of a nation loved by her people and honored by the world ? The members having all, or nearly all, arrived, the convention was called to order, and Washington was elected its president. It was decided that the proceedings of the assembly ^j^^ Federal should be kept secret, that the delegates might be Convention, quite free from the restriction of public opinion in May to Sep- their various states. In September the work which *™ ^^' ^^ ^ had been done was made public and gent to the states for their consideration. Not until more than fifty years had passed did the story of the discussions which led to this result come to the knowledge of the people. It will help us to understand the Constitution if we consider some of the questions its makers had to face and see how they met them. First of all, the Articles of Confederation had been a compact between states, and all its laws had been made to oper- ate upon states and not upon individuals. Here Avas one reason, 251 252 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS and the greatest reason, why Congress had been so powerless to carry out its decrees. Individuals who break the laws under which they live can be punished; they can be fined or sent to prison. But who could imprison a state which refused to obey the law ? Or of what use would it be to fine a state when Con- gress had no power to make the state pay the fine ? The great minds of the nation began to see that the central government must somehow be empowered to make laws which should be binding upon individuals, regardless of the state in which they lived. If this were true, then must not the central government, or at least the lawmaking part of it, be made up of representa- tives, not of the states, but of the people of the states as indi- viduals ? So questioned the wise ones. But at this there was a storm of protest. What would become of the little states, plaintively asked their delegates, if such a plan were adopted ? What chance would Georgia, for instance, have in a Congress in which she would have but one representa- tive, while Virginia would have sixteen ? But, came the reply, is it right to give the people of Georgia just as much power in the lawmaking bod}^ as is given to the people of Virginia, who are sixteen times as many ? It was difficult work, however, to persuade the delegates from the smaller states that any fate except utter destruction awaited these states in the proposed plan. Both sides were excited and angry, and the convention came near being entirely broken up. At last, however, each side yielded a little to the other, and a compromise was made. By it came the present arrangement of the lawmaking part of our government. Congress, it was planned, should be made up of two houses. In one of these the members should represent the Compromise ^ between large people of the country. That is, each state should and small be represented according to the number of people states -^ j^ j^ ^YiQ other house the states, regardless of size, should have equal representation. It was a wise plan, and FRAMING THE CONSTITUTION 253 the delegates from the small states were willing to accept it. Indeed, we see no more antagonism between small states and large ones. A new subject of controversy soon arose, however. This was the question of slavery, and the feeling concerning it which we see arising in the convention was destined to grow in the years to come until it should become a danger, threatening the very life of the nation. At this time, however, no one had any thought of such a state of affairs in the future. There were in 1787 some slaves in all the states except Massachusetts; but the number north of Maryland was small, and it was evident that slavery would sooner or later die out in all the Northern states. Neither the climate nor the industries of the people were suited to the use of slaye labor. Indeed, it was beUeved by many people that slavery would disappear even in the South after a time. In 1787, however, the Southern states had many slaves, and when a ques- tion relating to slavery came up in the convention, the North and the South were naturally found on opposite sides of it, as they were always found as long as slavery endured. The first of these questions came when it had been decided that people and not states should be represented in the lower house of Congress. The number of people in a state compromise would determine the number of representatives to between slave which the state was entitled. The question im- ^^'^ ^""^^ mediately arose, What of the slaves ? Should they be counted in the number of people or not ? The Southern dele- gates were prompt in their reply that certainly slaves were people. The delegates from the North were equally prompt in their re- sponse that slaves were only property. Immediately discussion began, and it was long and bitter. As in the contest between large states and small, the matter was finally settled by a com- promise. It was agreed that in counting the population of any state for the assignment of representatives, every five slaves should be counted as three persons added to the population. 254 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS This, of course, was a partial triumph for the South, as it in- creased the number of their representatives; and it helped to make the South powerful in Congress for all the years that slavery lasted. But since without this compromise it is doubtful whether the Constitution would ever have been adopted, the action of the convention was doubtless wise. Once more the slavery question came up, and once more a compromise was necessary to end the discussion. There were those in the convention as elsewhere who believed that slavery would sooner or later die out in all the states. There was a grow- ing party in Virginia favoring its abolition, and also in Mary- land. And everywhere except in South Carolina and Georgia most people believed that the slave trade should be stopped. These two states wished it continued because the exhausting work in rice and indigo fields used up negroes very rapidly, and the planters depended upon frequent additions to their workers. When it was proposed in the convention to put a stop to the importation of slaves, the delegates from Georgia and South Carohna were firm in their refusal to consider the Constitution at all if such a measure was introduced. It would not do to go on without them. There were too many doubtful states already. If these two should reject the Constitution, it was more than likely that it would never be adopted. What would have been done is chfficult to guess had it no( been that another question equally hard to settle presented itself, and a sort of "bargain," as one delegate called it. Compromise o j cd , between com- was made. This was the question of allowmg Con- merciai and gress to regulate commerce. The Southern delegates piantmg ^j^ opposcd this strongly, and it was passed only when Georgia and South Carolina consented to vote for it on condition that the New England delegates should vote to prolong the slave trade for twenty years, which thoy accord- ingly did. We can see now how" disastrous this extension of the slave FRAMING THE CONSTITUTION 255 trade became, because we can look back and see tlie wonderful inventions which came early in the new century to change the whole face of the slavery question. But in 1787 the page of the new century had not been turned, and it was generally hoped Signing of the Constitution. September 17. 178^ From an early unfinished picture. and believed that the Ufe of slavery in America would be short, and its end peaceful. - These were the great struggles which made the lawmaking part of our government what it is. There were other but lesser discussions in regard to the executive department, and that of the courts or juchciary. Should there be one executive or more than one ? This was a question which was much discussed, and in answer to which many strange plans were proposed. It was finally settled that there should be but one, that he should be 256 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS elected by a body of men expressly selected by the various states for that purpose, that he should hold office for four years, and should be known as the President of the United States of America. In regard to the courts of the nation, the principal thing we need to notice is that to the highest or Supreme Court was in- trusted the duty of explaining the Constitution and of deciding any doubtful points in regard to it that might arise. To provide a home for this threefold government, it was de- cided that a territory not more than ten miles square should be given to the nation. Here forever should be the seat of the national government, here should be the center of the great machinery of the nation's life. Thus the three departments of the government were planned, and the duties of each were outlined in the Constitution which was submitted to the states. The great work of the convention was done. It only remained to be seen what the states would do with that work. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The Federal Convention met in 1787. 2. It formed the Constitution by which we are now governed. 3. There were three great compromises necessary to satisfy the dele- gates from the various states. a. The first of these was a question as to representation, — whether it should be equal for all states or in proportion to the number of people, It was settled by adopting the idea of equal repre- sentation in the upper house, while that of representation in proportion to population was decided upon for the lower house. 6. A second controversy — as to whether slaves should be counted in the population when assigning representatives — was settled by allowing five slaves to count as much as three free men. c. A third compromise concerned the slave trade. It was to be per- mitted for the next twenty years after the formation of the Con- stitution, in return for which the Southern delegates withdrew their opposition to the control of commerce by Congress.. FRAMING THE CONSTITUTION 257 THINGS TO READ 1. "True Story of Franklin," Brooks, pp. 211-229. 2. "The Critical Period," Fiske, pp. 230-232, 226-228, 301-305. 3. "The War of Independence," Fi.ske, pp. 190-193. 1. " History of the United States," Adams and TnMit, pp. ISl^lSS. 5. " George Washington," Hapgood, pp. 306-312. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of crisis, anarchy, restriction, compromise, con- troversy, partial, abolition, indigo, executive, judiciary. 2. Prepare yourself to tell clearly what is meant by our "threefold government," and tell the function of each of its parts. 3. Place the picture of Madison, who is often called the "Father of the Constitution," in your portfolio; also that of Hamilton. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK Write about the Federal Convention. 1. When and where it met, and what it did. 2. General plan of the government it devised. 3. How the faults of the Articles of Confederation were overcome. XXIV IN THE HANDS OF THE PEOPLE The Federal Convention broke up, and its members set out upon their homeward journeys. Eagerly the people awaited their coming that they might see the plan which the convention had worked out, and concerning which the members had as yet told nothing. We must remember that there were at this time no railroads to carry the members spinning across the country to their homes; no telegraphs to flash the news of their work along the wires that very day to distant towns; no great newspapers printed by thou- sands of copies on whirring presses, to lay the text of the new Constitution next morning on the breakfast table of each family throughout the land. Most of the members rode home on horseback, with the precious document jt had taken all these months to form securely packed in their saddle-bags or buttoned tightly in the inside pockets of their coats. First of all, as an act of courtesy, the Constitution must be formally submitted to Congress and to the legislatures of the states. Then it must be submitted, as had been planned, to conventions of the people, called in each state to accept or reject the new government. If nine of the thirteen states should ratify it, the Constitution would become the law of the land, and the remaining four states might then accept it or remain out of the Union, as they chose. We have learned enough of the American people to know that there would be plenty of discussion of the new plan, and that not only the members of state legislatures and conventions, lawyers and other learned men, would take part in it, but also that the 258 IN THK HANDS OF THK PKOPLK 250 plain people everywhere would talk it over in tavern and work- shop, on village greens and in the streets of the towns. We are not surprised to learn that the people naturally divided into two great i)arties, — the Federalists, who believed in the Constitu- tion and were putting forth every effort to secure its adoption, and the anti-Federalists, who, as their name implies, took the opposite side and fought vigorously against its acceptance. There were Federalists and anti-Federalists in every state, but in some states one party seemed stronger, and in some the other, while in still others they seemed so evenly balanced that it was hard to foretell the outcome. All through the winter and spring the discussion went on. Many and bitter were the objections raised by the anti-Federal- ists. What could be expected but tyranny from a government to which such unheard-of powers were given, they asked. What would prevent Congress from overtaxing the people ? How could the people, already overburdened with taxes, support an elabo- rate Federal government ? What need was there for a territory ten miles square as a seat for this government ? Why would not one mile square be enough ? What was the matter with the old Confederation anyway ? And who were the men who had planned this scheme ? Hamilton and Madison ? Only boys ! Franklin ? In his second childhood ! And as for Washington, — the mildest of the anti-Federalists said he might be a good general, but planning a government was not exactly in his line. Some of the violent ones went so far as to call him a "born fool." Meanwhile, one by one the conventions of the people met in the various states, and one by one the news of their action be- came kno\vn throughout the country. Little Delaware led the way, ratifying the Constitution on December 6, 1787. Penn- sylvania and New Jersey followed in the same month, while Georgia and Connecticut decided for it in the first month of the new year. Five states ! There was much rejoicing among the Federalists, but the anxious time was not yet passed. The 260 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Massachusetts convention met on January 9, the very day that Connecticut's name had been added to the Hst. What would the people of Massachusetts do with the Constitution ? The Massachusetts delegates to the convention had been doubtful from the first. Would the people of the "land of the town meet- ing" consent to give so much power to a far-away national gov- ernment? Samuel Adams, the "Father of the Revolution," was known to be opposed to it, and his influence in Massachusetts was mighty. But Samuel Adams was a man great enough to learn and great enough to admit himself wrong; and when the vote was taken on the 6th of February, he was among those who voted for the Constitution, which was ratified by a vote of 187 to 168. The Federalists rejoiced greatly over the result in Massachu- setts, and when Maryland was added to the list in April, and South Carolina in May, but one state more was needed to make the nine. The Virginia convention met early in June. Once more the people awaited anxiously the news of its action, for Virginia, like Massachusetts, had been doubtful from the first, and like Massachusetts was too large and important to be left out of the Union. But, like Massachusetts again, the day was won for the Constitution by a narrow majority of 89 to 79. Meanwhile New Hampshire had reached a decision a few days previous to the action in Virginia. Ten states were now agreed. On the Fourth of July, only a few days later, the Federalists throughout the country celebrated their victory by such rejoicings as America had never before seen. The people as a whole were wild with enthusiasm. The country was saved ! The three remaining states finally decided to come into the Union. In New York, where the anti-Federalists were especially strong, the ratification was largely due to the efforts of Hamil- ton, and took place soon after that of the other ten. North Carolina and Rhode Island were slower, remaining outside the Union until it was really estabhshed, and the first President had IN THE HANDS OF THE PEOPLE 261 been in office some time. But they came at last, and tfie "thir- teen original colonies" were banded together into one nation. The question, "What will the people do with the Constitu- tion?" is answered. The new question becomes, "What will the Constitution do for the people?" THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. It was necessary for nine states to ratify the Constitution to make it the law of the land. 2. The people were soon divided into two parties — - Federalists and an ti- Federalists. 3. Of these the Federalists proved the stronger, and the Constitution was adopted. 4. Rhode Island and North Carolina remained out of the Union until after the new government was in operation. Then they decided to join their sister states. THINGS TO READ 1. "The Critical Period," Plske, pp. 324-331. 2. "Stories of the Old Bay State," Brooks, pp. 166-173. 3. " Government and the Citizen," Ashley, pp. 135-14.5. 4. "The Growth of the American Nation," Judson, pp. 92-97. 5. "The Men Who Made the Nation," Sparks, pp. 181-198. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of document, legislatures. 2. Imagine yourself a member of the Federal Convention. Write the speech which you might make in presenting the proposed Constitution to the people of your state for their consideration. Remember that as yet they know nothing of the plan. 3. Suppose that Rhode Island and North Caz-olina had never come into the Union. Would any disadvantages have come to them or to the other states from this action ? XXV AFTERWORD It is a glorious day in the springtime, — the last day of April, 1789. The noon sun throws its most brilliant rays upon the city of New York, the temporary seat of the new American govern- ment. It is a gala day in the city. Crowds in holiday attire ■ A' f7MU wy Federal Hall, New York. 1789 Where Washington was inaugurated. throng the streets. A sound of military music bursts upon the air, and a company of soldiers comes into sight, escorting the man whom the crowds are assembled to honor. It is the nation's hero, Washington, — he who carried the nation safely through the perils of war; he who wisely counseled in the perils of these 262 AFTKinVOHl) 2{V.] later years of weakness; he who has been called by the people to lead them once more — to be the first to fill the chair which awaits the President of these United States. He comes ! and the crowds surge forward to give him greet in^. Hats wave, handkerchiefs flutter, all eyes are turned toward the George Washington From a photOKravure of the Stuart portrait fiuished at Philadelphia in the .sprinjt of lyqo Ck)pyrighted, 1893, by A. W. Elson Co., Boston. 264 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS balcony where he will presently appear. A hush falls over the great company as he steps forth, older, surely, — grayer, per- haps, — but with the same fine, calm face, the same commanding presence, the same even tones, as he promises that he will execute faithfully the office of the President of the United States, and defend the Constitution to the best of his ability. There let us leave him, standing before the people he has served so faithfully and so well. There let us leave the nation in the presence of its hero, the "Father of his Country," while the air rings with the shout, "Long live George Washington, President of the United States." OUTLINE IV. The critical period of American history. A. The Articles of Confederation. 1. By whom planned. 2. When and by whom adopted. 3. Faults. B. Troubles of Congress and people. Commercial; financial. C. The Federal Convention. 1. When and where it met, and what it did. 2. General plan of the government it devised. 3. How the faults of the Articles of Confederation were overcome. D. The adoption of the Constitution. PART III THE NATION'S LIFE AND PROGRESS 265 PART lil. THE NATION'S LIFE AND TliOGRESS. I. FOREAVORD. The history of the United States, compared with the his- tory of any country of P^iirope, is a very short story indeed. And }'et tliere have been interesting and important hai)pen- ings during the little more than a century since Washington became our first President. There has been rapid and wonderful growth — in the size of our country; in the number of its people; in the number of comforts which make life easier and more delightful: in the development of our industries; and in the position of our nation in the world. Tiiere have been many changes not only in wavs of life, but in methods of business, and in the conduct of the industries by wiiich people live. There lias V)een a great war — a long struggle over slavery — in which the Tiiion -itself was threatened; but the Union still stands and there are now no slaves within it. There have been othei' wars — with England, with Mexico, with Spain, (xreat political ideas — The Monroe Doctrine, the protective tariff, free trade, currency questions, government control or ownership of railroads, and the country's resources — have agitated the country, and some of them agitate it still. Great men — leaders, orators, soldiers, statesmen — have come and gone, leaving their impress on the page before us. At first the story has much of the glamour of Revolutionary times. But 2(')? 268 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS as we come down through the years to our own day the people begin to seem more Uke ourselves, and much of the romance dies out. We shall hear oftener of pohtics than of patriotism, and we need sometimes to remind ourselves that the two may go together. We shall find much to interest us, even in these prosaic times, if we but search for it. And we must remember that we, the children of to-day, are to be the men and women of to-morrow; now we read of the deeds of our fathers — then we shall be mak- ing history for the children of future generations to read. DIVISIONS OF OUR NATIONAL HISTORY I. Period of Organization (Federalist Supremacy) 1789-1801 (Presidenta: Washington, 1789-1797; Adams, 1797-1801.) II. The Jeffersonian Republicans 1801-1809 (President: Jefferson; 1801-1809.") III. The Struggle for Commercial Independence (The War of 1812) 1809-1817 (President: Madison; 1809-1817.) IV. New Political Ideas and Parties 1817-1829 (Presidents: Monroe, 1817-1825; J. Q. Adams, 1826-1829.) V. The Democracy led by Jackson 1829-1841 (Presidents: Jackson, 1829-1837: Van Buren, 1837-1841.) VI. Slavery threatens the Union. The Sections grow apart . . • 1841-1860 (Presidents: Harrison and Tyler, 1841-1845; Polk, 1845-1849; Taylor and Fillmore, 1829-1853; Pierce, 1853-1857; Buchanan, 1857-1861.) VII. Secession and Civil War 1860-1865 (President: Lincoln.) VIII. Reconstruction 1865-1873 (Presidents: Johnson, 1865-1869; Grant, 1869-1873.) IX. The New Union 1873- (Presidents: Grant, 1873-1877; Hayes, 1877-1881; Garfield and Arthur, 1881-1885; Cleveland, 1885-1889; Harrison, 1889-1893; Cleveland, i893-1897; McKinley, 1897-1901; Roosevelt, 1901-1909; Taft, 1909- .) PERIOD OF ORGANIZATION II OHGA^IZINU THJi: GOVERNMENT The 4th of March, 1789, had been set as the date when the wheels of the new government should be set in motion, but the members of Congress were slow in reaching New York, and it was the 30th of April before they were ready to inaugurate the President and really begin their work. Many and serious problems confronted the nation. The Con- federation had proved a dismal failure, and the country was reaping the harvest of years of weakness and disorder. There was little confidence in the government at home or abroad. Commerce was at a standstill, and all business had been nearly ruined by the war. The people were restless and dissatisfied. The new government was felt by all to be an experiment, and many boldly predicted its failure. Fortunately the name of Washington carried confidence with it; with another man at the head of the undertaking it is difficult to say just what would have happened. The Congress went to work at once. It established the Su- preme Court according to the requirements of the Constitution, and organized the inferior courts. It created three Acts of executive departments (of war, of state, and of the Congress treasury), and the office of attorney-general. It reorganized the post-office already in existence. It confirmed the acts of the Confederation in regard to the Northwest Territory. It proposed twelve amendments to the Constitution, of which ten 269 270 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS were adopted by the states. And more important, perhaps, than any of these things, it took decisive steps to place the finances of the government on a secure footing. The question of obtaining funds foi- paying government ex- penses was a serious one. Congress took up this question at once. Tariff law passing a tariff law. Is tariff a new word to you ? passed "We shall meet it often in coming chapters. A tariff is a tax or duty on goods brought into or sent out of a country. Duties on exports have never been laid in the United States. Duties on imports are paid to the government by those who im- port the goods. In addition to the tariff, the first Congress passed other laws relating to money matters. Alexander Hamilton had been ap- Aiexander pointed Secretary of the Treasury. He was without Hamilton doubt the foremost financier of his day, and the measures that he proposed were wise, though some of the men of his time felt that they were not necessary or that Congress had no right to pass them. First he considered the de})t of the nation. This amounted to fifty-four millions of dollars, which had been borrowed by the -Pijg government in the days of tlie Revolution and the national Confederation ; Hamilton recommended most earnestly ^^^^ that Congress agree to pay this debt in full. Many objections were raised, but it was finally voted: There was even more vigorous objection to Hamilton's proposal that the national government pay the state debts, ])'!t tliis also was finally agreed to. Other plans made by Hamilton were for the establishment of a national bank, and for an excise law taxing alcoholic liquors. The United These, too, were ])itterly oj^posed. The question of States Bank ^}^y bank especially caused prolonged discussion in Congress. Hamilton's idea was to give the right to establish a bank — that is, a charter — to a company formed for the pur- pose by private individuals. Certain safeguards to be required by Congress would make the bank a solid financial institution; OKC.ANIZINC TIIK aoVEKNMKNT 271 and it would be used by the government as a place of deposit for government funds. Had Congress any right to give a charter to a private business enterprise ? This question was fiercely debated. No, . 1 I ,v First appear- said Madison and Jctierson and many others, the ance of the i (constitution gives no such right. Yes, said Hamil- doctrine of ton and his followers. Congress is given by theConsti- "'"^P'led tut ion the right to make any laws necessary to carry out the powers granted it. The bank bill was passed, and the " Ijuited States Bank" was chartered. Around thes(> policies of Hamilton two parties began rapidly to form. The Federalists, who had favored the Constitution and a stiong central government, naturally followed Formation of Hamilton, with his doctrine of "implied powers" for political the national government, and "broad" or "loose Parties construction" for the Constitution. But those who feared a strong national government — and they were many — quite as naturally formed a strong opposing party, calling themselves Repubhcans. They believed in a "strict construction" of the Constitution, and in only those powers for the national govern- ment which were stated and not implied. The fear of a return to monarchy still agitated the country, and every act of Washington or of the Federalist majority in Congress was looked upon by many as a step toward The making Washington king. The Federalists were Republicans feared as "aristocrats." The new Republican party gained many adherents, whose belief in the declaration that "all men are created free and equal" was literal and intense. The voice of the party was Thomas Jefferson, its ardent leader, and the party moved rapidly toward power. And now the cry "Liberty, equality, fraternity" came across the Atlantic from a new France — for the friend The French and ally of America in the Revolution was now her- Revolution self involved in a tremendous and dreadful struggle for liberty. 272 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS For centuries the French people had been crushed under the heavy hand of their rulers. Now at last the crushing hand had been thrown off. The king was cast into prison, con- demned, executed. Many of the nobles met a like fate, and at last the revolutionists, frenzied by their taste of power, turned even upon one another. France entered upon a "carnival of blood." Neighboring monarchs took alarm, and soon the new French republic found itself at war with almost all Europe. The Republicans in America watched the struggle with eager sympathy, and when a French envoy, "Citizen Genet," arrived Republican i^ America to ask aid from the government, he was sympathy with greeted with great enthusiasm by the people. He France began at once to enlist men and to send out priva- teers, so sure was he that the aid he asked would be given. It must, therefore, have been a great surprise to him when he was refused assistance, and Washington issued his "proc- lamation of neutrality," to warn Americans that they must help neither side in the war. Genet was indignant, his Repub- lican friends in America were indignant, and both he and they were loud in their fault-finding with Washington and his Federalist advisers. So far did they go in their sneers and insults directed at the government that it became necessary to ask the French government to recall Genet. In spite of these bitter attacks, Washington enforced the neutrality he had ordered, and the Republicans were obliged to give up all idea of helping the French. It was perhaps somewhat to be expected that the relations of the new nation with England would be troublesome, and so in- Commercial .flsed they were from the beginning. During Eng- grievances land's war with the French republic the British against trespassed upon American rights even more than "^^ before. No American merchant ship was safe any- where at sea, or in any French or British West India port. The British not only seized provisions bound for France or the French West Indies, but they seized and often destroyed the vessels ORGANIZING THE GOVERNMENT 273 Showing Territory settled in 1790 which carried them. No American sailor could be sure that he would not be dragged from the deck of his ship and forced on board a British man-of-war as a supposed deserter from the British navy — for these things happened again and again. In her every action England showed her contempt for the United States. The violence of Republican sympathy for France was equaled only by the violence of the same party's hatred for England. We can therefore understand the vigor with which they urged retaliation for British insults. The possibility of any adjustment of the trouble without war, or at least without shutting out all English goods from American markets, they refused to consider. The Federalists were anxious to avoid war, but the tide of public opinion was decidedly against them. Washington became alarmed at the situation, and made an attempt to settle the difficulties by sending a s])ecial envoy to England to make a treaty. John Jay was appointed to undertake this difficult task. Jay succeeded in making a treaty which was approved by the President and ratified by the Senate. A great storm of pro- test broke out, however, from all parts of the coun- jay's Treaty, try. What rights did the treaty secure for America ? i794- the Republicans asked. Had England agreed to stop her im- pressment of seamen ? or to pay for liolding the forts on the American frontier for twelve years ? In fact, did the treaty settle any of the grievances America had against England ? Jay was openly accused of having been bribed by British gold. And yet the treaty he had made was without doubt the best that could have been obtained from England at that time, and it was far better than no treaty, and far better than war. The 274 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS treaty was supported by the Federalists, and was ably defended by Hamilton and other party leaders. After the first excitement had passed, opposition to it largely disappeared, and commercial conditions began slowly to improve. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Government under the Constitution began in 1789. 2. Important acts of Congress were (1) Passage of a tariff law. (2) Agreement to pay national and state debts in full. (3) Passage of a law taxing distilled liquors. (4) Charter of the United States Bank. Alexander Hamilton planned these financial measures. 3. Hamilton's supporters, the Federalists, believed in a "loose construc- tion" of the Constitution and in "implied powers, " -^ that is, that the government might do many things not directly mentioned in the Consti- tution. 4. Hamilton's opponents, calhng themselves Republicans, beUeved in "strict construction" and in "states' rights." The Republican leaders were Jefferson and Madison. 5. The Republicans were the champions of the common people. They sympathized deeply with the French revolutionists. Much opposition was aroused among them by Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality. 6. Commercial relations with England threatened war. Jay's treaty, made in 1794, averted it, but the treaty was strongly opposed by the Re- publicans, who hated England and believed the treaty favored that coun- try more than the United States. 7. "To the Republicans we owe much; but in every town from East- port to the St. Mary's River they were then the party of violence, of disorder, of mob rule." — John Bach McMaster. THINGS TO READ 1. Hamilton, in "Four American Patriots," Burton, pp. 71-130. 2. George Washington, the First President, pp. lSl-217 in "The Men who made the Nation." — Sparks. 3. "History of the People of the United States," McMaster, Vol. II, pp. 91-9.5. ORGANIZINC. THE GOVERNMENT 275 THINGS TO DO 1. Make a. brief .stutly of the United States government as established by the Constitution : — (1) Who are the lawmakers? How are representatives chosen? How are senators chosen ? Who presides at the meetings of the House of Representatives ? W'ho presides in the Senate ? How does the number of the senators compare with the number of representatives ? How does the number of members of Congi-ess now compare with the number in 1789 ? (2) The President is the head of the executive branch of the govern- ment. Who are his chief helpers in this department ? Was there a "cabinet" in Washington's time? How many executive heads were there ? What were their departments ? (3) What is a court of justice ? What part does the judge have in its proceedings ? What kinds of troubles may be taken to court for settlement? What courts are under the control of the Federal government ? 2. Find the exact meaning of inaugurate, funds, tariff, imports, exports, financier, excise, charter, financial, deposit, policies, doctrine, implied, con- struction, aristocrats, adherents, privateers, proclamation, neutrality, retalia- tion, impressment. 3. Discuss in class the following questions : — • (1) Why should the national government assume the state debts? {1) What ground had France for asking aid from America? What ground had Washington for refusing it ? 4. P^rom what public document is the quotation "all men are created free and equal" taken? Who is the author of the paper? o. Contrast the American and the French Revolution. What part did Lafayette take in the latter ? FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK Alexander Hamilton (Portrait) "He smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth." — Wehsteu. "The Constitution was the work of many men. Our financial system was the work of one, who worked aiono." T 276 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS He reconimended : — 1. That the United States assume in full the debts of the Cuufederation. 2. That the United States assume the debts of the separate states. 3. That the government lay an excise tax on distilled liquors. 4. That the government establish a national bank. Congress passed all these measures. (A brief sketch of Hamilton's life, or of some part oi his life which specially interests you.) John Jay His public services (consult encyclopedia) . "It [the treaty] was not fair nor equitable; England did not give us anything like fair commercial privileges; nor did she promise to give up impressment; but she did give up the frontier posts, and agreed to pay for the provision she had seized." — McLadghlin. Ill FURTHER DIFFICULTIES CONFRONTING THE NATION In addition to tiie perplexing problems connected with English and French affairs, the Indians of Ohio and the people of western Peinisylvania also gave the government trouble. The Whisky Whisky making was largely carried on in western Rebellion, P(Minsylvania, and the Whisky Rebellion, as it is ^"^^^ known, arose from the resistance to the excise law. The officials sent to collect the tax were misused, and there were riots, and at length an organized insurrection. Washington was obliged to send soldiers to settle the difficulty. In the same year that this was done, the Indians of Ohio, who had been troubling the settlers in the West, and who had de- feated two armies sent against them, were brought jndjan to terms by General Anthony Wayne. A treaty was troubles in made with the chiefs in 1795. These are both o^io ended, minor difficulties, and we consider them chiefly be- ^^^^ cause they help to show the troubled conditions in the United States in that year — 1794. With the "Whisky Boys" of Penn.sylvania in revolt; with the Ohio Indians threat- Conditions ening the frontier; with England searching ships, in 1794 condemning cargoes, impressing seamen, — in a word, destroy- ing American commerce; with the Republicans violently hostile to whatever the President and his advisers did, — it was indeed an unhappy year. We know that Washington was often weary and heartsick. "I would rather be on my farm than t^o be emperor of the world," he said at one time, "and yot they say I unsh to \^o a king." 277 278 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR (GRAMMAR SCHOOLS In 1797 Washington's second term ended. Most of the diffi- culties we have read about had been safely overcome, and yet it was a divided people — Republicans bitter against Federalists, Federalists equally bitter against Republicans — over whom John Adams came to be President. Washington had re- fused to be a candidate for a third term, and had in his "Farewell Address" taken his leave of public life. John Adams continued to uphold Federalist principles, and again, as in Washington's time, the foreign relations of the country were the principal matters in dispute. Jay's treaty, in additior) to the John Adams, Presiient, 1797-iSoi FURTHEll DIFFICULTIES CONFRONTING THE NATION 279 Threatened war with France, 1797- 1800 the French protests it aroused in America, seemed Hkely to involve us in trouble with France. The government of that country seemed much disturbed at America's entering into such an agreement without her knowledge antl approval. American merchant- men were plundered by French men-of-war; Ameri- can ministers were insulted by the French govern- ment. A commission of three men was appointed by Adams to attempt some settlement with ministers, but they were re- fused official recognition, and were secretly told by emissaries knowai in the negotiations only as X, Y, and Z, that America must pay money to the French government if she would have her ministers received. This humiliating demand roused Americans everywhere to anger. Even Republicans recognized this as an insult. Preparations were made for war. Washington was called again from his quiet home to take command of the arm3^ The navy was increased, and war upon the ocean was actually begun. But the French, seeming now to realize that America was in earnest in her resentment, expressed their willing- ness to make peace, and the United States agreed. Thus the 'X. Y. Z. affair," as it was known, came to an end. Taking advantage of the feeling against France now aroused, the Federalist partv proceeded to pass three acts, aimed at for- eigners, and at the Republicans, who had carried their criticism of Washington and Adams beyond all bounds. The acts were as follows : — 1. The Naturalization Act increased the time required be- fore a foreigner could become a citizen, from five to fourteen years. Mount Vernon Washington's home. 280 AMERICAN HISTOKV FOH (iHAMMAK SCHOOLS 2. The Alieu Act gave the President the right to send danger- ous foreigners out of the country. The Alien ^- The Sedition Act made it a crime to print and Sedition or publish "any false, scandalous, or malicious writ- ^^^^ ings" against the government, Congress, or the President. The Alien and Sedition laws were called unconstitutional, un- just, and tyrannical, by the Repubhcans, and there is scarcely T,. ,,. . . room to doubt that they were The Virginia "^ and Kentucky all these. The legislatures of resolutions, Virginia and Kentucky passed ^^^ resolutions concerning them. In the Kentucky resolutions it was declared that ''nulhfication" by the states was the proper remedy. NulUfying means making of no effect. That a single state should consider refusing to be bound by laws passed by the general government shows us how lightly the bond of union was held in such a state. The state first, — the Union in the second place, — this was the common sentiment among Republicans, especially in the Southern states. The dangers of extreme state rights doctrines were much lessened by the influence of John Marshall, made Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in 1801. For thirty-five years he ably supported the general government in his deci- sions, preventing encroachment of the states upon it. It is said of him, " He found the Constitution paper, and made it power ; he found it a skeleton, and clothed it with flesh and blood." The passage of the Alien and Sedition laws proved a serious blow to the power of the Federalist party. So great was the John Marshall FURTHER DIFFICULTIES CONFRONTiNU THE NATION 281 disapproval of tlie people, in fact, that the election of 1800 brought the Republicans into power, — power which the Feder- alists were never to enj oy again. Republican Of the people during these success in the first years of the republic much election of of interest might be told. It will be easier to understand the political movements of the time if we can picture to ourselves the life of the time, — a slowly moving current compared with life to-day, and yet full, as life always is, of color and movement. Imagine, if you can, a United States containing no more people than New York City contains to-day. Imagine a United States without a railroad, without a steamboat, without a telegraph or a telephone. Journeys by stage-coach or on horseback Avere slow affairs, and yet, know- ing nothing swifter, the people were content. They were not only content — they Ljfg ^^ were inclined to be early years of self-satisfied, knowing *^^ century little of their neighbors in other towns and other states. News also traveled slowly, and opinions were slowly formed and slowly changed. Farming was the chief occupation of the time. In the South a new crop had been introduced — cotton, a plant native to India. It was at first not a very profitable crop, how- ever, since it required so much labor to remove the seeds from the fiber. It took one person about a day to clean a single pound. A Cotton Gin 282 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS In 1793, however, all this was changed by Eli Whitney's inven- tion, the cotton gin. By the use of a single machine a hundred Tijg pounds of cotton could be cleaned in a day, and cotton gin, cotton raising at once began to be profitaljle. Within ^793 seven years after Whitney's invention of the cotton gin, the production of cotton in the Southern states increased from less than two hundred thousand pounds a year to more than seventeen milhon pounds. This meant prosperity for the South, and it also meant great increase in the number of slaves on South- ern plantations. What this meant to the nation, we must read the story of later years to know. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The Whisky Rebellion, an uprising in Pennsylvania to resist Iho excise law, tested the strength of the new government. 2. Troubles on the Western frontier with the Indians were brought to ;iu end by General Wayne's successful campaign. 3. Trouble with France, in Adams's administration, made wai- seem likely. It was, however, avoided. 4 The acts known as the "Alien and Sedition laws," passed l)y tlx' Federalists in Congress, aroused great opposition. So unpopular were these measures that the Federalists lost the election of 1800, and Thomas Jeffer- son became President. 5. The cotton gin, invented by Eli Whitne}'^ in 1793, had important effects on cotton raising and slaveholding. THINGS TO READ 1. The Whisky RcbeUion : — "History of the People of (he I'nited States," McMaster, Vol. II, pp. 189-203. 2. Threatened war with France, " A Short History of the United States," Bassett, pp. 278-282. 3. Fall of the Federal Party, " A Shoi't History of the United States," Bassett, pp. 283-290. 4. Life on the frontier : — " American Pioneers," Mowry. pp. 103-12r), 138-149. FURTHER DIFFICULTIES CONFROXTINC! THE NATION 283 "Days and Deeds a lliuuired Years Ago," Stone and Fickett, pp 16-35. "Conquest of the Old Northwest/' Baldwin, pj). 187-207. "Stories of Pioneer Life," Bass. "The Making of the Ohio Valley States," Drake, pp. 153-1S9. Com- pare with "A Century of Dishonor," Jackson, pp. 37-46. 5. The early post-ofRce : — McMaster, Vol. II, pp. 58-64. 6. The cotton gin : — "American Inventions and Inventors," Mowry, pp. 143-157. "Four American Inventors," Perry, pp. 73-13'J. "Days and Deeds a Hundred Years Ago," Stone and Fickett, pp. 53-67. 7. Last days of Washington, "George WasWngton/' Hapgood, pp. 398-412. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the exact meaning of organized iyisurrection, frontier, condemning cargoes, hostile, emperor, plundered, commission, official recognition, alien, sedition, naturalization, scandalous, malicious, resolutions, nullification. 2. Study the following from the "Kentucky Resolutions" of 1799 : — "That the several states who formed that instrument [the Constitution], being sovereign and independent, have the unquestionable right to Judge of the infraction; and that a nullification by these sovereignties of all unauthorized acts done under color of that instrument, is the rightful remedy; that this Commonwealth does, under the most deliberate recon- sideration, declare, that the said Alien and Sedition laws are, in their opin- ion, palpable violations of the said Constitution." 3. Form an opinion in regard to — 1. The states "being sovereign and independent." 2. " Nullification — the rightful remedy." 3. "Said Alien and Sedition laws — palpable violations of the Con- stitution." 4. Questions for brief oral or written answers : — (1) What do you think th(; result would be if nullification \v(M-e practiced by the states ? (2) In what way was the Whisky Rebellion a test of the strength of the new government? (3) What political result followed the passage of the Alien and Sedition laws? (4) Why wa.s the invention of the cotton gin important? 284 AMEKICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Washington. (Portrait) "First in war, first in peace, first in the hearts of his countrymen." His public services. (From the French war to the end of his life.) Use the index to your text-book, or to any other United States history. (Picture of Mount Vernon) 2. Write on the following subject : Life on the Western Frontier. How people reached the Western country; why they went there; ^^hat their homes were like; the Indians; how homes in Ohio were made safe. 3. Make a map showing the westward spread of population. Mark the seat of the Indian troubles. 4. John Marshall. [Copy the quotation concerning him.] OUTLINE I. Period of Organization (Federalist Supremacy), 17S9-1S0L (Presidents: Washington, two terms; .\dams, one term.) A. Getting the government into working order. 1. Establishment of courts; 2. creation of executive departments. 3. Financial legislation (recommended by Hamilton). Tariff; exci.se tax; assumption of debts of Confederation and state debts; estab- lishment of the United States Bank. B. Foreign affairs. 1. Commercial difficulties with England; Jay's treaty (1794). 2. Trouble with France. a. France asks help against England; "Citizen" Genet; Procla- mation of Neutrahty (1793). b. France angered by Jay's treaty with England; war threat- ened (1797-1800). C. Domestic troubles. 1. Fighting with Ohio Indians. 2. Whisky Rebellion. ■ D. Political affairs. 1. Wa.shington's farewell. Election of 1796. 2. The Alien and Sedition laws; the Virginia and Kentucky reso- lutions; the election of 1800. E. The country and the people. Population; large cities; occupations; cotton in the South; the cotton gin ; • pioneer homes in the West ; difficulty and rarity of travel; lack of sympathy of people of different states. TR2 JEFFERSONIAN REPUBLICANS IV " REPUBLICAN SIMPLICITY, ECONOMY, AND REFORM " On March 4, 1801, the Republican, or Deniocratic-Repubhcan, [jarty, as it was coming to be known, came into power with the inauguration of Thomas Jefferson as President. We nmst remember, however, that althougli Jefferson was a Kepubhcan, and although an increasing number of Repubhcan members was to be found in ( 'ongress, there were still many Fed- eralists in office, so that the Republicans were not, for a time at least, quite free to do as they pleased. It is said, indeed, that Adams had spent the last day of his term in appointing his Fed- eralist friends to positions under the government. Then he hastily left the city, that he might not see his rival, Jefferson, inaugurated. Jefferson was the first President to begin his term in the new city of Washington, which had been planned and begun as the permanent capital of the nation. The ceremony of Jefferson's inauguration was quiet and simple, as befitted the inauguration Rcpul)lican simpUcity Jefferson advocated. Any such celebration as had attended the inauguration of Washington or of Adams would indeed have been quite impossible in the new city, which was really a city only in name, for the Capitol and the president's house were unfinished, other buildings had been roughly and hastily built, and the whole town was literally ''in the woods." It is important that we consider what the Republican party was to stand for, now that it was no longer merely "the opposi- tion." Simplicity, economy, individual rights, — these were all 285 286 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS expenses reduced carried out. party watchwords. Jefferson was hailed as "the man of the people." The party was the avowed enemy of ''loose construc- tion/' of ''implied powers," of heavy taxes, of recognition in any way of an "aristocracy." The people's will, in its broadest sense, was to be the law. During the administration of Adams the national debt had reached eighty-three million dollars. During the eight years of Government Jefferson's holding office it was reduced to forty-five millions. This is abundant evidence that the Re- publican promise of economy in government was The navy and the army were reduced certain civil offices were abolished, and the number of ministers in foreign lands cut down to the lowest possi])le limit. Albert Gal- latin, appointed Secretary of the Treasury by Jefferson, was a very able man, in his knowl- edge of financial matters prob- ably second only to Hamilton himself. It is interesting to note that the greatest act of Jefferson while President, the purchase of Louisiana, was a direct departure from The Louisiana his theory of "strict construction." Nowhere does Purchase, the Constitution give the government power to ac- ^^°3 quire territory. It became evident, however, to Jefferson, as to many others, that peace, security, and commer- cial development in the West could come only through the ac- quisition of New Orleans. The circumstances were these : The western boundary of the United States as fixed by the treaty which closed the Revolution was the Mississippi, as far south as the thirty-first parallel. South of that parallel Spanish terri- tory extended on both sides of the river, including the island upon which the town of New Orleans was built. At first this Monticello Jefferson's home. " REPUBLICAN SIMPLICITY 287 was of little importance to the United States. But the nt'W West was springing into being, — Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana. By 1800 nearly four hundred thousand people had made their homes in the Western wilderness, and were looking for a market for their produce. The Allegheny wall was for purposes of trade practically im- passable. The only way to a market was by the Ohio and the Mississippi, — - and the control of the Missis- sippi lay ^vith Spain. By treaty, however, in 1795 Americans were given trading privileges- — ^the "right of deposit" of their goods at New Orleans to await trading ves- sels. Until 1802 this right was continued ; in that year it was suddenly withdrawn. Western trade was immediately cripplctl, and the call for an open Mississippi was loud and urgent. Rumors that Spain was about to cede Louisiana again to France added to the fears of both settlers and the gov- ernment at Washington. "There is on the globe," wrote Jefferson in a letter at this time, "one single spot the possessor of which is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans, through which the produce of three eighths of our territory^ must pass to market. This territory," he adds, "from its fertility will ere long yield more than half of our whole produce, and certainly more than half of our inhabitants." It was clear that the control of New Orleans by France (for Flatboat These boats were extensively used on the Mississippi, to float cargoes down the stream. 288 AMERICAN HISTUHY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS the rumor concerning it was found to be fact) was a danger to the growth and development of the West, — far more of a danger than its being held by a weakened nation like Spain could ever be. The Western settlers were even talking of war. But Jeffer- son was a man who loved peace, and he determined to make an attempt to buy New Orleans from France. James Monroe was sent as a special ambassador to France to aid the American minister there, Robert Livingston, in an attempt to arrange a purchase. To the astonishment of the ministers, Napoleon, who was then ruler of France, offered to sell the whole of Louisiana to the United States. Monroe and Livingston scarcely knew what to reply. No time was given them to send to Washington for orders, so they were obliged to decide on their own respon- sibility. When they reported having concluded a bargain for the vast territory between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains for fifteen million dollars, there was great surprise in America and of course some disapproval. But it was a wise purchase, as time has fully shown. We must not forget that, except along the Mississippi River, the territory thus acquired by the United States was an unex- The Lewis and plo^ed wilderness, inhabited only by Indians. Men Claric Expedi- interested in geographical questions, of whom Presi- tion, 1804- dent Jefferson was one, had long desired to explore ^ ° this country. In fact, before there had been any idea of its becoming part of the United States, Jefferson had been given authority by Congress to send out an exploring party. The command of this expedition was given to Captain Meri- wether Lewis, and to assist him Captain William Clark, brother of George Rogers Clark of Revolutionary fame, was appointed. With thirty men, Lewis and Clark started from St. Louis in May, 1804. The story of their journey up the Missouri, through the Rocky Mountains, and down the Columbia River, to the Pacific, is full of interest even for boys and girls, and well repays reading. They were gone more than two years, and they brought " REPUBLICAN SIMPLICITY" 289 back careful reports concerning the rivers and the mountains, the soil, plants, and animals, as well as the Indians, many of whom they had met in their eight-thousand-mile journey. When "'^^^>^- .^Xf(j_lS~sjH _f o_s s_|_s_s_i__o_Ns _.j: 1' O R(e G O N — ^-^-^^^ h t ^ ^(/ *• — countrK v^-/ r ^ C/aimed byS^p,,,,, tngland, fTussia J ESS I ONS SCALE OF MILES 100 2C0 .TOO JOO jOO Explorations of Lewis and Clark, 1804-1806 we remember that this exploring party did its work little more than a hundred years ago, it is interesting to compare the Louisi- ana country of that daj'^ with the same territory to-day. Thus we may see how rapidly the United States found a use for such a vast increase as the purchase seemed when it was made. Only a short time after the great gain in territory of which we have been reading, the United States took another puiton's stride forward, through the in- success in vention of the steamboat. The steam navi- e , f 1 gation, 1807 use 01 steam power tor produ- cing motion was not a new idea by any means. It had been tried with more or Robert Fuiton less success many years before this time, and in 1774 James Watt had succeeded, after many experiments, in making a steam engine producing sufficient power to be of practical value. The idea of using steam power to propel boats 290 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS soon followed, and as the century drew near its close we hear oi several men who succeeded in at least a partial solution of the problem. A steamboat made by James Rumsey succeeded in reaching a speed of four miles an hour. Another, designed by John Fitch, was actually in use for a time to carry passengers on the Delaware. But neither of these men was able to follow up his success, and it remained for Robert Fulton to make the steam- boat of real and practical benefit to the world. In 1807 his boat, the Clermont, made its trial trip up the Hudson from New York to Albany, reaching a speed of nearly five miles an hour. At first people were astonished at the noisy boat, and even afraid as they saw smoke and sparks rising from the smokestack, but soon the Clermont was making regular trips, and ere many years steamboats had begun to do their part in helping the West to its rapid growth and to the development of its wonderful resources. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The Republican party, now in power for the first time, was the cham- pion of the common people. It opposed a strong Central government, and would hold the President and Congress to a strict construction of the Con- stitution. 2. The expense of carrying on the government was great ly reduceii during Jefferson's administration. The army and the navy were made smaller. The Clefinont on the Hudson I'he length of the steamboat was 130 feet. Notice the paddle wheels. The engine was uncovered, all the machinery being in full view. "REPUBLICAN SIAIPLICITY " 2!)1 3. The territory of Louisiana was purchased from France by the United States in 1S03. This purchase more than doubled the area of the United States. It also insured free navigation of the Mississippi. 4. An important exploring expedition under Lewis and Clark traveled up the Missouri and down the Columbia to the Pacific. 5. A successful use of steam jjower to propel boats was made by Robert Fulton in 1807. Steambcjats soon helped " to develop the new West, and made navigation everywhere swifter and surer. THINGS TO READ 1. The Louisiana Purchase: — ■ "The Louisiana Purchase," Hitchcock. "The Making of the Great West," Drake, pp. 171-211. "The Story of Lewis and Clark," Kingsley. (This also appears as part of the volume, "Four American Explorers.") "American Hero Stories," Tappan, pp. 207-217. ■• The Expansion of the American People," Sparks, pp. 188-237. 2. Thomas Jefferson : — " Thomas Jefferson," Merwin. (Riverside Biographical Scries.) " Stories of the Old Dominion," Cooke, pp. 180-192. " American Pioneers," Mowry, pp. 217-229. "History of the United States" (1801-1817), Adams, Vol. I, pp. 185-188. 3. Marshall as Chief Justice : — " John Marshall," Thayer. (Riverside Biographical Series.) 4. The invention of the steamboat : — • " Days and Deeds a Hundred Years Ago," Stone and Fickett, pp. 78-93. " Four American Inventors," Perry, pp. 11-69. " American Inventions and Inventors," Mowry, pp. 194-214. " American Leaders and Heroes," Gordy, pp. 246-252. 5. " How our Grandfathers Lived," Hart, pp. 99-102, 103-113. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the exact meaning of simplicit;/, economy, individual, aristocracy , abolished, acquire, habitual, fertility, ambassador, propelling. 2. Compare the Clermont with the steamboats of to-day. Find pictures of modern steamers. Find out, if you can, what the early steamboats u.sed for fuel. What do the modern boats use ? How would the fuel used affect the usefulness of the boat? 292 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR (JRAMMAR SCHOOLS fn.in hc<;n 3. UiscuKS in clays with your teacher ; — (1) In what way was the purchase of Louisiana a ilcparlun the pi'inciples of the Republican party ? (2) If you had lived in Jefferscju's time, would voii lia\( Federalist or Republican ? Defend y(jur position. (3) Napoleon's statement when the purchase was completed, " f have given England a rival that will humble her pride." 4. Review the eighteenth century in America. Make (1) a list of im- portant dates; (2) a list of ten great events; (3) a list of important men. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK L A study of political parties. Republican Federalist Beginning Principles Leaders In power 2. Make a map to show the Louisiana Purchase. Show on it the route of Lewis and Clark. 3. The Mississippi Valley. First discovered by in the year — — . Explored by the Frenchmen and in the year . Settlement at the mouth of the river attempted by in the year — ^ — -. Named by the French in honor of . Held by France until the year , when, at the close of the - — — War, she gave it up, the portion east of the River (excepting New Orleans) to , and the portion west of the river, together with >fow Orleans, to provided a way to - Mountains. The Important to the United States because the market for produce from settlements west of the — mouth of the river was controlled by — ■ — . Louisiana held by until the year , when it wa.s cedexi to In the year it was purchased from by — - — -. •• REPUBLICAN SIMPLICITY " 293 4. Thomas Jefferson. (Portrait) "The Sage of Mouticello. " "He wa.s bitterly opposed to anything that might fasten upon this you.ig land the burdens under which the people of England suffered. America was for man; and if man were to make the most of himself, he must not be oppressed by a smothering crust of nobility, by heavy taxes that con- sumed his substance, by big armies and navies, by a huge and expensive government." — McLaughlin. (Picture of Jefferson's home, Monticello) OUTLINE 11. Republicans assume Power ("Simplicity, Economy, and Reform"), 1801-1809. (President: Thomas Jefferson.) A. Policy of the new administration. ^ L .Jefferson's principles; his previous public service; his influence; formality of Washington's time contrasted with the simplicity of J(;fferson's life as President. 2. Reduction of government expenses, — army, navy, and foreign representatives decreased. B. The Louisiana Purchase (1803). 1. Why considered necessary ; the development of the Mississippi Valley; the importance of an open Mississippi; change of owner- ship of Louisiana caused alarm to Western settlers. 2. Negotiations with l'>ance — extent of territory and terms of purchase. 3. Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-1806). 4. Importance of the pui-chase. 5. The Republican principle of "strict construction" departed from. C. Robert Fulton's success in steam navigation (1807). D. Foreign relations. 1. The war with Tripoli. 2. Commercial complications with England and France (treated under next topic). THE STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE V COMMERCIAL DIFFICULTIES BRING WAR Even before Jefferson's administration came to an end, com- mercial troubles, which had never really ceased, came once more to threaten the prosperity and peace of the United States. Jay had been unable, when he made his treaty with England, to obtain any promise that impressment of seamen should stop. British im- ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^°* stop. It was true that many British pressment of sailors did desert their ships in American ports, since American better treatment and better pay were to be had on ^» American ships; and the British now allowed scarcely an American vessel to leave port without boarding her and searching for deserters. Some one says that they always took the best-looking sailors, regardless of nationality; and it is true that thousands of Americans were thus pressed into the British service. England and France were again at war with each other, an- other thing which made trouble for American merchant-ships. Effect of '^^^ English declared that no ships should either European war enter or leave Continental ports. Napoleon, the on American emperor of the French, declared in return that no commerce ^^^^^ should enter or leave British ports. Such declarations by nations at war are known as "blockades." Un- less the nation ordering a blockade has warships enough to guard the ports it has ordered closed, the closing becomes merely what is called a "paper blockade," and vessels of other nations do not always observe it. 294 COMMKRCIAL DIFFICULTIES BlilNCi WAR 295 In this case it was impossil)le to guard all the ports blockaded, but English warships lay in wait outside of American harbors and captured American vessels bound for French ports, without waiting for them to reach their destinations. The French were equally active in capturing American sliips on the way to p]ng- land. Public o])inion in America indicated that something must be done, and the cr^^ of tlie country was for war. Esj)ecially was this the case when the I^ritish frigate Leopard stoj)ped the United States frigate Chesapeake, and being re- ^^^ frigate fused the "right of search," fired upon her. The Chesapeake Chesapeake, not being in fighting trim, was oliliged to fi^ed upon, surrender, and the British carried off from her four ^ °^ men, of whom three were American citizens. Americans every- vvhere clamored for war. Jefferson, however, wished to avoid war, believing that the difficulties might be settled by other means. Before the affair of the Leopard and the Chesapeake Jefferson had at- The Non- tempted to obtain a treaty from England which intercourse should improve commercial conditions, but it had ^'^^ been impossible to come to terms. A law had been passed by Congress forbidding the bringing of English goods into the United States. This was followed in December, 1807, The Embargo by a law which forbade any vessels to leave American ■^^t» ^^°7 ports. Such a law is called an Embargo. By these measures Jefferson hoped to bring England to terms. The effect, however, was quite different from what was expected. American exports had found ready sale in Europe, but Europe could exist without them; therefore it was America that suffered from the Embargo, — American ship-owners, American merchants, American farmers. The price which could be obtained for wheat was cut to less than half. Much of the tobacco raised could not be sold at all. Even Jefferson was obliged to admit that the Ernbargo was a failure. Jefferson's second term was now drawing to a close. Like 296 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Washington, he dechned to be considered for a third term, and The election his friend Madison was elected President by the of 1808 Republicans. But even before Madison took his seat, Congress had repealed the Embargo Act, and had substi- tuted a law allowing trade with all nations not controlled by France or England. Several attempts were made by the United States to adjust the differences, but with no results. A strong war spirit had de- veloped, and it began to be evident that war with either England or France would prob- ably be declared. There was cause enough for war with either. War with both was scarcely possible for a nation no stronger than the United States. The Republicans, and especially the "Young Repub- licans" of the West and South, led by Henry Clay and John Calhoun, clamored for war. The Federalists, representing the commercial interests of the country, were anxious to avoid war with England; the Republicans were anxious to fight the British rather than the French. Madison, War against ^ho was now approaching the end of his first term, England de was anxious to fight nobody. But both the President Glared June, ^nd the Federalists had to submit to the strength of 18 1812 the "War Hawks," as the war party was known, and in June, 1812, war against England was declared. "Mr. Madi- son's War," the Federalists sneeringly called it, though Mr. Madison was doubtless quite as reluctant as they to enter upon it. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Impressment of seamen by the British continued to make trouble. 2. England and France, being at war, interfered with American mer- chant-ships, contrary to modern international law. Territory settled in 1810 Compare with map on page 273. COMMERCIAL DIFFICULTIES BRING WAR 297 3. The United States government, wishing to avoid war, tried to bring England and France to terms by non-importation and embargo acts. 4. The Embargo was resisted by American ship-owners, and also failed of any good results upon England and France. 5. The Republicans clamored for war. War was declared in June, 1812. THINGS TO READ "Yankee Ships and Yankee Sailors," Barnes, pp. 3-21, 35-50. THINGS TO DO Find the meaning of Continental, frigate, embargo, international. VT THE WAR OF 1S12 BEGUN The circunistanees surroundiiiji; ilie opening of the War oi 1812 were not such as would indicate an easy and glorious victory. A President reluctant to ask Congress to declare war; a Congress nearly evenly divided when the declaration was made; whole sec- tions of the country opposed to making war at all; an army and a navy which Republican economy had reduced to the lowest pos- sible limits; the financial condition of the government weakened by more Republican economy, — these were some of the conditions; and with them was coupled inefficiency in the army, from the Secretary of War down through officers appointed for political reasons, and men who really believed that Canada was to be con- quered simply by marching across the border. From the first, the idea of the conquest of Canada met with favor; and, indeed, since it was necessary to send armies to pro- War on the ^6^t the settlements on the border, carrying the war Canadian into the enemy's territory was the natural plan. It frontier ^^^ g^^ qj^^^ decided to invade Canada at three points, — Detroit, Niagara, and Lake Champlain. Even before war was actually declared, armies were assembled at these places, and early in July orders were given to their commanders to enter Canada. The story of the Northwestern campaign is not one of which we as Americans may be proud. Had the commanders — Hull at Detroit, and Dear})orn, who was in charge of operations against Niagara and the St. Lawrence — moved swiftly and with definite purpose, and, above all, in conjunction, the story might have 298 THE WAR OF 1SJ2 BKCUJN 299 endeil differently. But orders from Washington were indefinite, ;uid showed little knowledge of the necessities of the case. Hull was " to move when he liked," and Dearborn was "to take his own time." There could be little concerted action under orders like these, and, as we might expect, there was none. Hull's problem was, as Henry Adams puts it in his history of the time, "to march The Canadian Frontier two hundred miles, constructing a road as he went; to garrison Detroit; to guard at least sixty miles of road under the enemy's guns; to face a force in the field equal to his own, „ ,„ ' ^ > Hull's surren- and another savage force of unknown numbers in his der of Detroit, rear; to sweep the Canadian peninsula of British August i6, troops; to capture the fortress at Maiden and the Brit- '^^^ ish fleet on Lake Erie, — and to do all this without the aid of a man or a boat between Sandusky and Quebec." Not a small task for a general both able and energetic, and Hull was neither. He crossed over into Canada, issued a proclamation, and a few weeks later crossed back again to Detroit. There the British general Brock followed him, and Hull, anxious, uncertain, having lost the confidence of his men, proved utterly unequal to the situa- 300 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS tion, and, without attempting any defense, surrendered the town August 16, 1812. It happened that the same day saw Fort Dearborn, on the site of the present city of Chicago, burned by Indians who had attacked and over- whelmed the garrison. The Western lakes were now in British hands. Meanwhile Dearborn had been carry- ing on extensive preparations and enlist- ing volunteers, but had done nothing. Early in October a body of about six thousand militia and regulars was ready for an attack at Niagara. Six hundred men under General Van Rensselaer crossed the river, and fought well on Queenstown Heights, but the remainder of the militia refused to cross, and the attack was a failure. The command was transferred to General Smyth. A campaign of proc- lamations and fiery addresses from the general's pen followed. His pen proved more active than his sword, however, since he did none of the things he talked about doing, and finally, at the end of November, he disbanded his militia and asked leave of Dearborn to make a visit to his familj^ — a visit from which he failed to return. Dearborn, meanwhile, with seven regi- ments of regulars was marching up Lake Champlain. At Plattsburg he added to his force a body of militia and on November 19 marched his army about twenty miles to the Canadian line. Then the militia declined to go farther, and Dearborn quietly returned to Plattsburg after a "campaign" of four days. Lake Champlain and Approaches THE WAR OF 1812 BEGUN 301 Those disheartening events in the North, however much ex- President Jetterson might say of "the detestable treason of Hull," have a different meaning for us. They show us that " Republican economy" and the "peace spirit" of Jefferson had been carried too far. To enter a war with such an army as these policies had produced was to invite disaster. The charge "Americans can't fight" came near being justified. The American army was at its lowest ebb. THINGS TO REMEMBER Because of iiicfficie^noy in both officers and men, the movements of the army along the Canada line in 1812 were all failures. THINGS TO READ 1. "The Story of the Great Lakes," Channing and Lansing, pp. 16.5-178. 2. " Rise of American Nationality," Babcock, pp. .50-10.5. VII THE NAVY IN THE WAR Conditions in the navy were in some respects quite as l)ad as those in tlie army. There were but sixteen sea-going vesselS; The condition and tliese had not been improved by being "hiid up'' of the navy most of the time since RepubUcans had come into power. Oppos€d to the thousand ships of the British navy, this seemed a force scarcely worth considering, and indeed the inten- tion of the departrr^ent at the outset of the war was to use the vessels chiefly to defend the coast. There was, however, one way in which the navy at once showed itself superior to the kind forces. There were more officers than ships, and to this fact is doubtless due the excellent training and discipline of the men, for the officers took turns in conunanding, and each was ambitious to do as well as the rest, or bett^n- if he could. The old ''broadside sailing frigate" may seem to us now a slow and clumsy instrument of war, l)ut whatever of effective- ness there was in it was understood and exercis(Ml l)y the com- manders in the little American navy. In the British navy, fleet combats had largely taken the place of fights 1:)etween single ships, and long years of supremacy on the sea had made ca])tains and men too sure of victory to spend time and energy on the rigorous training of former times. And thes(^ things were to tell in the series of "ship duels" which make up the naval history of the War of 1812. The first of these encounters, betwe(Mi the Con.stitittion and the Guerriere, took place early in the war. Tlic Constitution, the ])est frigate in the American navy, on her way from Anna])olis to New York found herself pursued and almost surrounded by a British 302 TllM NAVV IN TIIK WAIl 303 floot of five vessels. ( ";i[)(aiii Hull, of I lie Conslilulioii, Iliad*' liaslc^ to escape, and for three days the five p;resso Republican. The adminis- tration of James Monroe, who followed Madison, is often called the "Era of Good Feeling," because of this. The existence of but a single ])arty, hovvevcM-, does not always mean harmony. It did not in this case, A new element was springing uj) in the Repul)lican party, and a few years were enough to sliow that the "Era of (iood Feeling" was the tinu^ which just pre- ;-il4 James Monroe President, 1817-1825. NEW POLITICAL ISSUES 315 ceded the appearuiico of this new element as a full-fledged opponent to the party in power. New men from the West and South were taking the leadership in Congress — Henry Clay fioin Kentucky, and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina being the most important. It is interesting to notice that Cla\', Calhoun, and Daniel Webster, for many years the most bril- liant figures in American political life, all entered Congress just before the War of 1812. In the new "nationalist move- ment" Clay was the leader, and his ideas found ready followers among the "Young Republicans. " During Monroe's adminis- tration, treaties with England and with Spain were made, defining the American boundaries, and adding Florida to the possessions of the United States. The new interest in the development of the country is shown at this time l)y the many proj- internal ects for "internal improvement" planned by private improvements companies, ])y state governments, and by Congress. The oppo- sition of the old-time Republicans to spending national funds for such purposes was great, but they were urged forward by Henry Clay, by Calhoun, and by the increasing numl)er of "nationalists." "Congress," said Calhoun in 1817, must " bind the Repubhc together Avith a perfect system of roads and canals. Let us con- quer space." And again, "Whatever impedes the intercourse of the extremes with this, the center of the Republic, weakens the Union." Clay made an earnest plea for the extension of the National Road, ])egun in 1811 to make a path over the Alle- ghenies. He contrasted the public works undertaken by Con- gress in the Atlantic; states — lighthouses, coast surveys, sea- walls — with the fact that "not one stone had yet been broken, not one spade of earth removed, in any Western state." The road had been planned to reach the Mississippi; it was never carried so far, but Congress did extend it over the mountain barrier and into the heart of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. It was a slow and costly piece of work, "but when completed," says one writer in regard to it, "there were no longer any AUeghenies." 316 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Meanwhile the changed position of i\w United States among nations was made clear by a bold declaration from the governinent The Monroe at Washington that European hands must be kept Doctrine ^ff ^he Western continent. This declaration, known as the Monroe Doctrine, was made as a check to the European })lan for restoring to Spain her revolted and now independent colonies in Me ico and South America. The Monroe Doctrine was put forth in a message of the President to Congress, and warned Europe that (1) any colony-making in the Western con- tinent, (2) any attempt to extend monarchical government in America, (3) or any interference in South American politics, would be considered a hostile act by the United States. While Monroe was President, the slavery question, for the first time, created serious difference of opinion between the Northern The slavery and the Southern members of Congress, and we see question in the prelude to a great struggle which was t(j last ongress ^^^ nearly fifty years, and which ended only when slavery was finally stamped out. When the Constitution was adopted, slavery, which had never flourished to any great extent in the North, had almost died out there. Indeed, it was supposed by many that it would die out even in the Southern states in time. A strong sentiment in oppo- sition to bringing more slaves from Africa — to the slave trade — had grown up in the Northern states, and abolition societies were formed to urge that the slave trade be abolish(Ml. In 1808 the trade was made unlawful, and the feeling that now slavery in America must surely die out was quite general. But already Whitney's cotton gin had come into general use, and, as we have already noticed, had greatly increased the de- mand for slaves. It was soon seen that slavery was far from dying out. By 1820 its importance in the cotton-raising states had become very great. "It was the cotton interest," says Daniel Webster, "that gave a new desire to promote slavery, to spread it, and to use its labor," while James Ford Rhodes, who has NEW POLITICAL ISSUES 317 made a most careful study of the whole slavery question, says, "It is more than probable that the invention of the cotton gin prevented the peaceful abolition of slavery." By 1820 the original thirteen states had been increased to twenty-two. Of these, eleven were slave states, and eleven were called free states, because no slavery was allowed in them, l^ach mS: i m HI ■ HH| ^^^KBfS^^Bl^^ |il '■^^^.M^i^sa |HH| V> *j!l^w^.'.'*.tifc-.. w s^^.'"» ■■■• ■i\^i'^ '\ i ■ '■ 1=* «- , . Picking Cotton time that Congress voted to admit a free state to the Union, it was understood by the slaveholders that a slave state should also be admitted, and this was done in each case. Thus the power of the slave states in the Senate was kept ecpial to that of the free states. In 1818 Missouri, a part of the Tx)uisiana Purchase, applied for admission as a slave slate. But \n the North there was grow- ing a strong feeling that the spread of slavery must be stopped, and a long debate took place in Congress in regard to tlu^ admis- sion of Missouri. Southerners argued that Congress might re- fuse admission to Missouri, if it chose; but that, if admitting hei' at all. Congress had no right to do so on any other terms than terms of e(iuality with the states already in the Union. They had chosen to be slave or to be free. So must she. 318 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS <3 Lis Excitement ran high in both the Senate and the House of Rep- resentatives. While the discussion still raged, Maine asked for admission to the Union as a free state. Had it not been for the discussion in regard to Missouri, there would have been probably no objection to admitting Maine, since Alabama, a slave state, had been admitted the year ])efore, and Maine would merely balance that. Now, however. Southern members refused to vote for the admission of Maine, unless Missouri were allowed to The Missouri come in as a slave state. Not until 1820 was tlie Compromise matter brought to settlement by what is known as the Missouri Com}>romise. Although Henry Clay was not the author of this law, we always associate it with his name, because his influence was one of the strong factors in its passage. The Missouri Compromise provided: — 1. That Missouri should be admitted as a slave state. 2. That Maine should be admitted as a free state. 3. That slaver}^ should be forever prohibited in all ter- ritory of the Louisiana Pur- chase north of 36° 30' (ex- cept Missouri). This discussion of the slavery question showed tli(» people of both North and South how the two sections had grown and were growing apart. " This momentous question," wrote Jefferson, now an old man at Monti- cello, "like a firebell in the night, awakened me and filled me with terror." From now Missouri Compromise OH, we may watch a gradual \-'^-o W J E rT R ^ , T o R Y - t NKW POLI'IMCAl. ISSUMS 310 clrawiu}^ away from eaoli otlu^r of North and South until \\\v crisis in 1861 . It was unfortunate that the Nortii and South found added bitterness in their naturally opposite views regarding the tariff. Most Southern people believed that duti(!s on foreign The tariff goods brought into the United States should be only question large enough to give the governmcMit funds for its exi)enses — that is, that the tariff should l)e ''for revenue only." Higher duties than this, they argued, made hardship for Southerners, who because of the high duties would have to pay high prices for foreign goods. In the South little or no manufacturing was done, and the thought of the people was directed toward obtaining the supplies which they must ])uy at as low prices as possible. In the North, on the other hand, manufactiu-ing was becoming more and more the important industry, and the idea of a "pro- tective tariff " met with much favor. Manufacturers wished the government to place high duties on manufactured goods l)rought from Europe. Mediants in America Avould then be obliged to charge high prices for these goods; and people wishing to avoid paying such prices would buy similar goods made in America, which, being subject to no duty, would be lower in price. Re- moving foreign goods from competition or raising their price was, of course, an advantage to the American manufacturer. Ameri- can goods w^ould conunand higher prices, as well as meet with increased sal(\ To the South, which had to ])uy manufactured goods, but made none, this seemed like protecting the interests of one section of the country at the expense of the other, and the feeling in regard to the question became very intense. We must not think, however, that all friends of the idea of protection wished higli duties on the same articles, or agreed as to how high the duties should be Taritf bills were passed from time to time, making changes in the list of dutiable goods, ;uid changing the amount of duty required. But in a general way the 320 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS North favored i)rt)ti>t'tioii, and the South opposed it more and more bitterly, as we shall see. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. By the end of Madison's adniinistration tin; Federalist party had practically disappeared. Monroe's administration is often called the "Era of Good Feeling." 2. The groat question now interesting the countiy was what is known as "internal improvement." The old-time Republicans opposed the use of national funds for such purposes, but new men in the party urged the de- velopment of the country by the government. 3. It began to be seen that the War of 1812 had given the; T'nited States greatly increased respect from European nations. During Monroe's ad- ministration the famous "Monroe Doctrine," warning Europe to keep her hands ofT the Western continent, was made. That this warning was heeded by the European powers shows America's changed position. t. During Monroe's administration also we see the first serious discussioti of the slavery question in Congress. The Missouri Compronu'se seemed to settle the question for the time. 5. The Missouri Compromise, which provided that with the exception n{ Missouri, no slave state should be made from the Louisiana Purchase terri- tory north of 36° 30' was the first effort to stop the spread of slavery in the ITnited States. 6. The beginnins: of bitter feeling between the North(>rn and Southei-n sections of the country was increased by their differing views on the tnriff question. The South believed that the tariff should be "for revenue only." The people of the North wished to use the tariff to protect the manufac- turing industries of the United States. THINGS TO READ 1. " Rise of the New West," Turner, pp. 149-171 : " The Missouri Com- promise"; and pp. 199-223: " The Monroe Doctrine." 2. " School History of the United States," McMaster, pp. 266-277. 3. " A Short History of the United States," Bassett, pp. 363-381. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of monarchical, abolition, revenue, dutiable. 2. Study the public .services of James Monroe. 3. Piscuss in class : — NEW POLITICAL ISSUES 321 (1) Why were better rf)utes of travel over the AHeglienies necessary? (2) lor what commercial reasons were such routes desirable? {'.i) What political ciul would be served by closer communication with the West ? 4. Questions for brief oral or written answers: — (1) What political part}' disappi^ired in the years immediately following the War of 1812? What party alone remained? (2) What question came up to divide the one party into two fac- tions? Who were the "nationalists"? (3) What are "public works" ? Name some. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. The Monroe Doctrine. This name has Jieen giv(>n to the declaration coTitained in a message of President Monroe to Congress, which warned Europe that 2. Slavery in the United States before 1820. The first negroes brought into what is now the United States were brought to , in the year , in an — — ^•essel. There came to be slaves in all the colonies, but it was only in the that they proved to be of value. In the rai.sing of , , and , they were considered most useful, and many were imported. By 1750 there were in Virginia nearly as many negroes as white people, and in South Carolina more negroes than whites. The invention of the , in the year , made the raising of • more profitable, and more slaves were desired to work on the planta- tions. The Northern states came to feel that slavery should not be permitted. One bj' one they abolished slavery. In the year the ordinance pro- hibiting slavery in the was passed by Congress. The slave trade was prohibited in the year . Of the original thirteen states were slave states, and had by the year 1819 become free. Of the nine states admitted between 1789 and 1819 were slave and were free. There were then in 1819, when the question of the admission of Missouri came up, states in the Union, slave states, and free states. 3. Make a list of the states composing the Union in 1821. Mark each gtate as free or slave. Show the states on a map. NEW POLITICAL PARTIES When Monroe's second term as President approached its end, the differing elements of the Repubhcan party had not yet broken The election apart sufficiently to })ring a second party into the of 1824 field. The campaign i)recechng the election in 1824 was a contest of men rather than of parties. Four candidates, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, William Crawford, and Andrew Jackson, received votes for President. Of these, we already know something of Clay, the champion of the West, the ''Father of the National Road," and the advocate of the Missouri Compromise. Jackson, too, "Old Hickor}'," as his admirers called him, the hero of New Orleans, we know. Craw- ford, who was Secretary of the Treasury, was a Southern man, Georgia being his home; and John Quincy Adams was one of a famous Massachusetts family which before and since his time has produced many dis- tinguished men. The election has been called the scrub race for the presidency. None of the candidates received votes (niougli to elect him, and the House of Represen- tatives was obliged to choose, naming John Quincy Adams as President. The great (juestions of the day were those concerning the tariff and the right or duty of the United States government to make internal improvements. On these questions new party lines 322 John Quincy Adams President, 1S2.J-1S29. NEW POLITICAL PARTIES 323 were drawTi. The "Adams men," as they were called during the campaign, had, before the administration of Adams came to an end, formed the National Republican party. Loose Political construction, a protective tariff, and internal im- parties ])rovements at national expense were the principles of the party. The Republican party, The Erie Canal and the National Road now coming to be known as Democratic, continued to support strict ccju- struction, antl became tiie opponent of protec- tion and of internal im- l)rovements by the na- tional government. The country was being developed rapidly in these days. In 1825 the Erie ( 'anal, from Buffalo to Albany, was opened. The building of this canal was the first step in the wonderful development The Erie of New York City, "which rose from a market town Canal, 1825 for the Hudson River to be the metropolis of the North." Villages sprang up along the whole Hne of the canal, and the building up of western New ^'ork went on apace. Other canals were built, roads w(Te im- proved, and new roads made. Commerce was greatly increased. But canals wei-e soon to be eclipsed — for the day of the railroad had come. The first The development of the modern railroad, with its won- railroad, 1828 derful speed and comfort, makes an interesting story, one that you must surely read. Here we may pause only for the bare On a Canal-boat 324 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 5E«3P^^-t?i^i An Early Railroad Train outline of the story. The steamboat, we have already learned, was an American gift to the world. For the steam locomotive we are indebted to an Englishman, George Stephenson. Who shall say which was the greater gift ? The idea of using rails for cars or coaches to travel on preceded the locomotive, and the first "railroads" were horse railroads or tramways. Stephenson's "traveling engine" was, however, soon seen to be far beyond horse power, and steam soon replaced the horses. In 1825 a steam railroad was put into successful operation in England, and three years later ground was broken in America for the Baltimore and (Jhio Railroad, "first of the iron bonds between the East and the West." Soon a fourteen mile section of this road was opened for traffic, and other roads followed it in quick succession. The United States, with its steamboats, its canals, and now its railroads, was enter- ing upon a period of commercial activity of which its founders could scarcely have dreamed. Coal was coming into use as fuel, and was soon to give new impulse to the ironworking industry of Pennsylvania. Manufactures were increasing, and the whole country seemed roused to a new activity. Closely interwoven wath the increased manufacturing was the question of a protective tariff. The attitude of the manufactur- ing North, as well as that of the cotton-raising South, we have already considered. The laws which had been passed in regard to the tariff we are to consider now. At first the idea of pro- Tariff tection was secondary in the minds of the lawmakers, legislation and the first tariff was for revenue, to giv<» the new government necessary funds. In the early days of the century NEW POLITICAL PARTIES 325 manufaoturing interests were small. The War of 1812, how- ever, with the Non-Intercourse and Embargo Acts which preceded it, made necessary the production of manufactured goods in America, since none could now be brought from abroad. The war also ruined American commerce, and much of the capital employed before the war in shipping industries was now turned to manufacturing. When the treaty of (iheut ended the war, and coinniercial inter- course with Europe was renewed, the country was immediately flooded with foreign goods, and the goods now being made in America could not be readily sold at the prices they had been commanding. Their makers called loudly to Congress to relieve their 'distress by placing high duties on foreign goods. In 1816 a tariff act was passed by Congress, increasing duties on coarse cotton and woolen goods, and on various other things. In 1818 duties on iron were increased. In 1820 a tariff I)ill to increase duties on many articles — cotton and woolen goods and iron again, among other things — passed the House, and failed of passage in the Senate by a single vote. The South was aroused by the steady increase of duties, and when in 1824 a tariff law making still further increase was proposed and passed. Southern statesmen protested against the injustice to the South, and the more extreme among them began to talk of resistance. "A fig for the Constitution! — There is no magic in this word union/' cried John Randolph of Virginia. The history of the tariff is difficult to follow, since so iiian> conflicting inter(;sts affected the tariff laws. New England wcjcjjen manufacturers Avished low duties on imported wool, which they must have for their mills; but western sheep-owners were call- ing for high duties on wool, to protect their own industry. New England ship-owners wished cheap hemp for their cordage; Ken- tucky hemp growers pleaded for high duties to be placed on hemp. Ironworkers in New England wished chea]) iron from abroad. Pennsylvania iron miners were desirous of keeping foreign iron out. 326 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS In 1827 a new tariff bill was proposed. The making of this bill was greatly affected by the approaching presidential election. The "Adams men" were ranged against the "Jackson men," and the latter bent every energy toward making a tariff which should help to defeat Adams and to elect Jackson. Their aim was to so frame a bill that their Congressmen would not vote for it. Then the manufacturers, who ardently desired increased protec- tion, blaming Adams for the failure, would desert him in the presidential election. The law, as finally framed, raised duties on manufactured articles, as the manufacturers of the North- ern and Middle states wished, and as the South violently op- posed. But duties on raw materials were also raised, and thus the manufacturers were sure to lose whatever profits the duties on manufactured goods would bring them. No section of the country was pleased, but, contrary to the expectations of the Jackson men, enough of the New England congressmen voted for the bill to make it a law. This tariff has always })een known as the "tariff of abominations." "It refers," said John Randolph, "to manufactures of no sort or kind except the manufacture of a President of the United States." Feeling ran very high in the campaign preceding the election; the Democrats were successful in defeating Adams, and in mak- ing Andrew Jackson President. Thus, for the first time in the history of the republic, a man from beyond the mountains came to the presidential chair. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. After the election of John Quincy Adams to the prcsidonoy, new parties came into existence. These were formed on the questions of internal improvement and the tarifT. 2. The National Republican party favored a st roni; nat ioiial government, which should use national funds for intern;d inij)n>vement, and a tariff which .should protect American industries. 3. The old Republican or Democratic party favored closely restricted NEW PoLiTKAI. I'AKTIKS 327 powers for (Ik- Fi'ili-ral go\(>nmien(, leiiviiiK (lu; sdifcs fo (;ik<' ciro of tlicir internal improvements, and no protection. 4. The development of tlio country went on rapidly. 'J'li<^ iMie Canal, other canals, new and better roads, and finally the railroad, came to make commerce inciease. 5. The tariff question continued to agitate the country. In 182S the "tariff of abominations" was passed. There was much excitement during the presidential campaign, and Adams failed to be reelected. THINGS TO READ 1. "School History of the United States," McMaster, pp. 279-291. 2. "Hero Stones from American History," Blaisdell and Ball, pp. 199-216, A Hero's Welcome. ;'.. " Lafayette the Friend of American Liberty," Baldwin. 4. " American Inventions and Inventors," Mowry, pp. 2ir)-22S. ."). " Days and Deeds a Hundred Years Ago," Stone and l''ickett, pp. 94- 120. (). " I'rom Trail to Railway," Brigham, pp. l-lll). 7. '' The firowth of the American Nation," Judson, pp. 204-211. 5. " The Making of the Ohio Valley States," Drake, pp. 229 2.', I. 9. " How our (Irandfathers Lived," Hart, pp. 47 .")(). THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of abominations, metropolis, tramways, locomo- live. 2. I'ind out what you can about the Erie Canal. Show on a pmalJ map ?ts route. Is it still of value? FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. .lohn Quincy Adams. Hi.s ancestry. His education and character. Ills public .services. 2. Canals and canal-boats. Write a description of a canal, of the boats which travel upon it, and of the way they are made to move through the water. Tell why, even in these days of railroads and steamboats, people still use the slower canal- boat? 328 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR ORAMMAR SCHOOLS 3. Political parties, 1824 to 1828. Republican (Democratic) National Republican Beginning Principles Leaders In power OUTLINE IV. New Political Ideas and Parties, 1817-1829. (Presidents: Monroe. 1817-1825; J. Q.Adams, 1825-1829.) .4. The Era of Good Feeling (Monroe's administration). 1. The Federalist party no longer existed; the Alien and Sedition laws and the Hartford Con\'ention had destroyed it. 2. Factions were rising within the Democratic-Republican party; young men from the South and West; Henry Clay; John C. C^alhoun. 3. Internal improvements as a political issue. 4. The Monroe Doctrine. 5. First contest over slaverj'; the Missouri Compromise. B. The election of 1824. 1. A personal contest (Adams men — Jackson men) four can- didates; votes so scattered that the House was obliged to elect; elected John (Juinc}' Adatns, although Jackson had led in the popular vote. 2. Formation of new parties. National Republicans (the Adams men) ; party i)rinciples : protective tariff, internal improvements at government ex- pense, loose construction. The opposition part}''; kept the name Democratic-Republican; soon became known as Democrats; party principles: at first largely "hurrah for Jackson"; strict construction; opposed internal improvements. C. The tariff of 1828, known as the tariff of abominations. 1. Review of tariff laws passed before this time. Hamilton's tariff; tariff of 1816; tariff of 1824. THE DEMOCRACY LED BY JAClvSON XI NULLIFICATION There are few iiieu who have had a part in our national hfe more interesting than Andrew Jackson. Jefferson had been sometimes called "the man of the people," because Andrew he so earnestly upheld the people's cause; but here Jackson was a "man of the people" whose interest flowed from the fact that he himself was one of them. Born into a family of poor moun- taineers on the frontier of North Carolina, he had grown up like other mountaineers with little edu- cation, and amid the rudest sur- roundings. In his early manhoovl lie moved to Tennessee. There he became a lawyer, and ten years later we find him a judge, although there seems to be a general agree- ment that he never had much knowledge of law. He was in Con- gress for a short time, biit it was not until he had won rcMiown through his exploits in the War of 1812 that his reputation extended far beyond his own state. The battle of New Orleans made Andrew Jackson a national hero; and his path to the presidency was clear. If anything 329 Andrew Jackson President, 1829-lS;jT 330 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR (iRAMMAIi SCHOOLS mure tli;iii military ji;l<»i-y had Ix-cii iiccdc*! |() sinootti the way, lus lowly origin his kiiishij) with the ('((luiiioii people — was CiiOiigh. "Old Hickory" wa,s a uaine l)orii ol lo\<' and admira- tion, and the (lualitics the term implies were all his. He was strong, unpolished, full of a rude dignity, and unswerving from his purpose. His government \vas so much a personal one that Tr, e Herniitajje Jackson's home during his later life. the term ''the reign of Andrew- Jackson" was applied to it ])y a political opponent. And the times of Jackson were important times in the United States, as we shall see. Scarcely had his term of office begun, when a somewhat star- tling change in political methods was put into operation by Jack- son and his party friends. "To the victors belong the spoils," a politician of the time had jestingly said; that is, to the party in NULLIFICATION 331 ]^()\v(>r belongs the privilege of making places in governnuMit offices for its friends. And for the first time in national politics hundreds of men employed by the government throughout th(! country were turned out of office for no other reason than that their places were desired for political friends of the President and th(> heads of departments. The " Spoils System" was The " Spoils a l)!ot on Jackson's administration, and, worse than System" that, it gained a hold on American political life which has not yet been Avholly overcome. Jackson called these wlujlesale re- movals ''reform," and there seems reason to think that he believed them to be so, ])ut ihvy were considered otherwise by the oppos- ing party. On the great (juestions before the country in his day Jackson had always, as we should expect from our knowledge of the man, very decided opinions, and his mind once made up there was little hope of turning him from his purpose. He often came into conflict with his cabinet, and in the later years of his adminis- tration cabinet meetings were no longer held. A group of per- sonal friends, sometimes called the "kitchen cabinet," Jackson pillowed to ])e('()me his constant advisers. Much was said about "the will of the jx'ople," and it is tiuite true that Jackson's meas- ures always met with the people's support. The tariff (luestion continued to agitate the country. More and more, SoutluM-n statesmen denied the right of Congress to lay protective duties. Such laws were unconstitutional, Tariff they said. And if tiie\- were contrary to the Con- questions stitution, a state was (luite justified in declining to obey them. The Union was only an agreement between the states, and the Federal government but the servant of the states. Each state was sovereign, as it had been before the Constitution was made. It might even withdraw, if it chose, from the Union. This was the Southern view — the doctrines of states' rights, nullification, and secession. These doctrines were ably upheld l)y Calhoun, and by Senator Hayne of South Carolina. In 1830 there 332 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS occurred in the Senate a famous debate on states' rights, and the doctrine of nulUfication. In several speeches Hayne put forth The Hayne- ^^^ argument, and each speech was answered by Webster Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, who argued that debate, 1830 ^]^g Union was a government of the people of the United States, and not of the states; and that nullification could mean only disunion. Then he went on, in a speech whose elo- quence could not but move his hearers as it moves us to-day, showing what the Union meant or ought to mean to the people of all the states. " It is to that Union we owe our safety at home, and our consideration and dignity abroad. It is to that Union that we are chiefly indebted for whatever makes us most proud of our country." And then came that wonderful appeal for the preservation of the Union — "When my eyes shall be turned to behold for the last time the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the broken and dishonored fragments of a once glorious Union; on states dissevered, discordant, belligerent; on a h^tid rent with civil feuds, or drenched, it may be, in fraternal blood! Let their last feeble and lingering glance rather behold the gor- geous ensign of the Republic, now known and honored through- out the earth, . . . not a stripe erased or polluted, nor a single star obscured; . . . but everywhere, spread all over in characters of living light . . . that . . . sentiment dear to every true Ameri- can heart — hiherty and Union, now and forever, one and insepa- rable!^' This speech of Webster undoubtedly strengthened the love of many for the Union. But so widely was the doctrine of nulli- fication and even of secession advocated in the South that all lovers of the Union felt the danger to the country. For a time President Jackson's opinion was in doubt; but at a banquet in 1830, when asked for a toast, "Old Hickory's" response was, "Our Federal Union; it must be preserved!" and his position was plain. In 1832 a new tariff bill became a law. It was somewhat more NULLIFICATION 333 moderate than tliat of 1828, but still strongly a protective tariff. In South Carolina, where the nullification sentiment was espe- cially strong, a convention met to consider the matter, Nullification and passed the famous Nullification Ordinance, de- in South Caro- daring the tariff laws of 1828 and 1832 to be "null, "°^' ^^^^ void, and no law, nor binding upon this state, its officers, or citizens." Nor was this all. "We will not submit to the appli- cation of force, on the part of the Federal government, to reduce this state to obedience," the convention declared, also, that in case the government did try to enforce obedience, "the people of this state will hold themselves absolved from all further obliga- tion to maintain or preserve their political connection with the people of the other states, and will forthwith proceed to organize a separate government." President Jackson's answer to this declaration was decided and prompt. In a proclamation to the people of South Caro- lina, he solemnly warned them that, unless they obeyed the laws, force must be used to make them obey; and he prepared to carry out his threat. Congress strongly supported Jackson, and the people of the rebellious state could not doubt compromise the earnestness of his purpose to enforce the laws, tariff of In the meantime a new tariff law had been passed, '^^^ which by lowering the duties, helped to bring matters to a peace- ful settlement. The South Carolina Convention voted to take back the ordinance, and nullification was at an end. The contro- versy, however, added to the growing antagonism between th(i North and the South. THINGS TO RF.MEMBER 1. Andrew Jackson, the seventh Pn'.sidcnt, was a man of threat force of character, whose influence was greatly felt during his administration. J. What is known as the "Spoils System" was begun by Jackson's rc- irioval from office of men who were not of his political party, and putting his own political friends into their places. 334 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS :>. The. high tariff laws passed by Congress irritated the South. Southern nK>n began to talk of ''nullification," and even of secession, if the tariff were not reduced. Great debates on these questions took place in the Senate. Calhoun was the great advocate of "states' rights," while Daniel Webster made eloquent speeches in which he showed what the Union ought to mean to the people everywhere, and that the doctrines of the states' rights men could end only in disunion. 4. In 1832 the people of South Carolina called a convention to consider the tariff law passed that year. The convention passed the "Nullification Ordinance," and threatened, if force were used by the government to carry out the tariff law in South Carolina, to secede from the Union. 5. President Jackson took prompt and forcible measures to cause the people of South Carolina to obey the law. Congress, however, to avoid conflict, passed a "compromise tariff," which lowered the duties. The people of South Carolina then gave up their opposition. THINGS TO READ 1. "Andrew Jackson," Brown (Riverside Biographical Series), pp. 87- 145. 2. "Four American Patriots," Burton, pp. 133-192, The Story of An- drew Jackson. 3. "Four Great Americans," Baldwin, pp. 12.5-184, The Story of Daniel Webster. 4. Henry Clay, in "The Men who Made the Nation," Sparks, pp. 25.5- 281. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of sovereign, inseparable, controversy. 2. Think of descriptive words which you might use to show the character of Andrew Jackson. 3. Think out clearly the position taken by the "states' rights" men of the South. Compare their threats of secession with the position taken by the Federalists of New England at the time of the Hartford Convention. Review the Kentucky and Virginia resohitions. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Andrew Jackson. (Portrait.) "Our Federal Union 1 It must be preserved 1'' NULLIFICATION 335 2. State suveruigiity or an iudostructibli- Union. States' lights advocated by people of the , led hy . Their doc- trine WJIS — . The indestructible Union advocated in the Senate by , who did much to create a love for the Union like his own in the hearts of Northern people. His idea of the Constitution was that it was , while the South- i-rn loaders considered it only . 3. Daniel Webster. (Portrait) Place here the quotation from Webster's great speech, on page 332. XIJ THE FINANCIAL QUESTIONS OF JACKSON'S TIMES In 1832 Jackson was reelected by a large majority. During his second term the great question before the country concerned Jackson op- ^^^ United States Bank. Jackson believed this bank posed the was not a good thing for the country; and, l)elieving United States ^j^j^.^ j^^ bent all his energies toward its destruction. The bank charter was to expire in 1836, and although the National Republicans in Congress succeeded in 1832 in pass- ing a bill rechartering it, Jackson vetoed it, and it failed to be- come a law. The next year Jackson aimed another blow at the power of the l)ank, l)y what is known as the "removal of deposits." Gov- Removai of erjunent funds were no longer deposited in the bank, deposits, 1833 i)ut were placed in various banks under state con- trol and friendly to the Democratic party. This act was op- posed by many men of Jackson's own party, and even by some in his cabinet. But no amount of persuasion could turn him. The bank was a bad thing, he reasoned. The bank must be destroyed. And he chose the surest way to destroy it. The effect of the "removal of deposits" reached much farther than the United States Bank. To understand this effect we must Financial know a little of financial conditions at this time, conditions ^he development of the West, the use of steamboats, the improvement of highways, the building of canals, and that wonderful new invention, the steam railway, made this a time of great business activit}^ Men everywhere were eager to under- take great enterprises. Much money was invested in Western lands; there was a general idea that great fortunes were to be 336 THE FINANCIAL QUESTIONS OF JACKSON'S TIMES 337 DuuU^ from these lands. People who had no money to invest were anxious to borrow. State governments were planning in- ternal improvements on a large scale, and they too were anxious to borrow money. The banks could lend at a profit all the money tliey could get to lend. And in the excitement of the times many banks lent money which they did not have, — that is, they issued notes, hoping that if the notes came back to be re- deemed in coin, they would tlien have the money with which to View of Washington from the Capitol, 1832 redeem them. Government deposits in the 'selected banks — "pet banks" they were called by Jackson's opponents — of course increased the amount of money which might be put into circulation. The spirit of sp(H'ulation grew stronger than before. "Wild-cat banks" — which issued notes they never meant to redeem — sprang up. But one thing was needed to bring about a financial panic, and that one thing President Jackson supplied. Jackson was what was called a "hard-money man." He be- believed that only gold and silver money should be received by 338 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS the go\"eriunent, and hr viewed with alarm the large iniiuliers of bank-notes in eireulation, and l)eing paid into the United States The "Specie Treasury for public lands in the West. As we have Circular," alread}' seen, to believe a thing was wrong and to pro- ^^^^ ceed to destroy it, if he coukl, always went together in "Old Hickor^^'s" mind. He determined to stop the payment of paper money to the government, and when he was nearly at the end of his second term the order went out that hereafter nothing but gold and silver (specie) would be received in payment for public lands. The "Specie Circular," like Jackson's attack on the bank, was a harsh way of dealing with the situation. "Jack- son simply smashed things," some one has said. Whether any other way could have been found to accomplish the end would be hard to say. This, at least, was Jackson's way. Soon bank-notes began to come back to the banks that had issued them, to be redeemed in specie. The banks had little or no specie, and often had to suspend payment. People who had borrowed money were now desperately seeking to raise money with which to pay their debts. Hokiers of western lands lost all hope of making fortunes, and were anxious to sell at any price. Everybody wanted to sell, nobody to h\iy. JMills and factories The " panic of founcl that their sales were rapidly falling off. People 1837 " could not afford to buy their goods. Then the mills and factories had to close, men were thrown out of work, great poverty and distress followed. The time is known as the "panic of 1837." Jackson had gone out of office in March of this year, but his party was still in power, with Martin Van Buren, Jackson's friend and adviser, as President. Even the government felt the finan- cial trouble, much of its money having been in banks which were now unable to pa}'^ the money back. Van Buren urged that the United States government have a "treasury" of its own, and have Treasury es- no more business with banks. In 1840 the treasury tabhshed, 1840 ^yg^g established by law, and the government became, as it still is, entirely independent in its financial affairs. THE FINANCIAL QU1<:ST10NS OF JACKSON S TIMK8 339 Martin Van Buren President, 1837-1811. It. is difficult to praise or to condemn Jackson's work in these stormy times, but it is surely true that when the "hard times" of 1837 had passed, and prosperity came again, it was on a stronger foundation than it had been before Jack- son's "smashing things" had taken |)la("e. The time of Jackson and his party's power was a time of great development in the United States. We have Mechanical already mentioned some of the aids to causes of this great awakening, progress and need pause now' to notice only the rapid increase in the use of railroads and steamboats, and to consider some smaller inventions which had their influence on the increasing activity of the times. In 1828 three miles of railroad had been built in the United States; ])y 1840 there were twenty-two hundred miles. Steamboats, too, were by 1840 in general use on the Great Lakes, the Ohio, and the Mississippi. In 1819 a steamboat, the Savannah, had crossed the Atlantic, and in 1840 the Cunard Steamship Line between New York and Liverpool was regularly established. The time between Europe and America was reduced to ten or twelve days. The increased facilities for travel of course increased connncrce, and cut down not only the time of transportation, but the cost. Eastern and w^estern goods were more fr(H4y exchanged, and the people of the East and the West came to know each other better. Then, too, while commerce was increasing, farming was greatly aided by the use of recently invented machines for tilling, sow- ing, and reaping. The IMcCormick reaper, in particu- The McCor- lar, must be noticed. The difficulty in raising wheat n»ick reaper had always been in harvesting tlie grain rapidly enough to pre" vent its spoiling. The horse reaper completely overcame this difficulty, and each year saw new lands in the West devoted to 340 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS MK RUSSIAN wheat raising, and each year the value of the wheat croj) grew greater. The reaper was to the wheat growers what the cotton gin had been to the planters of the South. Other inventions were making changes in ways of living or methods of work. Friction matches were just coming into use. Lamps were taking the place of candles, and in some places gas was being introduced for lighting purposes. Stoves were being im- proved, and were now largely used for heat- ing, instead of the fireplace, changes in life The won- and thought derful ^y'»4o science of photography was given to the world by the invention of the daguerreotype in 1839. The steam hammer, invented in England in 1842, ranks high among labor-saving machines. The year 1844 saw two American inventions of immense importance to the world. One of these was the process of vulcaniziRg rubber, thus rendering useful a substance which had for years been the hope and the despair of manufacturers. The other was the electric telegraph, invented by Samuel F. B. Morse, and its influence in the modern world Aetoria^* I , , I ,ry , l.tbl.ihed, Sv INDIAN A' W illa Willa."^ U' CUUNTRY -o i t I 1 j< r t ' ,1 li^h I In, Tr [hjl'Jj}_ V The Urc;i;oa Country Boundar>- in dispute until 1846. The Oregon question was prominent in Congress after 1820. In the presidenti!ii campaign of 1844 the Democrats demanded that the boundary be fixed at 54° 40'. " Fifty-four forty or fight " became a popular rallying cry. THE FINANCIAL QUESTIONS OF JACKSON'S TIMES 341 The First McCormick Reaper can hardly be estimated. Two years after the tele- graph came the sewinjj; machine, made by Elias Howe. For years nuni had been experimenting to perfect this, but Howe was the first to make a success of it. The cur- r(^nt of life was no longer slow and cahn. The mod- ern hurry and bustle of city life began to appear. Newspapers, which had already become a feature of American life, greatly increased their influence, as more rapid transportation and improved methods of printing made it possible for them to print news earlier and to circulate it more widely. Oreat writers, whose work is now the pride of our country, began to appear. Washington Irving was already famous; Cooper, Poe, Hawthorne, Emerson, and Longfellow were entering upon their work. Such orators as Webster and Clay were firing the hearts of the people by their eloquence. People began to see that the public schools, of which there were already many in the United States, must be increased and improved. They began, too, to care more for the welfare of their fellow- men, and to organize missionary and chari- table societies, to reform prisons and asvlums ^ , ^ . . , ^ _ ' • Howe s Original Sewing for the insane. A desire to overcome the Machine Samuel F. B. Morse 342 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS terrible evils of intemperance caused hundreds of temperance societies to be formed ; while the feeling that no man should be held in slavery to another man grew rapidly enough to cause the beginning of the movement to abolish slaveholding in the United States. In 1831 Wilham Lloyd Garrison, a young L/hicago i.'i 1 '-' .-'2 man of extreme antislaverj^ views, began the publication of an abolition paper called the Liberator. It soon attained a wide circulation. Garrison advocated immediate al)olition. He denounced tlu^ William Constitution for jjrotecting slavery. He scorned union tioyd with slave states. He wrote in the Liberator, " I Gamson shall strcnuously contend for the immediate enfran- chisement of our slave population. ... I will be as harsh as truth and as un('omi)r()misiug as justice — I am in earnest — I will not equivocate — I will not excuse — I will not retreat a single inch — and I will be heard." In the South the antislavery movement was looked upon with horror. All feared that it would lead to insurrection among the slaves. The Liberator and other antislavery publications THE FINANCIAL QUESTIONS OF JACKSON S TIMES 343 were forbidden circulation. Garrison himself was hated and despised. lu the North, also, antislavery sentiments found no favor at first. Merchants and business men had ho desire to offend the South. Cuhured people were repelled by Garrison's harsh manner I of speech. Even the churches condemned antislavery agitation. But antislavery teaching went on and in time its influence was felt. Modern American life, as we see it about us to-day, had some- how come into existenc^e during the ten years between 1830 and 1840. "The United States of 1830 presented few ra ■;■■ :"S!»f ;:vS(i ] M P M ^m k John Tyler Eleoted Vice President in 1840 ; became President ou Harrison's death ; served imtil 184.'). STRUGdJ.E KOli MOliK SLA\ K TKItUrroKN BKdINS 349 friend, not espocially of the al)olitiomsts, but of the "riglit of petition, " arose in John (^uincy Atlanis, now a representative from Massachusetts. So long, and with such fiery zeal, did he uphold the right of the people to send petitions on any sul)ject to Congress, that he gained the name "the old man eloquent." This denial hy the Southerners of the right of petition did not help their cause. On the con- trary, it added to the growing feeling against them, and with the election of 1848 we shall see the slavery question take prtnedence of all other issues, and be- come the great question before the nation. It had long disturbed the national peace; it now came to threaten the Union itself. We have seen how, year l)y year, the North and the Growth of South had grown more und more unlike, and more sectional and more susi)ici(jus of each other; how the Mis- '^'"^"^ess souri question had made the first real break between them; iunv differences concerning the tariff had further embittered the feel- ing of each toward the other. We know how ready different sec- tions of the country had been to talk of nullification, when acts of the federal government had displeased them; and we have read South Carolina's open threat of secession in 1832. The feeling had become A-ery strong in the Soutli that just treat- ment would never be given Southern states by the North, and that unless their power in the Senate could be kept equal Keeping the to that of the Northern states, the South would see equality in her industries and her ways of life interfered with, * ^ ^"^^^ and her prosperity ruined. Keeping the power of the South in the Senate equal to that of the North meant that the number of slave states must be kept equal to the number of free states. Therefore we see struggle after struggle over the making of new 350 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS states. After the Missouri Coniproniise, which made the number of slave and free states equal, no states were admitted for fifteen years. Then Arkansas came in as a slave state and Michigan as a free state. The equality was still preserved, l)ut by the terms of the Missouri Compromise far more territory was h'ft from which to make free states than from which slave states couhl be made. The South saw its power threatened, and could see relief only in getting more territory which might become slave soil. At this time Texas, w^hich had been a part of Mexico, had fought against her Mexican rulers and had ])ecome independent. The annexa- The Texans, how^ever, wished to become a })art of the tion of Texas, United States, and asked that Texas l)e admitted to ^^45 ti^g Union as a state. The Soutli welcomed the op- portunity, for the Texans already had many slaves, and would undoubtedly wish to form a slave state, or perhaps ])etter yet to have their territory cut up into several slave states, for Texas was more than five times as big as New York or Pennsylvania. Northern congressmen tried to keep Texas Texas Flag Qut of the Uniou. They had no desire to see Texas is often called the ^j^^ g^^^j^ ^^^| f^^^^. ^j. fj^.^^ ^j^^^ ^^^^ ^^ g^^,^ Lone Star State. ' one, to her territory. Then, too, the annexation of Texas w'ould be likely to bring on a war with Mexico. But the Southerners rather desired war than otherwise, and their members in Congress gained their point. Texas was admitted in 1845. The war with Mexico, feared by the North, was not long in coming. Mexico was quick to resent the annexation of Texas The Mexican by the United States, especially since Texas claimed War, 1846- more territory than she had been able to occupy 1848 when she had been independent. The United States supported the claim of Texas. A war with Mexico would give the United States a good excuse for forcing her weaker neighbor to give up still more territory — for already the eye of the nation TERRITORY CLAIMED UV TEXAS when admitted to tlie Uiiiuu 1845 STRUrUilvK FOR MORE SLAVK TKRRITORY BEGINS 351 was on California. Tliis was doubtless the real reason why Presi- dent Polk was anxious to make war, and why he was supported by a majority in Congress; but it is not a reason which adds to the glory of our history. American troops sent into the disputed territory were attacked there by Mexican soldiers, and President Polk's message to Con- gress stated: "War exists notwithstanding all our efforts to avoid it — exists by the act of Mexico herself. Mexico has invaded our territory, and shed American blood upon American soil." If this had been true, it would indeed have justified the declaration of war which Con- gress at once passed. But there seems little to justify such a statement. It would seem rather that the war was forced upon Mexico, and that the blood shed was upon soil which ]\Iexico had a right to claim. Some historians, indeed, do not take this view, but assert that Mexico brought the war upon herself by continued mistreatment of Americans; that the claim of Texas to the territory l)etween the Nueces and the Rio Grande was quite justified; and that President Polk did not advocate war until he had tried in vain to adjust the differences by peaceful means. "The Mexicans," says Rhodes in liis history, "thought that the war was the result of a (lelil)erately calculated scheme of robbery on the })art of the superior power." And there was a de(>p-rooted feeling in America that the war was unjustly begvm — a feeling which is still u])hel(l by many thougiitful students. The war, however ingloriously begun, was one wiiich reflected great credit upon tiie Ameiican army. ( ieneral Ta>lor, who was in charge of the troops in the region of tlie Rio Crande, had de- feated the Mexicans at the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma even before war was really declared. Following them James K. Polk President, 1845-1849. 352 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS across the river, he fought a three days' battle at Monterey in September, 1846, and again defeated the Mexican army. Push- ing on toward the heart of the country, he was met (February. Campaign of General Taylor 1847) b}^ a Mexican force, four times as large as his own, at Buena \'ista, where he gained a brilliant victory in spite of the unequal numbers. Already, however, the principal scene of the war had shifted, and we find interest centering on General Scott's advance on the ''/, ^^r;^'^::^ " " f 26/ 60 f SCA^E OF MILES / Campaign of General Scott city of Mexico. This campaign will long be known as one of the most brilliant and picturesque of modern history. From Vera Cruz on the coast, to Mexico, the capital city of the Republic, STRUGGLE FOR MORE SLAVE TERRITORY BEGINS SoS the way of tlu' American army lay over mountains, tlu'ough passes and ravines, with fortified castles to be stormed and walled cities to be taken. At Cerro Gordo, a narrow mountain pass with high and rugged sides, the Mexican army, commanded by their l)resident and general, Santa Amia, met the Americans. The Territory ceded by Mexico, 184-8-1853 battle ended with victory for Scott and the flight of Santa Anna. Then the Americans pressed their way over the crest of the moun- tains until the fair green valley and the beautiful city of Mexico lay before them. But there were fortified outposts to be taken and the frowTiing castle of Chapultepec. On the 20th of August the task was begun, and though the 2a 354 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR ORAMMAR SCHOOLS fighting was hard, one after another the outposts gave way and the American army was before the walls, inside which ail the fleeing and defeated Mexicans had gathered. On September 8th the tittack was begun, and five days later the grim old castle was carried by storm and the American soldiers swept on into the city itself. jVIexico was conquered. In the treaty which followed, Mexico was powerless to resist the will of the conqueror. California and New Mexico, as well as Texas, were made territory of the United States. That the United States paid eighteen millions of dollars to the Mexican government did not change the fact that Mexico was forced to sell her lands against her will. To the Union the purchase brought the l^itterness of strife. A great territory was added to the Union. Should it become a source of strength to the South, or should it be added to the free territoiy which was already greater than the area devoted to slavery? This became the burning (luestion, and the South The Wiimot could see no justice in the Wilmot Proviso, proposed Proviso. j,^ Congress early during tlu^ war, to prohibit slavery forever in the territory that might be acquired. The Proviso was twice passed l)y the House, and it t\vic(> failed in the Senate. ]^ut the North was aroused. The abolitionists' cry, that slavery Avas "a sin, and a crime, and a blot on the nation," had at last won followers enough to make a stand against the further spread of the evil, — a stand with A\hich the South must reckon. From 1847 until the crisis in 1861 all other questions fell Ixick before this — "Shall slavery be confincMl within its present limits — or shall it be allowed to expand and to occupy the West?" And yet as late as 1857 there were seventy-five slave vessels fitted out in North(>rn ports for the slave ti'ade, although an act of congress in IHOO had alxjlislied the inhujuan traffic, to take effect in 1808. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The Natioti.il l{<'|)nblicaii pai'ty. foniu'd in the administration of John (JuitU'V Adaiuiii, and now known as the Whig party, came into power STHI:G(JLE FOK MoUK SLAVK TEKRlTOliV BE(ilXS 355 ill 1841). will) the cleclidri of ils (•.•iiulidjilr, \\'illi;im Ilciirv HHiiisDii. for I 'resident. 2. This election showvs a new party, calling it.self the "Liberty party," and having as its foundation the abolition of slavery. It is iniportant only as il .shows tlic giowlli of al)oHlion sentiment. ;>. In the election of ISl). the Deiuocralic parts' came back into power. In (his election the Lii)er!y pai'ly caiididales recciNcd more than eis;!!! times as many xotes as they had in 1N4I). 4. The slax'ei'v i|nestion was now coming to l)c the most important political (|Viestioii of the day. The South belie\('d that the .\orth eared notiiiuii for the prospeiity of llic Southern states, and that if the free state.s oulnumbei-cd the slave ^l;itcs. the future of the Soulli would be sj)oil(Ml. ."). I'or man>' ycar> tlii' S they succeedefl in getting; they also prox'oked a war with .Mexico in tli(> hope of wi'esting from her more territory. 7. By the treaty following tlu> Mexican War a great territory, largely south of the Mi.ssouri Compromise line, was added .to the United State.s. Whether thi.s territory .should be sla\c or whether the spi'ead of sla\'ery .should be stopped beeanie the (piestion of the time. THIXCS TO Ri:.\D 1. From a s])eech deli\'ered in the .Seimte, February, 1S47, by Thomas Corwin : — '■ Vou may wrest provinces from .Mexico by war — you may hold them by the right of the strongest — you may rob her; but a treaty of peace to that effect with the people of Mexico, legitimately and freely made, you never will have ! . . . Vou have taken from Mexico one fourth of her territory, and you now propo.se to run a line comprehending about another third, for what ■.'... Why, .says the chairman of this conunittee on foreign relations, it i^ the most reasonable thing in the world ! We ought (o have (he Bay of .San Francisco, ^\'hy ? Because it is the best harbor on the Pacific ! . . . I never yet heard a thief arraigned for stealing a horse |)lead that it was the best horse he could find in the country ! . . . Sir, it is not meet that our old flag should throw its protecting folds over expeditions for lucre or for land. But you still say that you want room for your people. This has been the plea of every robber chief from Nimrod to the pi-esent 356 AMERICAN HISTOin FOli GRAMMAR SCHOOLS liour. . . . Why is it, sir, that we, the United Stales, a people uf yesterday compared witii the older nations of the world, should be waging war for territory — ^ for ' roftui' ? Look at your country, extending from the Allegheny Muuntains to the Pacific Ocean, capable itself of sustaining in comfort a larger population than will be in the whole Union for one hun- dred 3'ears to come. . . . You may carry them [your flags] to the loftiest peaks of the Cordilleras, they may wa\'e with insolent triumph in the halls of th(> Montezumas, the armed men of Mexico may quail before them, but the weakest hand in Mexico, uplifted in praj'er to the God of Justice, may call down against you a Power in the presence of which the iron hearts of your warriors shall be turned into ashes." 2. "A Satire on the Mexican War," from Biglow Papers, Lowell. In '"Source Book of American History," Hart, pp. 271-276. 3. ''The Spanish in the Southwest," Winterburn, pp. 97-222. 4. " Under Six Flags" (The Story of Texas), Davis, pp. 50-140. 5. "Side Lights on American History," El.son, Part I, Chapter XII. "History of the LTnited States," Elson, pp. 527-53(3. "Students' History of the United States," Channing, pp. 417-423. THIXGS TO DO Discuss in class : — (1) Why do we consider the Mexican War as jiart of (he general (jues- lion of slaveholding in the United States? (2) What made Southerners desirous of making war on Mexico? (3) Was the United States justified in making war upon Mexico? Defend your opinion. (4) Would the Wilmot Proviso liave been fair to the South, had it been passed ? FOR YOUi{ XOTKBOOK 1. A stud}' of political parties in ISKI and 1S4I. 6. 1. Beginning Principles Leaders In power Democratic Whk; (N.\TiON.\L Republican) 2. Associate with some fact in the history of slavery each of the followint dates: 1619, 1787, 1793, 1808, 1820, 1845, 1S4S. XIV SLAVERY BI^X'OMES THE FOREMOST QUESTION As the election of 1848 approached, neither ol" the "Teat parties was wiUing to take a decided stand on the shivery question. There were proslavery and antislavery Whigs, just The election as there were proslavery and antislavery Democrats, o^ ^848 And neither party dared face defeat by coming out boldly on either side. Thus it happened that many Northern Whigs and Northern Democrats, whose hearts were now set upon "free soil in the territories'' were dissatisfied with the action of their parties. In August a convention of these dissatis- fied Northerners met at Buffalo, and de- claring itself for "free soil, free The Free speech, free labor, and free Soil Party, men," put a third presidential ^^^^ candidate into the field. The Liberty party joined forces with this new Free Soil party, and nearly three hundred thousand votes were cast for its candidate. The Whigs, however, elected their candidate, General Taylor. The victory was won by the enthusiasm of the people for " Old Rough and Ready," the hero of the Mexican War. Taylor was the first of our Presidents to enter upon office with no political experience. He was a slaveholder, but not an advocate of slavery extension simply to strengthen the power of the South. His term was short, — he died little more than a 357 Zach.iry ^aylor I'resideut. 18*9-1850. Tlio second Pi'esident to dip in office. 35S AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS year after taking office, — but he had already proved himself to be moved by a true love for his country. At Taylor's death, Vice President Fillmore became President. Troubled days were before the nation. Congress had to face im- Goid found mediately the question of slavery in California, or free soil in the Mexican Ces- '^ sion. California, by a strange chance, was already eligible for statehood. Scarcely had the treaty with Mexico been signed when it was found that California was to be a source of undreamed-of wealth. Gold was discovered there, and it seemed as though th(> old dreams of the Spanish conquerors might ])e realized at last. Everywhere throughout the Union great numbers of men threw aside their humdrum occupations to join in the search for gold. 1818 ; became President Loug proccssious of emigrant wagous wound on Taylor's death ; served ^j^eir slow Way over the prairies. Many ad- the remainder of the term i i i i /-^ — 1850-1S53. venturers took the long voyage around Cape Horn, or crossed the Isthmus of Panama. Within a year San Francisco had become a city, and the coun- try was dotted with mining camps. Before the end of 1849, The Compfo- California had applied for mise of 1850 admission as a state, and once more the old question of Northern and Southern equality in the Senate came up for settlement. There were now thirty states, fifteen slave and fifteen free. Cali- fornia asked for admission as a free state, and the South had no slave state to balance it, nor the prospect of any for many years. Seeing before them the downfall of the power for which they had Millard Fillmore Elected Vice President in ;fe% y bbk^^ Miners washing or "panning" Gravel in Search for Cold SLANKRV BECOMES THE FOREMOST QUESTION 359 struggled so long, Southern congressmen en tr ted uixm a desperate; attempt to keep California out of the Union, and to secure (he rest of the Mexican Cession for slavery. Other questions bearing upon slavery were also l)efore the country. Slavery in the District of Columbia, especially (he slave market in Washington, was a constant source of irrita- tion to the North; while the South demanded a stronger Fugitive Slave Law, to stoj) the yearly loss of runaway slaves. For nearly a y(»ar a great struggle went on. Early in the session of Congress Clay brought forward the last of his great compromises. This "Compromise of 1850," ()!• the "Omnibus Bill," as it was often called, i)r<)vided : 1. The admission of California as a free state. 2. The organization of the territories of Utah and New Mexico, without mention of slavery. 3. The abolition of the slave trade, though not of slavery, in the District of Columbia. 4. The payment of ten million dollars to Texas for territory ceded to the Federal government. 5. A new and more stringent Fugitive Slave Law, making it the duty of citizens to aid in capturing runawaj^s. The debate in the Senate over this compromise has been called "the battle of the giants." Many speeches were made, and much excitement prevailed. Clay, of course, spoke for the l)ill, wb.ile Calhoun, in tlie last speech of his life, opposed it, and presented the grievances of the South. Webster's opinion was Costumes of 1850 3()0 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS eagerly awaited, until, in his famous "Seventh of March " speech, he placed himself on the side of Clay and the Compromise. Sew- ard of New York, representing the antislavery Whigs, took the other side, especially against the Fugitive Slave Law, which was strongly opposed by the North. In the end the Compromise was carried, and Clay hoped that, as in 1820, he had succeeded in making peace for another thirty years. His hopes, however, were doomed to certain disappointment, A year or two of quiet followed the passage of the Compromise, it is true, and in the campaign preceding the election of 1852 Uy Rnulv. Calhoun, Webster, and Clay both AMiigs and Democrats professed to believe the slavery ques- tion settled. But the Fugitive Slave Law was very irritating to the North; and the South still regarded the North with constant suspicion. Attempts to enforce the slave law, and to return slaves who had escaped to Northern cities, brought the evils of slavery before the eyes of Northern people as nothing else could have done. In many Northern states " Personal Liberty Bills " were SLAVERY BECOMES THE FOREMOST QUESTION 'M51 passed, granting trial by jury to runaway slaves, and otlier- wise protecting them from the severity of the Fugitive Slave Law. Northern abolitionists helped thousands of slaves to escape. In- deed, thcTc (^xisted secr(>t "stations'' where runaways wen; re- ceived and from which they were passed on until they reached safety in Canada. This systematic and unlawful assistance to runaways was known as " Th(> Underground Kailroad." Public sentiment in the North was deeply affected, too, by the publication of books on slavery, especinlly by one published in I S5'2. This book pictured life among slaves and slave- holders at its worst, and made many enemies for the institution of slavery. Rufus Choate said of it that it would make two millions of abolitionists, and there is little doul)t that its effect was as great as he estimated it. In the election (^f 1852 the victory of the Democratic candidate, Franklin Pierce, seems overw^helming when we read that the Democrats carried twenty- seven of the states, and the Whig but four. The The election contest was closer than it seems, however, since the of 1852 majority for Pierce in many states was very small. There was, too, a feeling against agitation of the slavery question which helped the Democrats, since many people believed that less agitation was likely if the Democrats were in power. A new party made its appearance in this campaign. It was a secret organization calling itself the American Party, made up of those who believed the greatly increasing immigration of the time Slave Quarters on a Southern Plantation 362 amp:rican history for grammar schools to be a menace to the country. Its object was to prevent foreign- ers from voting and esjjecially from holding of!ic(\ Its influence was directed particularly against Roman Catholics. Its members when asked about its principles always replied " I don't know," hence the party came to ])e called the " Know-nothing " party. Agitation however, could no longer be avoided. The South saw, or professed to see, ahead of her nothing but political and industrial ruin, unless Northern interference with slavery could be checked. But one way of checking it seemed possible. Slave territory must be in- creased, and the ecjuality of power in the Senate be restored. With this end in view the Kansas-Nebraska bill was pro- posed in 1854. Kansas and Nebraska were to be organized as territories, and the bill pro\'ided that they might later enter The Kansas- ^'^^ X^uiiju as slavc states or free states, according to Nebraska bill, the Avish of their people. This act was directly con- ^^54 trary to the Missouri Compromise, since both Kansas and Nebraska lay within the limits of the Louisiana Purchase and were north of 30° 30'. The bill brought another great debate in the Senate. Webster, Clay, and Calhoun, the great leaders in the earlier struggles, were no longer there. Each in his old age had gone down to death in sorrow and disappointment. But new leaders, men of a later generation, had arisen. Seward, who had upheld the antislavery side in 1850, Charles Sumner of Franklin Pierce President, lSo3-1857 SLAVERY BECOMES THE FOREMOST QUKSTlON IMV.] Massachusetts, and Salmon P. Chase of Ohio, ably defended the Northern position, while Stephen Douglas, a Northerner, spoke for the other side. "Popular sovereignty" was the; watchword of Douglas and his fellow-Detnocrats; that is, that hereafter the people of each territory should decide the slavery question foi themselves. The Kansas-N(^l)raska \n\l was passed, and its results were im- mediate and far-reaching. Northerners felt that the whole West was opened anew to slavei y. They felt also that the j^^ formation slaveholders of the South had not acted fairly in of the Republi- thus voting to disregard the Missouri (Compromise, <^^" party, and there was indignation and excitement at the ^ ^ North. Northern Whigs and Northern Democrats joined in de- nouncing the Kansas-Nel)raska law; feeling that their parties could not be depended upon to take a strong and definite position in regard to slavery, they proceeded to organize a new party, which should unit(> all the opponents of slavery extension. This new party toolc tlu^ name Republican, and at the election of 185() it had already gain(Hl strength enough to carry eleven states. After the passage of th(^ Kansas-Nebraska bill, it became at once evident that the victory in Kansas would go to the side which could send the larger number of settlers into "Bleeding the territory. Bands calling themselves "Sons of the Kansas" South" crossed over from Missouri, while many people were sent out from the North to win Kansas for freedom. The two factions had many encounters, and blood was manj- times shed on both sides. For two years the territory was in constant turmoil. Hundreds of i)eople lost their lives, and many more their property. "Popular sovereignty" was seen to be far less easy of attainment than its advocates had seemed to believe. "Bleeding Kan- sas" became a political war cry in the North. In 1856 Charles Sumner made a speech in the Senate on "the crime against Kansas," in which he made a strong attack on slavery and slave- holders. This speech aroused great excitement in both North 364 AMERICAN HISTORY J^OR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS and South, which was deepened when, a few days later, Preston Brooks, a representative from South Carolina, attempted to take revenge for Sumner's denunciations. Brooks attacked Sumner in the Senate chamber, beating him over the head with a cane, and injuring him severely. Another step had been taken toward making the feeling between North and South too strong for peace- able settlement. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Ill the election of 1848, a new party appeared. It \va.s made iij) of Northei-n men who were dissatisfied with the action of the Whigs and Demo- crats in regard to the slavery question. It was called the " Free Soil party," and the older Liberty party was soon absorlx-d by it. 2. Gold was discovered in California in ]S4 was a I'ush of men there in search of fortunes, and before th(^ end of 1S49 California had applied for admission as a state. 3. The proposed admission of California brought up the question of the equality of slave and free states in the Senate. Other 'slavery questions before the country concerned slaveholding in the District of Columbia and the Fugitive SlaA'e Law. 4. The Compromise of 1850 attempted to settle these questions. Henry (^^lay was the author of this bill. It did not, however, as he hoped, calm the growing excitement over slave questions. 5. Many things combined to increase the bitterness between North and South. The Fugitive Slave Law irritated the abolitionists; Mrs. Stowe's book, "Uncle Tom's Cabin," made abolitionists of many of its readers; slaveholders were indignant because the Fugitive Slave Law was not obeyed in the North, and because Mrs. Stowe and other Northern writers showed slavery in so bad a light. 6. In 1854 the Southern members of Congress made one more effort to restore th(! eciuality in the Senate. This was by means of the Kansas- Nebraska Bill, which provided that, although both these territories were north of the Missouri Compromise line, the.y should when they were ready to become states be slave or free as their people should wish. 7. The Kansas-Nebraska bill made the Missouri (Compromise of no effect. It increased sectional feeling, and brought about the organization of a "sectional party," which united all opponents of slavery extension. 8. The settlement of Kansas was a bloody struggle between proslavery and antislavory men, each determined to win the state for their side. SLAVERY BECOMES THE FOREMOST QUESTION 365 THINGS TO READ 1. " The Boy Settlers," Brooks. (A Story of Kansas.) 2. " The Boy Emigrants," Brooks. (A Story of California.) :i. " California the Golden," Hunt, pp. 133-281. 4. " The Making of the Great We.st," Drake, pp. 271-307. 5. " The Expansion of the .\nieriean People," Sparks, pp. 3;}r)-3(i5. 0. " Romance of the Civil War," Hart, pp. 1-09. THINGS TO DO 1. Show on an outline map the location of California, Kansas, and Ne- braska, and the Missouri Compromise line. 2 Make a list of slave and free states in 1854. 3. Questions for discu.ssioa: What reasons had the South to complain in regard to the Fugi- tive Slave Law ? Were people in the North justified in their action toward this law ? What was the " Underground Railroad" ? Was it right for Northern people to help slaves to escape? Compare the Personal Liberty Bills with the Nullification Ordinance of 1832. 4. (Questions for brief oral or written answers: — (1) What new party appeared in the election of 1848? On what principle was it founded ? (2) Why has Henry Clay been called the "great peacemaker"? (3) What is meant by "popular sovereignty"? (4) What great leaders spoke in the Senate on the Compromise of 1850? Whicii were for it, and which against it? (5) Which party u.sed the cry "Bleeding Kansas"? FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK HENHV CL.W, THE GREAT PEACE.MAKKR (Porti-ait) Write in a few sentences something of his early life; when he first came to Congress; to which party h<; belonged; his connection with the War of 1812; his efforts for the development of the West; the compromises which we associate with his name. Speak of his prominence; in his party, and of the number of times he was nominated without success for President. "I implore, as the best blessing which heaven can bestow on me on earth, that if the .sad and direful event of the dissolution of the Union shall happen. I may not survive to behold the .sad and heartrending spectacle." — ■ Hknry Clay. XV ANTISLAVERY POWER The election of 1856 came at a time when the feehng in both North and South was strong and bitter. The chief candidates The election were James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, Democratic, of 1856 - g^j^(j John C. Fremont of California, Rej^ublican. Fre- mont was not the ablest man of his party. In fact he had had little or no political experience and possessed few qualities to lap jr. 115" iiu" All'^' WO'Ol ^' 30' ^8i? \Jii' , 1 .>._ ^ ,/ V - r^"^,^!, ^ \ ILLIAM& ENCiRAVINO CU., N.T, The Election of 1856 iiiake him a fitting candidate. The party was afraid, however, to nominate either Seward or Chase, its real leaders, or Judge McLean of the Supreme Court, who w^as proposed, lest some votes should be lost from this or that faction of the party. For 366 ANTISLAVERY POWER 367 the Republican party, as we know, wa^ made up of people of many differing shades of opinion, whose opposition to the exten- sion of slavery alone bound them together. Fremont was chosen largely because he was a new man, and thus had no political past which would displease any one. Much the same spirit governed the Democratic nomination. If the party had been made up wholly of Southerners, either President Pierce or Senator Douglas, both of whom were very popular in the South, might have been chosen. But Northern Democrats were not ready to indorse the extreme slavery views of the South, and it was feared by the party leaders that Northern votes might be lost if a strong proslavery man were nominated. So Buchanan obtained the nomination largely because he was a Northern man, and because he had been absent in Europe during the time of most of the recent slavery legislation, and so was not knowTi to hold the strong proslavery sentiments which he after- ward showed. The Democratic platform, however, was formed to appeal to the slaveholding Southerners, and as the canvass progressed it soon became evident that Buchanan would prove quite as acceptable to Southern Democrats as to those of the North. One Southern senator wrote to a friend that Buchanan was showing himself "as worthy of Southern confidence and Southern votes as ever Calhoun was." The campaign brought out many able arguments for both sides. The strongest argument against the Republicans, and one which lost them many votes, was that they had formed a sec- tional party. Southerners protested that the election of Fremont would mean the government of the South by a hostile North, and declared that the South would never submit. Buchanan was elected. He carried every state south of the Potomac, as well as Illinois, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. It was not, however, an easy victory. The Republicans had carried eleven states in the North, and it was plainly seen that the new party was a force with which to be reckoned. 368 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS The new President had scarcely taken his seat when a new agitation of the slavery question came- up. For the first time the The Dred Supreme Court had occasion to consider a question Scott deci- bearing upon slavery in the territories, and the deci- sion, I 57 g^^j^ 1^ gave out became of great importance. The case itself, concerning the slavery or possible freedom of a negro, Dred Scott, and his family, we need not attempt to follow closely. Our interest in it lies chiefly in the fact that the court took this occasion to issue its opinion that any act of Congress pro- hibiting slavery in any territory was not warranted by the Constitution, and was therefore void. This opinion, of course, if accepted without question, as Supreme Court decisions were supposed to be ac- cepted, made it impossil)le in the future for Congress to make any laws regarding slavery in the territories. It thus opened all United States territory to slavery, and it seemed to strike a death blow to the Repul)lican party, whose foundation was laid on the principle that it was not only the right but the duty of Congress to stop the spread of slavery. There were at this time all shades of antislavery sentiment at the North. Besides abolitionists, who would stamp out slavery everywhere, and Republicans, who were banding together to stop its further spread, there were many who, while beUeving slavery to be wrong, considered a ''sectional party" dangerous to the Union, and hoped that the bitterness of feeling would wear itself out and the matter come to a natural and friendly settlement. The Dred Scott decision, however, added many of these to the Republican ranks, for it became evident that only firm and united resistance on the part of Northern men could prevent slavery from becoming lawful everywhere m the United States. James Buchanan Presiileut, 18.57-18(11. ANTISLAVERY POWER 3(30 It was at this imu) that Abraham Liucohi, the Rcpuhhcau can(U(hito for senator from IlHnois, made his now famous speech ill which he said: "A house divided against itself cannot stand. 1 behevc this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved; I do not expect the house to fall; but I do expect that it will cease to he divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other." This speech was widely discussed. Douglas, who was the candidate in opposition to Lincoln, at once replied to him; and a series of joint del)ates was later arranged between J^^^ Lincoin- them. These debates attracted the attention of the Douglas de- whole country. Douglas was a national figure in ^^^^^' ^^^s pontics, the leader of the Northern Democrats, and recognized as a master in debate. Lincoln was little known outside of Illi- n(jis; but Republicans everywhere began to be astonished at the ability he showed. Nowhere was his skill better shown than in the way he forced Douglas to discuss popular sovereignty and the Dred Scott decision. Douglas made valiant efforts to reconcile the two, for his popularity in the North depended on one, and in Ihe South on the other. But try as he would, he could not make the two things go tog(>ther. l^incoln did not advocate any inter- ferenc(! with slavery in states where it was already legal. It was the spread of slavehokUng he attacked. "If we could arrest the spread," he said on one occasion, "and place it where Washington and Jefferson and Madison placed it, it would be in the course of ultimate extinction." And again, "Either the opponents of slavery will arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimatf^ extinction; or its advocates will push it forward till it shall become alike lawful in all the states, old as well as new — North as well as South." Douglas was elected senator from Illinois. But the camjiaign had done for Lincoln and for the Republican party much that failure in the election could not offset. It had brought Lincoln 2b 370 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS to a proinineiit place among Republicans, and lie had given (o tli(> party clear and definite statements of its position and purpose. And now occurred one of the strangest and most disquieting events of this exciting time. This was nothing less than an at- john Brown's tempt by a mere handful of men to put an end to raid, 1859 slavery by force. John Brown, who had been in the midst of the bloodiest Kansas troubles, was the deviser and leader of the wild scheme, which planned to liberate the slaves thus : — Gor^e at Harper's Ferry A stronghold in the mountains of Virginia was to be secured. From this BrowTi and his men were to sally forth on raids, free- ing and arming the slaves, and leading them back to the mountain retreat. There, joined by the multitude of slaves who would hasten to place themselves under his protection, and reenforced by friends and converts from the North, Brown believed he would ANTISLAVEKY POWER 371 become strong euougli to defy capture, and would make his name a terror to the slaveholders. He believed that he could make an end of slavery within two years. In 1859, after Northern abolitionists had reluctantly agreed to give him financial backing. Brown with nineteen followers made the attempt to realize his dream. He entered Harper's Ferry, in Mrginia, taking possession of the United States arsenal Election of I860 Compare with election of 1856: and liberating a few slaves. But his triumph was short lived: for, as miglrt have l)een expected, his band was speedily sur- rounded, attacked, and all but four of his men met death or capture. Brown was tried and executed by the Virginia authoi-- ities. But the excitement roused by his deed was slow in subsiding. Southerners believed it to be only a part of a widespread con- spiracy, and laid one more charge at the door of the North. INIany Northerners saw the folly and injustice of Brown's plan and con- demned his act. Others looked upon him as a hero and a mail yr. 372 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS As the presidential election of 1860 approached, it began to be seen that the struggle would be more than usually bitter. The The election slaveholders were becoming desperate as the increas- of i860 ing sentiment against them seemed likely to break their long-continued power. In 1857 the slave owners had con- trolled the South, the South had controlled the Democratic party, and the Den^ocratic party had controlled the Union. Now, how- ever, conditions had already changed. The long struggle to make Kansas a slave state seemed likely to end in failure; two free states, Minnesota and Oregon, had been admitted, hopelessly destroying the equality in the Senate; the population of the North had passed far beyond that of the South, as had its wealth. The two sections were working and living along entirely different lines. In the North, manufacturing and mechanical pursuits gave employment to hundreds of thousands. In the South, agriculture alone was fit employment for slaves, and of free labor there was practically none. Therefore by agriculture alone the South lived. Slavery had come to seem to the Soutliern people an absolute necessity to their prosperity, and the ]K)sition of the antislavery men that slaveholding was a moral wrong filled them with anger and resentment. The Southern fight for the right to extend slavery was in reality only a fight to keep slavery from being killed out everywhere. Believing that the North would use its rapidly growing power in the national government to crush slavery even in the slave states, the slaveholders rallied for a last desperate fight at the polls. Northern Democrats, however, were beginning to draw back from the South's extreme demands. They were willing to pro- tect slavery in the South, and to leave the question of slavery in Growth of Settled Area. 1860 ANTISLAVERY POWER 373 the territories to the will of their inhabitants; but they hesitated to indorse tlie Dred Scott decision, and finally the Democratic party broke into two factions, each of which placed a candidate in the field. The Republicans, feeling as in 1856 that Seward, the real leader of the party, was too radical in his views to please many, united upon Lincoln, who had won reputation and con- fidence by his spe(H"hes in Illinois on slavery. liincoln was elected, and his election marks the beginning of a long ])eriod of Republican power. It also marks the point at which the long-strained bonds of friendship and sympathy be- twecni North and South ])roke. It marks the real ])eginning of civil war. THINCS TO REMEMBER 1. In the election of 1850 (he Republican party, ulthouyh failing to elect its candidate, .showed considerable strength. Nearly one third of the members of the Senate were Republican, while in the House they had ninety-two membeis to one hundred and thirty-one Democrats. 2. The new President, Buchanan, though a Northern man, was more in sympathy with the South than with his own section. 3. The Dred Scott decision struck a great blow at the principles of the Republican party, since it affirmed that Congress had no right to interfere tt'ith slaveholding in any territory. 4. Northern people feared that the next step would be to declare slavery lawful everywhere, even in free states. Many Northern voters joined the Republican party. 5. As the election of 1860 approached, even the Democrats of the North hesitated to follow their party in its proslavery ideas, and the Democratic; party broke into two factions. This gave the Republicans their opportunity, and the election showed a strong majority for Lincoln, the Republican candidate. THINGS TO READ 1. " Our Presidents and How We Make Them," McClure, pp. 154-182. 2. " Stephen A. Douglas," Brown. (Riverside Biographical Series.) 8. " Abraham Lincoln," Hapgood, pp. 1-170. 4. " Abraham Lincoln for Boys and Girls," Moores, pp. 1-84. 5. ".Four Great Americans," Baldwin, pp. 187-240. 374 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS f). From one of Douglas's speeches in the debates with Lincoln, 1858: — "Now I hold that Illinois had a right to abolish and prohibit slavery as she did, and I hold that Kentucky has the same right to continue and pro- tect slavery that Illinois had to abolish it, . . . and that each and every state of this Union is a sovereign power, with the right to do as it pleases upon the question of slavery, and upon all its domestic institutions. " Now, my friends, if we will only act conscientiously and rigidly upon this great principle of popular sovereignty, which guarantees to each state and territory the right to do as it pleases on all things local and domestic, instead of Congress interfering, we will continue at peace with one another. Why should Illinois be at war with Missouri, or Kentucky with Ohio, or Virginia with New York, merely because their institutions differ? . . - This doctrine of Mr. Lincoln of uniformity among the institutions of the different states is a new doctrine, never dreamed of by Washington, Madi- son, or the framers of this government. ... I believe that this new doc- trine preached by Mr. Lincoln and his party will dissolve the Union if it succeeds." 7. " Romance of the Civil War," Hart, pp. 71-7G. S. " A Short History of the United States," Bassott, pj). ^9:^ -.")(!'.». THINGS TO DO L Find the meaning of arrest, ultimate, extinct ion, radical. 2. Discuss in class : — (1) How did the Dred Scott decision "open all United States terri- tory to slavery"? (2) Compare Douglas and Lincoln at the time of their famous de- bates. (3) What causes brought Lincoln the presidential nomination? What probably caused his election ? 3. Copy and study the election map on page 369. Can you account for the fact that Douglas carried only one state ? 4. With what political doctrine do you associate each of the following men : Calhoun, Webster, Clay, Douglas, Lincoln ? 5. Review topics I to VI in the Outline on page 2GS. Make sub-topics from memory under each one. Make a list of ten great events between 1800 and 1860. ANTISLAVERY POWER 375 FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Comparison of the North and South in 1860. Northern States (eighteen) Southern States (fifteen) Population Representa- tion in Con- gress Industries Labor Products Inventions Dependence on other sections or nations 2. Study of political parties, 1856-1860. Democratic Republican Constitutional Union Beginning Principles Leaders In power Divided into because of 37(3 A.MERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS OUTLINE VI. Sliivery threatens the Union, 1S41-1S{)0. (Presidents: Harrison and Tyler, 18-41-1845; Polk, 1845-1849; Taylor and Fillmore, 1849-1S53; Pierce, 1853-1857; Buchanan, 1857-1861.) A. Histoiy of slavery in America before 184 L 1. Important dates in history of .slavery : 1619; 1787; 1793; 1808; 1820. 2. States composing the L^nion in 1841 classified as slave or free. 3. Growth of sectional bitterness. a. Differences in climate, soil, occupations, and ways of living in the Xorth and the South. b. Differences in regard to the tariff reviewed. c. Threats of nullification and sece.^.sion in both North and South. d. The abolition movement. e. John Quincy Adams in Congres.s as defender of the "right of petition." /. The Libertj' party: its candidate received 7000 votes in 1840, 62,000 votes in 1844. B. The Texas question. Texas revolted from Mexico; declared independence; annexa- tion; boundary dispute witlw Mexico; American soldiens on disputed ground; fired upon by Mexicans; war declared by United States. C. The Mexican War, 1846-1848. 1. Taj-lor's victories : o. In the disputed territory : Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma. b. In Mexico : Monterey", Buena Vista. 2. Scott's attack on the Mexican capital. 3. The Wilmot Proviso (not passed). 4. The treatj^ of peace, D. Slavery legislation and its results. 1. The Compromise of 1850. California: free or slave; great debates in Congress; pro- visions of the law. 2. The Fugitive Slave law evaded or resisted in the North ; the Underground Railroad ; personal liberty bills; "Uncle Tom's Cabin " : its influence. ANTISLAVERY POWER 377 3. The Kansas-Nebia.ska bill, 1854. Popular sovereignty: advocated by Douglas; provisions of the Kansas-Nebi-aska bill; proslavery and antislavery set- tlers in Kansas; ''Bleeding Kansas." 4. Readjustment of political parties following the Conflict in Kansas. a. Whig party broken up. Southern AVhigs joined Democrats. Northern Whigs, Free Soilers, antislavery Demociats, make up a new party — the Republican. b. The election of Buchanan. 5. The Dred Scott decision, 1857 — a. Opened all territories to slavery. b. Destroyed the doctrine of popular sovereignty. c. Led Northerners to fear that barriers to slavery would be broken down even in free states. 6. The Lincoln-Douglas debates, 1858. "A house divided against itself cannot stand." 7. Balance of power in the Senate destroyed. 8. John Brown's raid, 1859. 9. The campaign of 1860. a. Democratic party divided : placed two candidates in the field. b. This gave th(> Republicans an advantage which n^sulted in victory. SECESSION AND WAR BETWEEN THE STATES XVI SECESSION Abraham Lincoln was in many respects the most remarkable man who has occupied the presidential chair. Much has been written about him, and we must surely take time to read the story of his progress "from log cabin to White House." Here was a "man of the people" beside whom Jefferson or even Jack- son seems an aristocrat. Born into a shiftless, poor white family, his early home the barest of log cabins, having almost no school- ing, awkward and uncouth in manner, — yet President, by the will of the people of the United States. It sounds like a fairy tale. But we shall see as we read of him that his rough exterior covered a soul that was noble, a mind capable of solving grave problems, and a spirit that had great power over men. The man had risen out of and beyond his environment by this power, and he entered upon his duties, at this time of grave danger to his country, filled with a wise, far-seeing patriotism, which meant strength and justice and sympathy for all the people of the nation, — North and South. The South, however, looked upon his election as the direst of calamities. Southerners held Lincoln to be the slaveholder's The attitude greatest enemy. This was true, in the sense that of the South Lincoln's face was steadfastly set toward allowing towar Lmcoin gjg^ygj.y ^q further chance to grow, lest the day should come when slavery would be universal and the "free state" be no more. With slavery in the slave states Lincoln had no inten- tion of interfering. The South, as in 1^856, protested that the 378 SECESSION 379 success of the Republicans would mean the subordination of the South to a North bent on destroying it, and secession was openly threatened before the election. Most Northerners, however, paid Photograph by Brady. Abraham Lincoln little attention to these threats, believing that, when once the excitement of the campaign had passed, a love like their own for the Union would reassert itself in the South. They did not 380 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Secession of seven states, December, i860 Feb- ruary, 1 86 1 Lincoln's Birtliplace realize that the Southerner's patriotism was mainly for his state and not for the nation; nor that Southerners had never, since the days of Jackson, given up their behef that a state might nullify obnoxious laws or with- draw from the Union if it chose. When the election was over, and Lincoln's suc- c(>ss was an- n o u n c e d, the whole South be- came frantic with anger against the North. Less than a month had passed when South Carolina passed an ordinance of secession, and within six weeks Oeorgiu, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas had followed her example. All this, of course, took place before Buchanan's term came to an end, but Buchanan was not the man to take vigorous steps to preserve the Union. His sympathies had long been with the South. Now indeed he expressed a belief that states had no right to secede, but when they did secede he feared to do any- thing about it. The seceded states formed a government. This government proceeded to seize United States forts, arsenals, and custom houses within its territory. Yet Buchanan hesitated to defend Federal property, arguing that the Constitution gave no right to ''coerce a state." During the last two months of Buchanan's administration the whole country was absorbed in the coming struggle. Com- promises were proposed in Congress, and a peace convention as- sembled at Washington, but both failed to accomplish anything. Many people in the North were ready to give up much to pre- vent war, but Lincoln was strongly opposed to giving any terri- tory to the spread of slavery, and his opinion was successful in SECESSION 381 The Confed- erate States of America organized Feb- ruary 8, 1861 ; Jefferson Davis made President (IIAKLESTO,^ MERCURY EXTRA: V/orA. t*. .W,. tifc*mb*r guiding his party. The North was far from united, and lacked entirely that patriotic devotion to its section which characterized the South. We cannot better realize the feverish activity of the Southern leaders tluring the three months following the election of Lincoln than by following biiefiy the events they brougiit to i)ass. On December 20, Soutii Carolina passetl a Secession Ordinance; l)e- tween that dale and February 1, at intervals of only 11 few d;i\s, seven states fell into line, and on February 8 the Confederacy was organized and a Con- stitution adopted. The next day Jefferson Davis, doubtless the ablest of Southern states- men, was elected President of this Confederacy, and his in- auguration preceded Lincoln's by several weeks. By this time the only Southern forts of any importance left in pos- session of the United States were Fort Sumter, in the _ harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, and Fort Pickens on the Florida coast. On February L5 the Confederate Congress declared that "innnediate steps should be taken to oljtain possession" of these two forts. The new Congress also went systematically to work to provide UNION IS BissmviK! 382 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS ail army and a navy, to raise money, to open negotiations with foreign governments. On the day of Lincoln's inaugura- tion a newly adopted Confeder- ate flag was raised over the Confederacy's capitol at Mont- gomery, Alabama. And all the while the question of both North and South, " What will the United States government do about it?" remained un- answered. There was no inter- ference from Buchanan, beyond Jefferson Davis ,, ,. « , , the sendmg oi a merchant steamer, tlie Star of iJic West, to Fort Stimter with supplies. Even this amounted to nothing, for the Star of the West, being fired upon by South Carolina guns, turned back. It remained for Lincoln to decide what should be done, and his deci- sion may be guessed from these words in his inaugural address, "The power confided to me will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the prop- erty and places belonging to the government." Toward Charleston har- The fall of i^Q ^Yven, all eyes Fort Sumter, ' , i April 14, 1861, were turned, each the first blow of side Waiting for the other to strike the blow which should mean war. Major Anderson, in Charleston Harbor SECESSION 383 command at Fort Sumter, had provisions for only a few weeks, and early in April Lincoln sent word to the governor of South CaroHna 'that supplies would be sent to the fort. Confederate soldiers were waitini; in Charleston for this moment, and decided Bombardment of Fort Sumter to take the fort at once, before the supplies could arrive. On the 12th of April the first gun was fired, and on the 14th Major Anderson was obliged to give up the fort. The first blow of a great war was struck. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Lizacoln's election was almost immediately followed by the secession of South Carolina, and soon by that of six other states. These seven states formed a government, which they called the Confederate States of America. 2. The new Confederacy took possession of United Statps arsenals, forts, and ciistom houses within its borders. 3. Buchanan, anxious to avoid war until he should go out of office, took no action to recover government property in Confederate hands, or e\'en 384 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS to prevent tlieir taking the few forts which were still held liy United States soldiers. The merchant steamer Star of the West, which he sent with supplies to Fort Sumter, was driven back by South Carolina cannon, and he did nothing more. 4. Soon after Lincoln's inauguration, plans were made to reenforce Major Anderson at Fort Sumter. The Confederate soldiers in South Caro- lina attacked the fort before the reenforcements could arrive, and Anderson was obliged to surrender. THINGS TO READ 1. Lincoln's First Inaugural Address. (Possibly only selections.) 2. "Abraham Lincoln." Moores, pp. 85-99. 3. On secession — by Southern men : — " If we can maintain our personal safety, let us hold on to the present government ; if not, we must take care of ourselves at all hazards. . . . The current of resistance is running rapidly over the South." — Thomas Clingman, North Carolina, in 1 he Senate, Deceml>er 4, 1 (). " We believe that the only security for the institution to which we attach so much importance is secession and a Southern Confederacy. We are satisfied, notwithstanding the disclaimers upon the part of the Black Re- publicans to the contrary, that they intend to use the Federal power, Avhen they get possession of it, to put down and extinguish the institution of slavery in the Southern states." — Alfred Iverson, of Georgia, in the Senate, December 5, 1800. "The Union, sir, is dissolved. That is an accomplished fact. . . . You may call it secession, or you may call it revolution ; but there ir, a big fact standing before you, ready to oppose you — that fact is, freemen with arms in their hands." — Robert Toombs, of Georgia, in the Senate, January 7, 18G1. 4. On secession — by Northern men : — " I hold that in contemplation of universal law, and of the Constitution, the union of these states is perpetual." — Abraham Lincoln, Inaugural Address, March 4, 1861. 5. " A Short History of the United States," Bassett, pp. 511-518. 6. " Source Book of American History," Hart, pp. 296-302. 7. " A History of the American People," Wilson, Vol. IV, pp. 186-208.. sr:cKssi()N 385 S. " Abraham Lincoln," Hapgood, pp. 171-2;?(i. 0. " Southern Soldier Stories," Eggleston, pp. l-(i. 10. " Ronuniscences of Peace and War," Pryor, pp. 1{)7-H."). THINGS TO DO 1. Mark in oontrasting colons on an outline map of the United States: (1) the free state.s ; (2) the seven states which formed the Confederacy on February S, ISfil ; (:\) the Imrdcr slave states which at this time had tak(Mi neither side. 2. Stud}- the (>.\tracts on secession given undcn- the Things to Read. " Notic(> that all these quotations are taken from speeches made in the Senate, after the election had shown the success of the Republicans." l-'OK YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Abraham Lincoln. His early life. Write briefly of his parents; his early home; what he liked besi fo do; what sort of boy he was; how h(! began to earn his living ; how he became a lawyer. 2. The Confederate States of America. Formed by seceded states from the United S(a((>s. (Jrgani>;cd on date , with a constitution which guaranteed protection to slavery forever. was elected Presidtmt, and Vice President. was made the capital of the Conf(!deracy ; here the new flag was raised on March 4, 1S6L This flag, often called "The Stars and Bars," was made from the following design : — (See page 412.) 2c XVII WAR BETWEEN THE STATES As we begin our study of the War between the States, we must reahze that we cannot follow, we cannot even mention, manj^ of the movements and engagements of the two armies. A recent history of the time states that there were twenty-two hundred combats during the four years of the war, of which one hundred and forty-nine were important engagements. We could not un- derstand detailed accounts of military movements, how this battle was lost or that won. The most we can hope to do is — first, to get an idea of the great scale upon which the war was conducted and of ' the spirit in which people, North and South, fought for their chosen cause; second, to learn something of the plans of the Federal government to win back to the Union the Conditions in territory which the Confederacy called hers; third, North and to see how these plans worked out, and what brought South com- ^j-jQ ^yg^j. ^Q ,^^^ Q^f^ 'Pq understand these things, we must first of all discover, as far as possible, the conditions under which the war was begun — what advantages, if any, either side possessed over the other, and whether these condi- tions changed as the war progressed. The fall of Fort Sumter had one immediate and important effect. When the news reached the North that Southern soldiers had fired on the nation's flag, all discord and differences of party and opinion were at once forgotten. The one strong common sen- timent at the North was love for the Union, and as a recent writer puts it, the firing on Sumter ''reduced to a single sharp issue — • the preservation of the Union and the supremacy of the Consti- tution — = all the tangle of disputes for which slavery was re- 386 THE CIVIL WAR 387 sponsible." We must keep this clearly in mind. It is unduul^tedl}- true that slavery caused the Civil War, since it was because of slaver\^ that secession came. But the long struggle over slavery did not produce a united North ; nor indeed did secession, so long as the secessionists stopped with merely the assertion of their with- drawal from the Union, but the first shot against the flag awoke in the North all the fires of patriotism, and Jackson's old cry, "The Union must and shall be preserved !" became the watcliword. The day after the fall of Fort Sumter Lincoln issued a call for seventy-five thousand volunteer soldiers. Within a month ovov sixty thousand more soldiers were enlisted, together with eighteen thousand sailors for the navy. Tn July ('ongress authorized the enlistment of half a million men and voted five hundred million dollars to carry on the war. Much anxiety was felt by Lincoln in regard to the l)order slave states, which had not as yet joined the Confederac}'. The Fort Sumter affair and Lincoln's call for volunteers, however, were cl()S(4y Border followed by Virginia's secession, and within a few states, weeks Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tenn(>ssee followed her example. For some time it was difficult to tell whetlu>r Kentucky, Missouri, Delaware, and Maryland were to he consideiHMl as South- ern states or as Northern states. Moves in th(^ direction of seces- sion were made in these states and they were admitted into the Confederate States of America. Lincoln's great wisdom was shown in his treatment of these states which were finally reclaimed by the Union. In Virginia, too, in the part of the state west of the " We are coming. Father Abraham ' 388 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Alleghenies, there was a strong Union sentiment which caused, before the war closed, the formation of this section into a new state, West Virginia. Virginia's joining the Confederacy was a great advantage to the South. Possession of the Shenandoah Valley by the Confederates made it possible for them to threaten Washington. The i-ivers of \'irginia were strong natural defenses Will,.,a.. E.ii;.Co...S.V. The Confederacy, May 1, 1861 against an army moving south vard, and, perhaps greatest of all, the three ablest generals of the Southern army were sons of Virginia. For months after the first blow was struck both North and South echoed with preparations for war. In the North, soldiers Preparations were enlisted, equipped, and hurried to Washington, for war "The city begins to be a camp," wrote Seward in a letter of April 27. In the South the same activity existed, and'' WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 389 there was unbounded enthusiasm. On both sides there was a decided failure to appreciate the sincerity and patriotism of those who opposed them. One thing we shall find that the war The Lee Mansion, Arlington, Virginia Thp homo of Robert E. Lee. A fine specimen of an old-time Virginia liomo. DuriiiK the wiir it was seized by the Lhiited States government, and the property was afterward made use (jf as a national cemetery. Many thousands' of .soldiers lie buried there. .T. K. Hosmer say.s of Lee, "Robert E. Lee . . . reputed to be the ablest officer in the army, a man of moderate views on slavery and most reluctant to accept the idea of .secession, refused the command of the Union army, threw in his lot with his state, and . . . April 2, looking for the last time as [losses.sor upon his fair estate of Arlington, from the majestic portico bidding farewell to the Vjeautiful city and the capitol upon its opposite height, he rode forth to what fate had iu store for him."' accomplished. It gave each side ample reason to respect the fighting qualities of the other. When the war began neither section had any idea of the great- ness of the task before it. Each was inclined to magnify its own advantages, and to believe that it could speedily bring the other to terms. 390 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS The conditions, as we see them now, were these : — 1 . The Southern people numbered but two fifths of the nation, Conditions and of this two fifths nearly half were slaves. This when the war gave the North the advantage of numbers. She began could put more soldiers in the field. 2. This advantage to the North was in part offset, however, by two things. The South could send, if need be, all her white men into the fighting ranks, since the slaves could be used for all other work. Then, too, fewer men would be needed for the defense of the South than for the aggressive warfare which the Northern army must carry on. Familiarity with the country was an added help to the Southern armies. 3. The North, because of the nature and variety of her in- dustries, could sustain her armies and her people at home by her own products. The South, on the other hand, because her whole attention was given to the raising of a few staples, — cotton, rice, sugar, tobacco, — was dependent for support on communication with tli(> outside world. She must sell her cotton in order to get supplies. 4. The possession of a navy was of great advantage to the North. It enabled the government to establish and maintain a blockade of Southern ports, which cut off the communication so necessary to the South. 5. ( )ne thing upon which the South confidently relied proved to be of little or no help to her. It was the belief of Southern Southern belief "^^^"^ ^^^^^ England would not allow the North to that England lilockade Southern ports and shut up the supply of would break cotton which would soou be sorely needed in English luiUs; and so the South looked to England to break the blockade. This, however, England did not do. There were times when slie seemed to be on the verge of giving her aid to the ( 'onfedoracy, and Northerners anxiously watched her movements. "It is true we do not like slavery, but we want cotton, and we do not like your tariff," said one of England's leading public men WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 391 U) a rcpn'scutativc of the Federal goveruuicnr. 'Phc iMij^iish hatred for slavery finally triumphed, and the l)l()ckad(> was imt interfered with. This was a great disappointment tothcSonlh. Tliey eould no longer say or believe, " Cotton is king." The greatest reason of all for the final outcome of the war was tiie superior sustaining power of the North. The South was almost literally starvetl out, but not before the self-sacrifiee and devotion of Southern men and women had won the admiration of the world. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The War is generally considered to have bcKuii with the fall of i'\)rt Suinter, April 14, 1861. 2. The attack on Fort Sumter had the cfTect of unitiuiz; the Noil hern people for defense of the Union. 3. Both North and South hurried forward their pre))aratioii.s for war, enlisting and eciuipping soldiers, and gathering supplies. 4. The four "doubtful states," Delaware, Maryland, Kcntu<-ky, and Missouri, were considered by President Lincoln very necessary to the Union .side, and Lincoln was very wi.se in his dealings with the p(M)ple of t,\icsr states. .'>. There were advantages which each side in the war now beginning liad over the other. On the whole, however, the greater wealth of the North, the number and variety of her industries, and her uninterrupted coinnumi- cation with the outside world gave her the stronger side. P'or these reasons it has been said that " the outcome of the war was decided iiefore the first blow was struck.'' G. The Confederate leaders had great hope that England would inter- fere to break the blockade which the United Stales government had es- tablished. This hope, however, was not realized. THINGS TO READ 1. " Hi.story of the United States," Rhodes. Vol. Ill, pp. ;?.'i7-:i.'")9, 368-372, 381-383, 397-405. 2. " American History," Ashley, pp. 386-396. 3. " Studies in American History," Sheldon, pp. 327-330. 4. " The Appeal to Arms," Hosmer, pp. 5-13. 5. " The Appeal to Arms, Hosmer, pp. 3-34. 6. " Abraham Lincoln," Hapgood, pp. 237-250. 392 AMERICAN HISTORY FOtl GRAMMAR SCHOOLS THIN(iS TO DO 1. Find th(' iiKianiiiK . "I can scarcely contemplate a more incalculable evil than the breaking of the union into two or more parts." — Tho.mas Jeffersoiv/, Virginia, 1788. "Our PVderal Union ! It nuist be preserved !" — Andrew Jackson, Tennessee, l.S.')2. "I ha\e heard something about allegiance to the Scjuth. 1 know no S. "Sir, I confess it, the first public love of my heart is the conunon- w^ealth of Massachusetts. . . . The lore of this union grows out of this attachment to my native soil, and is rooted in it. I cherish it [the Union], b(»cause it aflfords the best external hope of her [Massachusetts] peace, her prosperity, her independence." ^ — Josi.A^H Quincy, Massachusetts, ISH. WAR BKTWKKN TTTP] STATRS 303 "The sovereignty is in tlic several states, and our sjvstem is a uninii of 1 wenty-four sovereisn powers, undor a constitutional compact, and not o{ a divided sovereij^nty between the states s(!verally and the United .States." — John Cvmtoun, South Carolina. 1S.33. "Should Georgia det(>riniiie to ro out of tlie T'nion — whatever the result may be, I shall bow lo tlie will of the people. Their cause is my cause, and theii' destiny is lu}' destiu}'."' — AlF':xa\df.r Stki'hions, Georgia, l.StiO. "If Virginia stands ])y the old Union, so will I. iiut if sh(^ secedes (though I do not believe in secession as a constitutional right, noi' that there is a sufficient cause for revolution), then I will still follow my native state with my sword, and, if need be, with my life." — KoiiEUT E. Lee, Virginia, ISGl. XVIII THE FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR As the great fact that war was at hand came to be reahzed in the North, the first great fear was that the Southern army, fresh Defense of from its victory at Sumter, would be turned northward Washington to attack Washington; and the whole strength of the incoming volunteers was massed to defend the capital. Soon, however, aggressive plans were formed by the North, although not until the beginning of 1862 was a general plan of war developed. This plan, as it came to definite form, was concerned with : — 1. A blockade of Southern ports. 2. The defense of Washington and the taking of Richmond. 3. The opening of the Mississippi. These we must, of course, understand as definite parts of one great object — to hem in the Confederacy, to push its armies farther and farther back from the line of defense they had established along the Northern boundary of the seceding states. Every position wrested from the South meant a Confederacy grooving smaller, so every position must be hotly contested. The line of the Union forces extended from Washington toward the West, following in a general way the Potomac, the Ohio, and the Missouri rivers. The Alleghenies and the Mississippi made a natural division of these forces into three armies. Through the early months of the war all eyes were turned on the army in the The Army of East — the Army of the Potomac — and in fact the Potomac throughout the four years it was this army upon which attention was largely centered. At first it was composed mostly of raw recruits, and General Scott, the aged commander in chief, hesitated to bring on a battle. But the cry "On to 394 THE FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR 395 Richmond!" was resounding through the North, and the people grew more and more impatient with each day of delay. "For- ward to Richmond! The Confederate Congress must not be al- lowed to meet there on the 20th of JuFy !" was the "war cry " of the New Yo7'k Tribune late in June. It was finally decided that the Army of the Potomac should attack the Confederate force encamped only about thirty-five miles from Wash- 'Battle of Bull ington. General Ru". July 21, McDowell, in com- '^^' mand of the Union army, had about thirty thousand men. The two armies were about evenly matched in numbers, and both were made up mostly of raw troops. The charge was made at ten o'clock on Sunday morning, July 21, and until late afternoon the battle raged. At three o'clock all signs pointed to a Union vic- tory; but fresh troops arriving to reenforce the Confederates turned the tide. The Union soldiers, exhausted by the fight and the long march which preceded it, broke before the Confederate charge, and the day ended in defeat and flight. Once in retreat, a panic of fright seized the troops and a mad rush for Wash- ington followed. Had the Union troops been made up of sea- soned men, the battle might have had a different ending, and indeed it is possible that the whole story of the war might have been changed. This was the first important battle of the war, and the news that it was a crushing defeat came as a severe blow to the North. The South went wild with joy. It has l^een said that this earlj' success made the Confederates over- confident, while the shock and discouragement to the North 396 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS really did more good than a victory, since it was now seen that the task before the Union armies was far greater than had been dreamed. General IVIcClellan was now called to the command of the Army of the Potomac, and much Avas expected of him. He was an excellent drill master, and under his command the army was soon put into fine fighting condition. But it was not until late in the spring of 1862 that McClellan advanced against the enemy, although the Presi- dent and the cabinet had been impa- tient for some time because of his inaction. " If the general doesn't want to use the army, I should like to borrow it," said Lincoln at one time. But it was in vain that Lincoln urged haste. ]McClellan could not or would not be hurried, and through many months the only fighting was in the West. There important gains were made, which did much to revive the courage of the })eople in the North. The Confederate forces of the Middle West were under the command of (ieneral A. S. Johnston, a very able soldier. His line of dcjfense extended from wx'stern Virginia through southern Kentucky to the Mississippi, as you see it on the map. It had been strengthened at its weakest points, the Tennessee and Cum- berland rivers, by the erection of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson. Ca ture of These forts were expected to stop the advance from Forts Henry the Ohio of Federal gunboats, which might otherwise and Donelson, penetrate the heart of Tennessee. To capture these February, 1862 ^^^^^ ^^^^^ became at once the object of the Union army in the West. The mouth of each river was already in Union hands, and early in February seventeen thousand men George B. McClellan THE FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR 397 under General U. S. Clrant and a lleet of gunboats under Com- modore Foote set out to attack Fort Henry. A single day w^as sufficient to reduce the fort, and Grant pressed on toward Fort Doneison, while Foote returned to the Ohio, and tiuMi went up the Cumberland to assist in the second battle. The Confederacy, Close of 1861 Compare with the map on page 3SS. Before Grant reached Fort Doneison, however, General John- ston had largely increased the force defending it, so that the ])attl(' was not so easy to win as iliat wilh tlu> sist(>r fort. The fighting lasted for three days. At one time the outlook for tlie Union soldiers was very discouraging, but, as we shall often notice when we come to know General Grant better, discourag- ing conditions had little effect on him. His anununition was 398 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS nearly gone and his men were in confusion, but instead of re- treating, he says, "Noticing that the enemy did not take advan- tage of my situation, I concluded that he probably was in a worse condition than I, and so at once ordered a new attack." In a short time the Confederates were obliged to give up. The commander of the fort sent to General Grant to ask the terms upon which he would be willing to stop fighting, and Grant won his first fame by his answer: "No terms except uncon- ditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works." "Unconditional Surrender Grant" they called him in the North when the story was told there. The story of this battle tells us much about General V i"i\'^Jk KENTl/CKY > ,r.# -y V t'R G ^1 N I A _„ ^^ ^^ ^ ^ ^„ ^ ' !i — ' ' Nf o R T H r* A R O L I N A \ ^{ (he Confederate army from Kentuckj^ had upon the people of (hat state? FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Prepare a chronoh)gi('al chart of three parallel columns to record th(; important CA-ents "in the East," "in the West," and "oii the ocean." Place in their proper columns, each with its date, the capture of Fort Sum- ter, the battle of Bull Run, the capture of Fort Henry, the capture of Fort Donelson, the battle of Shiloh. 2. Make a brief statement of the career and public service of General Scott, who when war broke out was commander in chief of the United States army. 2d XIX WAR ON SEA AND LAND At the very beginning of war — but five days after Sumter fell — the President had declared a blockade of Southern ports, and Blockade of all haste was now being made to render this declara- Southera ports tion effective. No mere "paper blockade" would be observed. The government bought or chartered every kind of craft, "from coal barge to ocean liner," that could be obtained, while navy yards, private shipbuilders, and machine shops worked night and day turning out ships, engines, and guns. Within a year a large part of the coast was effectually guarded, but there remained many places which it was difficult, almost impossible, to close to the "blockade runners." Much romance clusters about the adventurous careers of these ships. Selected for their speed, and painted gray, it was no easy task for the guards along the harbor mouth to discover and overtake them. They approached the harbors cautiously, and usually waited until night to make the run by the guards. Charleston, Wilmington, New Orleans, and Galveston remained in Confederate hands. Capture of and the blockade runners carried away from them New Orleans, many cargoes of cotton. New Orleans, the largest April 25, 1862 pj^y Qf ^j^g g^^^jj^ ^^^ ^Yie outlet of trade for the Mississippi, must be taken. The Confederates, realizing this, had guarded the city by two forts on opposite sides of the river, nearly at its mouth. A heavy chain, supported by anchored vessels, was stretched across the river to hold approaching vessels under the fire of the forts. Above, gunboats, rams, and fire rafts heaped with pitch-pine knots were ready to meet the foe. In April, 1862, Commodore Farragut, with a fleet of seventeen 402 WAR ON SEA AND LAND 403 ships, approached the barrier to attempt the capture of New Orleans. The chain was broken, and on the night of April 23 the fleet approached the forts. Its passage was fiercely disputed, and the skies were red Avith the flash of guns and the glare of flames. With dawii the firing ceased, and the fleet, scarred and battered, passed up the river. The city could no longer be defended. Thousands of bales of cotton were stored there, but rather than let these fall into Union hands the people made all haste to burn them. General Butler, who with fifteen thousand soldiers had accompanied Farragut, now took command of the city, and the fleet passed on up the river to Vicksburg, where Far- ragut was presently joined by the river fleet from Memphis. Vicksburg, however, was too strongly fortified to be taken without a land force, and Farragut returned to New Orleans. In August Port Hudson, two hundred and fifty miles below Vicks- burg, was fortified by a Confederate army; and the river between these two points remained for another year in Confederate hands, presenting a problem which the Union forces in the West found hard to solve. Farragut 's capture of New Orleans was one of the last exploits of the old-fashioned wooden ships, made so famous in the War of 1812, for even before he had reached the Mississippi an event had occurred which changed naval warfare for all time. As far back as 1812 plans for iron-covered or "ironclad" war ships had been discussed, and a few successful armored vessels had been built before the outbreak of the present war. None of these, however, was in the United States navy, and it was not until 1861 that contracts were made f.'ir the building of three ironclads for the United States. Admiral Farragut 404 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS As soon as war had begun, the Confederates set to work to pro« vide a navy, and among the ships which they fitted up were several ironclad rams. These were made by cutting down the hulks of old wooden warships, and building a sort of iron roof over them, protecting the guns and men. One of these rams was made from the hull of the Merrimac, a Federal warship which had been sunk at the Norfolk navy yard to prevent its falling into Confederate hands. When the Confederates seized Norfolk they had raised the Merrimac, and made her over into an ironclad. Under the name of Virginia, she set out from Norfolk on her work of destruction. On March 8, 1862, the Merrimac steamed from Norfolk into Hampton Roads, to destroy the blockading squadron and break The Merrimac the Ijlockadc. Several wooden frigates were there, And the Monitor, and wlieu the Merrimac appeared, ships and shore March 9. 1862 ]jatteries opened their guns upon her. It had been generally known that the Confederates were building an ironclad, and it was seen at once that this strange-looking craft must be the armored ram. The course of the Merrimac was simple. Entirely ignoring the firing of the fleet, she proceeded to the Cumberlaml, and stove a hole in her side which soon sent her to the bottom. Next, selecting the Congress as a victim, the Merrimac soon put her out of action, the prey of devouring flames. The Minnesota lay next, but the tide was going and night approaching, so, fear- ing lest his ship should run aground, the commander of the Mer- rimac withdrew, returning the next morning to complete his task. Strangely enough, however, one of the three ironclads built for the Union navy was completed just in time to take a hand in this unequal contest. When the Merrimac returned to attack the Minnesota in the morning, it was only to find the frigate guarded by a craft stranger in appearance than the Merrimac herself. The Monitor, as the new Union ironclad was (tailed, showed al>ove the water only a low platform close to the water's level, with a round tower in the middle, mounting two guns. The revolving WAR ON SEA AND LAND 405 of this tower made it possible to fire the guns in any direction without waiting to turn the vessel, and was really a new idea in naval warfare. The fight which followed destroyed neither vessel. Indeed, neither was at all seriously injured, although shot and shell fell furiously on both. But the Merrimac had no time to spare to carry out her designs against the Minnesota, and at length steamed between the Mouiloi away; the Union fleet was saved, the blockade remained un- broken. And the day of wooden warships had forever passed. Meantime the Army of the Potomac was still engaged in the attempt to take Richmond. After many months of drilling and getting ready, McClellan, with one hundred thousand The Peninsular men, had ]>egun his advance toward the Confederate Campaign capital, going by way of Chesapeake Bay and the York penin- sula, made famous in Revolutionary days. At Yorktown he found the Confederates with a fortific^l line across the peninsula. McClellan's. force was three times that of the Confederates, but 406 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS instead of attacking them he began preparations for a siege. After a month, the Confederates quietly withdrew, and strengthened their fortifications nearer the city. McClellan, following, found the road to Richmond held by the main army of the Confederates, at first under General Joseph Johnston, and, after he was wounded, under General Robert E. Lee. Their force, meanwhile, was be- ing steadily increased, and McClellan anxiously awaited the coming of McDowell to reenforce him. To prevent this, The Peninsular Campaign Lee sent " Stonewall " Jackson into the Shenandoah Valley, where he could threaten Washington; and Jackson succeeded in so alarming Lincoln that McDowell was recalled to defend the capital. Meantime McClellan's forces were encamped on both sides of the Chickahominy. When a sudden rise of the waters made crossing difficult, Johnston seized the opportunity to attack the division on the southern side at Fair Oaks, but the Union army successfully resisted attack. It was in this battle that Johnston was wounded. After Lee took command, the famous "Seven Days' Battles" were fought, in which McClellan lost fifteen thousand men, and Lee twenty thousand. In all but Virginia Campaiifna. 1862-1865 408 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS one of these battles the Union army held the advantage. In the last, at Malvern Hill, McClellan is commonly believed to have thrown away an opportunity to crush Lee's army and capture Richmond. But he did not follow up his victory, and the next day, July 2, saw the end of the campaign, with little, if anything, accomplished. Lee at once pushed northward, and in August, 1862, attacked a division of the Union army near the Bull Run battlefield. This battle again brought victory to the South. Lee ad- of Bull Run vanced farther, crossing into Maryland. When the August 30, Confederates entered the state, singing " Maryland, 1862 ; Antietam my Maryland," they expected to find a strong south- ep em er 17, ^^^_^ feeling there. Lee looked for sympathy, supplies, and recruits. But he met the coldest of receptions. In Frederick he found stores closed and streets deserted. McClellan met him at Sharpsburg, and here, near the northern bank of the Potomac, the great battle of Antietam was fought. This battle checked Lee's advance, though it did not destroy his army or prevent his withdrawal into Vir- ginia. It is sometimes spoken of as a poor or barren victory for the Union forces, but it was worth much at that time of discourage- ment to gain any victory at all. The President had been anxiously watching and hoping for a success in the field. We must not forget that while generals and soldiers struggled with military problems and campaign plans, no Antietam Bridge The scene of fierce fighting during the early part of the battle. Afterward known as " Burnside's Bridge." WAR ON SEA AND LAND 409 less perplexing political questions occupied tlie goverunient at Washington. We may leave the army for the present slowly preparing to follow Lee, who was once more on Virginia soil. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The United States government hastened to i)hin and carry ont an effective blockade of Southern ports. 2. An expedition to take New Orleans, the most important port of the South, was undertaken in April, 1862. Commodore Farragut, who cc^m- nianded this, was entirely successful. 3. A famous battle, between ironclad warships, was fought in March, 1862. This new kind of war vessel has come in our day to be the only kind in use. 4. The Army of the Potomac, in the spring of 1802, uiiderlook the Peninsular Campaign against Richmond. This was a failure. In August (leneral Lee advanced into Mar.yland. There his advance was checked at Antietam, the first Union victory in the East. TlilNCiS TO READ 1. "Four American Naval Heroes," Beebe, pp. 3-10, 133-192. 2. "Our Country in Poem and Prose," Persons, pp. 135-148. 3. "Southern Soldier Stories," Eggleston. 4. "Civil War Stories Retold from St. Nicholas." 5. The Romance of the Civil War, "Source Reader No. 4," Hart, pp. 3 17-358. G. " History of tlu; United States," Adams and Trent, pp. 3S1 - tOl. THIXCS TO DO 1. Questions for brief oral or written answers:^ (1) Why was the blockade important to the success of llie North? Why was the capture of New Orleans important ? (2) Why was the battle between the Merrimac and the; Monitor important ? In what way do the present-day ironclads resemble these of 1862 ? What disadvantages did each of these ships pos- sess which have now been overcome ? 2. Review McClellan's career up to the time of Antietam. What do you consider his prominent qualities a- a general? 3. Ask your teacher to tell you how the Confederate General Jackson became known as "Stonewall " Jackson. 410 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Place on your chronological chart the taking of New Orlean.s, the battle between the Merrimac and the Monitor, the Peninsular Campaign, the battle of Antietam. Give dates. 2. The Merrimac and the Monitor. (Write a brief description of each vessel, and of the battle.) XX EMANCIPATION At the time when Lincoln's anxious watching for a victory was at least partially rewarded by Antietam, the united feeling which had for a time followed the first firing on the flag no longer pre- vailed. The first great enthusiasm had passed, and there was an increasing amount of criticism of the war and the President. The abolitionists, as of old, clamored for the freeing of the slave, and were dissatisfied because Lincoln took no steps in this direction. Extreme conservatives, on the other hand, believed that the war should not in the least affect the slavery question. The war was It was a war for the Union, which, if it succeeded, to preserve must restore the Union exactly as it was when the *^® Umon war began. Congress had in July, 18G1, passed a resolution declaring that the war was not waged to -overthrow or interfere with the rights or established institutions of the Southern states, but to maintain the supremacy of the Constitution and to pre- serve the Union. And yet it was a fact that could not be disputed, that slavery was helping the South in the war. President Lincoln thought long and anxiously about it. Freeing the slaves, he believed, would help the North in the war by taking away from the Southern people the help the slaves were giving on plantation and in camp. It ought, too, to have a good effect on the attitude toward America shown by foreign governments. Slavery was not thought well of in England and France. But Lincoln did not believe that Con- gress had the right to abolish slavery throughout the country except by an amendment to the Constitution; nor, of course, had • he any such right. 411 412 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS The President, however, is the head of the army, and he beheved that he did have the right, as a "war measure," to declare free the slaves in the seceded states, and this he determined to do. But, knowing that even this would arouse opposition in the border states, which, while loyal to the Union, still hoped that slavery might be preserved, he waited until the war had l)een in progress more than a year. By that time people in the loyal states came to see that, if the war were to succeed, no _ , , .... , _, means must be left untried to overcome Confederate National Flag- This flag was adopted May 1. The Emancipa- ^^^"^ ^OUth. ThcU President ind^B!rrs'^'''adopted*'in"i86i'' tion Prociama- Lincoln prepared an Emanci- The flag shown in the picture tion, January pation Proclamation, which, was afterward changed bv the _ jOg, addition of a red bar across the ' 3 ^j^ September 23, after the end. 1 here was also a battle ^ '^ ' flag, of red with the blue cross victory at Autietam, he made public. from corner to corner and thir- "^ ' ^ teen stars, the design being This proclamation declared that on Janu- the same as that m the corner '■ of the national flag. ary Ist of the following year, all persons held as slaves in states then in rebellion against the government of the United States should be free. When the new year arrived, the slaves were formally declared free, and in the parts of the South where Union armies were in possession many of the negroes placed themselves under the protection of the Northern soldiers. Indeed, as the war went on regiments of colored soldiers were formed in the Union army, until one hundred thousand of them were enrolled. But, in general, the slaves were not so ready to leave their masters as many had expected. They went on caring for the plantations, or performing the labor of the Southern camps. Perhaps the greatest effect of the proclamation was in disclos- ing the real question in dispute between the North and the South. The war had been undertaken to preserve the Union. But now many Northern people believed that though disunion were pre- vented, lasting peace could come only by the destruction of slavery. The war, begun with a determination to let slavery alone EMANCIPATION 413 where it existed, luul thcrefDro now liecomo not only a war for the Union but for the crushing out of slavery itself. But the war was not yet won. The Union was not yet saved, and the declaration of freedom for the slaves meant little unless the armies in the field could enforce what the President had de- clared. The outlook there, however, was not encouraging. Capture of Roanoke Island, February 7, 1862 '"'rom an engraving published during the war. In the East, Lee's army seemed unconquerable, and the Union soldiers were as far as ever from Richmond. Antietam, a doubtful victory, was followed in December, 1862, by Fredericks- burg, a crushing defeat. The new year, indeed, saw a Confeder- ate advance into Kentucky checked at Murfreesboro, but it was a battle which cost thousands of lives. There had been suc- cesses in the Mississippi Valley, but the river was not yet open, since Vicksburg and Port Hudson still defied attack. Many more 414 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS soldiers were needed, and by this time there were few, if any, vol- unteers. Criticisms of the President and the army were growing more numerous and stinging. Among Democrats it was now common to hear the statement that the war was a failure. A Democratic congressman from Ohio said in the House of Repre- sentatives on January 4, 1863: "You have not conquered the South. You never will. The war for the Union is, in your hands, a most bloody and costly failure." Foreign affairs, too, were still discouraging. Although England had not as yet withdrawn her declaration of neutrality, there were The Alabama ^^'^^^ fcars that shc might do so; and the United States built in Eng- felt that she had reason to complain of the English land for the government for allowing several ironclad warships to be built and fitted out at Liverpool for the Confeder- ates. The most famous of these, the Alabama, was doing great damage to Northern merchant-ships, and there was intense feel- Hig in the North against England. An unfortmiate occurrence during the first year of the war had .already strained relations between the United States and England. The Trent In the autumn of 18G1 the Confederate President affair >,^.j^^ ^^q jng^, Jamcs Mason of Virginia and John Slidell of Louisiana, to further the interests of the South in Eng- land and France. After escaping from Charleston in a blockade runner, they proceeded to Havana, where they embarked for Eng- land on the British mail steamer Trent. The captain of an Amer- ican warship, learning of their presence on the Trent, stopped her and forcibly made Mason and Slidell his prisoners. The capture was hailed with great rejoicing in the North, and it was only when the British ministry immediately demanded reparation that the act M'as viewed in its relation to England. Lincoln, how- ever, had seen at once that trouble was likely to ensue. " We fought Great Britain for insisting ... on the right to do pre- cisely what Captain Wilkes has done," he said. And now it be- gan to seem as though we should fight Great Britain again. The EMANCIPATION 415 British government began preparing for war. But the United States could not at this time enter upon another war. The pris- oners were given up, and due apologies made. As the year 1863 opened, no new plans were formed. The old problems remained. The blockade must be strengthened, the Mississippi must be opened, Richmond must be taken, and Lee's ~fI5Jv iiu ., lis' 110^ 135° iW ii>^ W" 55=7 SP tsJ \ ,ru' sc'iEOftTiLES *^G \ I I Controlled by the Union 100 200 300 400 iJOo\^ ^' ]Contrulled bv tile Confederate 110°I...r,;. . I I'J \\M^ 100' f^om 96^ Greenwich 00" wfiuuiis rwiuvtXQ c The Confederacy, Close of 1862 Compare with map on page 397. army crushed. It was one of the good fortunes of the Con- federacy to have found its great commanders early in the war. The Union armies, however, were not so fortunate. In the first half of the war the Army of the Potomac changed leaders again and again, but none of the changee brought to light the great general Lincoln was always hoping to find. McClellan, who had already been removed and reinstated, was, after he failed to 416 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS follow up his advantage over Lee at Antietam, removed once more; and his successor, General Burnside, following Lee, suffered the crushing defeat at Fredericksburg which we have already mentioned. Cieneral Hooker, appointed to follow Burnside, again attacked Lee at Chancellorsville, only a few miles from Freder- icksburg. Here, again, Lee was entirely successful, and dis- couragement at the North was greater than ever; while the South in the midst of rejoicing mourned the loss of General Jackson, which was a great blow to the Southern cause. Lee now once more crossed the Potomac, making his second attempt to carry the war into the North. By the end of June, Battle at 1863, he was on the soil of Pennsylvania with seventy- Gettysburg, five thousand men ready to give battle. The July I, 2, 3, Army of the Potomac, which numbered one hundred ^^ ^ thousand, was now placed under the command of General Meade. On the first day of July the two armies met at Gettysburg, where followed a terril)le three days' battle. It is scarcely possi})lo to pass over that fight without some attempt to picture it, the greatest battle the New World ever saw. Two ridges separated by a valley not quite a mile wide formed the scene of the battle. In the valley were orchards and wheat fields. The first day fighting was begun on Seminary Ridge, west of tlu; valley. The Confederates drove the Union forces back through the valley up to Cemetery Hill, on the east of the town. There General Meade resolved to await attack on the second day. Throughout the war the offensive had fallen in most cases to the Union army, while the Confederates had had all the advan- tages of familiar country, strong positions, and defensive fighting. Now the conditions were to be reversed. During the morning of the second day Meade made his position as secure as he could, bringing to the front all his men, while Lee gathered his army for the attack. In the afternoon this came. Lee's plan was to attack at both ends of Meade's line, and EMANCIPATION 417 there was fierce fighting in both places. Thousands of men fell, to fight no more. But though Lee gained some slight advantage, Meade still held the hill. At midnight Meade called his generals into council, "a group dust-covered and sweat-stained, the strong faces strangely earnest. Some sat on the bed; some stood; j^ene at the Battle of Gettysburg Warren, wounded, stretched out on the floor, was overcome by- sleep." All voted "to stay and fight it out." Lee, meanwhile, was resolving to follow his partial successes by a third day of fighting. Meade's prophecy to his generals was, ''To-day he has struck the flanks; next it ^vill be the cen- ter"; and everything was prepared to meet the charge. Early dawn saw fighting at the northern end of the line, for possession of Gulp's Hill. This, however, was succeeded by a strange quiet 2e 418 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS SCALE OF MILES as the armies rested and awaited the struggle. The hot sun beat down on the blood-stained valley and the field of trampled wheat where so many had already given up their lives. At one o'clock the Confederates opened fire with their cannon, and for an hour and a half gun answered gun across the narrow valley, echoing, from the hills and filling the air with smoke. This is said to be the heaviest cannonading ever known on the American continent. ' ' The whole crest of the hill was a line of fire," says one writer; " the hills shook to their foundations." At length the firing ceased. The smoke began to clear away. Then came the expected attack on the Union center, ''Pickett's charge," which will be famous forever among the stories of brave deeds. The story of Gettysburg reaches its climax as we see Pickett's brave men march coolly out across the valley, in full sight of the enemy. Not a man of the fifteen thousand flinched from the al- most certain death which awaited him. "They came forward steadily, in perfect order, with banners flying. Those who looked on might have thought it a Fourth of July parade. " Pickett, at the head of his troops, " rode gracefully," writes Longstreet, who watched the scene, " with his jaunty cap raked well over his right ear. He seemed a holiday soldier." The Union cannon were turned upon them, and the guns began their deadly fire. Still Pickett's men pressed on. The Union infantry now opened fire. The ranks began to thin, but they closed up and went on faster lit 8s,C00 Union troops ibout 75,000 Con(e,\eiHle troop* {CoufeaBiatu about 28,000 Uuiuu about 23,000 KMANCIPATION 419 and faster. They approached the hill, rushed up to the Federal lines and into the midst of the enemy. There, with Union soldiers swarming around them on every side, they fought desperately, courageously, wonderfully, but no soldiers could win against such odds. At last the broken remnant of Pickett's men was ordered Battlefield of Gettysburg, looking South from Round Top back. The gallant charge had been in vain, the fight was lost. Lee's army, so long victorious, had at last suffered defeat. This was a great moment for the North. "Now," wrote Lincoln, "if General Meade can complete his work, so gloriously prosecuted thus far, by the literal or substantial destruction of Lee's army, the rebellion will be over." But this Meade failed to do. Lee took his own time to retreat from Gettysburg, and, without being disturbed by Meade, crossed the Potomac into 420 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Virginia. Lincoln was greatly disappointed. "Our army held the war in the hollow of their hand, and they would not close it," he said. Yet he appreciated, as we must do, the value of what Meade did do at Gettysburg. And since it happened that the 4th of July saw in the West the successful end of Grant's long campaign against Vicksl)urg, and the opening of tlu; Missis- sippi, this tiuK! may ho truly called the turning jKjint of the war. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Thero was a growing feeling of division in the North in legard to (he war. 2. As a war measure President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proc- lamation, to take effect January 1, 1863. This proclamation declared the sia\'cs free in states then in rebellion against the government. .'i. Failure on the battlefield and worry over foreign affairs C()ml>ined to cause discouragement at the North. 4. In the summer of 1863 Lee made his second advance into the North. Again he was checked, in a terrible battle at Gettysburg. This victory for the North, together with Grant's capture of Vicksburg, which was com- pleted the same day, marked the turning jjoint of the war. THINGS TO READ 1. "Our Country in Poem and Prose," Persons, pp. 148-168. 2. A Drummer Boy at Gettysburg, in "Civil War Stories Retold from St. Nicholas." 3. "Source Reader No. 4," Plart, pp. 321-327. 4. "Source Book," Hart, pp. 315-318, 327-329. 5. " The Appeal to Arms," Hosmer, pp. 281-305. 6. " The Battle of Gettysburg," Schurz, McClure's Magazine, July, 1907. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the exact meaning of conservatives, reinstated, infantri/. 2. Get all the information you can about the Alabama: its building; trouble over its leaving port; the damage it did to Northern commerce; what became of it; the "Alabama claims." 3. Look up in the encyclopedia the main points in the career of General Meade. EMANCIPATION 421 4. Discuss in class: — (1) Why was Lincoln careful to make the Emancipation Proclama- tion declare freedom for only those slaves who were in seceded states ? (2) What ground had dissatisfied Northerners for objecting (o Lin- coln's action? Were these objections justified? 5. Read or ask your teacher to tell you the story of "Stonewall " Jack- son's death at Chancellorsville. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK Abraham Lincoln as President (Portrait) From his first inauguial: — "I hold that in contemplation of universal law, and of the Constitution, the union of these states is perpetual." From the Gettysburg speech: — "That we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain — that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of tlie p(M)ple, by the people, and for the people shall not perish from tlie caitli." From his second inaugural:-- "With malice toward none, with chai'it}' for all, with firnmess in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and his orphans, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations." XXI GRANT AT VICKSBURG, CHATTANOOGA, AND IN THE EAST The capture of Vicksburg was accomplished only after seven months of hard work. The attempt would probably have been abandoned long before this time had elapsed, had it not been imperative to open the Mississippi and to cut off the eastern valley states of the Confederacy from the West. The position of . Vicksburg, on a high bluff overlooking the Missis- before Vicks- sippi, made it impossible to take it from the river burg, Novem- side, while its fortifications looking toward the east ber 1862-juiy, -y^rere so strong as apparently to defy attack. For months Grant worked at the problem. Attack from the north was attempted, and it failed. Attack from the south was considered impossible, since the Union army, if it landed on the eastern bank of the Mississippi below Vicksburg, would be cut off from receiving supplies. Yet this is what Grant finally decided to do. The campaign that followed was a remarkable one. In nine- teen days from the time Grant crossed the river, he marched one hundred miles, with coi^stant skirmishing, and won five distinct battles, taking the capital of the state, and destroying its arsenal, its military stores and factories. To do this he had been obliged to cut off communication with his base of supplies — a danger- ous proceeding, but in this case quite successful. Grant was now in the rear of Vicksburg, the Confederate forces having retired within the fortifications. A close siege was main- tained by the Union army. " We are now approaching wdth pick and shovel," wrote General Sherman, Grant's efficient aid. " In 422 GRANT AT VICKSBURG AND CHATTANOOGA 423 the meantime we are daily pouring into the city a perfect storm of shot and shells." From time to time assaults were made, but it was starvation which forced the surrender, six weeks after the siege began. The suffering of soldiers and townspeople had become intense. ^Vomen and children sought safety in caves. . The soldiers grew daily weaker for lack of food. No help could reach them from without, and July 4th, Vicksburg fell, about thirty thousand Confederate soldiers being made prisoners. Five days later Port Hud.son was surrendered. On July 16th a mer- chant steamer from St. Louis reached a wharf at New Orleans. The Mississippi was open. The Confederacy was cut in two. Western supplies could no longer be brought to the Gulf states. These states were now shut in on every side, and for the first time the cause of the Union looked bright. After the fall of Vicksburg, Grant, who was now recognized as an able general, was placed in command of all the armies west of the Alleghenies. He went at once to eastern Tennessee, where Union and Confederate armies were contending for the possession of Chattanooga. Ever since the early Union successes in Ken- tucky had driven the Confederates back from that state and Tennessee, they had been eager to regain their lost foothold. Their army, under Bragg, had met the Union forces under Rosecrans at Murfrees- boro on the last day of 1862, and had been driven back. The strongest position in the West held by the Confederates after lU 20 30 40 60 00 70 80 90 100 The Lower Mississippi, show- ing the Campaign around Vicksburg 424 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS General ). E. Johnston General A. S. Johnston A GROUP OF CONFEDERATE COMMANDERS GRANT AT VICKSBURG AND CHATTANOOGA 425 General Sherman General Sheridan General Grant General Meade General Thomas General Hooker A CROUP OF UNION COMMANDERS 426 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS they lost Vicksburg was Chattanooga, an important railroad center, and gateway to eastern Tennessee and Georgia. Rosecrans now attempted to dislodge Bragg from this position. By threatening his line of supplies, Rosecrans compelled Bragg to withdraw several miles from Chattanooga. The battle of Chicka- mauga followed, in which the Union army was saved from disas- trous defeat only by the steadfast bravery of General Thomas, Lookout Mountain afterward known as the ''Rock of Chickamauga." His cool courage made it possible for the Union army to reach safety in Chattanooga, where they were now besieged by the Confederates, who fortified Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, near-by heights overlooking the Union camp. After a month's siege, it was feared that lack of supplies would force them to surrender. Under Grant's direction, however, and with the assistance of more soldiers from the West and from the Army of the Potomac, GRANT AT VICKSBURG AND CHATTANOOGA 427 Chattanooga was held and the Confederates driven from Look- out ^Mountain and Missionary Ridge. The fighting at Chatta- nooga showed the Union army at its best. Here, for the only time, Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, and Thomas • gave battle to- gether. Veterans from Vicksburg, from Gettysburg, from Chicka- mauga, made the bold assault. Hooker's men fought their way Confederacy. Close of 1863 Compare with the Confederacy at the close of 1862. Notice how the Confederacj' is cut in two. to the top of Lookout, where occurred the far-famed "Battle above the Clouds." The charge of Thomas's men up the almost perpendicular side of Missionary Ridge has been called " the grandest spectacle of the war." When night fell upon the con- flict, Bragg fled southward into Georgia. The end of 1863 came. The year had been an eventful one, and yet the Confederacy was not crushed. Lee's army, though 428 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Grant made commander in chief, March, 1864 defeated at Gettysburg, was still in the field. All eyes were turned toward Grant as the man best fitted to undertake the problem of conquering Lee. He was accordingly made commander in chief of all the armies, his place in the West being taken by his trusted friend, William T. Sherman, who had had a part, and a worthy one, in all of Grant's achievements. Grant took command in March, 1864, and began his "hammer- ing campaign" against Lee. The Confederacy was by this time in a critical condition. There were few men left in the South who were not in the army, and thus soldiers lost in battle could not be replaced. The blockade was now al- most perfect, and since the IMississij)!)! had fallen into I'nion liands, the South was more than ever cut (jff from the outside world. Her people were making every sacrifice for the soldiers, and j-et the soldiers were ragged and hungry. The Northern army, on the other hand, was well taken care of, and although there was little volunteering now and drafting met with some opposition, still the ranks were filled, and thus in numbers as well as equipment the Union army had the advantage. In the spring of 1864 Grant set the face of his army toward Richmond, and for two months lie "hammered" at Lee. Day after day of fighting would ])e succeeded not ])y retreat or rest, but by a change of position and iTiore fighting. In the Wilder- ness, at Spottsylvania, at Cold Harl)or, thousands upon thousands of brave men laid down their lives. But Grant was not beaten, The Draft GRANT AT VICKSBURG AND CHATTANOOGA 429 "for he did not know how to be beaten," and the "hammering" went on. Petersburg was attacked, again with great loss; and when it became evident that it could not be taken by assault, a siege was begun. Up to this time ^''^°*'^ . ri 1 -1 1 "hammering urant had lost about sixty thousand men. He has campaign" been greatly criticised for this campaign before before Rich- Richmond, especially for the attack at (bid Harbor, °'°°'^ ^^s^" ,.,,,,, . ' May, 1864 ni whu'ti lie lost twelve thousand men m a single half hour. Yet we must admit that, reckless as he seemed of the lives of his soldiers, and though little seemed to be accom- plished by their terrific assaults, he was slowly wearing Lee's army out. George Cary Eggleston, a well-known writer and a Confedcn-ate soldier during tlu^ war, has said: "But by the time that we [I>ee's army] reached Cold Harbor, we had be- gun to understand what our new adversary meant, and there for the first time, I think, the men in the ranks of the Army of Northern Virginia realized that the era of experimental campaigns against us was over ; that Grant was not going to retreat; that he was not to ])e removed from command because he had failed to break Lee's resistance; and that the policy of pounding had begun, and would continue until our strength should be utterly worn away. . . . AYe l)egan to understand that Grant liad taken hold of the problem of destroying the Confederate strenglii in the only way that the strength of such an army, so com- mandcnl, could be destroyed, and that he intended io continue A Canteen ThiM was carried by a Union soldier diirinR tin Civil War ; it was almost destroyed by bull'>t«. 430 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS the plodding work until the task should be accomplished, wasting very little time or strength in efforts to make a brilliant display of generalship. . . . We at last began to understand what Grant meant by his expression of a determination to ' fight it out on this line if it took all summer.' " It was after Grant had settled down to the siege of Peters- burg that the Confederate general Early was sent by Lee into the Shenandoah Valley. Here he was able to threaten The Confed- Washington, advancing close to the city and greatly Early alarming the people. Washington was very imper- threatened fectly guarded, and there was great danger of its Washington capture. Timely reenforcements prevented this mis- Penns ivania ^o^tune to the Union cause, and Early passed on towns across Maryland and into Pennsylvania, where he burned Chambersburg and carried off cattle and supplies. Early's triumphs, however, were short-lived. On August 1 General Sheridan was placed in command of the Union Sheridan sent forcos in the Shcnandoali, and in the middle of Sep- into the shen- tem])er he won two decided victories over the Con- an oa Valley fg^jpi-j^^-g forces; after which he went up and down the valley destroying ])arns and grain, driving off cattle, — indeed, doing everytliing in his power to carry out his instructions that "nothing should l)e left to invite the enemy to return." In the middle of October Early had so far recovered from the defeats Sheridan had inflicted upon him as to be again in fight- ing trim; and l)efore dayl)r(^ak on the 19th he succeeded in surpris- ing the Union camp. Sheridan himself was absent, being at Winchester, about fiftt^en miles away. He started leisurely on his return after breakfast. Soon, however, sounds of battle reached him, and as he hurried on he met fugitives from the field. Put- ting his horse to a gallop, he tried to stem tlie tide of retreat into which he soon rode. That he was successful in this shows how much a commander may accomplish on the battlefield by per- sonal ])ravery and magnetism. Waving his hat, and shouting (;RANT at VICKSBURd AND Cll ATTANOOOA 431 assurances, "We'll sleej) in our old canip to-night, lK)ys! - Face the other way ! We're going hack ! We're going to lick them out of their boots!" — he dashed aloi\g, and by the sheer force of liis enthusiasm the men were rallied, turnetl, and fol- lowed him back, where the day was yet won and the Confederate army badly defeated. This realh^ ended the Confedf^ratc* liope of holding the valley, but it was not until ]\larch that the last of the fighting there took place. By that time Sheridan had swept the valley sy bare that "a crow flying across would need to carry his rations with him." THINCJS TO REMEMBER 1. After a long canipuign, (iraiit captured Vifksburg, July i, lS(j.'?. This completed the opeuiiifr (,{ the Mississippi. 2. Grant was placed in command of all the Western armies. Success in eastern Tennessee followed, and early in 1864 Grant was made com- mander in chief of all the armies of the United States. 3. In the spring following his appointihent Grant took active command of the campaign against Richnioiid. For two months he fought hard and steadily, winning no victories, and with great loss to his army. The Union army, however, could bear these losses better th;in the Confederates could bear theirs. Lee's army was growing smaller and weaker, and no new recruits were to be had. 4. Grant finally settled down to a siege of Petersburg. 5. Sheridan defeated General Early in the Shenandoah Valley and swept the valley bare of supplies. THINGS TO READ 1. "Sheridan's Ride," Read. 2. "Uly.sses S. Grant" (Riverside Biographical Series), Allen, pp. G.5-103. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the exact meaning of arsenal, base of supplies, drafting, assault. 2. Discuss in class Grant's campaign against Vicksburg: What were his ditficulties? Why was his final victory so highly praised? What do you 432 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS think would have boon said of Grnnl if lie liiul not readied final .success in the campaign ? 3. Review Grant's career up to this time. What good qualities had he shown as a general ? 4. Compare the strength of the North and the South at this time: their armies in number and equipment, their wealth, their commerce, their industrial independence of other countries. How had conditions in the South changed since the early part of the war ? Had they changed equally in the North ? FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Ulysses S. Grant. (Portrait) Grant was a native of . He was educated at and took pait in the War after he reached manhood. He then led an obscure and not very successful life until the outbreak of the Civil War. His first service after war came was — — . He then became and was stationed under General — — - in the Middle West. His first claim to fame was his taking of and . The battle of — — did not add to his rejjutatioii, but his campaign against showed him to be a strong commander. He was given command of and won success at — — . He was then appointed in March, 1864. 2. Philip Sheridan. (Portrait) "He dashed down the line, mid a storm of huzzas, And the wave of retreat checked its course there, because The sight of the master compelled it to pause. H: :f: :|t * 4: 4: " Here is the steed that saved the day By carrying Sheridan into the fight. From Winchester, twenty miles away." — Thomas Buchanan Read. 3. Place on your chronological chart, with dates, all engagements men- tioned in text since Antietam. XXII THE END OF THE WAR During the months that were occupied by the operations in the Shenandoah of which we have just read, General Sherman was doing important work farther south. On the same day in May, 1864, upon which Grant took up his march toward Richmond, Sherman, wdth one hundred thousand men, started from Chattanooga in the direction of „, , Atlanta, which was guarded at Dalton by General campaign Joseph E. Johnston with sixty-five thousand Confed- before Atlanta, erate soldiers. ^T^'^;. tember, 1864 " It was generally understood by the public that Sherman's grand object in this campaign was the capture of Atlanta, the principal city of Georgia between the mountains and the seacoast," says John Fiske, " but Grant and Sherman well knew that a far more important object was the destruction or capture of Johnston's army, and this was likely to be no light task." For two months Sherman closely followed Johnston, who fought and fell back again and again, always skillfully and always occu- pying a strong position. The opportunity to destroy his army which Sherman watched for never came. At last Sherman was in sight of Atlanta, and Johnston, secure behind his fortifications, made ready to come out and attack him. Rut the ronf(Hlerate government, unal^le to see the wisdom with which Johnston had conducted the campaign, removed him from his command in favor of Hood, a "fighting general." It was expected that Hood would "fight vigorously," which he did with more valor than discretion, the result being three important 2f 433 434 xVMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS ballh's ;tiid many smaller engagements, Hood finally giving np the city, which Sherman (uitered September 2. The possession of Atlanta, however, was not enough. Hood's army must be captured or destroyed. So when Hood turned Confederate Money northward, Sherman followed. Soon, however, he decided to leave part of his army under General Thomas to undertake Hood's destruction, and himself turned back to Atlanta. After destroying the shops and factories which had made Atlanta of Sherman's , • i ^ ^ i- ^ march to the ^o much aid tt) the Confederacy, he started to carry sea, November out a plan he had long cherished. This was no less i6-Decem- than the cutting in two of what remained of the ' Confederacy. This he accomplished by his famous march "from Atlanta to the sea." Spreading his army out to cover territory nearly sixty miles wide, he marched to Savannah, living on the country, and carrying off or destroying all things which would "aid or comfort" the enemy. THE END OF THE WAR 43^ This march of 8herinau's was a great blow to the Southern cause; and the joy of the North when the news of his arrival in Savannah came was iloubly great, since more than a montii had elapsed after the army left Atlanta before any news of it was The Union army de- stroyed 2fi5 miles of railroail and many thousand bales of cotton ; morr; than 10,000 horses and mules were carried awav. Sherman's March received. Three days before Christmas President Lincoln received tiie following telegram: — " I beg to pivsont lo j'ou as a Christmas gift the city of Savannah, witli \r,\) heavy gun.s and plenty of anummition, also about t\V(>n(y-five thousand bales of cotton. " — W. T. Shrh.max, Ma.iok Oenkral. While Sherman was triumphuntiy marching across Georgia, Thomas was facing Hood in Tenne.ss(H\ On the last day of Noveml)er, Hood attacked part of Thomas's army at _,, . , ^ Thomas won a Franklm, but gained nothing in the battle. Thomas great victory then compl(>1ed the work already begvm of gathering at Nashville, his troops together at Nashville, Hood following iiixd i>ecember 15, laying .siege to the city. Otv the l.'ith of December Thonias made an attack, and 436 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS succeeded not only in defeating Hood but in scattering his army. The fighting in the West was now practically completed, and Sherman was left free to join Grant, who had all this time, as Fiske expresses it, been "detaining Lee at Petersburg until the whole of the Confederacy should be knocked away from behind him, leaving him in the air without a prop." Admiral Farragut had his share in this knocking-away process. With his ships he boldly entered Mobile Bay, by this time the only port from which blockade runners could ply their trade; overcoming the Confederate fleet, capturing the forts, and thus sealing up the last opening in the blockade. The battle of Mobile Bay shows us the gallant admiral in the greatest fight of his life. The bay was guarded by forts, by a small fleet, — which, however, included the Tennessee, a ram larger and more formidable Farragut closed Mobile Bay to block- ade runners, August, 1864 Farragut at Mobile Bay THE END OF THE WAR 437 than the Merrimac, — and by submarine torpedoes, then little known and much dreaded. The Hartford, the admiral's flagship, was in the thickest of the fight; and throughout the battle Farragut remained high in the rigging to get a view above the battle smoke. There he was lashed to the shrouds by a watchful sailor, lest, wounded, he should fall. The Tennessee proved a formidable antagonist, and the fight was at close quarters. Every ship in the Union fleet sought, in its turn, to run down the Tennessee ; one of them, missing the foe, crashed into the Hartford, which narrowly escaped sinking. By l^vr.lKAM fC-"'-= The Blockade of the Southern Coast this time, however, the Tennessee was disabled, and the worst part of the fighting done. The end of 18G4 saw the Confederacy nearing the end of her resources. TIk^ territory in Confederate hands was now less than half that under their (;ontrol at the beginning of the war, and what they still held had been cut in two by Sherman's march to the sea. The l)lockade was now practically perfect, and it grew more and more difficult to provide supplies for the army. Lee's 438 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS soldiers were slowly but steadily decreasing in numbers, through death, sickness, and even desertion. For the South had reached the point of profound discouragement. Yet the leaders were not ready to give up, and the spring of 1865 foinid the war still going on. We must not think of Grant's army as lying entirely inactive through all the long months he had been before Petersburg. The Confederacy at the Close of 1864 Notice how once more the Confeilerate territory is cut in two. Slowly but surely he had been wearing away Lee's strength. As far back as July, 1864, Grant had said to the President : "I am as far off from Richmond now as I shall ever be. I shall take the place; but, as the rebel papers say, it maj^ require a long summer's day." Now that day was wearing to a close. Sheridan had returned THE END OF THE WAR 439 from the valley to strengthen Grant, and Sherman had marched up from Georgia througii the Carolinas, destroying crops and at last cutting off completely Lee's communication j^^ j^^^ ^^ with these states. Starvation stared Lee's army in of Grant's the face. The line occupiedhy Grant's one hundred campaign be- and twenty thousand men was now extended until '^'^^ ^ °"*^ it is said that Lee, with only Hiiy thousand soldiers, had to spread them out so that he had less than a thousand men to a mile. There was some sharp fighting, and on April 1 Sheridan suc- ceeded in breaking througii the line at Five Forks. Lee felt that he could no longer hold Petersburg, and giving up that place meant also giving up the capital. The Union lines, however, did not shut Lee in on ev(M'y side, and no Lee's attempt thought of surrender was in his mind. To escape to escape, through the opening between the James and Appo- ^^"^ ^' ^^^^ mattox rivers, and join Johnston, who had l)een rej)laced as commander of the renmant of Hood's army, was his plan. Then as a last resort th(>y might plact^ themselves in the Virginia moun- tains. Here, as Lee said, they might defy the LTnion armies "for twent}' years." On the night of April 2, Lee Avithdrew from Richmond and Petersburg, Union soldiers taking possession the next morning. Grant, however, did not stop to enter the city, but Lee's surren- hurried after Lee. The closing scenes of the war der, April 9, were at hand. In less (han a week Grant had the ^^*^5 Confederate army completely hemmed in. Ragged, hungry, foot- sore, biit yet uncon(iuered in spirit, Lee's men made their stand. Lee took his last chance and ordi'red an attempt to break through the Union front. But the way was blocked by a far greater h^rce than could be overcome. There was nothing possible but surrender, and Lee bowed sadly t() his fate. His interview with Grant took place; in the litt le village of Ap})omattox Court House, rjrant, describing the meeting, says: "My own feelings, whicli had been quite jubilant on the receipt of Lee's letter, were 440 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOL^ sad and depressed. I felt like anything rather than rejoicing at the downfall of a foe who had fought so long and so valiantly." The terms of surrender were generous in the extreme, and Lee accepted them with gratitude for his men. Returning sorrowfully to his soldiers, he bade them farewell. " We have fought through the war together," he said; " I have done the best I could for you. 'TCilljaiD8.Eiiii.Co..^.I. The Confederacy, April 1, 1865 My heart is too full to say more." The next day the army dis- banded and the men returned to their homes. This surrender was not really the end of the war, since there were other Confederate forces in the field. But Lee's army had been the center of resistance, and its fall was soon followed by the surrender of Johnston to Sherman, April 26. On the 4th of May all troops remaining east of the Mississippi were surrendered, and on the 26th of the same month the soldiers west of the Missis- THE END OF THE WAR 441 sippi. The war was now over. The Confederacy had perished; the death l)low to slavery had been struck. TJHNCS TO REMEMBP]R 1. During the .summer of 1864 General Sherman conducted a campaign against Johnston in the neighborhood of Athmta. Sherman captured Atlanta, and from that point started on his famous march to the sea, reach- ing Savannah before Christmas. The march cut in two the territory whicli now remained in Confederate hands. 2. Meanwhile General Thomas had succeeded in defeating the army of General Hood, who had been appointed in Johnston's place. This ended the fighting in the West. 3. Admiral Farragut closed Mobile to the blockade runnei-s, making the blockade practically perfect. 4. Sherman and Sheridan were now free to join Grant befoi'c Peters- burg. Grant's line was extended until Lee's men were obliged to cover many miles (jf territory. Sheridan broke through the line, and Lee was obliged to give up Petersburg and Richmond. 5. Lee attempted to escape through the valley between the Appomattox and the James, but Grant overtook him and, hemming him in, forced his surr(>nder. This practically closed the war. There was no more fighting. THINGS TO READ 1. "Robert E. Lee," Trent (Beacon Biographies). 2. Surrender of Lee, in "Source Book nf American History," Hart, pp. 329-333. 3. "Abraham Liiu-oln," Moores, pp. 100-122. 4. " Abraham Lincoln," Hapgood, pp. 37.5-398. 5. " Reminiscences of Peace and War," Pryor, pp. 319-337, 3.54-360. THINGS TO DO 1. R(;view the war by years, using the maps. 2. Review the war by battles, naming the important engagements in their order, telling which side won in each case. 3. Make a list of the generals on each side. With what especial work do you associate each ? 4. Place the events from the capture of Vicksburg to the surrender at Ap- pomattox in their proper columns on your chronological chart. Give dates. 5. Find out about the capture of Jefferson Davis, his imprisonment, and his subsequent life. 442 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. William Tocuinseh Shcrma.a. (Portrait) 2. Ulysses S. Grant. II (As Commander in Chief) "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all suinm(>r." "I shall take the place; but as the rebel papers say, it may require a long summer's day." ''Grant — always homely and unimpressive . . . informal to the point of negligence about all details of dress and manner, yet withal simple, intrepid, honest, with an eye single to the great purpose he had adopted." — J. K. HosMER, in "The Outcome of the Civil War." 3. Robert E. ^ee. (Portrait) "The chosen hero of the Southern people." OUTLINE VII. Secession and War between the States, 1860-1S6.5. At Secession and attempts at conciliation. L South Carolina secedes, December, ISfiO. 2. The Crittenden Compromise i , ^. , ., , rru Tj r< *• H)oth tailed. The Peace Convention J 3. Secession of six more states by Fel^ruary, 186L 4. Formati(jn of the Confederacy, February S, 1S6L 5. Seizure of Southern forts belonging to United States by Confederates; no resistance except at Fort Sumter. 0. The Southern argument for .secession ; the Nortlieni |)osition. 7. The inauguration of Lincoln. .S. Relief .sent t(j P'ort Sumter; lali of Hit- fort ; war lu-gun. B. The War Ix-tween the States (April 14, ISOl-April 9, 1S().'">). 1. Conditions in North and South; preparations for war. TllK END OF THE WAR 443 2. Union i)laia of war. a. Defense of Washington and caplure of Kicliniond. b. Blockade of Southern ports. (•. The opening of the Mississippi. 3. First year of the war (April, ISGl-April, 1.S02). (t. The Army of the Putoniac; liull Rnn; .McCicllaii m.ulc connnander; drill, hiil no ii^htin^. b. In the West: Forts Henry and Doni'Ison; first break in Confederate line; Shiloh; Kentucky and most of Tennessee reclaimed to the Union. c. On the sea: blockade; Merrinuic and Monitor; capture of New Orleans. 4. Second year, (.Vpril, lS()2-ApriI, 18(13). a. The Army of fh(; Potomac; the Peninsular Campaign; second battle of Bull Pun; Antietain. b. The Emancipation Pinclaniafion. c. On the sea: {\\q. Alabama ; blockade strengthened. 5. Third year (ApriJ, 18();5-1,S64). a. The Army of the Potomac: Fred(>ricksl)urg; Chancellors- ville ; Gettysburg. h. In the West: Grant's campaign before Vicksburg; the Mis- sissippi opened; Chickamauga; Lookout Mountain; Mis- sionary Ridge. c. Grant made commander in chief, March, 1864. 6. Last year (April, 1864-April, 1865). a. The Army of the Potomac: the "hammering campaign" against Richmond; battles of the Wilderness, .Spottsyl- vania, and Cold Harbor; siege of Petersburg. b. Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley. c. Sherman in the South : Atlanta captured; the march to the sea. (L Thomas at Nashville. e. Farragut in Mobile Bay. /. Closing in of the Union forces around Lee; his surrender; the war ended. XXIII THE COST OF THE WAR The final success of the Union armies in tiie War brouglit great and lasting benefits to the country. But the good was gained at an immense cost to both North and South, It would be impossible to estimate in figures the entire money cost, or to express in words the suffering and deprivation occasioned. At the time of Lee's surrender about a million men were under arms for the defense of the Union. Records show that more than three hundred thousand had died, while many thousands more had lost limbs or eyesight, or had returned home with enfeebled health. In the South there were fewer soldiers, but the death rate was even greater. Probably not far from a million men laid down lives or health, for the Union on the one hand, for the dearly loved South on the other. Money, too, was spent in almost incredil)lc sums. The cost of maintaining the Union army soon came to be nearly two mil- lion dollars a day, and the government was forced to take stejjs to meet such unusual strain. Millions of dollars were raised by taxation. The tariff was increased and land and incomes taxed, as well as most of the commonly used luxuries of dress and the table. Thus every one, willingly or otherAvise, helped to support the war. Even this, however, was not enough and immense sums had to be borrowed by the government. These loans were secured by the sale of bonds, and by the use of paper currency issued directly by the government or through a new system of national banks authorized by Congress. The amount of money spent is esti- mated at from six to ten billions of dollars. The national debt 444 THK COST OF THE WAR 445 at the close of the war wan more than forty times as great as it had been in 18G1. But the money spent to sustain the war, and even the loss of Ufe, were but parts of the cost. In the South thousands of homes were l)roken uj), l)uildings destroyed, and crops spoiled; the best people, sometimes all the peo))le, in many connnunities, were on the verj>;e of starvation; fortunes in slaves were lost wlieu the sla\'es were set free; i)lantutions lay idle for lack of negroes to work the land; the |)eople liad to face the serious and difhcult })r(jl)lem of organizinji; a new industrial system to take the place of slavery. Everywhere were want and devastation; everj'Avhere discouragement and mourning for "the Lost Cause." The South was completely crushed by its defeat. In the North, on the other hand, business was nourishing, for the war had increased the demand for many things manufactured there. There was work for all who wished, but prices ^j^^ ^^^^^ ^^ for necessities were high, and suffering therefore came the war on to the poor. The farmer prospered, getting higher and business in higher prices for his produce; manufacturers made fortunes by the increase of business brought by the higher tariff on imported goods. No devastating armies marched on Northern soil, no battles l)rought death and destruction to the very doors of Northern householders. While grief for lost ones came to thousands of Nortlu^rn homes, the horrors of actual warfare w(>re far away. Perhaps one of the gr(^atest losses to both North and South came in an event which followed by less than a week the sur- render of Lee. This event was no less than the assas- xhe assassi- sination of President Lincoln, — ^ just at the moment nation of when the nation needed him most. The North Lincoln needed his calm wisdom to guide it in the moment of triumph. The South needed his loving sympathy to protect it in its defeat. And yet he was killed — by a man who believed he was doing the South a service, and avenging its wrongs. 446 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS On the evening of April 14, in the midst of the joy oeca- sioned by the news that Lee had surrendered, Lincoln was shot while at the theatre by John Wilkes Booth, an actor and an ardent sympathizer with the South. Lincoln died after a few liours, and the joy of the country was at once turned to deepest grief. People had been slow to see the wortli of Lincoln, l)ut now his greatness was at last appreciated, and he was truly mourned. Even in the South, wise men saw at once that the South had lost her warmest friend; and the sad days which followed the war showed that this was true. For two days the Ijody of the great man lay in state in the Capitol, — then began the sad journey to Illinois. Following the same route which Lincoln had taken when he came to Washington to ]:)e inaugurated, the funeral train stopped at mau}^ places on the way, that the sorrowing people might look on the face of their loved leader. It was nearly three weeks before his body reached its last resting place in Springfield, his western home. Poets, historians, and orators have said great and beautiful things about Abraham Lincoln. That he was wise, all agree; and not only wise, but good; and these two quahties — wisdom and goodness — had made him the savior of the LTnion. His own words, "with malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right" may be fitly used to describe himself. When in 1861 Lincoln came to the presidential chair, few could have foretold that his fame would be world-wide; but such it is, and will be in the ages to come. The war was over, and in spite of all the blood spilt and money silent and suffering l^orne, — in spite of the nation's great loss in losing Lincoln, — the result gained was worth the sacrifice. The Union was saved and human slavery was dead. The nation had Ix'come a "nation dedicated to freedom" in truth. The years which followed the war brought perplexing problems, and the people of the South suffered, — indeed, to a certain extent are THE COST OF THE WAR 447 still suffering, — while tlie answers to these problems are being worked out. But the "New Union" has fully justified the struggle. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The cost of the War to both sides reached iiniiieiise figures: not far fniin a inilHou men, from six to ten billions of dollars, and ruin to almost the entire South, with the desolation of war. 2. The whole country sustained a terrible loss in the death of Lincoln, April IF), 1865. A. The results of the war were f^reat, and worth even the great sacrihce. The Union was preserved, and slavery was dead. THINGS TO READ 1. " History of the United States," Rhodes, Vol. V, pp. l:jS-lll. 2. " .\brahani Lincoln," Hapgood, pp. 404-419. H. " Abraham Lincoln," Moores, pp. 12'S-1'.V2. I. " School History of the United States," McMaster, pp. 419-421. 5. " A History of the American People," Vol. IV, Chapter V (Selections). G. " l*oems of American History," Stevenson, {)p. .5.'57-514. THINGS TO DO 1. Review Lincoln's life. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK Abraham Lincoln, the Maktyk rKKSioENT (Portrait) "O Captain! my Captain ! our fearful trip is done, The ship has weathered every rack, the prize we sought is won, The j)ort is near, the bells I lu>ar, the people all exulting. While follow eyes th(! sl(;ady keel, the vess(;I grim and daring. ****** " MkuU, O shores, and ring, O b(41s I But I with mournful tread, Walk the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and ilead!" — Walt Whitman. RECONSTRUCTION XXIV RECONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS When Lee laid down his sword at Appomattox, War between the States came to an end. And yet we must realize that while the war had solved the problems of secession and slavery, it had brought new problems to both North and South. No great war leaves behind it the conditions which prevailed when it began. In 1865 the great problems before the country were: — In the Northern states : — 1. To return to peaceful occupations the great armies gathered for the war. 2. To adjust the taxes and the tariff to meet the conditions of returning peace. In the South : — 1. To bring back prosperity to people and to communities ruined by the war. 2. To reestablish civil government. 3. To provide for the millions of freedmen who were \vithout means of existence. 4. To build up a new industrial system, in which the negroes should find useful places. 5. To bring about harmony in the new relations between freed- men and their former masters. Of these the Northern questions were easy of settlement com- pared with the Southern problems ; and while the War and Treas- ury departments went on with the work of adjustment to newly 448 RECONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS 449 returning conditions of peace, the people of the Northern states went on quietly with their everyday affairs. On May 1, 1865, over a milhon soldiers were in the ranks of the United States army. On May 28 and 24 a large part of these men took part in a "grand review" at Washing- Mustering out ton, marching down Pennsylvania Avenue from the the Union Capitol, and passing the White House, where Presi- soldiers; the dent Johnson and General Grant stood to review them. Then began the work of ''mustering out" the volunteers. By the middle of November eight hundred thousand had been re- turned to their homes; by June, 1860, more than a million, and before the end of that year the volunteer army had passed out of existence. We shall read of "miHtary o(;cupation" of the South after this time, but umst remember that only the regular army remained for such work. In the South conditions were far different. The Southern sol- dier returned in most cases to a home desolated by war. He had neither slaves to work his plantation nor money to Conditions in provide necessities for his family. Many of the the South negroes, faithful though they had been while war lasted, had now left their former homes, expecting all sorts of wonderful fortime to come to them from the government which had set them free. There was a general im{)ression among them that they were to be "taken care of," and their simple trust was both ludicrous and pathetic. They w(M'e unwilling to make agr(>ements to work, many of them hanging about the army camps, waiting for thi; "forty acres and a mule" which they confidently looked for from the government. These unsettled conditions made it doubly hard for the Southern whites, and helped to strengthen their belief that the negroes would never become worthy members of society unless they were closely controlled by the white people. Neither C'ongress nor President Lincoln had waited for the war to come to an end before consideiing the question of the "recon- struction" of government in the seceded states when they should 2o 450 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Reconstruction discussed while war was still in progress be conquered. When secession came, the senators and repre- sentatives from the seceded states had withdrawn from Congress, with almost no exceptions. Congress through the war, then, was a body of Northern and. border state members. The question as to what should be done with the Southern states came up early among them. Various opinions were expressed. Thaddeus Stevens, a representative from Pennsylvania, and the leader of the Republicans in the House, believed in treating the Southern states as conquered provinces. Few, however, at this time expressed views as strong as this. Lincoln always be- lieved that if states had no right to secede, they must still be in the Union, in spite of the secession, and that conquering them meant simpl}'' rescuing their government from the people in rebellion and giving it into the hands of those who remained loyal. It was this l^elief which led to Lincoln's plan of reconstruction. This plan provided that state gov- ernment should be resumed in any state where one tenth of the people were willing to take an oath of loyalty to the Constitution and Lincoln's plan the laws, promising also to abide by the acts of for reconstruc- Gougress and the proclamations of the President in ^^"'^ regard to slavery. This one tenth of the people might hold elections, and send members to Congress. In Decem- ber, 1863, Lincoln issued an "Amnesty Proclamation" outlining this plan, and under its provisions state governments were formed in Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee. A large majority, however, of Congress, looked upon the Presi- dent's action as interference in what ought to be the work ol' Thaddeus Stevens RECONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS 451 Congress. Much was saitl hy thcni of his " j^ovcrniucut by proc- lamation," and his "shorthand method of reconstruction." The newly elected nieinl)ers from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee were denied admission by both houses, and (\)iisn\ss went io work at once to I'onii a phin of its own for reconstruction. There was much difference of opinion even in Congress On the subject, Init Sumn(M- in the Senate, and Stevens in the Hous(>, gradually came into control, and their extreme views The Congres- are seen more and more as time passed, in the acts sionai Plan of Congress. The Congressional Plan, as it is called, was l)ase(l on the id(>a that if the Southern states were allow(Ml to return to the Union before laws had been made in regard to slavery and for the protection of the freedmen, the results won by the war would all be lost. Tlien, too, argued the ra- 180',). 454 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS gress, and he proceeded to issue a new "Amnesty Proclamation," much like Lincoln's; to raise the blockade; to collect the tariff; to carry the mails; and to set into motion the machinery of the United States courts in the South. Temporary governors were appointed, and the people willing to take an oath of loyalty elected legislatures and members of Congress. AVhen Congn;ss assembled in December, 1865, the radicals wer(! stronger than ever. All through the summer months they had watched Johnson's reconstruction work with growing disap- proval. They had scarcely assembled when the bitter quar- rel began which was to last as long as the administration. Con- gress at once refused to recognize the members from the eleven reconstructed states. They argued that in these states the new legislatures had passed laws to oppress the negroes, and that this showed how unsafe it was to admit these states on such easy terms. They would soon have the negroes enslaved again, argued Sumner and Stevens. It is true that laws were passed by Southern legislatures which bore heavily upon the negroes, and in some cases this may havt^ been from a feeling of malice toward them. But most of the laws compelling the colored people to work simply show the fear of Birthplace of Andrew Johnson RRC()NvSTRl]CT[()N ACTS 455 the Southern whites that, unless (»l)liKe(| to work, llie negroes would beeome vagrants and paiipers. Congress had niucli synij)athy for the negroes and little, if any, for the Soutliern winters. To protect the negroes it passed the Civil Rights l)ill; tlie Freednien's Bureau bill; and, ^ ^ " . Important more important tliaii either, the Fourteenth Amend- reconstruction ment to the Constitution was sent to the states for acts passed by ratification. It was ratified and became part of the Congress, Constitution in July, 1868. This anuMidnuMit guaran- teed to the negro the rights of citizenship; it also made it for the advantage of the Southern states to give the negroes the right to vote, though it did not force this requirement upon them. All these acts of Congress were made law "over the President's veto"; that is, were repassed by a two thirds majority after he had vetoed them. That the radicals were able to control two thirds of both houses shows how strong they had become. They now went on to require of the Southern states asking readmission to the Union that they should ratify this Fourteenth Amendment. Tennessee did so, and was readmittetl in July, 1866. The other ten refused to do so, and remaincnl without. The President and those who believed as he did that Congress had no right to keep states out of the Union, for any cause, were Ivitter in their feeling toward Congress. Johnson made a tour through the middle West, making many speeches in which he fiercely attacked Congress. ''A Congress of only part of the states," he called it, and " & Congress violent in breaking u)) the Union." These were among the mildest of the terms he used, and he and his cause lost many friends by the violence of his language. When Congress met in Decend)er, 1866, it was wrathful against the President to the point of violence like his own. No such quarrel between two branches of the government had ever taken place before. Congress went on with its reconstruction work, and it also took means to insure the humiliation of the President 456 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS in every way possible. The Reconstruction Act of March, 1867, shows the complete control of the radicals over Congress. They The great were no longer content to readmit states which Reconstruction should guarantee civil rights to the negro, and should Act, passed agree to exclude from office all who had l^een in ^"■^ ' ^ 7 rebellion ; the new law, passed as usual over the President's veto, demanded in addition the granting of negro suffrage as a condition for readmission; and until this should be given, the ten states still unreconstructed were to be held under strict military rule, their identity as states being lost by division of the whole South into five military districts. Johnson had stood stubbornly by his policy of mercy to the conquered, and by his belief that the people of the South might be trusted to take up their government again and to do justice to their former slaves. His greatest fault lay in his lack of self- control when his policy was opposed, while the leaders of Con- gress showed much the same spirit. Fearing, or professing to fear, that Johnson would not execute the laws it had now passed, Congress tried by every means in its power to restrict the Presi- Tenure of dent's power. The height of this restriction was Office Act, reached in the Tenure of Office Act, which forbade ^^^'^ the President to remove any Federal officeholder without the consent of the Senate. Thus, even a cabinet officer might remain as an adviser of the President, however bitterly they might disagree, and the President could not get rid of him unless the Senate agreed. Johnson denied the right of Congress to pass such an act, and the time soon came when he felt the injustice of it sorely. The Secretary of War, Edwin M. Stanton, was not a friend to John- son, being strongly in sympath^y with the radicals in Congress. For a long time Johnson felt that Stanton was really a spy for Congress in the cabinet meetings. At last, in August, 1867, Johnson asked for Stanton's resignation, and when it was refused, suspended him from office. The Senate, however, refused to RECONSTRUCTION ACTS 457 agree to liis removal. This l)rought tlie louji; (niarrel to a climax. .Johnson ordered Stanton to give up the offie<\ Stanton refused. Congress, whieli for a 3'ear past had been striving in,peachment to find in .[(^hnsoii's course some illegal act for which of the Presi- h(^ might Ix^ impeached, seized triumphantly upon <^^"*' Febru- his failure to obc}' the Tenure of Office Act, and ^^^' in February, 1868, the impeachment of the President for "high crimes and misdemeanors" in office was resolved by the House. The trial, which lasted for nearly two months, attracted wide- spread attention, but it failed to convict Johnson of any of the charges against him. One vote more than those cast for con- viction would have decided the case against him, so his escape was narrow. The radicals, having failed to get rid of him, as they had hoped, paid little further attention to him, and the rest of his term passed without incident. Soon after Johnson's acquittal the nominating conventions for the approaching presidential election took place, hi the Repub- lican platform we find the Congressional plan of reconstruction strongly indorsed, and Johnson strongly condemned. "We . . . regret the accession to the presidency of Andrew Johnson, who has acted treacherously to the people who elected him, and the cause he was pledged to support ; . . . who has refused to execute the laws; . . . who has been justly impeached for high crimes and misdemeanors, and properly pronounced guilty thereof by the vote of thirty-five senators." The Republican candidate was General (Jrnnt, who since the war had been the national hero. The Democratic })latf()rni condcnuuMl tlu^ reconstruction acts of Congress as "unconstitutional, revolutionary, and void," and dc- nuuided "immediate restoration of all the states to their rights in the Union under the Constitution, and of civil govermnent to the American people." Furthermore, it held uj) the President for praise in the following words: "That the President of the ITnited States, Andrew Johnson, in exercising the powers of his high office 458 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS in r(!sistii)g the aggressions of Congress ... is entitled to the gratitude of the whole American people." The Democratic candidate was Horatio Seymour, long promi- nent as governor of New York, and one of the strongest and best men of the Democratic party. His chance of election, however, was small in view of the great popularity of Grant, who became President March 4, 1869. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. After Lincoln's death, Andrew Johnson, who had been elected Vice President, came to the presidential chair. Johnson was a Southern man, but a strong Unionist. 2. Johnson's plan for reconstruction was much the same as Lincoln's. He, however, was less tactful than Lincoln probably would have been in carrying it out, and soon came into conflict with Congress in regard to it. 3. "The presidential plan" was put into operation by Johnson without waiting for Congress to meet. When Congress did meet it refused to accept this reconstruction, and formed a reconstruction policy of its own. 4. The "Congressional plan" made it much harder for the seceded states to be restored to the Union. To protect the future of the negroes the Thirteenth and Fourteenth amendments were passed. States wishing to be restored were required to ratify these. Tennessee did so, and was re- admitted in 1866. 5. The quarrel between the President and Congress became violent, and the President was finally impeached. 6. The principal ground for impeaching the President was for hi.'! failure to obey the "Tenure of Office Act," which Congress had passed on purpose to reduce his power. The impeachment failed, by only one vote, however. 7. Public opinion in the North supported the radicals in Congress. Their candidate for President, General (irant, was elected by a large ma- jority in the electoral college. THINGS TO READ 1. "A Short History of the United States," Bassett, pp. .'SDO-OIT. 2. " Source Book," Hart, pp. .3.36-35L .3. " American History," Ashley, pp. 431-441. R ECON ST K U CT lUN ACTS 459 THINGS TO DO 1. Find the incuiiiiig of policij, temporurij, vmjrants, paupers, huinilia- (um, sii[l'ruyf, impenched, acquittal. 2. R('\i(_'\\ the reconstruction measures taken by Lincoln. Form an opinion in regard U) the plans of President Johnson and Congress. Which seems to you the most wise and just? Suppoil your opinion by reasons. ;i. Look up in the Constitution (Appendix) the provision for impeach- ment of a President. What other officers may be impeached ? 4. Make an estimate of Johnson's character. In wliat ways did he seem to lack understanding of the dignity of his office ? What were his good (jualities? FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK Reconstruction The Presidential Pl.'^n The Congressional Plan I. In 1866 — Conditions requiretl for read- mission. 2. In 1867 — New con( Ut ions. Amendmc^nts to the Constitution resulting from tiie War. XIII. Provided — XIV. Provided — XV. 'Provided — XXVI THE SOUTH DURING THE RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD We have said little of the South during the Reconstruction Period, but we must renienil)er that while political quarrels raged at Washington, the people of the South were the chief sufferers. To the desolation which succeeded the war was soon added anxiety for the future, as the plans of the politicians began to develop. The fact that slavery was dead was accepted readily enough, so that the Thirteenth Amendment aroused no opposition. But with the Fourteenth Amendment the case was quite different. As we have seen, ten states of the eleven refused to ratify this. In this refusal we must believe that they were shortsighted, if not really wrong, since its terms, if not generous, were just, and since the r(>fusal of tlie South to accept it led to the severer terms adopted hy ( 'ongr(>ss in I ratification of tlic amendment and tlie granting of negro suffrage as well. The story of thr time is one of niisunen, loo, that the negro was not yet fitted to exercise political rights, and that it was not really justice to him to permit him to do things for which he was not fitted. Nor was it best for the nation to go on year after year upholding by military force state governments which could not exist alone. The change in public opinion begins to be seen in the action of 464 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS Congress. In May, 1872, an amnesty bill was passed which re- stored to about 150,000 ex-Confederates the right of holding Ex-Confeder- office. By this time almost all respectable people in ates restored the South were firmly united against the misrule in to political ^i^g name of the Republican party; and the return ' of the ex-Confederates to political life meant in every Southern state the coming into power of the Democratic party. After 1872 all the states were represented in Congress; but not until 1877 were the last of the troops withdrawn. When they marched away, however, the oppression of the South by the vic- torious North was ended. ''The withdrawal of the troops was proof," says Rhodes, "that the Reconstruction of the South, based on universal negro suffrage, was a failure, and that on the whole, the North was content that the South should work out the negro problem in her owai way, subject to the three consti- tutional amendments, which embodied the results of the Civil War; and subject also to the public opinion of the enlightened world." THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. After the refusal of ten of the eleven Southern states to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, Congress passed a Reconstruction Act which re- quired states asking readmission not only to ratify this amendment, but to grant the suflFrage to the negroes. 2. The South, by the terms of this act, was thus suddenly and com- pletely given over to the rule of the lately emancipated slaves. They had no idea of government, and fell at once under the influence of "carpet- baggers" from the Noi'th and "scalawags" belonging to the Southern white population. 3. The negro rule aroused the bitterest feeling among Southern whites. Finding no help in the law, they used lawless methods of breaking the power of the "carpetbag governments." 4. Congress supported the carpetbaggers and negroes, but gradually a change of feeling came in the North. Congress pardoned the ex-Confeder- ates, who rallied to the support of the Democratic party, and brought back order to the unhappy South. THINGS TO READ "Red Rock," Page. THK SOUTH DURING THE RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD 465 THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of magnmiimous, voluntary, hostility, unscrupulous, fie.-rtakings, and great sums of money were needed to carry them tlirough. The Vjuilding of these roads differed from that of other roads that had been attempted in the fact that they were not to pass along through a country already settled and ready to give sup- port to a railroad, but through wildernesses, which would be settled only after the railroad had led the way, if ever settled at all. It was evident that such roads would not be profitable for many years. And yet it was desirable that they should be built. Congress lent millions of dollars to the two companies, besidc^s giving pj^.^^ trans- tliem grants of the public land through whi(;h the continental roads would pass. At last, in 1869, the difficulties railway com- of construction being overcome, the two roads were P®® » ^ ^ brought to a meeting point at Ogden, Utah. A train from the A " Pony Express " The only form of communication between the East and the far West in early days. 470 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST 471 East there met a train from the West, and as they were stopped witliiii a few feet of each other, the passengers, who were guests invited to witness the formal completion of the road, gathered to watch the driving of the golden spike which finished the work. After the opening of this road, others were planned and built. To-day half a do/en or more connect the East with tlu; Pacific coast; and a large amount of commerce with China, Japan, and the islands of the East has been developed. The dream of a short passage to the Indies has thus, in a sense, been realized. ^^t^^^^^^SPs S^f WEST '•■ ^^^*' ^ \ VIRGINIA^ Westward Movement of Center of Population In the early days of Western development, it had Ixmmi expected that the government would realize great sums by the sale of its public lands. But gradually the opinion grew that the land ought to l)e sold cheaply to settlers, or even given to them, since the rapid development of the country would b(> worth more to tli(^ nation than the revenue from slow sales. For many years, therefore, public lands were to be bought for one dollar and a quarter an acre. In 1862 a ''Homestead Law" was Homestead passed, which jjrovided that a farm of one hundred ^•^*' ^^^^■ and sixty acres should be given to any settler who would build a lujine there, and cultivate the land within a given time. Thou- sands of men took advantage of this ofTer, until now praclicallN' all the fertile land has been taken. The settlement of the Western wilderness l)r()ught the people 472 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS into conflict with the Indians, who resented the intrusion of the whites as they had done in the East in earher days. In the early days of the nation the Indians had been solemnly promised by the government again and again that beyond certain boundaries the whites should not in- terfere with them, but the Indians had long ago lost faith in the promises of the government, for over and over again they had been forced to sell their hunting grounds, and move farther west to find new- homes. In 1834 Congress had set off the Indian Territory, and had The Indians alsO Set apart reservations Indian reser- vations in many different parts of the West. Into these the Indians were gathered, living rather sad lives, all the freedom of their old life gone, hating the white men who had stolen away the land which once was theirs, and losing all the vigor and hardihood of earlier days. Sometimes a flash of the old-time war spirit would rise, how- ever, and a tribe would once more go on the warpath to avenge its wrongs. In 1873 the Modocs of Oregon rose thus, and much fighting ensued before the government succeeded in subduing them. The Sioux tribe, led by their famous chief. Sitting Bull, made a desperate fight a few years later. It was during this war A Typical Indian Chief of Recent Times Notice his dress, showing the white man's influence. In feature, however, the face is typically Indian. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST 473 with the Sioux that General Custer, a veteran officer of the Civil War, and his company of two hundred and fifty cavalrymen all lost their lives. Surrounded by a force of Indians ten times as great as their own, these jjrave men fought to the last, until every man lay dead beside his horse. The Sioux were finally subdued World's Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago, in 1893, commemoration of the completion of the fourth century since the discovery of America. and their reservation bought by the government and opened for settlement in 1890. Miners, hunters, cattlemen, and farmers swarmed over the country. Everywhere settlers looked with himgry eyes on the Indian lands, for grazing or farming. In 1889 vacant lands in Indian Territor}' were opened and organized into Oklahoma Oklahoma Territory. So great had the desire become for a foot- opened, 1889 hold there that by the day appointed for opening the region an army of anxious men was encamped about the borders, awaiting the .signal to rush across the line and "stake their claims." At noon Dn the appointed day the troops who were on guard gave the 474 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS signal, and a mad rush for the best lands began. Towns already planned on paper were realized first as cities of tents, but the next year Guthrie and Oklahoma had each reached a population of about five thousand people. Ten years later both had reached ten thousand. In 1907 Oklahoma was admitted as a state. The great prairie land has rapidly been brought under culti- vation or used for grazing purposes. Cattle raising has become a great industry, and the great meat-packing business which we associate with Chicago, St. Louis, and Kansas City has developed in its train. The mountains have been made to yield immense quantities of gold, silver, and other metals. There remain only the arid or desert regions of the Southwest. Already some of this land has been made fertile by irrigation, and plans are being made to irrigate much more. This will mean another large addi- tion to the farming and grazing lands. The "New West" has come to have many important cities in the years since the war, and to support a large population. Yet there is room for many more people, and for a greater develop- ment of the country. The Avisdom of the Louisiana Purchase as well as the advantage to the country of possessing the Pacific coast was proven long ago. Politically, industrially, commercially, we could ill spare from our country the great West. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The West has made rapid strides in population, wealth, and impor- tance since the War between the States. 2. Great "trunk line" railroads now unite the East and the West. 3. Land has been given by the government to settlers in the West, who have built up great farms and cattle ranches on the prairie lands. 4. Conflicts with the Indians have arisen as the settlers pushed to the westward. Much of the; land once promised to the Indian as his forever has been taken away from him and opened for settlement. THINGS TO READ 1. "The Making of the Great West." Drake, pp. .308-329. 2. "American Indians," Starr, pp. 221-227. TJIK DKVELOl^MKNT OF THK WKST 475 3. "The Story of th(> Railroad," Warman. 4. "The Louisiana Purchase," Hitchcock, pp. 241-286. 5. "The Story of the Cowboy," Hough. 6. "The Story of the Mine," Shinn. 7. "The Story of the Indian," Grinnell. TIllNCS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of eniu/rant-s, prairie, furUUies, frrlyhl, /lome.slcad, reservation, stake a claim, arid, irrigation. 2. Show on a map the states west of tlie Mississippi, marking on each the date of its admission. 3. Questions for class discussion : — (1) Wh}'' did Congress gi\'e land along the raili'oad routes to (lie com- panies JMiilding the roads? What return did Congress cxjK'ct Ihe companies to make to the nation for these grants? (2) Form an opinion in icgard to the frcatmciit of the Indians by the United States goAcrnmcnt. lias the go^•el■IlnH'Ilt attempted to civilize the Indians ? Should it do so ? Ibive the Indians shown a desire to become ci\ilizt'(i ? How can the gox'crnmeiit, which always paid the Indians for their land, be accused of unfairness in •buying it ? (3) Why did the "Homestead Law" re(|uire that s(>ttlers must build homes and culti\"ate their farms within a icouired tinu;? FOR YOUR noti<:hook 1. A map showing transcontinental railways, important cities in the West, the remaining territory from which states can be madc^ 2. If possible, obtain pictures showing the resources and development of the West. Advertising matter issued by Western railroads will be found of much service. XXVIII CHANGES IN INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS The years since the War have shown industrial development as great and as wonderful as the change and development we have followed in the West. The same forces — the railroad, the telegraph, improved machinery, new inventions — have been at work everywhere. Perhaps more wonderful than any other inventions of the period are the uses to which electricity is put. We are so accus- Uses of tomed to the telegraph, the telephone, electric lights electricity and heaters, electric cars, boats, and carriages, that we do not realize how recent most of these things are. The first telegraph message was flashed along the wire in 1844. The telegraph wrought a revolution in business methods. Rap- idly following the railroad, it soon came into general use through- out America and in Europe. New York and Philadelphia, Chicago and Washington, Paris and Rome, could now exchange real ''daily news" with each other. In 1852 a successful ''sub- marine telegraph," under the waters of the English Channel, was The first put into Operation. London could now exchange Atlantic cable, messages with the continent of Europe. Daring thinkers, including Samuel Morse, whose genius had invented the telegraph, now dreamed of a telegraphic cable under the' waters of the Atlantic. London and New York must talk together as London and Paris did. It took thirteen years of suc- cessive failure and disappointment to realize the dream. Suc- cess came in 1866, largely through the perseverance of Cyrus W. Field, whom we must honor for the faith with which he expended all his great fortune for the accomplishment of what most men 476 CHANGES IN INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 477 deemed an impossible scheme. In 1902, sixteen cables across the Atlantic were in use; other cables have been laid to connect various parts of the world. The latest achievements are Pacific cables, in 1902 from Australia to British Columbia, seventy-eight hundred miles, and in 1903 from San Francisco to the Philippines, about the same distance. Not yet, however, had the wonders of electricity as a message carrier been exhausted. In 1875 came the telephone, Alexander Bell's wonderful invention. One may stand now in The tele- one's own home or office, and may send, not messages, phone, 1875 but the sound of one's own voice, over the wire to one's friend or business associate. We may talk over the telephone with people in our owti town, or in cities many miles or many hundreds of miles away. There is no delay as with the telegraph for the delivery of messages from the receiving office. We simply talk as we would if the person we address were close beside us. Truly, in comparison with this the telegraph seems a clumsy device. And yet for many purposes the telegraph is as useful as ever. Newspapers and railroads make constant use of it, and all of us can think of times when a short nu^ssage by telpgra]oh exactly suits our needs. Not even with the invention of the tele- phone, however, had the end of electrical talking machines come. In The phono- 1888 Thomas Edison produced graph, 1888 the "phonograph," a machine which, as we all know, reproduces the sound of voices in speech or song, or other sounds of which it has made a "record." The phonograph reproduces these sounds any length of time after they were originally made, and any number of times the operator desires. For entertainment the phonograph has proven a great success; and it has some business uses. Thomas A. Edison 478 AMERK'AN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR S( HOOLS In 1896 William Marconi succeeded in bringing to practical Wireless service the idea of "wireless telegraphy." By use of telegraphy, the Marcoiii • system we may now receive messages 1896 from a ship anywhere at sea; messages have been sent by it across the broad Atlantic. Electricity has been "harnessed for man's use" in many ways besides these. The familiar trolley car is really a recent inven- Petroleum centre, Venango County, Pa. A typif^al scene in the oil regiotiH. tion, the first practical line of this kind having been built in Kansas City in 1884. More recent than this is the automobile, which has become a familiar sight on our streets since the last years of the nineteenth century. Most of the automobiles we see are not driven by electric power alone, however, but by what are called "internal explosion" engines. CJasohne or naphtha gas is exploded by an electric spark, providing force to run the carriage or car or boat — for gasoline power boats are now al- CHANGES IN INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 479 most as coniiuoii in oiir Imrhurs and on our rivers as automobiles arc on laud. The us(> of electricity for lighting is the last step in a succession of improvenieuts in the illumination of streets and buildings. Less than fifty years ago kerosene i^nprovements was only l)eginning to be used, taking in iiiumi- the place of whale oil and of candles, noting !ln fact, the first successful oil well in America was •drilled no earlier than 1859. Since tiiat time thou- santls of oil wells have been drilled, and many millions of gallons of petroleum are used every year. Petroleum yields other products as well as kerosene — gasoline, naphtha, benzine, vaseline, and paraffin being familiar to us all. The production of kero- sene and methods of marketing it have undergone great changes since th(^ beginning of the business. Transportation prol)l(>ms have been cleverly solved by the use of "pipe lines," pipes being laid from the wells to many points of distribution throughout the country, and the oil pumped along hundreds of miles, saving ' UtSITiB^sstsssais niuch handling and expense. Long before such methods had been even thought of, however, a more con- venient method of lighting was begging for recognition, (xas- lighting is really older than kerosene, dating back to 1827, when the New York Gaslight Company was formed. Gas is now in general use for lighting and for ^ cooking. Electric lighting, however, dur- ing the last twenty years of the nineteenth (.•entury, can^e in many places to take the place of both kerosene and gas. The arc light is the older form of electric lighting, while the incandescent light, first shown 480 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS in 1879 by its inventor, Thomas Edison, sprang into almost in- stant favor. The electric light is convenient and safe, since no matches are used to light it and no unguarded flame is exposed as in lamps and gaslights. In addition to the inventions we have studied, thousands of other inventions or improvements have come to increase the com- Increase of ^'ort of living, and manufactures; to aid all the pro- immense eesses of industry. factories -^,r r j. Manut actures, aided by better machinery, have greatly developed since the war. Great factories, employing hun- dreds of workers, have taken the places of the smaller shops. The old way, by which man made the whole of an article, has given way to the "factory system," by which each worker does only a small part of the work. No workman can make a watch or a pair of shoes. He knows only his own small share of the work. Often he merely tends a machine ; for it seems sometimes nowadays as though men and machines had changed places — the man's work becom- ing mechanical, and the machines seeming to be possessed of almost human intelligence. Many factory workers earn too little to support their families; and since women and even children can tend machines, many of them are employed. Often the mother works, leaving small chil- dren uncared for at home. Sometimes whole families spend a long day in the mills. The factories have drawn many people from the rural com- munities to the towns. The large cities have grown larger, and Benjamin Franklin's Printing Press Compare with the modern press. CHANGES IN INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 481 many small towns have had wonderful growth. This great in- crease of town and city life has brought with it new prol)leTns for people and nation to face. The question of providing Homes for (•omfortal)le homes for dwellers in crowded districts is city dwellers one of these. In the tenement -houses many i^eople live under the most unhealthful conditions. It is not uncommon for a large family to cook, eat, and sleep in one poorly ventilated room, Modern Newspaper Press with no facilities and often little desire for cleanliness or the com- mon decencies of Hie. In recent years great numbers of "fiats" and apartment houses for the comparatively well to do have been built. In these many families are gathered under one roof. The fiat dwellers live under no such distressing circumstances as the people of the tenements. But many of them suffer from a lack of fresh air, for there are an astonishing numl)er of window- less rooms in the flats of New York. And the children suffer, as do those of the extremely poor, for playgrounds. There is no 2i 482 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS playground for the average child in a large city but the street. Attempts are being made in some cities to remedy this evil by parks and public playgrounds. In New York the recreation piers and the free bath houses along the river are used by many thou- sands of people during the hot days of summer. Day nurseries, where working women may leave their babies to be cared for, are another help. But all these things are but beginnings in solving the question of making city life safe, sani- tar}-, and happy for the poor. In the business districts of such cities as New York no land available for busi- ness use is allowed to stand idle. Year by year new iMiildings have been carried higher and higher, until the "skyscraper," built of steel, has come to tower over the buildings of earlier date. Thirty or more stories is not unusual, while the Singer l)uilding, in New York, reaches a height of forty-one stories. The demand for rapid transit frcjm one part of the modern city to another has been answered not only l)y trolley lines, but by Improved cleVated railroads and by underground railruads or subways, by bridges over rivers and by tunnels under their waters. New York employs all these methods. Clreat engineering projects have been undertaken and carried to Singer Building, New York City methods of transit in cities C'llANdKrt IN INDTSTHIAL CONDITIONS 483 success. In 1883 was completed the Brooklyn suspension bridge, at that time a great achievement. Other bridges, and tunnels under land and under water have been built with great engineer- ing skill. None of these great works could have been accomplished Brooklyn Bridge in the days before the i)ossn)ilities of steel for building were dis- covered. Another grave prol^lem whi(;h confronts the cities, and there- fore the nation, is that of immigration. America has long seemed a haven of refuge to the poor and oppressed of other ^ . ^ lands. In the early years of the republic the conung of foreigners was so much a matter of course that no record was k(»pt of their num])er. Since 1820, however, records have been kept, and the increase of immigrants has been in some years quite startling. In 1900 the foreign-born constituted more than an eighth of the total population of the country. This fact in itself is not serious, perhaps, ])ut we read that more than a third of the people in New York City and in Chicago are foreign-born, and that in each of these places there are considerably more foreign- born males of voting age than there are native-born males. It is clear that these cities have real immigration problems. It is not fair, of course, to class all immigrants together. Many of the people who come to us from other lands are a source of strength 484 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS rather than weakness to the country. But when the ignorant and those who are unskilled in any useful labor come, they become at once a burden; when diseased or criminal immigrants come, they endanger the life or welfare of all; and of recent years in- creasing numbers of such have come. Laws have been made from time to time to exclude paupers and criminals, but it is difficult to enforce them. The immigrants who come to us now in large numbers are not oi the races which gave us those of earlier years. In the ten years An Ocean Steamship — the Lusitania ship and her sister ship, the Mauretania, have made wonderful speed records in crossing the Atlantic. Look up their latest records, and compare with time made by the Snrn/uinfi. (See page 33!).) from 1850 to 1860 more than half of our immigrants came from the British Isles, while Germany furnished 38 per cent of the number. In 1902 the British Isles and Germany together sent us only IH per cent, the great bulk of immigration (over 70 per cent) coming from Italy, Russia, Poland, and Austria-Hungary. How to make these aliens of different races, languages, and ways of life into Americans is the great problem confronting us. Those who most readily adopt our customs make the best citizens, ^ome never become like us, coming to America only to make money, and returning to their own land when their ambition is satisfied. The Chinese are of this sort, and they have long been CHANGES IN INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 485 considered undesirable additions to our population. Living on only a few cents a day, they are willing to work for wages which other laborers could not accept. In cities where they have settled in any numbers, they congregate in a "Chinatown" in which unsanitary living is combined with strange cus- Chinese toms and low moral standards, if not crime; it is exclusion believed that they form a menace to our civilization as well as to Prospective American Citizens indu.strial conditions. In the early days of CaUfornia, when the gold mines were drawing thousands with their promise of fortune, it was difRcult to find domestic servants and common laborers, and the Chinese were welcomed. A few years later the ])uilding of the Pacific railroads brought still greater need, and great num- bers of Chinese were imported. In 1868 a treaty with China was made which distinctly encouraged immigration. (Conditions soon changed, however. The completion of the Union Pacific 486 AMERK'AN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS brought Eastern workmen to try their fortunes in the West, and they were dismayed at the terms upon which they must enter into competition with the Chinese. Gradually, too, the habits of the Chinese were becoming known, and it was only a short time before the whole Pacific coast was crying out for their exclusion. It proved, however, impossible to secure a treaty from China which would permit entire prohibition of Chinese innnigration, without the loss of protection and privileges given Americans in China. The most which could be ol^tained was permission to "regulate, hmit, or suspend" the coming of Chinese laborers. A treaty to this effect was made in 1880. Congress in 1882 sus- pended Chinese immigration for ten years. In 1892 the suspen- sion was continued for a second period of ten years. In 1902 the exclusion was made perpetual. There has been for several years a growing feeling in California against the Japanese, who have to a certain extent taken the places of the Chinese laborers. California demands regulation of Japanese immigration, and is likely to demand the exclusion of the Japanese. It would be impossible for us to mention all the changes in ways of living and industrial conditions wliich the latter half of the nineteenth century produced. We have already spoken of the great growth of the factory system, and we must take note of the tendency, recently and rapidly developed, of capitalists to coml^ine into huge companies, buying up smaller concerns or crowding them out. The greater part of the business of the whole country in many lines is in the hands of i)erhaps two or three cor- porations. The Standard Oil Company is a familiar Trusts '■ , . , ■ , 1 example of this way of domg busmess, and there are many other combinations or "trusts" controlling other products. The railroads of the country are now in the hands of not many more than a half-dozen companies. The questions which this tendency to combination brings up we shall return to in a later chapter. CHANG KS IN INDIJSTIIIAL CONDITIONS 487 THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Great industrial changes have taken place since the War. Many ijf the common comforts of our homes, as well as many widelj^ used me- chanical appliances, are inventions of this period. 2. The first successful Atlantic cable was laid in lS6(i. 3. The telephone, tli<> phonograph, the wireless telegraph, electric cars, electric lights, the automobile, and the motor boat are some of the elec- trical inventions which have changed home life and business methods. 4. Great factories have taken the place of tlie small shops in which things were formerly made. f). The increase of town and city life has brought new and serious prob- lems to the people of the nation. The large number of foreign-born people in the cities of the North and West to be made into Americans presents, perhaps, the gravest question of all. THINGS TO READ 1. "Four American Inventors," Perry, pp. 205-260. 2. "American Inventions and Inventors," Mowry, pp. 77-89, 221-244, 278-294. THINGS TO DO 1. Find the meaning of submarine, cable, rural, engineering, suspension, immigration, aliens, menace, exclusion, corporations. 2. Discuss in class : — (1) Are our "modern conveniences" really benefits? Are our lives any better because of them ? (2) What are the advantages of city life? of country life? Has country life changed in equal measure with city life ? What are the disadvantages of city life ? of country life ? FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. Samuel F. B. Morse. (Portrait) The Electric Telegraph, 1844. 2. Thomas A. Edison. (Portrait) (Name his chief inventions.) 3. The modern cit3^ Compare the cities of to-day with the old-fashioned city or town. Men- tion size, kind of buildings, streets, transportation facilities, industiies, commerce. Illustrate, if possible. XXIX THE NEW SOUTH It is pleasant for us to remember that in the progress of the days since the war the South has nobly borne its part. "There was a South of slavery and secession — that South is dead. There is a South of Union and freedom — that South, thank God, is hving, breathing, growing every hour." These words, spoken in 1866 by one of the South's leading men, have been more than justified as the years have passed. "The old South," said Henry Grady of Atlanta, in an address in New York in 1886, "rested everything on slavery and agricul- ture. — The new South presents a perfect democracy — a hun- dred farms for every plantation, fifty homes for every palace — and a diversified industry that meets the complex needs of this complex age." And again in the same speech he says, "We have challenged your spinners in Massachusetts and your iron makers in Penn- New industries sylvania." Before the war the South manufactured in the South none of the cotton it raised ; but the end of the nine- teenth century saw nearly one third of the cotton mills in the coimtry located in the Southern states; while in a list of states producing pig iron, in 1901 Alabama stands first. Birmingham, a typical manufacturing city of the South, shows vigorous growth. Chartered as a city in 1871, with a population of less than a thousand, in 1900 it had gained a population of over thirty-eight thousand. Nashville, in Tennessee, had in 1900 nearly five times its population in 1860, and a varied list of manufactures, in addi- tion to a large trade in lumber, cotton, grain, and flour. Atlanta, which had been almost entirely destroyed during the 488 THE NEW SOUTH 489 war, was quickly rebuilt, and is now a larger city than Hartford, Connecticut, and quite as busy as its Northern sister. Other towns show similar increase and industry. Even in sections where agriculture is still the; chic^f or only pursuit, many products have now taken the place of the once universal (totton. And yet the cotton crop has Diversified steadily grown, the number of pounds of cotton raised crops in 1900 being twice that of 1860. The variety of present-day crops has brought Southern fruit and vegetables to our Northern markets. "The whole coast line is a garden," said the editor of one of our leading magazines in 1907, and he tells of fortunes that are being made by the raising of celery and cabbages and early fruits. There are many instances which we might add to show the growth and industrial activity of the New South. New Orleans has risen to second rank in the country as an export city, sur- passed only by New York. Six great railroads make the city their terminus, while steamship lines extend from New Orleans to all parts of the world. A large part of this conmiercial activity has come as a result of the improvement of the river mouth. The Mississippi brings down vast quantities of mud, which, as the river improvement broadens at the mouth and the current slackens, are of the mouth deposited, filling up the channels. Heavy draft ships of *e Missis- could not asce.id to the city, and various plans were ^'P*" considered for deepening the water way. James B. Eads, an engi- neer of ability, proposed to Congress to deepen the channels by means of the "jetty system." The building of jetties would make the channels narrower, thus producing a swift current which by its own action would wash away the deposits and clear the channel. Congress, though reluctantly, finally gave Eads permission to make the attempt on one of the channels; his work was com- pleted in 1879, and was a complete success. The industrial gro^vth of the South has been shown by several 490 AMERICAN HISTORY FOH (IRAMMAR SCHOOLS interesting an'd instructive exhibitions of Southern products. The Cotton Centennial Exposition at New Orleans, in 1884, marked a century since the first bale of cotton was exported from America, in 1784. The Cotton States Exposition, held at At- lanta, followed in 1895; the Southern States and West India Exposition was held at Charleston, in 1901; and the Jamestown Exposition, in 1907, celebrated the close of the third century since the settlement of Virginia. All of these served to show the people of the whole country the great natural wealth of the South and the wonderful industrial advance made by the Southern people. The educational progress of the South has been no less marked than its industrial growth. Before the war, free public schools Education in were almost unknown in the slave states. Now every the South state of the South maintains public schools for both negro and white children. Large sums have been given by chari- table people for the teaching of the negroes, and much is being done along the line of industrial education. Schools at Hamp- ton in Virginia and at Tuskegee in Alabama have become famous for their work — not alone in giving the negroes "book learning, " but in teaching them how to live and how to work. The name of Booker T. Washington has become familiar throughout the land; he is a leader of his people, aiming to educate them into industrial independence. The "negro problem" still confronts the South. But the prog- ress the race is making insures a safer solution of the problem than seemed probable in the reconstruction days. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The changes in the South since the war seem largely the result of the change from slave to free labor. No longer limited to raising cotton, the Southern people have developed the great natural resources of theii- country. Cotton maimfacturing, iron working, coal mining, market garden- ing, have all brought wealth into the South. THE NEW SOUTH 491 2. The commerce of New Orleans has attained wonderful growth since the improvement of the mouth of the Mississippi; this work was done by James B. Eads. 3. Free education in the South has done much to change the condition of both "poor whites" and negroes. THINGS TO READ The World's Work, Juno, 1907 (Southern number). THINGS TO J)0 1. Find the meaning of diversified, complex, piy iron, terminus, indus- trial education. FOR YOLTR NOTEBOOK The New Soutii. (Write in the form of a composition as many of the facts in regard to the development of the South since the war as you can remcTubcr. Out- side facts gathered from your reading should be included.) XXX POLITICS SINCE THE WAR I. Grant's Pkk.sidkncy The settlement by the war of all questions pertaining to slavery has made possible a new Union — one in which no section is hostile to any other, and in which questions of national rather than sectional importance have occupied the attention of the political world. With the exception of two presidential terms, the Republican l)arty has been uniformly successful in electing the President since I860. It has not always been successful in controlling both houses, however, so that sometimes full power has lieen denied it; but on the whole it has been a period of Republican rule. General Grant, elected in 1868, served for two terms, but he was somewhat out of his element in a political atmosphere, and Grant as judged men less acutely than he judged military situ- President ations. His term of service was marred by much corruption in office; and while nobody doubted Grant's o'v\ti honest}', it Avas believed that unscrupulous politicians had a good deal of influence with him and used this influence to fur- ther their oAvn ends. Corruption seemed to have entered all de- partments of public life. In New York the infamous "Tweed ring" gained absolute control of the city government, and voted into their own pockets hundreds of millions of dollars before the people of the city realized what was going on. In other cities conditions were almost as bad. State governments were cor- rupted; bribery was charged against congressmen, a^nd even against a member of the Cabinet. 4P2 POLITICS SINCE THE WAR 493 Many men who were far above bribery or corruption were more or less moved by the spirit of speculation, which was widespread at this time. You will remember that business at the North had been stimulated by the demands of the war, and that . Financial many fortunes had been made in supplying these conditions demands. Now that the war was over, new enterprises were sought, and the desire to get rich quickly overcame the judgment The Capitol, Washington of many business men. It was the old story of Jackson's time repeated. Many causes combined to produce a scarcity of money. In 1871 a terrible fire raged in Chicago for three days, destroying two million dollars' worth of property. In 1872 a like disaster overtook Boston. Great sums of money were required to rebuild these cities, and much was withdrawn from other enterprises for -this purpose. Another cause for scarcity was the great amount of railroad building going on. Many of these roads could give no return for many years for the money invested in them, until settlements grew up along their path through the wilderness. Quarrels be- 494 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS tween railroad companies and fanners who wished lower freight rates added to the reluctance which people were beginning to feel toward investing in railroad bonds. Bankers holding these bonds for sale could not find purchasers. The failure of the firm of Jay Cooke and Company was the beginning of the trouble which was sure to come. This firm had been of great service to the government during the war, obtain- ing loans and selling government bonds; and it was considered one of the strongest financial firms in the country. Its failure carried many other business men to ruin, and the ''Black Friday" on which it occurred was a terrible day in New York and, indeed, in many other places. During the years 1873 and 1874 over ten thousand business failures took place. The unsettled and depressing condition of the country led to much dissatisfaction with the party in power. Already, at the New poiiti- election of 1872, new parties had begun to appear — cai parties ^}^g Liberal Republicans, who opposed Grant's re- election; the Labor Reform party; which was formed to uphold the rights of the workingman; and the Prohibition part}', which wished to make the liquor-selling question a political one, and to subordinate all other questions to it. The Republicans, however, continued in power. In 1876 there was grave doubt as to the abilit}' of the party to retain its control. The presence of new parties in the field, the "hard times," the corruption in government officials, all com- bined to cause dissatisfaction with Republican rule. The great Currency question of this campaign was in regard to the cur- questions rency. There was still in circulation more than three hundred millions in paper money, issued in war time. Some people believed that this should be withdrawn, and only gold or Election silver be used as legal tender. Others believed that of 1876 even more paper money should be issued, and the ''Greenback party" was formed to advocate this. The Repub- lican candidate was Rutherford B. Hayes, thrice governor of POLITICS SINCE THE WAR 495 Ohio; the Democrats named Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, who had won national fame by his able leadership in the movement against the Tweed ring, and who was now governor of New York. The election was very close, and for the first time in our his- tory the result was disputed. In three Southern states both sides claimed the victory, and the result of the whole election turned upon the returns from these states. There seemed little hope of settling the matter in Congress, where the Senate was Republican and the House since 1874 had had a majority of Democrats. At length Congress voted to refer the matter to an Electoral Commission, com- posed of five senators, five representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court. There was much discussion as to. who these judges should be, and it was decided to choose two Democrats and two Repub- licans, leaving them to choose the fifth judge themselves. This was done, and the fifteen members of the commission met and undertook ld, who was shot on July 2, 1881, lingered between life and death for more than two months. He died on September 19, the Vice President, Chester A. Arthur, taking the oath of office on the following da3\ To the surprise of the reformers, Arthur at once showed an earnest desire to improve conditions in the service. Public sentiment now strongly demanded the long-delayed reform, and January, 1883, saw the Civil Service Reform Act become a law. Under this law the President was given power to establish the following system : — Employees of the government were to be classified in grades; to be appointed and promoted from lists prepared on the basis of competitive examination; to re- ceive probationary and later permanent appointments. The law prohibited recommendations for place by members of Congress; it also forbade assessment of employees or contributions by them for political purposes. Before the end of President Arthur's term, over fifteen thousand government employees were brought under these rules. Further application of the rules was made later, but the condition of the service is still far from the ideal. Each President since Arthur has received more or less criticism for yielding to the "spoilsmen," but since the victory of 1883 public opinion has slackened its energy, so that the politicians no longer feel its pressure. It is probable that another awakening of the public conscience must come before our civil service can be placed above suspicion or reproach. This, like the tariff, will be one of . the problems of your day. Chester A. Arthur Elected Vice President, 1880; became President in 1881 upon Garfield's death; served until 1885. 50(3 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS V. Laboe Problems Perhaps the very greatest and most troublesome of the ques- tions before the American people in the period since the war have been those connected with the relation of capital and labor. Labor, as we use it here, means really wage earners who are em- ployed by individuals, companies, or corporations. Capital is the term used in speaking of employers — the men who provide the money to carry on a business, who hire the workmen, and who regulate and dispose of the product of their work. In the early days of the nation, little was heard of trouble between employers and employed, chiefly because difficulties were individual affairs in those days of small concerns and few men. Trades unions were sometimes formed, modeled after those of England, but their influence was small. Many things occui red, however, to change conditions among workingmen. The great increase of the factory method brought large bodies of workmen together, all working under much the same conditions. The universal employment of machinery lessened the necessity for skilled hand workers. Living condi- tions grew worse as communities grew larger. In fewer cases was discontent individual. The grievance of one was the grievance of all. The unions became more numerous. After the war, agitation was begun for a reduction of the working day to eight hours, and for other improvements in the condition of the workingman. There began to l^e bitterness of feeling between "labor" and "capital." To force employers into granting the demands of the workmen, the strike and the boycott began to be used. Sometimes thou- sands of men left their work at the command of the union, and when their employers brought in new men to take their places the strikers used violent means to prevent any work being done. Mills or mines would stand idle, or railroad traffic would cease, until one side or the other yielded. The pohce often found it POLITICS SINCE THE WAR 507 impossible to keep order, and tlie militia sometimes had to be called out. The boycott aimed to reach the same end l)y compelling all members of the union to refuse the goods of the offending em- ployer; and as the unions grew and banded together, this was (jften an effective weapon. In the years innnediately following the panic of 1873, working- men felt the business depression keenly. Their employers were making little if any profit, and wages were cut down until many workmen could barely live; others — thousands of tliem — were thrown out of employment entirely. In 1877 a railroad strike occurred which was felt in fourteen states. The trouble began with a reduction of wages on the Baltimore and Railroad Ohio Road; and the disorder attending the strike strike, 1877 was greatly increased by the discontent of other railroad em- ployees under similar conditions, and by the idle men numerous everywhere. Pittsburg, a great railroad (tenter, suffered most from the mob. Frantic with rage, the strikers and their sympathizers stopped trains, burned railroad buildings, locomotives, and cars, the flames spreading so that the whole city barely escaped destruction. The loss was estimated at not less than ten million dollars. The whole country east of the Mississippi suffered enough to bring the labor question sharply before the people. The same year a widespread coal strike was accompanied by riots. In 1880 about five thousand miners in the West took part in a strike resulting in a four million dollar loss. The Knights of Labor, a national organization, had now (1882) one hundred and forty thousand members. By 1886 it numbered more than seven hundred thousand. No year was without its labor troubles. In 1886 the number of strikes was more than twice as many as in any previous year. Most of these were for increased wages or for shorter hours. One railroad strike which lasted seven weeks and stopped traffic on six thousand miles of 508 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS road was undertaken because of the discharge of a single work- man, a Knight of Labor. A serious street-railroad strike occurred in New York in this year; but the worst trouble was in Chicago, where about sixty The Ruins after the Pittsburg Riots thousand workers struck. Matters were made much worse by a band of anarchists, who seized every chance to press their doctrines upon the crowds who gathered in the streets. The destruction of all government was the anarchists' demand, and their speeches were violent against all in authority. At one street meeting the police interfered, and The Chicago anarchists, 1886 POLITICS SINCE THE WAR 509 the anarchists retahated by throwing a bomb among the police,. kilUng seven and wounding sixty. The wiiole country was thrown into excitement by this occur- rence in Chicago, and all felt that a new trouble was now to be met — anarchy. In April, 1886, President Cleveland had sent a special message to Congress on the labor situation — the first presitlential message on a labor question in the history of the country. But Congress was able to do little to help matters. In 1892 occurred an ironworkers' strike at Homestead, Penn- sylvania, in which several people were killed. Over a hundred thousand coal miners in Pennsylvania struck for higher wages in 1900, and again in 1902, when the contest lasted long enough to cause discomfort and even suffering throughout the country for lack of coal. Its price more than doubled, and in some places it was almost impossible to get at any price. The labor question thus came to affect people who heretofore had taken little interest in it. During the twenty years ending in 1900, nearly twenty-four thousand strikes are recorded. The American Federation of Labor, which has largely taken the place of the Knights of Lal)or, in 1905 numbered about two million members. Much has been accomplished by the various unions. Working hours are more reasonable, wages are better; sanitary regulations have improved the health of workmen in many trades, and have greatly lessened deaths from that dread disease, consumption. Child lal)or, once entirely unrestricted, is now in many states carefully regulated by law With union has undoubtedly come strength to the work- ingman. The labor question and the labor vote can no longer be overlooked. Since the appearance of the Labor Reform Party in the national election of 1868 there has always been a labor party in the field, but as yet no labor candidate has received high office. The tendency of capital to combine has been no less marked during recent years than that of labor. Instead of the numerous 510 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS competing companies of earlier days, we have now in many cases great corporations, which have crushed competition by absorbing into one the rival companies. Instead of forty or fifty telegraph companies, there is now the Western Union, with offices all over the country. Instead of hundreds of oil producers, we have the Standard Oil Company. In 1901 was organized the most gigantic business combination the world has ever seen, the United States Steel Corporation. The power of these trusts is great. One of the questions before the country is their regulation, that they may not use their power to gain undue profits or raise the prices of the necessities of life. The regulation of trusts is far too complicated a ques- tion for you yet, but you must know that it is one of the ques- tions now demanding attention, and about which you must later become informed. In closing this account of political movements since the war, we must conclude that the problems before us are no longer those of earlier days. They are social and industrial, rather than political in the older sense. And they will force themselves upon the nation until their solution is found. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Important questions concerning capital and labor are before the country awaiting solution. 2. We must try to see these questions from both sides. XXXI FOREIGN RELATIONS SIN(^E THE WAR The foreign relations of tlie United States government since the war would form quite a book b}' themselves, if we had time to study them in detail. Even a slight account of them, how- ever, will show us that questions of importance have come up, and that the influence of the United States has steadily grown. While the war was in progress the French emperor, Napoleon III, showed plainly his hostility toward the American govern- ment antl his sympathy with the South. The French govern- ment would have been quick to follow England if that government had recognized the ( 'onfederacy, although the French were not quite wilUng to do this alone. Napoleon at this time was dreaming the old dream of French empire in the New World, and the break-up of the Union would have helped along his plans. It was Mexico upon The French Avhich the hope of emj^ire was built — Mexico, still i" Mexico weak, now torn and distracted by internal war, and in the power of the French through her inability to repay French loans to her unhappy government. French soldiers were sent to Mexico late in 1861, and their true purpose — to destroy the Mexican govern- ment — was soon se(^n. The American government protested against the interference of France with the political affairs of Mexico, asserting once more the Monroe Doctrine; but France feared the protest of the United States but little, since the United States was not in a position to enforce her demands. The French soldiers soon gained control of affairs in Mexico; the republic was declared at an end, 511 512 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS and an empire proclaimed, of which MaximiUan, a prince of Austria, was invited to become the head. Being at war herself, the United States made no move to force the removal of the French troops. But when the Confederacy- had fallen, there was leisure and there were troops to attend to the affair. Feeling for the sister republic, Mexico, was strong in the United States, and our state department no longer protested — it rather demanded that France withdraw her troops. And Napoleon decided to withdraw. The French empire in Mexico was then of short duration. The Monroe Doctrine had been enforced. Immediately after the war the state department negoti- ated with Russia for the purchase of Russian America, now known as Alaska. The pur- chase was made in 1867, the United States paying seven million two hundred thou- The purchase "^and dollars for nearly six hundred thousand square of Alaska, 1867 miles of territory. Alaska has proved a very good purchase. Its fisheries are of great value, its seal rookeries are the most extensive in the world, and the discovery of gold has brought about a rush to the far North like that to California in earlier days. One of the early questions taken up by the state department was that of England's responsibility for the damage done by the Alabama and other Confederate cruisers built and fitted out at English ports. After several years of discussion, England agreed to submit the question to a Board of Arbitration. This board, Fur Seals among the Rocks near the Coast of One of the Pribilof Islands FOREIGN RELATIONS SINCE THE WAR 513 meeting at Geneva, Switzerland, decided that England must pay fifteen million five hundred thousand dollars to the American government. This was done without protest, thus closing a long- stantUng subject of dispute. During the administration of Cleveland two matters of im- portance in our relations with foreign nations camv up. In January, i893, only two months before the end of Harrison's term, a revolution in Hawaii resulted in the overthrow of the queen's party and the establishment of a provisional government which at once pro- posed annexation to the United The propoae i States. There were many annexation of reasons why this arrangement Hawaii, 1S93 should be desired, and a treaty' was at once made and submitted to the Senate. Before the Senate had ratified it, however, President Cleveland had come into office. To the surprise of many, he at once with- drew the treaty from the Senate, and sent a commissioner to Hawaii to examine into the true facts concerning the revolution there. Upon the report of this commissioner the President decided that the treaty siiould not be returned to the Senate. He believed he had evidence that the revolutionists would not have succeeded had it not been for aid from the American minister and frorn an AnK^rican warship. If that were true, he argued, the original government ought to be restored. There was much disappointment in both Hawaii and the United States, and many Americans professed indignation at "having the flag hauled down" where it had once waved. President Cleve- land showed in this affair a firmness with which the politicians had not credited him; and it did not add to his popularity with them. In 1895, he again astonished them by a ''vigorous policy" 2l Grover Cleveland i'rpsident, ]88.')-lSSi); 1893- 1897. 514 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS in interpreting and applying the Monroe Doctrine. Venezuela and Great Britain had long been at odds in regard to a boundary The Venezuela between Venezuela and British Guiana, her eastern affair, 1895 neighbor. Venezuela was willing to submit the ques- tion to arbitration, but England would not agree. It was even feared by Venezuela that England would resort to force, and the protection of the United States was asked. The state department took the matter up, once more proposing arbitration, which England once more declined. Upon this the President asked Congress to authorize the appointment of a com- mission to determine the boundary, adding in his message, "I am fully alive to the responsibility incurred, and keenly realize all the consequences that may follow." This calm decision that the United States should mark the boundary of an English colony, and compel England to accept her marking, startled both Eng- land and America. Such a course might easily mean war, and relief was felt on all sides when England at last agreed to arbitrate. Settlement of international disputes by arbitration is becoming more frequent. But even our own country has been involved no less recently than 1898 in a war. Again, as in the Venezuela dispute, the United States demanded justice for a smaller, weaker neighbor. Spain, the discoverer and early colonizer of the New World, was no longer the mighty power of the sixteenth century. We have seen her stripped of her possessions in North America, and a history of the southern The war with Continent would tell the same story. Of the great Spain, 1898 empire of early days nothing remained but Cuba and Porto Rico, and in the latter half of the nineteenth The West Indies FOREIGN RELATIONS SINCE THE WAR 515 century lier hold upon those beautiful islands had grown very weak. MisgovcTunient and oppression drove the Cubans to revolt; and rebellion moved the Spaniartls to still further misgovernnient and oppression. Wave after wave of rel)ellion swept over the island, nev(n- successful, yet leaving the Cubans each time more determined to gain independence. Six times within fifty years the Cubans rose against their Spanish masters. From 1868 to 1S7S occurn>d what is known as the "Ten Years' War." Spain was making again the same mistake which she had made through centuries- — that of believing that colonies exist only for the advantage of the mother country. Through the long years of Cuban struggle the people of America looked on — with irritation at the breaking up of their Cuban C()mmerc(\ with sympathy for the oppressed colonists, with horror at the cruelty of Spain. For the worst feature of Spanish efforts to jout down reb(41ion was the resort to barbarous and almost inhuman methods of warfare. In 1895 a new uprising took place, and all previous cruelty was surpassed by the conduct of the Spanish troops. General Weyler, the Spanish cap- The cruelty tain general, made war not only upon Cuban men in of General revolt, but upon every Cuban man, w^oman, and child Weyier on the island. His soldiers were sent out through the country.- burning Imildings and crops, tnaking farms into wildernesses, the soldiers driving the people before them like sheep into the cities. There they were huddled together in great pens, with no floor but the ground, no furniture, little clothing, under the foulest and most unhealthful of conditions. Hundreds of thousands died, and those who lived on were but wrecks of human beings. The whole world was shocked at such bar])arity. The Cubans found ready sympathy in the United States. In spite of international laws of neutrality, expeditions to carry arms and supplies to the insurgents were fitted out in American ports. The government made every effort to stop these, but many times 516 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS they eluded all pursuit. Congress voted fifty thousand dollars to relieve the suffering of American citizens in Cuba, and the Red Cross Society sent to Cuba thousands of dollars, as well as many men and women anxious to relieve the distress. Spain bitterly resented this sympathy with her rebellious colony, and through her ambassador protested against it. The American government made several ineffectual attempts to in- duce Spain to give Cuba independence. The bitterness of feel- ing increased. Believing that the presence of an American warship in the harbor at Havana might guard American interests in the island, the battleship Maine was ordered to make a "friendly visit" to Cuba. She entered the harbor of Havana, January 25, 1898, Destruction of being received with outward courtesy. Three weeks the Maine, later the world was startled by the news that a February 15, terrific explosion had destroyed the Maine while yet in the harbor, killing two hundred and sixty of her crew. The true cause of the Maine's destruction may never bo known. It may have been done by some Spaniard who believed that he was serving his country; or it may have been the deed of Cuban insurgents,. who wished to rouse the American govern- ment to declare war upon Spain; or it may have been, as the Spanish board of inquiry reported, an explosion from within the ship. Whatever its cause, the destruction of the Maine, coming just at this time, roused popular feeling to a pitch such as had not been known since the firing on Fort Sumter. The whole country cried out for war. The two months immediately following the great disaster on February 15 witnessed a great outburst of patriotism. The flag was seen on every hand; the national airs were played nightly in the theaters to deeply moved audiences. An intense new interest in the Cubans sprang up. Their flag — red, white, and blue like our own — was displayed with the Stars 9Jid Stripes in many places. The war fever ran high. "Remem- FoliKUiN RELATIONS SIN(^K THK WAR 517 ber the Maine'' became the watchword. Congress waited with impatience for the President to act. But President McKinley, himself a war veteran, hesitated to bring on a war until every means of peaceful settlement had been tried, even tiiough Congress and the countrj^ were impatient. At last, however, on April 11, he sent a message to Congress in which he saiil, " In the name of humanii\ , in the name of civilization, in behalf ol endangered American interests, which give us the right and the duty to speak and act, the war in Cul)a must stop." Congress at once followed the President's lead; Spain was warned that she must with- draw from Cuba. The Spanish minister im- mediately left Waslnngton, and the American minister was ordered to leave Spain. Prep- arations for war were begun. Two hundred and fifty thousand volunteers were called for. Four or five times as many were anxious to go. The troops were rapidly gathered in camps for instruction, and sup- The navy in- plies with which to fit them out were collected. The creased and navy was strengthened by the purchase or charter of ^^^^^^^ ^'^^ many vessels. All sorts of craft — yachts, merchant steamers, ocean liners — were put into commission for active service or coast defense. The coast of (3uba was blockaded and a watch begun for the Spanish fleet which would surely come to the rescue of the Spanish troops. Orders were sent to our squadron in the east to attack the Spanish fleet in the Philippines, and it was there on the other side of the world that the first blow was struck at Spanish power. Commodore George Dewey, in command of the Pacific fleet, set out at once on receipt of his orders to engage the Spanish fleet in the Philippines in l)attle. Leaving Hongkong on April 27, William McKinley President, 1807-1901. He was assassinated in 1901, soon after bcsinning his second term. 518 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS less than a week after war began, he reached Manila Bay, where he beUeved his enemj'- to be, on the night of April 30. Sailing silently into the harbor in the darkness, Dewey with his six ships braved the dangers of submarine torpedoes and gave The battle at battle to the Spanish ships at dawn. In some re- Manila Bay, si)ects this was one of the most wonderful naval May I, 1898 jjattles in history. Four hours sufficed to destroy every one of the eleven Spanish ships, to silence and destroy the shore batteries, with- out the loss of a ship or even of a man on the American side, though hundreds of Spaniards were killed or wounded. This victory cleared the Pacific of Spanish ships, and Dewey had only to remain on guard until troops could be sent across the Pacific from San Francisco to take and hold the islands. Meanwhile a Spanish fleet under Ad- miral Cervera had set sail across the Atlantic from Spain, and all America was anxiously awaiting knowledge of its destination. A sort of terror seized the whole Atlantic coast Watching for lest the fleet might attack one of our coast cities, the Spanish All sorts of rumors were heard. Admiral Sampson ®^* with a fleet of vessels patrolled Cuban waters, but no Spanish ships were seen. Then came news that Cervera had entered the harbor of Santiago on the southern coast of Cuba. The Philippine Islands FOREIGN RELATIONS SINCE THE WAR 519 Sampson's fleet, to which Coininodore Schley's "flying squad- ron" had been added, at once took position at the mouth of the harbor, which by its shape was especially easy to Cervera's fleet watch. An attempt was made to close the narrow ** Santiago opening still further by sinking in the channel a coal ship, the Merrimac, but though the daring feat was bravely accomplished, there was still room for the ships to come out. Watch was kept night and day at the mouth of the harbor; that was all that could l)e done, for the en- t ranee was heavily mined, and overlooked bv forts on the high cliffs. The fleet could only wait until an army could be brought to li^nd its aid to the de- struction of the Spanish ships. Accordingly sixteen thousand of the im- patient soldiers at Tampa under com- mand of General Shafter set out for Cuba. On the 22d of June these troops landcnl sixteen miles east of Santiago and began operations to take the city. The climate proved very trying, and the roads almost impassable. But the American soldiers were not disheartened, and pressed on, anxious only to reach the enemy. The Spaniards contested every step of the way, and the soldiers on both sides displayed great bravery. Lying between the Ameri- cans and the city was the fortified hill of San Juan, which must '^^^Wt'M'Wi^i.awi-*—- .", The Dewey Arch Erected in Ne\v York on the occasion of Admiral Dewey's return from the Philippines. His reception was an en- thusiastic ovation. 520 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS be taken. No army could hope to hold San Juan, however, until the guns on another hill. El Caney, on the American EiCaneyand right, were silenced. El Caney was first attacked, San Juan, but it took nearly all day to capture it. The troops July 1, 1898 waiting before San Juan grew impatient. At last the now famous charge up the hill was made. Across a swamp, through tangled grass and brush, the Ameri- cans fought their way, a network of barbed wire fences making -----Blockading Squadron^ — '- The Santiago Campaign their progress slow and breaking up all military formation. The firing of the Spaniards on the hill was constant, but the Ameri- cans chd not turn back. Conspicuous among them were a regi- ment of colored soldiers and the "Rough Riders," a regiment made up partly of Western cowboys, hunters, and Indians, and partly of college athletes and rich mens' sons from the East. Perhaps a company of men more representative of American democracy could not have been found than those who together charged up San Juan Hill; and they did their work well, winning fame for themselves and for their commander. Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt. FOREIGN RELATIONS SINCE THE WAR 521 When night fell on July 1, El Caney and San Juan were both in American hands, but Spanish attempts to retake them were expected on the morrow. On the second, the fighting was re- sumed, but the Americans held the position they had gained. The fearful heat, the drenching daily showers — for it was the rainy season — affected the health of the American soldiers seri- ously. It was feared that they would soon be unable to fight. Santiago yet remained to be taken. General Shafter demanded its surrender, but had little expectation that it would be given up. The Spanish, how- ever, were more un- easy than the Ameri- cans knew. Fearful that the city would be taken and the fleet captured. General Blanco, the Spanish commander, ordered Cervera to make an attempt to escape. Accordingly on Sun- day morning, July 3, the news was signaled from one vessel to another of the American fleet that the Spanish ships were slowly steaming down toward the harbor mouth. Soon the black nose of the flagship, the Maria Teresa, appeared in the opening, the three armored cruisers and two torpedo boats follow- ing closely. They turned directly to the west, firing as they went, while the forts gave what assistance they could. The Americans on the blockading fleet had watched five weeks for this moment, and they sprang to the work of Naval battle pursuit with the joy of men weary of waiting. In off Santiago, three minutes from the first warning, the guns were ^"'^ ^' ^^^^ booming, and the chase was on. We cannot follow the details of United States Battleship Oregon This ship was on the Pacific coast, in Puget Sound, when the destruction of the Maine took place. Being ordered to join Sampson's fleet, she was hurried to the east, making the voyage of 15,000 miles around Cape Horn in fifty- nine days, and arriving in time to assist in the battle of July third. 522 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS the fight; it is enough to know that again, as at Manila, the skill of "the men behind the guns" on the American ships won the day. One after another the Spanish ships gave up, — burning, driven on the beach, or sunk. Four hundred men lost their lives. Sixteen hundred were made prisoners. And the American fleet lost but a single man. The destruction of the Spanish fleet changed conditions on shore. Negotiations for surrender were begun, and on the 17th the Spaniards gave up possession of the city. There was no more fighting in Cuba. The Spanish government, acknowledging itself beaten, made advances toward peace. The troops sent to Porto Rico had no need to pursue the conquest of that island. And before the news that fighting was stopped could reach Manila the soldiers sent from San Francisco to take the city had done their work. The war ended on the 12th of August, preliminary terms of peace being agreed upon. Later, the ap- pointed commissioners met at Paris, and a treaty was made which the Senate ratified February 0, lSt)<). Tlu- terms of the treaty follow: — THE TREATY Spain The United States Gave Gave to Cuba — to Spain — independence. $20,000,000. to the United States. Porto Rico Guam. Philippine Islands. Received Received $20,000,000. Porto Rico. Guam. Philippine Islands. 140° Longitude East 100 180° Longitude 160' TERRITORIAL EXPANSIO AlIKAS Si^i. .MU.KS ilted States, 1783 827,841 trty eijuat to Aiutria, Germuni/. France mut 6^/(im inisiana Purchase and Oregon . ,_l,171,;j:U nrlyiii timet orii/inal U.^.Tcrrilury oriria rui-cliase._ 59,208 rater than England and lla/cj xas 375,230 exican Cession and Gadsden Turchase -501,318 laska^ _. 577,390 jrto Rico, Philippines, Hawaii, etc ^ 130,102 lited States, 1908 3,733,002 irope 3,986,975 It fr.,.ii Hu° <;r,-^n»luh ■ THE UNITED STATES FOKEIUN RELATIONS SINCE THE WAK 523 The war with Spain has, without doubt, changed the position occupied by the United States in international affairs. We hear the expression "America as a x^e United world jiower " used to define states as a this change. It would be "world power" perhaps difficult to say just how this came about. It is true that the inter- ference of the United States with Spain's conduct of affairs in Cuba was a depar- ture from the American policy to take no part in European affairs. It is true, also, that the ac- quisition of de- pendencies or colonies on the other side of the world placed the United States in a n(>w position. And it is an evident fact that the battles of Manila Bay and Santiago greatly increased the respect of foreign nations for tlie naval power of th(> United Theodore Roosevelt Elected Vice President in 1900; succeeded McKinley as Presi- dent upon the iatter's death in 1!)()1; was elected President in 1!)04, served 190.5-1009. John Hay One of our great Secretaries of oia. i «f ♦ T .K k- States. State, .\mong the achieve- ments associated with hist name are the maintenance of the "open door" in r-hiua : the .settlement of tics between nations is slowly but steadily the Alaska boundary; and ^rowiug. America has been among the foremost of the nations in using and en- In The movement toward an international agreement to arbitrate disputes and difficnil- thc Hay-Pauncefote treaty with Great Britain relative to the construction of an interoceanic canal. couraging others to use arbitration. 1899, at the invitation of the Czar of Russia, delegates from twenty-six nations met in a "Peace Con- ference" at The Hague. It was hoped by many that this con- ference would inaugurate a movement for the disarmament of 524 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS nations, but this proved a vain hope. The leading nations still cling to their immense standing armies and navies, but neverthe- less The Hague Conference was productive of good. Its most important result was the creation of a permanent court of arbitra- tion to adjust differences of an international character. This court has since been called upon to settle disputes between Mexico and the United States; between several European states and Venezuela; between European states and Japan; and between Great Britain and France. A second conference was held at The Hague in 1907 and further steps were taken to promote the cause of peace. In the time between the two conferences, England, Russia, and Japan had each been engaged in a war; but, mindful of the fact that great accomplishments are usually of slow growth, the friends of universal peace are not discouraged. "Disarmament is an ideal to be dreamed of; arbitration is a practical method of avoiding war." THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The United States has taken a position of importance among nations. 2. American intervention caused the French to abandon their plq,n of a French empire in Mexico. 3. American influence brought about a friendly settlement of a boundary- dispute between Venezuela and England. 4. The war with Spain freed Cuba. THINGS TO READ 1. "The Rescue of Cuba," Draper. 2. "Four American Naval Heroes," Beebe, pp. 195-254. THINGS TO DO 1. Discuss: Was the United States justified in its intervention in Cuban affairs? 2. Review territorial history. . OUTLINE IX. The New Union, 1878- . (Preaidents: Grant. 187.3-1877; Hayes, 1877-1881; Garfield and Arthur, 1881- 1885; Cleveland, 1885-1889; Harrison, 1889-1893; Cleveland, 1893-1897; McKinley, 1897-1901; Roosevelt, 1901-1909; Taft, 1909- .) FOREIGN RELATIONS SINCE THE WAR 525 A. The development of the West. 1. Discover}' of silver and gold; improved farming methods; railroad building; opening of public lands to settlers; the Indian question. B. Changes in industrial conditions. 1. Submarine telegraph; telephone; electric lighting; increased manufactures; larger factories; town life increased. 2. Town and city problems. a. Suitable homes in crowded districts. b. Transportation. c. The foreign population; regulation of immigration; making • Americans of the foreign-born and their children. 3. Trusts. C. The development of the South" sir ce the war. 1. Free labor has proved more profitable than slave labor. 2. Diversified crops pay better than the once universal cotton. The cotton crop has, however, been greatly increased. 3. Manufacturing and other industries once unknown in the South have built up her cities and brought wealth to her people. D. Politics since the war. 1. Grant's administration: corruption, speculation, and financial panic. 2. The disputed election of 1876. 3. Questions which have been (and in most cases are now) political issues. a. The silver question. The "silver campaign" of 1S96 ; result. b. The tariff. Pushed out of sight by war; became an issue again in 1880; Democrats attempted reduction in 1S88, but the Mills bill failed of passage; McKinley bill (Republican) passed in 1890, high protectionist measure; Wilson bill (Democratic), passed 1894. Duties did not produce revenue enough for expenses; the Dingley bill (Republican) passed 1896. In- creased duties again. Democrats called for tariff reform. Payne tariff law of 1C09 (Republican) makes few real changes. c. Civil service reform. The "spoils system": its spread and evil results; movement for reform begun by people, not politicians ; the assassination 526 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS of (jiirfield ; What has been accuuiplished ; what remains tu be done. d. Labor problems. (1) Grievances of workmen. (2) Labor organizations — their metliods. (3) Strikes in their relation to the public. (4) Anarchists — Chicago, 18SG. (5) Combinations of capitalists : trusts — ttieir regulation. e. Foreign relations. (1) The French in Mexico. (2) The purchase of Alaska. (3) The Alabama Claims. (4) The Hawaiian Revolution. (5) The Venezuel-a boundary. (6) The war with Spain. a. Causes. h. Events leading up to war. c. Events of the war. The battle of Manila Bay. The blockade of Cuba. Cervera's fleet at Santiago. Land campaign at Santiago; El Canej^; San .Juan. Destruction of Cervera's fleet. Capture of Manila. ■ d. Peace. e. Results of the war. XXXII AMERICA AS A WORLD POWER Since the Spanish War, American interests and influence have been especially seen in two directions — in the far East, and more recently in IMexico and Central America. The acquisition of the Philippines brought tlu^ United States new problems. The native Filipinos, like the (^ubans, had been for several years in rebellion against their Spanish The rulers, and they hoped Amer- PWUppines ican intervention meant independence for them. When, however, they found that the United States meant to occupy the Philippines permanently, they fought under their native leader, Aguinaldo, against the American army for control of the islands. It was not until 1902 that the last resistance ceased. Much discussion arose as to the form of government to be given the Filipinos. Democratic leaders in Congress protested against holding the islands as colonies or dependencies, but their opinion was not regarded by the Republican majority. The lack of edu- cation among the Filipinos, and in most cases of any knowledge of political institutions, made it seem impossible to give them self- government at once. Our government began at once to teach the natives, and to give them an increasing share in the govern- ment. The Filipinos now have a legislative assembly with two William H. Taft Elected President in 1908. 528 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS delegates to Congress. Schools are well organized, sanitary con- ditions are greatly improved, and the Philippines seem well started toward future prosperity. In Porto Rico, a government of much the same type has been established. Our relations with Cuba since- the war have been full of interest. When war was declared, the nations of Europe had httle faith in the declaration of Congress that the United States desired no per- manent hold on Cuba. But events have shown the good faith of American ^^le declaration. On January 1, 1899, the Spanish protectorate flag, was hauled down in Havana, and the stars and in Cuba stripes took its place. An American military govern- ment was established. The work of sanitation in Cuban cities was begun. A system of education was outlined and schools were established. The warring political parties were gradually brought to a degree of harmony. The United States agreed to withdraw its army from Cuba when a satisfactory constitution should be adopted. Important among the necessary provisions in this constitution were : — First. That no foreign power should be allowed to gain control over the island. Second. That Cuba should not exceed her revenues in expendi- ture. Third. That Cuba continue the sanitary reforms established. Fourth. That the United States might intervene to preserve independence, order, and republican government. Complying with these requirements, the Cubans made and accepted a constitution, held a general election, and on May 20, 1902, took over their goverimient from the Americans. It was difficult, however, after years of war and lawlessness, for the Cubans to render obedience to the new government. There was considerable disorder, and in 1906 arms were taken up by a disappointed political faction. The United States promptly inter- AMERICA AS A WORLD POWER 529 vpned, displacing the Cuban president, and placing the island once more under military rule. In 1909 a Cuban president was again iiiL;talled, and it is believed that Cubans are learning the difficult lesson of self-government. The interest of Americans in Central America and the Isthmus of Panama has arisen from a far different source from that in Cuba. A canal across the isthmus has been the dream First of navigators and merchantmen since the early days A™«"can of Spain in America. The first act of the United foranisth- States government looking to the possible realization mian Canal of the dream came in 1846, when a treaty with New Granada (now the United States of Colombia) granted the United States a right of way across Panama. Later the United States obtained from Nicaragua concessions for a canal. A Map of the Canal Zone Interest in such a project was- aroused in other countries. It was to the interest of European countries that any canal built should be open to the world, and that in time of war it should be a jieutral waterway. Otherwise great advantage would result to the nation OA\Tiing the canal. To this end, England entered into negotiations with the United States, and a treatj^ was signed in 2m 530 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR ORAMMAR SCHOOLS 1850 which not only guaranteed neutrahty in case of war, but declared that neither nation would ever maintain exclusive control over any canal that might be built. The Suez Canal, which saved navigators nearly fifteen thousand miles in the voyage from western Europe to the East, was begun in 1859, and ten years later was opened to traffic. The successful completion of this great work increased the desire to cut through the western continent. In 1878, a French company, headed by Ferdinand de Lesseps, the engineer who had built the Suez Canal, obtained a right of way from Colombia, and in 1883 began to dig a canal across Panama. Mismanagement and wastefulness, how- ever, brought disaster to the company, and it was forced to give up work in 1889. By this time public sentiment in America had changed some- what. From desiring merel}^ a canal, it had now come to demand a canal owned by the United States. The Nicaragua route was considered, but the old treaty with England, agreeing to joint ownership, was still in force. This difficulty, however, was dis- posed of by the Hay-Pauncefote treaty, ratified by England and the United States in 1901. The new treaty promised neutrality but did not agree to allow any nation other than the United States to share in the control of the canal. After much controversy between the advocates of the Nicaragua and the Panama routes, the latter was decided upon, and Congress authorized the President to secure rights from Colombia, and to }mrchase the French plant in Panama. Colombia, however, re- jected the proposals of the United States. The people of Panama, no longer in sympathy with the Colombian government, were dis- mayed by their failure to secure the long dreamed of waterway, and rose in revolt. They were successful, due largely to the help furnished by American men-of-war. The attitude of our govern- ment toward this revolution in Panama has been severely criticised by Colombia and other South American states. It is certain that no time was lost in coming to an agreement with the new republic AMERICA AS A WORLD POWER 631 of Pananui, by which she gave us full sovereignty over a canal zone ten miles wide, extending from sea to sea. The treaty was concluded only two weeks after the organization of the new govern- ment . \\'ork in the Canal Zone was begun May 4, 1904, and pro- gressed steadily. The date set by the Isthmian Canal ^^^.j^ Conmiission, which is in charge of the work, for the canai official opening of the Canal is January 1, 1915. Great engineering problems have had to be solved in the con- struction of the Canal. jNIuch discussion preceded the decision to make a lock canal rather than the sea level type which was first planned. Vast masses of earth have been removed by ex- cavation. An artificial lake, one hundred and sixtj^-four square miles in area, has been made by flooding the valley of the Chagres River by means of an immense dam. Not less wonderful things lia\-e been done to render the Canal Zone, formerly considered necessarily unhealthful because of its climate, as free from dis- ease as most places in the United States. The accomplishments ;il()iig ;ill tliese liiu^s make extremely interesting reachng. lA'iigth of f-anal 50 miles Width of canal at narrowest place 300 feet Depth of canal at shallowest place 45 feet Number of locks 6 pairs Time of transit 10 to 12 hours Time of transit throujrh locks 3 hours P^stimated cost $375,000,000 Distances saved by the Canal : — New York to San Francisco .... 7873 nautical miles to Callao (52.50 nautical miles to Valparaiso 3747 nautical miles to Honolulu 6612 nautical miles to Yokahama 3281 nautical miles We now approach our own day so closely that the history we study becomes largely "history in the making." As such it is 532 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS difficult, if not impossible, for us to form the best of judgments in regard to it. There are, however, certain tendencies we must observe. The attitude of the United States in the afTairs of Mexico, once more torn with internal dissensions, brings the Monroe Doctrine into prominence. There are many who deny the right by which the United States sets herself to be the arbiter of the fortunes of her less favored neighbors on the western con- tinent. Others, however, believe that the position of adjuster is thrust upon the American nation, and must be maintained. It is too early to predict the outcome in Mexico, but the influence of the American government is being exerted in the interest of a government established by regular and free elections, in accord- ance with the constitution of the country. In our own land, important things are happening. The struggle against corporations, or trusts ; the decrease of the protectionary Important tarilT ; the close inspection of campaign contributions questions and expenditures ; the direct election of senators, re- of our day cently granted by constitutional amendment ; con- servation of national resources, — all these things point in one direction. The people are demanding a more immediate popular control of government and the country's resources for the benefit of the people. The people desire to rule. The conservatives have as little faith in popular control as they had in the days of Hamil- ton and the Federalists. The radicals, or "progressives," as they style themselves, take the opposite view. Old party lines have begun to break. In the election of 1912, the Republican party in convention renominated President Taft for a second term. He p ^ t' n f represented the conservative element in the party, the Progres- The progressives, known during Taft's administra- sive Party, tion as "insurgents," who had growTi actively hostile ^^ since the passage of the Payne-Aldrich Tariff, bitterly opposed Taft's nomination. They finally withdrew from the convention, and formed the new Progressive party, nominating Theodore Roosevdt. AMERICA A^ A VVUKLD POWER 533 In the Democratic convention, the struggle between conserva- tives and progressives was less bitter, the factions finally uniting on Woodrow Wilson, governor of New Jersey, as their nominee. Wilson, as you know, was elected, and is now president. The most notable act of his administration, thus far, has been the passage of the Underwood Tariff Law. It is believed by many that the new Progressive party will have a short life as an independent organization. Already there are signs that indicate a return to the Republican party, and an attempt to gain control of the party in the next presidential campaign. The Democratic victory in 1912 seems to mark an advance toward popular government. Wliether the gain will be permanent, only time will show us. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The United States established the Philippines and Porto Rico as dependencies. 2. The protectorate over Cuba has been exercised to help the Cubans attain a safe, orderly, popular government. .3. The Panama Canal is being built by the American government. It is a magnificent undertaking, and promises to be of great benefit to the commerce of the world. 4. The political movements of the day seem to indicate a rising de- mand by the people for more direct control of the government and the resources of the countrj'. THINGS TO READ 1. "The Philippines," MacClintock. 2. "Panama and the Canal," Hall and Chester. .3. "A Short History of the United States," Bassett. Chapter XL, "The Administrations of Roosevelt and Taft." THINGS TO DO 1. Discuss the Monroe Doctrine. Has it outlived its usefulness? Have South American states a right to object to the domination of the United States in continental affairs? Is thfi United States justified in 534 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS holding to a policy outlined many years ago and under different condi- tions ? (There are excellent arguments on each side of these questions. They make a good subject for debate.) 2. Gather interesting facts about the Canal Zone and the Canal. 3. Inform yourself as to the general provisions of the Underwood Tariff Law. FOR YOUR NOTEBOOK 1. The Panama Canal. State important facts and figures about the Canal. Illustrate with maps if possible. Panama pictiires wiU also be helpful. XXXIIT THE AMERICAN PEOPLE It is important for us, as we enter upon th{> civic duties which await us as men and women, to consider what maimer of people we are, in these early years of the twentieth century. After a century of national life, what are the characteristics of the Ameri- can people ? First of all, we are an energetic people, ambitious to succeed in the world. Euro- peans deplore the money-getting spirit of Americans, but it is perhaps an inevitable result of a government of which equahty is declared a fundamental principle. If each man believes himself equal to his neighbor, he naturally wishes to live as his neighbor lives. In America there is no nobility, no aris- tocracy, as in European nations. There are no '' classes," as in these lands, into which men are born and in which they must re- main. There grow in various times and places aristocracies of the ''well born," of the cultured, of monej^ed men. But every man in America believes in the possibility of rising to any political or social plane. A second striking characteristic of the American people is wastefulness. We are a race of spendthrifts. The reasons for this we may not find upon the surface, but the fact " he who runs may read." It is true of the individual, true of the community, true of the nation itself. Perhaps it is in part due to the nevv- 535 Woodrow Wilson Elected President in 1912. 536 AMEHiCAIS HISTORY b'OK UilAMMAR SCHOULS ness and the vast resources of the land. What need for the farmer to study rotation of crops? His farm land was "virgin soil," and repaid his sowing a thousand fold. So in the early days. But now we hear of exhausted lands, of abandoned farms, of a rush from rural life to the ranks of the employed in the towns. What need to spare the forest ? For thousands of miles it stretched out before the woodsman. As years passed, the forests dwindled, but the old habit of reckless cutting remained, until to-day the nation faces a lumber famine. Of the millions of buffaloes which roamed on the Western prairies a century ago, only a few scattered specimens remain, — "an unexampled waste," says a recent Avriter, "an irretrievable national disgrace." The seal fisheries of Bering Sea have been nearly destroyed by improvident catching of the seals. The lobsters of the North Atlantic coast are at the point of extermination for lack of protection. It is well that we are able to record an awakening to many of these dangers. Scientific farming is putting new life into worn- out farms. Practical forestry is seeking to restore our wood- lands. Game and fish laws are being made more stringent. We are learning thrift, — though but slowly, and often paying a high price for our knowledge. Americans occupy a unique position /in the world in being citizens of the first successful and enduring republic. Govern- ment "by the people" serves to interest the people in political questions, and leads the majority of them to join more or less actively one or another political party. One curious and most unfortunate misuse of partisan politics has been its introduc- tion into the management of city governments. National politics THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 537 has no bearing on city affairs. It is absurd for men to be elected to municipal office because they are Democrats or Republicans, The great parties, however, find it to their interest to control the cities, and many times they use the city offices to reward their followers for party service. Especially in cities where one party has held long-continued power, affairs have come to be managed by men who make politics their business, and whose corrupt The White House dealings cover all departments of city rule. The "Tweed Ring" in New York is merely one example of such corruption. Scarcely a city in the country but has a record of similar misrule. Reform movements have at various times exposed frauds and dri^•en out of power the party responsible for them. But it has usually happened that the reformers have soon lost their enthusiasm, and the old state of affairs has gradually returned. The chief hope for lasting purity in municipal rule seems to be 538 AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS in breaking up the connection between national political parties and municipal affairs. Then men may be elected on their merits; then appointive offices may be filled by men specially fitted for their work; then city office will not be a reward for the politician, but a duty assumed by the citizen for the good of his neighbors and himself. Another thing necessary to this result is increased interest in civil affairs on the part of many citizens. It has often happened that the men best fitted to vote inteUigently on public matter's have neglected to vote at all, leaving the control to the igno- rant and self-seeking. An awakening civic pride gives hope that these things may be changed, and that our cities will yet be efficiently and honestly ruled. The problem of self-government has still its unanswered questions. The problem of self-improvement is to-day occupying more thought in America than ever before. For the individual there are every day an increasing number of schools, colleges, hbraries, and museums. For communities there are civic clubs and village improve- ment societies, which are striving to beautify our towns and cities, and to interest the people in community ideals. There are "arts and crafts " movements to create appreciation for the simple but carefully designed and well made in furniture and household decoration. And as a result American homes are losing some- thing of ostentatious display, and begin to show a finer taste. "Liberty Enlightening the World'" A colossal statue on an island in New York Harbor. It was presented to America by the French people, being paid for by popular sub- scription. THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 539 The American is growing in many directions. Anil it may be, as we go forward into the future, that no quaUty will serve him and liis country better than this — the capacity and the desire for growth. THOUGHT QUESTIONS For Use in Study and Recitation These questions include the questions given at the ends of chapters under the heading "Things To Do," together with others of the same character. In making them, the aim has been to avoid the obvious, that is, the questions which require only the repetition of a portion of the text as an answer, and to emphasize the necessity of using the facts of tlu^ text in thinking out less evident facts and in reaching valuable conclu- sions. " Thinking about history " is more useful than " learning history." PART I Chapter II. 1. In what continent did the Viking.s live? Why do we call thetn Norse- men ? 2. How do we know that the Vikings were brave and daring? 3. Why do we believe they reached America ? Chapter III. 1. Why was trade with the East necessary to Europe? 2. In what direction were the Turks moving in their conquests in Europe ? In what direction had the Vikings been moving in their voyages of discovery ? Notice that from early centuries diseovery had expanded in one direction. 3. Why was Marco Polo's work important ? 4. Why had the attention of Europe not been excited by the Norse discoveries? Chapter IV. 1. Show the connection of each of the following with the disc-overy of America : Marco Polo's travels ; the Crusades ; the capture of Constanti- nople ; Henry the Navigator's work. .'i4n THOUGHT giESTIONS 54I 2. Compare the work oi Da Caina and Colmnbus. ;}. Pick out from the life of Columbus what you consickT the most dramatic scenes. 4. Think of words descriptive of the cliaractcr of Columbus. Prove their fitness l)v his deeds. 5. In the son-. •• Tlie Red, Wliite. and Bhie," we find tiie words: '■ Cokmii)ia, the o(>m of the ocean, The home of the brave and the free." To wliat land dnvs the snwj; refer? Is Columbia its real name? Find names of places named for Columbus. What was the World's Columbian f^xposition? When and where did it take i)lace ? What did it conunemorate ? (1. Which would have been of -reater value to the world, what Columbus really accomplished, or what he set out to do ? 7. Why did Spaniards fail to appreciate Columbus duriniice in occupation in English and in French colonies was due to climate ? 3. Why did the English prove better colonists than the French ? Chapter IV. 1. In wartime which would you expect to find the better soldiers, the people of a self-governing nation, or those of a country ruled by an absolute monarch ? 2. Find out if possible what modern nations are absolute monarchies. Are they the progressive nations of the world ? Chapter V. 1. Why were French and English colonists so ready to take up the quarrels of the mother countries ? 2. What advantage did the English colonists find from their fight against a common foe ? Chapter VI. 1. Which nation, French or English, had a better claim to the Ohio Valley ? 2. Which of the two nations seemed likely to make the better use of the territory ? 3. What quality in Cicneral Bniddock's character made his defeat prob- able? 4. What qualities are necessary to make a successful general ? .5. Why was the place where Pittsburg now stands important to both French and English ? (Consult your geography.) Chapter VII. 1. Were the English cruel and unjust in their treatment of the Acadians, or did the Acadians deserve the treatment they received ? 2. What were the reasons for the final failure of the French ? THOUGHT QUESTIONS 545 Chapter VHI. 1. Why was the victory of the EngHsh colonists important to the world? 2. Why was their victory important to the English colonies themselves? 8. In what way was William Pitt's influence important in bringing about victory ? Chapter IX. 1. Were the Navigation Acts unjust to the colonies? 2. Are people justified in breaking laws they consider unjust, as the colonists did in smuggling goods ? ;?. In what did the injustice of the Writs of Assistance consist? 4. Why did the colonists object to the sending of English soldiers to America ? 5. What are the dangers of riots? Have they advantages? Do they ever occur now ? ti. In what way was the repeal of the Stamp Act a victory for the colo- nists ? What effect do you think this victory had upon them ? 7. What is meant by " taxation without representation " ? Chapter X. 1 . In what way was George III different from the English kings who had }M-ecedod him in the seventeenth century ? 2. Show that taxation without representation was not exclusively an American question. 8. Why did Parliament keep the tax on tea ? 4. What harm can it do for a government to admit that it is wrong, and take back its acts ? Chapter XI. 1. Why was Massachusetts considered the " hotbed of rebellion "? 2. What were the steps leading to the Boston Massacre? 'A. Who do you consider to l)lame for the affair? 1. What was its great result? Chapter XII. 1. What did Parliament gain by retaining the tax on tea? 2. What did it lose? 'A. What did the colonists accomplish by opposing the tea tax? 4. Review the events which mark the growing feeling of resentment be- tween the colonists and the English government. 546 THOUGHT QUESTIONS Chapter XIII. 1. Discuss the meaning of the inscription on the statue of the minuteman : " Here once the embattled farmers stood, and fired the shot heard round the world." 2. Beginning with the forming of the British soldiers for the march to Lexington, picture the various scenes of the night and day. 3. Why was this small skirmish of importance ? 4. What were the results of the day's fights ? Chapter XIV. 1. Compare the action of Ethan Allen and the " Green Mountain Boys" with that of the Massachusetts men who fought at Lexington. 2. How had Washington's early life fitted him for his new work ? What- particular events in his experience may have helped to form his judg- ment of military affairs? 3. What did the Americans expect to accomplish in these early battles of the war? 4. Of what blunder of Howe did Washington take advantage? Chapter XV. 1. Why did each side consider it important to hold the Hudson? 2. Did Washington accomplish any good by the New York campaign ? Defend your opinion. 3. Compare Washington and Howe as generals, from what you have .seen of them in the two campaigns studied. What quality in each im- presses you ? 4. Explain why " Washington's defeats were almost as good as victories." .5. What had Howe accomplished in the New York campaign ? Chapter XVI. 1. What were the discouraging problems confronting Washington dviriug the winter in New Jersey ? 2. In what ways did Washington show himself a great general in this campaign ? 3. What does the acceptance of British pardon by 3000 people in New Jersey show ? 4. At what places, and in what ways, had Washington up to the end of this campaign taken the British by surprise ? 5. What were the results of the New Jersey campaign ? THOUGHT QUESTIONS 547 Chapter XVII. 1. Discuss in class the weak points in the British plan. •J. Compare Burgoyne with Howe. :\. C.ates was much praised for his victory in the North and Washington blamed for the defeats near Philadelphia. Think out why it was that Washington's work was really a great aid to the Northern army. I. What was the ctTect of the use of Indians by the British in this cam- paign? ."). I'orin an opinion as to the method used by Arnold to scare St. Leger's nnw. What is your opinion of the old saying, " All is fair in war " ? Chapter XVIII. 1 . Why did paper currency become worth less than its face value ? 2. Why do you think France made the alliance with the Americans? ;?. Why were Americans so encouraged by the French alliance? Chapter XIX. 1. What was the new British plan ? 2. Why had the British failed to " tire the Americans out " ? 8. Why did the British expect easy victory in the South? Why did this expectation fail to be realized ? 4. Explain the effectiveness of the sort of warfare conducted by Marion and Sumter. 5. Review the battles from the beginning of the war in which assistance had been given the American army by bands of local militia. 6. What British posts in the Northwest did George Rogers Clark take? Why was his achievement important ? Chapter XX. 1. In what ways did Greene show himself a great general in his Southern campaign ? 2. What is your feeling toward Benedict Arnold ? What toward Andre ? :]. Compare Andre with Nathan Hale. 4 . Show that Washington showed wisdom in his choice of officers for the Southern campaign. .-). Show that Cornwallis was unwise in his movements in Virginia, (i. Why was Washington's plan dependent upon the presence of the French fleet ? 548 THOUGHT QUESTIONS Chapter XXI. 1. Review the Struggle for Independence. 2. Review Washington's career a.s commander-in-chief. What quahties did he show ? 3. How long did it take to settle the terms of the treaty ? 4. Compare the territory of the United States in 17S3 with its territorj- now. Chapter XXII. 1. Why would the issue of paper money afford no real relief? 2. Why should this time be called " the critical period " ? 3. Study the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. 4. Why did most of the peoph.^ fear a strong central government ? 5. What effect did Sha}^s's Rebellion have in molding public opinion in regard to the government ? Chapter XXIII. 1. What jealousies between states or sections made the work of the con- vention more difficult? 2. What were the three compromises made by the opposing factions? 3. Show how the power of the central government was made greater thiin in the Confederation. 4. What is meant by our " threefold government " ? What is tlie func- tion of each of its parts ? Chapter XXIV. 1. Suppose that Rhode Island and North Carolina had never come into the Union. Would any disadvantages have come to them or to the other states from this action ? 2. Compare the system of local government in Massachusetts with that of Virginia. Would you expect these states to approve a strong central government? 3. What state first ratified the Constitution? Which was the deciding state which secured the adoption ? PART III Chapter II. 1. Why should the national government assume the state debts? 2. What ground had France for asking aid of the United States? 3. What ground had Washington for refusing it ? THOUGHT QUESTIONS 549 4. From what public document i.s the quotation " all men arc created free and equal " taken ? .3. Contrast the American and the French Revolution. What part did Lafayette take in the latter? G. Why do we not have duties on exports in the United iStatos? 7. To which construclion of the Constitution do you incline — loose or strict ? Defend your position. N. Can you explain the commercial difficulties between the United .States and England ? '.). Was Washington elected by the Federalist party? Was he a Fed- eralist ? Chapter III. 1. Study the extract from the " Kentucky Resolutions" of 1799 (page 283) with the rjuestions below. 2. What do you think the result would be if nullification were practiced b}^ the states? o. Had the experiment of alltjwing the states to judge whether or not they should obey the laws made by Congress ever been tried ? When ? With what result? 4. What way does the Constitution provide to test whether laws are constitutional or not ? 0. In what way was the Whisky Rebellion a test of the strength of the new government ? fi. Why were the Alien and Sedition laws unwise measures for the Feder- alist party to advocate ? 7. What political result followed their pas.sage? 8. Why was the invention of the cotton gin important? How did people of both North and South regard slavery at this time ? Was ' the slave trade legal ? Review the provision of the Constitution in regard to it. Chapter IV. 1. In what way was the purchase of Louisiana a departure from the prin- ciples of the Republican party ? 2. In what ways can you prove that the purchase was a wise act? 3. If j'ou had lived in Jefferson's time, would you have been Republican or I'>deralist ? 4. What did Napoleon mean by his statement when the purchase was concluded, " I have given England a rival that will humble her pride " ? 550 THOUGHT QUESTIONS 5. What was gained by the explorations of Lewis and Clark ? 6. Compare the Clermont with the steamboats of to-day. Find pictures of modern steamers. Chapter V. 1. What would you expect the effect of a Non-intercourse Act to be? Do you remember any other time in American history when such a measure was resorted to? 2. Why did the Embargo Act fail to accomplish the desired result ? 8. What was the reason that the " commercial interests of the country " wished to avoid war with England ? 4. Why did the Republicans desire to avoid trouble with France ? 5. Why did Madison wish to avoid war entirely ? Chapter VI. 1. What principle of the Republican party, carried out by Jefferson and Madison, had made war difficult ? 2. Henry Adams is mentioned in the text as historian of the struggle for commercial independence. Note that he is a member of the famous Adams family, descended from John Adams. Consult your ency- clopedia for other distinguished members of this family. Chapter VII. 1. Make a list of famous ships engaged in the war. Prepare yourself to tell the story of one of the " ship duels." 2. How do you account for the American victories on the sea ? Chapter VIII. 1. Can you explain why Harrison and Jackson were able to do more effective work against the enemy than previous commanders ? , 2. Why did the British attack New Orleans? What do you think they hoped to accomplish there ? 3. How was it fighting occurred after the treaty of peace was signed ? Could this happen now ? Tell why. Chapter IX. 1. Why were better routes of travel over the Alleghenies necessary? 2. For what commercial reasons were such routes desirable? 3. What political ead would be served by closer communication with the West? THOUGHT QUESTIONS 551 4. Make a list of the new questions in politics. 0. During the Era of Good Feeling were all men really agreed on political matters ? Prove your answer. (). Had the American nation any right to dictate in regard to other American countries ? 7. Review the history of slavery in .\merica. Chapter X. 1 What political party formed tli(> foundation for the new National Republican party ? 2. What new principle had been added to the beli(!fs of the older party? 3. What position did the Republican or Democratic party take on this new question '.' 4. How was John C^uincy Adams elected to the Presidency ? 5. Why do you think he failed of reelection? 6. Make a list of the influences which brought about increased manu- factures. 7. What are the arguments in favor of a protective tariff ? 8. What are the arguments for free trade ? Chapter XI. 1. Think of descriptive words which you might use to show the character of Jackson. 2. Think out clearly the position taken by the " states' rights " men of the South. Compare their threats of secession with the position taken by the Federalists of X'ew England at the time of the Hartford Convention. Review the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions. 3. Compare the Jeffersonian Republicans with the Democrats of Jack- son's time. 4. Discuss the " Spoils System." What harm could it do? 5. Had the President any authority to enforce the tariff law in South Carolina if the state refused obedience? 6. Who were the great men in pubKc life at this time ? Chapter XII. 1. Find, with your teacher's a.ssistance, answers to these que.stions : — 1) Why do people put money into banks ? 2) Why do banks wish to receive people's money ? 3) What do the bank.s usually do with the money deposited in thein ? 4) What are ban k» notes ? 552 ■ THOUGHT QUESTIONS 5) Can anyone who wishes to estabhsh a bank do so, and issue as many notes as he pleases ? (j) How "vvas it possible for so many '" wild-(-at banks " to come into existence in Jackson's time ? 7) If all the depositors in a bank were to ask for their deposits on the same day, would the bank probably be abh- to meet the demand ? Give a reason for your answer. •_'. In what way did people buying Western lands expect to make money from them ? ;!. What do we mean by speculation ? Is it a safe business method V 4. Do you agree with Garrison that no union was better than a union with slavery ? 0. Show how inventions since Washington's time had changed living conditions, (j. Show how methods of work had l;een changed by inventions. Chapter XIII. 1. Why do we consider the Mexican Wav as part of the general question of slaveholding in the United States ? 2. What made Southerners desirous of making war on Mexico ? .}. Was the United States justified in making war on Mexico ? Defend your opinion. 4. Would the Wilmot Proviso have been fair to the South, had it been passed ? 5. Select descriptive words to show the character of John Quincy Adams. 6. Review the history of slavery in the United States. Chapter XIV. 1. What reasons had the South to complain in regard to the Fugitive Slave Law ? 2. Were people in the North justified in their action toward this law? 3. What was the " Underground Railroad " ? 4. Was it right for Northern people to help slaves to escape? 5. Compare the Personal Liberty Bills with the Nullification Ordinance of 1832. 6. How do you explain the fact that California wished to come into the Union as a free state? 7. Why did Clay's attempt to settle the slave f|uestions by compromise have no lasting effect? 8. AVhy did the North and the South fail so absolutely to understand each other, and to see each other's point of view ? THOUGHT QUESTIONS 553 Chapter X\'. 1. How did tlu- Divd Scott Docisio,, " opn, all United States torritorv to .slavery " '.' -'. How ,H What probably caused his election ? 8. With what political doctrine do you a.s.sociate each of the followin- • Calhoun, Webster, Clay. Douglas. Lincoln. " Chapter XVL 1. Can you account for Abraham Lincoln's r'tiaracter by his ancestors or his surroundings in early life? 2. Were Southerners justified in believing that the success of a " sectional party " in the election of 1860 meant that they could no longer expect anything but destruction by the North ^ Defend your opinion .?. Compare the Northern and the Southern view of the Constittition 4. Select descriptive words to show the character of Buchanan. 5. What is meant by " to coerce a state " ? 6. Explain the lack of united feeling in the North. 7. Having seceded, had the South a right to take possession of United States property within the bonders of the Confederacy? Defend your opinion. 8. Not recognizing the Southern states as having any right to secede, was the United States government consistent in resisting the seizing of national property ? 9. Can you think of any w^ay, at all likely of acceptance by both sides, by which war might have been avoided "! Chapter XVIL L ^^■hy should the " doubtful states " have been doubtful? 2. ^^ hat special danger to the Union would have followed the secession of Maryland ? 554 THOUGHT QUESTIONS S. Show how the firing on Fort Sumter unified Northern feeUng. 4. Make special note of tlie advantage to the Confederacy of Virginia's secession. 5. Study carefully the comparison of conditions in the two sections when war began. (). Explain why the .Southern ex])ectation of Knglish interference with the hlDckade failed. Chapter XVI II. 1. Was it wise or unwise for the Confederacy to move its capital from Montgomery to Richmond ? 2. For what reason was the change probably made ? ;?. Why was eastern Virginia so important a war center ? 4. Study the lines of the two armies in the Middle West at the Ijeginning of action. 5. What effect do you think Grant's victories at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson and the withdrawal of the Confederate army from Ken- tucky had upon the people of that state ? 6. What were the qualities that General Grant showed in this western campaign ? 7. Study the Chronological Table on page xi. Appendix. 8. Study the plan of war adopted by the Federal government. Why were the Confederate plans less concerned with aggresdve movements'.' Chapter XIX. 1. Why was the blockade important to the success of the North? Why was i he capture of New Orleans important ? 2. Why were Southerners willing to take the risks involved in " running the blockade " '? 3. Why was the battle between the Merrimac and the Monitor im- portant ? 4. In what way do the present ironclads resemble those of 1862 "? 5. What disadvantages did each of these ships possess which have now been overcome ? (j. Re\'iew McClellau's career up to the time of Antietam. What do you consider his prominent cjualities as a general "? 7. Notice the change in commanders in the Confederate army. Review Lee's career before the war, noticing his prominent position in the United States army and his opportunity for advancement. THOUGHT QUESTIONS 555 ('lia|)Icr XX. I- (>vl all the information you can about the Alabama: its building; trouble over its leaving port; the damage it did to North(>rn com- merce ; what became of it ; the " Alabama claims." I. \\"hy was Lincoln careful to make the Emancipation Proclamation declare freedom only for those slaves owned in seceded states? .'>. What ground had dissatisfied Northerners for objecting to Lincoln's action ? Were these objections justified ? i. Why was the Union victory at Gettysbui-g an important gain ? 0. Why has Lee's advance to Gettj^sburg been called " the high tide of the Confederacy " ? t). \\'hy was Lincoln no longer sure of strong support of his measures in the North? Chapter XXL 1. What difficulties had Grant to encounter in the campaign against Vicksburg ? 2. Why was his final victory so highly praised ? ;i What do you think would have been said of Grant if he had not reachcfi final success in the campaign ? 4. Compare the strength of the North and the South at this time : their annies in number and ecjuipment, their wealth, their connnerce, their industrial independence of other countries. Had the condi- tions in the South changed since the early part of the war? Had they changed equally at the North? ."). Review the battles of the war. Use the chronological chart, pages xi and xii, appendix. (>. Show how Grant's career tlu-ough tlu> war led to his appointment as commander-in-chief. Chai)ter XXIL 1. Review the war i)y years, using the maps, pages ;^,Si), :J97, 4L') L>7 43S 141). 2. Review the war by battles, naming the important engagements, telling which side won in each case, •■i. Make a list of the generals on each side. With what campaigns do you associate each ? I. Find out about the captun^ of .I(>fTerson Davis, his imprisonment, and his subseciuent life. ■" Compare Grant and Lev, in ap{)earance, in early life and training, and in fighting qualities. 556 THOUGHT QUESTIONS (). When did the last of the Confederate .soldiers surrender? 7. What was Lee's subsequent life? Chapter XXIII. 1. Review Lincoln's life. "2. Compare the cost of the war to the North and to the South. What were business conditions in the Noi'th when the war came to an end ? In the South ? 3. How did the government raise money to carry on the war? 4. What were the results of the war? Chapter XXIV. 1. Compare the problems resulting from the war in the North with those in the South. 2. How can you account for the attitude of the negroes after the war' 3. What was Lincoln's theory as to the seceded states ? 4. What was his plan of reconstruction? Was this plan acceptable tci Congress ? 5. What was the attitude of the radical party in Congress toward the seceded states ? f). What danger to the North was possible if Lincoln's plan for reconstruc- tion had been adopted ? 7. How might the Southern people have protiied if Lincoln hud lived and had carried out his plan for reconstruction ? 8. Why did Thaddeus Stevens believe in the treatment which he recom- mended for seceded states ? 9. Discuss the opposing views of reconstruction. Which do you consider the better? Chapter XXV. 1. Review the reconstruction measures taken by Lincoln. Form an opinion as to the plans of President Johnson and those of Congress. Which seem to you the most wise and just? Defend your opinion. 2. Study the amendm(>nts to the Constitution which were made in the reconstruction period. (See Constitution in Appendix.) '.'}. What is your opinion of the Tenure of Office Act ? 4. Review the events which led to the impeachment of the President. 5. Look up in the Constitution (Appendix) the provision for impeachment of a President. What other officers may be impeached? THOUGHT QUKSTTONS 557 n. Make an estimate' of Johnson's character. In what ways did he seem to lack understanding of the dignity of his office? What were his good finalities? Chapter XXVI. 1. Were the Southern people justified in resisting negro rule? 2. What is j^our opinion of the methods employed by the Ku Klux Fvian? '.\. Did justice to the negro re(|uire that he be allowed to vote? What advantage would he gain through the right?" I. Were the conditions affecting the negro's ability to vote intelligently just after the war any different from the conditions now? T). What is your opinion as to the wisdom of negro suffrage now ? Is it wise to allow all white men to vote ? Are there any restrictions upon the suffrage in any Noi'thern state ? (3. What is being done for the negro in these days to make him a bettei' citizen ? Can you name some of the men who are influential in thus helping the black race? Can you name one negro man who has risen to a high place in public opinion '.' What do you think are the possibilities of the race? Chapter XXVII. 1. Show on a map the states west of the Mississippi, marking (jn each the date of its admission. 2. Why did Congress give land along the railroad routes to the companies l)uilding the roads ? What return did Congress expect the com- panies to make to the nation for these grants ? li. F'orm an opinif)n in regard to the treatment of the Indians l)y the I'nited States government. Has the government attempted to civilize the Indians? Should it do so? Have the Indians shown a desire to become civilized ? How can the government, which always paid the Indians for their land, hv acoised of unfairness in buyiiii; it ? \. Why did the " Homestead Law " require that settlers must build hnmcs and cultivate their farms within a required time? .'). Arc thci'f any public lands in tlie West now open for homeseekers '.' Chapter XXVII 1. 1. Make as full a list as you can of in 'ciitions during the second half of the nineteenth century. 2. Make a list of electrical devices. 558 THOUGHT QUESTIONS 3. Make a list of petroleum products.- 4. Are all of our " modern conveniences " really benefits? Are our lives any better because of them ? Defend your opinion. 5. What are the advantages of city life? of country life? 6. Has country life changed in equal measure with city life? Contrast the farm home of fifty years ago with the farm home to-day. 7. What are the disadvantages of city life ? of country life ? 8. Compare the cities of to-day with the old-fashioned city or town. Mention size, kind of buildings, streets, transportation facilities, industries, commerce, amusements. Illustrate, if possible. 9. Think out the changes which common u.se of the telephone has brought; of wireless telegraphy, especially on the ocean; of the automobile ; of motor boats. Chapter XX iX. 1. Remember that by the " New South " we mean a new system of in- dustry, and an enlarged industrial activity. Keeping this in mind, what have been the great changes in Southern industrial life ? 2. Study census reports, for the growth since the war of Southern cities. 3. What has greatly increased the commercial possibilities of New Orleans? What is the rank of the city as an export city? What are its leading exports? (Consult your geography.) 4. Gather information as to the natural resources of the South. What are some of its diversified products ? .5. Learn, if possible, what sort of work the two negro schools mentioned in the text are doing. How is their influence spread among the negroes of all Southern sections ? Chapter XXX. 1. Study the causes of the Panic of 1873. 2. What is your opinion in regard to the election of 1876? 3. Review the life of Grant. 4. Do you consider the question of free silver settled permanently? What do we mean by a gold standard? Are there any countries which have a silver standard ? 5. Study arguments for protection and for free trade. You will find much information by talking over these questions with the men of your acquaintance. By collecting arguments offered by as many different people as possible, you will soon come to know the principal 'I'liorciiiT giKSTioxs 559 ar.iiiiincnts icliccl i>ii by I'ach .•^ide. Think oN'tT these, preparing yourself for inteUigent understanding of tlie ([uestion. 0. Fonn an opinion on tlie desirabiUty of civil serviee reform. Are conditions now as they siiouid be? If not, reeognize your duty when you reach tiic \otitig age lo place your inliucnce on the right side. 7. Learn all you can about industi'ial conditions in your own town. .Nhd &. <« ^ 3 &0 tn 3 •. X r^. T* "^ CD 5 ^ . " 43csC?*iJO>^ a.-<^ 'ti^cdodcoo'*^^'^ oW«e«3io:AJ«0'T;cooo cocoeoco CO coco tH tH »H iH »H tH tH a; -/: 'So C5 CO CO t- 7, < o CO 1-4 a; O P5 •r 00 1 .r^ ^ S -^ -^ g ol> «^ CO 3 -rH "^ O 5 2 < 7. 1 t- CO tH APPENDIX iii II. CUKONOLOCaCAL-CHAHr OF I'HE STRLKMiLE BETWEEN ENGLAND AND FRANCE FOR AMERICA lfiS!)-l()!)7. King- William's War. KillO. Port Royal taken by the English. UJyT. The treaty gave Port Royal back to France. 1701. The French began to occupy the Mis.sissijjpi Valley. 17U2-1713. Queen Anne's War. 1710. Port Royal again taken. 171'"?. The treaty gave Acadia to England, and acknowledged the English claim to Newfoundland and Hudson Bay. 1744-1748. King George's War. 1745. Louisburg taken by the English. 1748. The treaty gave Louisburg back to France. 1748. The Ohio Company formed. 1753. The French fortified the Allegheny Valley. 1754. The Albany Convention — Fi-anklin's plan of union. 1754-176:}. Last French War. 1754. Fort Duquesne built — Washington defeated. 1755. Braddock's defeat. The removal of the Acadians. 1758. Louisburg taken by the English. Fort Duquesne taken by the English. 1759. Forts Niagara and Ticonderoga taken by the English. Quebec captured. 1760. Montreal captured. 1763. The treaty put an end to French rule in America. IV APPENDIX < ftS s ^ S ^ 'c ^ K O S - -; «-H Cj o o -t^ O 'r^ c o g <5 o Ci, o p c4 CO i>- C» 1^ I— ( >Q Cl •" H cq P^ o .:= p ^ ci< ^ o -^ -s 5? aj 3 ^ o 5 OJ o S<5 .2 IS +2 53 rt o "^ EC eS •J2 '^-< «< < X ^ o K 0) ee > eS ° r^ rr ri }- Syj -/: Pj Ch "*-* ;nH »3 ^ tn ■*-' 0) Cm 01 £ S a; o o O O 53 o O o cc C/i ;< H H H H M rH id CO t-i GO o ^ 'ii ira CO O » ;0 CO CO I^ I^ t^ t— t- l^ t^ l^ t^ t^ (^ t^ t- t^ >k APPENDIX W b r^ ■^i ^. OJ .s <1) M ^ ^ c3 52i ^ > tJO £ >. -c ^ t3 •:r oj .t:: ^ Cl o o "" a r/^ o s o 5if — ^ o ;-< o 1 O o 9 ':3 1 o o M o o .S o H ;tj o r 1) a ■^ C£ 25' !«-< — CD ^ = b '3 A s -t= ^^ .~ ■^ ^^ t. c". -» C r: en 73 c (Tl a, 5C o ca a < o I— > o q o ;^ o as K vi APPENDIX eg M §9 SP?^'! J i^^.-*^s^;3S '^T:'Z r. ^-^, C « h3 ^ -5 5 S 'a. := ^ -^ 5'^ & 53 ^ 5 - ?5 3^, O) a j^ cS OJ 0^ T5 (1) 03 5; 5 ^ o be u Ph cS o W o W <4-l o QJ P ri^ CD OJ ^^ O u ID « f^ « ■? ^ ° 1 " -t^ -^ '^ > CO s> o o 3 CO << O C « fl »; ■n C a^ Tl G a. Oi ht ^ CD J3 n tr ^ ■TJ f^ n <5 03 fe o 173 ^^ ■¥. c ^ r- '^ S fe- s^ O P 01 O 00 s B d <; ' .-I CO CO r- .2 -= i. o S t» ~ V ^ ■f rt !U 5 CO 3 O 22 1 o O a si o o o 'p o cc O c3 O Z P 2j o kJ O w K H O H Pi <: o 3 o o O (U P P^ O viii APPENDIX IV. REVIEW OF NATIONAL PERIOD BY ADMINISTRATIONS Washington's Admiuistration, 17S9-1797. First Congress passed financial laws ; trouble with Indians ; AVhisky Rebellion; "Citizen" Genet and the Proclamation of Neutrality; Treaty with England; invention of cotton gin ; Vermont, Kentucky, Tennessee admitted to the Union; census taken. Adams's Administration, 1797-1801. Threatened war with France; Alien and Sedition Acts; Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions; locomotive invented. Jefferson's Administration, 1801-1809. Jieduction of government expenses; War with Tripoli; Ohio admitted; Louisiana purchased ; Lewis and Clark expedition ; slave trade abol- ished : the Embargo Act. Madison's Administration, 1809-1817. War of 1812; Hartford Convention ; Indiana and Louisiana admitted. Monroe's Administration, 1817-1825. "Era of Good Feeling"; Florida purchased; the Missouri Compromise; Missouri, Illinois, Alabama, ]\Iaine, and Mississippi admitted to the Union; first steam voyage across the Atlantic; the Monroe Doc- trine ; visit of Lafayette to America. John Quincy Adams's Administration, 1825-1829. The first railroad in America; Georgia admitted; first threshing machine; the Erie Canal; Webster's Dictionary; "The Tariff of Abominations." Jackson's Administration, 1828-1837. The spoils system introduced; nullification in South Carolina; finan- cial difficulties; Jackson's attack ou the United States Bank; the Specie Circular; Michigan and Arkansas admitted to Union; anti- slavery movement in the North; rise of American literature; tem- perance movement ; the INIcCormick reaper invented. Van Buren's Administration, 1837-1841. Panic of 1837; United States Treasury established; friction matches, vulcanizing rubber, daguerreotype and telegraph invented. Harrison and Tyler's Administration, 1841-1845. Texas annexed; growth of abolition movement; use of ether dis- covered ; Texas and Florida admitted to Union. APPENDIX ix Polk's Administration, 1845-1849. Oregon boundary settled; Mexican War; Wilmot Proviso proposed but. failed of passage; sewing machine and lloe printing press invented; Iowa and Wisconsin admitted; gold discovered in California. Taylor and Fillmore's Administration, 1849-1853. Compromise of 1850 (Fugitive Slave Law, California admitted as a free state); "Uncle Tom's Cabin" published; the "Underground Railroad." Pierce's Administration, 1853-1857. Kansas-Nebraska Bill; the struggle in Kansas; Gadsden purchase from Mexico. Buchanan's Administration, 1857-1861. John Brown's raid; Dred Scott Decision; Minnesota, Kansas, and Oregon admitted; Lincoln-Douglas debates; secession of South Carolina .followed by other states upr>n election of Lincoln; oil dis- covered in Pennsylvania. Lincoln's Administration, 18G1-18G5. War between the States ; Emancipation Proclamation ; first telegraphic message s'^nt under the Atlantic; the Morrill tariff; West Virginia and Nevada admitted to the Union. Johnson's Administration, 1865-1869. lleconstruction; thirteenth and fourteenth amendments to the Consti- tution ; Alaska purchased ; French aggression in Mexico ; Tenure of Office Act; impeachment of the President; Nebraska admitted. Grant's Administration, 1860-1877. Reconstruction concluded; fifteenth amendment; Ku Klux Klaii ; Pacific railroad; Chicago fire; financial panic of 1873; Colorado admitted; Centennial Exposition, 1876; Atlantic cable successful. Hayes's Administration, 1877-1881. Anti-Chinese legislation; new treaty with China; withdrawal of troops from the South; railroad strikes; electric light and telephone invented. Garfield and Arthur's Administration, 1881-1885. Assassination of Garfield; civil service reform ; Brooklyn Bridge com- pleted. X APPENDIX Clevelaud's First Adruiiiistration, 1885-1889. Interstate Commerce Act; Chinese Exclusiou Act; labor troubles; Chi- cago anarchists; Charleston earthquake. Harrison's Administration, 1889-1803. Reciprocity autliorized; Johnstown flood; war with the Sioux; North Dakota, South Dakota, i.Iontana, Washington, Idaho, Wyoming, ad- mitted to the Union ; Oklahoma opened for settlement. Clev'eland's Second Administration, 1893-1897. The Sherman Silver Act; the Wilson tariff; the Venezuela dispute; income tax (declared unconstitutional); labor troubles; World's Fail" at Chicago ; Hawaiian Revolution ; Utah admitted. McKinley's Administration, 1897-1901. Chinese Exclusion Act; War with Spain; War in the Philippines; Hawaii, Porto Rico, Philippine Islands, Guam, Samoan Islands ac- quired; arbitration treaty; Hay-Pa uncefote treatV; Hague Peace Conference; Cuba nnder the protection of the United States; assassination of McKinley ; Buffalo Exposition. Roosevelt's Administration, 1901-1909. Trust legislation; Pure Food Law; Meat Inspection Act; Oklahoma admitted ; San Francisco earthquake ; expositions at St. Louis, Seattle, and Jamestown ; Panama Canal begun ; aeroplane invented. Taft's Administration, 1909-1913. Payne Tariff Act; Canadian reciprocity agreement proposed; North Pole discovered ; Postal Savings Banks established ; Parcel post law ; Canal administration act, remitting tolls for American vessels engaged in coast-wise trade. Wilson's Administration, 1913- Underwood Tariff Law; Constitutional amendment permitting an income tax; Constitutional amendment providing for popular election of senators. APPENDIX XI 1619 17S7 1793 ISOS. 1S21). 1S45, 1S46- 18.50, 1S54. 1S5G. 1857. IS.W. isao. 1861. ISHl THE SLAVERY QUESTION AND THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES Slavoiy in Amorica boErun. Slavery prohibited in Nortliwost Tc^rritory. Invention of cotton i^iu. Slave trade prohibited. Missouri Compromise. Annexation of Texas. -184S. Mexican War. Compromise of 18.51). Kan.sas- Nebraska Bill. Republican party or,i;anized. Dred Scott decision. John Brown's raid. Election of Lincoln. Sece.ssion of South Carolina, followed by six othei- Soutiiern states. Or2;anij;ation of Southern Confecleratioi. Seizure of forts and othcM- U. S. [)roperty in the South. Firing on Fort Sumter. -186.5. War between the States. West 1861 East Fort Sumter (Confederate vic- tory) Bull Run (Couf.) 1862 Forts Henry and Donelson (Union victory) Island No. 10 (Union) Shiloh (Union) New Orleans (Union) Corinth (Union) Murfreesboro (Union) Union army victorious in the West Peninsula Campaign (Conf.) Jackson in tiie Shenandoaii (Conf.) Lee's first invasion and Antie- tam (Conf) Fredericksbuig (Conf.) Confederates victorious in the East xii APPENDIX West East 1863 Vicksburg (Union) Chancellorsville (Conf.) Port Hudson (Union) Gettysburg (Union) Chickamauga (Conf.) Chattanooga (Union) Union armies victorious in both East and AVest 1864 Grant's "Hammering Campaign" against Lee (victories for both sides) Sherman's march from Atlanta to Savannah (Union) Nashville (Union) Sheridan in the Shenandoah (Union) Union armies have the advantage 1865 Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, and Thomas all closing in upon Lee Surrender of Confederate armies 1865-1873. Reconstruction. APPENDIX 11 GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES I. TABLE OF THE THIRTEEN ORIGINAL STATES Colony Datk FiEST Settlement Motive Settlers Virginia 1607 Jamestown Wealth English adventurers Massachusetts 1620 Plymouth Religious freedom English Separatists New York 1623 IManhattan Island Trade Dutch New Hampshire 1623 Portsmouth Trado Colonists from Mass, Maryland 1634 St. Mary's Religious freedom English Roman Catholics Connecticut 1633 Windsor Make homes Colonists from IMass. Rhode Island 1036 Providence Religious freedom Religious refugees from Mass. Delaware 1638 Wilmington Wealth Swedes North Carolina 1640- Albemarle Home making English refugees 1663 Sound and political strife and Huguenots Sonth Carolina 1670 Charleston New Jersey 1664 Elizabethtown Trade and re- lig. freedpm Dutch and Quakers [Pennsylvania 1082 Philadelphia Religious freedom Quakers Georgia 1733 Savannah Philanthropy Scotch and English poor XIV APPENDIX ' z (rj ^H 1:^ <-H to CO CC .— CI CI 05 t^ o CO iC (35 1-H o (M T— ( O C^l lO rH '^ o t^ ^ t^ 00 lO o 00 (M H O* so f-H rH r-H^ t^ ^ CC ^ io_ CO (N CI CO 05_ OS t>- 1-H <2 ►J OS (m" Lt t-T cT -rt-" co" iC >n cT .-T cc" CO cr icT oT '51?" t- fc"-! o ^ CO O —t CO 05 T—4 CC CO CO o -*■ lO 00 00 CO X ^^ c^ ■» \0 iC T^ CO (M lO ^ o rH CJ^ o CO c^ 1—1 t- £ t^ (M (>J ^ CO "-I 1— ( CJ oT of ci (M TtT o in moo o O o iC c o o o o o o c 1 -^d lO T— 4 ^H t^ O; 1-H 1;; o i- t- IC >c 'CO o >o CO eS o Ol GO -r^ CR CC CI CC^ -* ^ CJ c"i^ o -*< o C3^ (M" uf t^ 05 >+ CO CI o oT cf o; ci 1—1 o: o" cf I— 1 -:*< '" ^^ -tH ^ o ^ ^ rH Jj ^ ■• :; += ^ a: ^ a; ^ . q r^ •Jl -4 +2 % 'I < b. u o .o - be r^ -^ o ST- a; ■5* = -h « a - 1—1 r2i o o CD be > 1 2 a h-3 o o O .= :S O be =^ 1^ ^ "x rh S 4> cS "o ^ ^ o 'o 5 o .a o o ' i :: :: " s 1 O rS S a o r 1 1 s 1 1 1 1 ^ -^ fl s ^ a 'r* a '*"' « a r* a o -■ 3 o ce 2 O 3 c — r^ (D o 5 5 0; cS • S o3 fS p '^^ ^ 'S <5 o -^ -a r^ -a p ^ ''5 1— I ;-• ^ a l-H ^ i VH »-^ fcq >^ l-H (-H f^ Pm •^ M Ill t^ t- t^ X 00 00 00 ■XI CO 00 00 05 o ,_, Cl CO CO 'GO CO 00 CO CO CO 00 CO' 00 CO CO CO 05 (31 05 05 o l^ i-H 1^ i^ t^ 1— 1 i-H 1—1 i-H t^ .—1 .—1 .—1 rH 1— I T— 1 rH 1— 1 1— i 1—1 >i B CO ,-^ rt xS i2 C -ti o CC r- CO o CO _o H so X) C^l ->^ 1-- (M ~ C) '^^ '■^ ■«] «5 50 t-^ O o o CO CD CO CO CO CO "3 2 ^H £^ l>^ .■§ >-. >2 t»5 >l >i >^ >i >2 >. >, >i >^ ?►. S'^ cS t. fl = P a a a a a a a; o 5 o o o 5 ^ 5 c o o o o o — *^ H o o o o o o o 'o .o o o o o o ^ Z O o Q a O o O O o a O O o "t s X 2 j3 -C ^ _- ^ ^ ^ _ r* -a rC rCJ ^ -a !« .5 O a5 K o oo tc ■Si ■!} rri .2 jji as jji ao 03 Od ■r. ^a r; -a ^- • 'So -4^ .4^ be bX) bjO CC be bC bp be be be be CC be p "^ k< fl c c a a a a a a .r-< 5 o W W tq tq K W ^ W tq W « pq ^ fe > ;^^ ^ c3 a) CD c3 T3 , aj > D CD O cS rt 05 O A a> 53 a; S a !^ ^ O O % § 13 t> ^ S^ 05 > ^ C-f o ^ ■r\ -/^' -J sA .£ i^ CO c: C -^ ci CO 'i' i-C :d t-^ >— ( ■—I ^- T— ( APPENDIX XV ^ O S3 H X w -^ — 66 t^ r^ c: c: it r: cc CO — < »c o TT r: ct c; c^ ^ C: cr. Gc ic ^ ^ „ „ ^ ^- >— 1 O l^ X O l^ t^ «2 O t^ X X CM rf 't" C" — " 12 ^ cc" 1^' 1-' -vi o o c: IT Tf? -71 c: I- -^ >j: c; c>i :^ w i- A^ :c r^ 1-- :c ^ i^ c-i^ o x t^ x ^cocqco(MOTj^xo<:oi:-^o o eo n c 00 CO x> CO oi ot> cT cc~ crT oc" >o~ co" CO x" ~-' CO ^ CO -# >C >fl TT CO O >^ ir^ CO O »C3 1'^ X -" -M ^ ' "• >, ^ QJ ;- , C5 -t3 ^03 IB 5 f^. 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T-l O ** 3 CO Oi o CO I- 05 I— 1 I— 1 I— ( c3 m Oj ^— X. a a o S s C <*-( a >— ^ OJ — t*^ ^ -2 w o C' a 3 cs a Ph ^ ^ .2 cc a H t-i o O o H VM s o 14 e 4i .rt H ce CJ .-H ^ T c! CO -5 & I ei .2 § 1 < P, 5^ APPENDIX xvii HI. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES AT EACH CENSUS Tear Population Population in No. Cities of Population of Free and Cities MORE THAN SOOO Slave States Free Slave 1790 3,929,214 131,472 6 1,968,455 1,961,372 1800 0,308,483 210,873 6 2,684,615 2,621,316 1810 7,239,881 350,920 11 3,758,910 3,480,902 1820 9,638,453 475.135 13 5,152,372 4,485,819 1830 12,806,020 864,509 26 7,006,399 5,848,312 1810 17,069,453 1,453,994 44 9,733,922 7,334,433 1850 23,191,870 2,897,586 85 13,599,488 9,663,997 1860 31,443,321 5,072,250 141 19,128,418 12,315,372 1870 38,558,371 8,071,875 226 1880 50,155,783 11,318,547 286 1890 62,622,250 18,272,503 447 1900 75,477,467 24,992,199 545 1910 93,402,151 C/) H ^ W )— 1 Q 1—1 l-H 02 « X PU 1— ( Q ^^ H W Oh t^ PlH O <^ lA t-^ ^^ Henry Wilson William Wheel Chester A. Art Thomas Hcndr Levi P. Mortoi Adlai Stevcnso Garret Hobart S -g •^ '« £ ^ 7: 2 « .a ja H 5 S l-S §§8 lO CC O CD Ci 00 !-> Vi iO -^ -* I- <^ »» Ocsca— l^-T-^ CO CO 00 t- X t- t- -.o t-lCtOl-5Ct-iO t- ■* 10 t- !0 Jr- ^ 1 T)c -* 10 -* 10 ^«^ W ,_ .- 3V ,^ O O t- rt O 05 O 03 1- -^ .O C-. t- — iC CO t- — CI o o ooSoo S 00 00 cXl CO 00 00 00 0000 CO 00 CO c^ c^ < .5 'J' a:! o o cj ca OS c3 CS o U 03 03 .2.2 ^« s "3 g-r K Dem.-R Kei)ubli Democr Democr Whig Whig Democr Whig Whig Democr Democr Republi Republi Republi ai — — " ^ ^ 23 3 3 Id « 1 |"JIz^* d 3 ca. a a a K Tl T3 r^ d i C u d U a , >. >-..2 >>>>>>>> >.-S >-. >-. !>. & § & s & ^'.a X o 5 S 5 C3 C33'~' =i o ^ ^-a S ^ & S - §•5 ^■s ^ 'o " c! C3 C3 C3 cj 3 C3 03 C3 <3 C33 03 CL 03 03 03 03 — « r^ cc J J ^-! iJ hJ tn 1-1 -/3 ►J iJ cf.' J -J 1-! -: E- cr. ijp-*-: Jt-i !-!<; I-! £• b >. >. _l^ d .2 d ^. -3 3 g S^ 2 s ■e ^ C^ ^ ? M c a "^-' l£ d! a ° o S a ^ la d o ci d as '2 Oh nyon lliams lion me ami Ui ■2 5 2 g^ d J g g £ a Willia Univ. None None Bowd Dickii None None West sg jj o :z; 1^ (£ ir 3 = 3 3 &:SZ ZK ^^C'^'^z C c3 '03 « « 3_g 4-> H I 2 ■u -^ S.'d a> 03 t^ a > 1 ■¥■¥ .i. . •5 £.2!h3 S'.g ^^g % Spi Tc Virgi Massi Tenn New Ohio ■a=-is&c§ Ohio Ohio New New India .2 & .0 > =5 .a > ■do/c^^o^ (i/;a t>HiJZZPHn H = .a . 0; m -Z 53 "?~ h 5 ■S) _d 3 c3 tu S o a o _.® < « d S a o 1 •-5 James Monroe J dim Quincy Adam Andrew Jackson Martin Van Buren William Henry Har John Tyler James Knox Polk Zachary Taylor Millard Fillniore Franklin Pierce James Buchanan Abraham Lincoln Andrew Johnson Ulysses Simpson G Rutherford tJurchar James Abram Garfi Chester Alan Arthii Grover Cleveland Benjamin Harrison Grover Cleveland II a E .2 APPENDIX IV SUGGESTED HEADINGS EOR REVIEW FORMS I>ANI> DiSCOVF.RKD Ky Whom When I'.XPLORKU (Nationality) ItKGIONS ViSITKH Sktti.kmknts Madf. roLoxy First Settlement By Whom When Why Names op Placks Colony or State Events Connected With Names of People Kiuthplace Time Events Associated With XX APPENDIX Between Whom When Begun WuEN Endep Battles In What Wau Between Whom Victory for Leaders Administration Important Events Peeb. Elections Time Parties Candidates Successful DATES WITH EACH OF WHICH EVERY CHILD SHOULD CONNECT AN EVENT 1. 1492 2. 1522 3. 1588 4. 1607 5. 1619 6. 1620 7. 1689 8. 1733 9. 1754 10. 1763 11. 1775 12. 1776 13. 1781 14. 1783 15. 1787 16. 1789 17. 1803 18. 1807 19. 1812 20. 1825 21. 1846 22. 1848 23. 1860 24. 1861 25. 1863 26. 1865 27. 1807 28. 1877 29. 1896 30. 1898 APPENDIX XXI PEOPLE WHOM EVERY CHILD SHOULD KNOW SOMETHING ABOUT 1. Leif Ericsson 2. Marco Polo 3. Henry the Navigator 4. Columbus 5. Americus Vespucius 6. Balboa 7. Magellan 8. De Soto 9. Cartier 10. Cliauiplain 11. Marquette 12. La Salle 13. Drake 14. Raleigh 15. John Smith 16. Bradford • 17. Winthrop 18. Roger Williams 19. Hudson 20. Stuyvesant The 21. Lord Baltimore 22. Penn 23. Oglethorpe 21. Edmund Andros 25. Berkeley 26. Bacon 27. Leisler 28. Franklin 29. Braddock 30. Montcalm 31. Wolfe 32. Samuel Adams 33. Patrick Henry 34. Hancock 35. Jefferson 36. Howe 37. Burgoyne 38. Cornwallis 39. Clinton 40. Lafayette presidents are omitted from this list, it being edge of them is necessary. 41. Greene 42. Steuben 43. Hamilton 44. Eli Whitney 45. Robert Fulton 46. Calhouu 47. Clay 48. Webster 49. McCormick 50. Douglas 51. John Brown 52. S. F. B. :\Ior8e 53. McClellan 54. Lee 55. Jefferson Davis 56. Slierman 57. Sheridan 58. Blaine 59. Bryan 60. Edison understood that knowl- APPENDIX V DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE In Congress, July 4, 1776, The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States OF America, When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happi- ness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to insti- tute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Des- potism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw oh such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. — Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their form.er Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. xxii APPENDIX xxiii He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and neces- sary for the public good. He has forbidden his Governors to pass I-aws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained ; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- fortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihila- tion, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States ; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers. He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and tlie amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our People, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace. Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislature. He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their acts of pretended legislation : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world : For imposing taxes on us withou*^ our Consent : For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Juryj XXIV APPENDIX For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences : For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlargmg its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies : For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments : For suspending our own Legislature, and declaring themselves in- vested with Power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Pro- tection and waging War against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to com pleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeav- oured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms : Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free People. Nor have We been wanting in attention to our Brittish brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the >vorld for the rectitude of our intentions, do> in the Name, and by APPENDIX XXV Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare. That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as P'ree and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other- Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And fur the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. JOHN HANCOCK. New Hampshire — Josiah Bartlett, Wm, Whipple, Matthew Thornton. Massachusetts Bay — Saml. Adams, John Adams, Robt. Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. Rhode Island — STEP. HoPKlNS, WILLIAM Ellery. Connecticut — Roger Sherman, Sam'el Huntington, Wm. Will- lA.MS, Oliver Wolcott. A'ew York — Wm. Floyd, Phil. Livingston, Frans. Lewis, Lewis Morris. New Jersey — RiCHD. STOCKTON, JNO. Witherspoon, Fras. Hop- kinson, John Hart, Abra. Clark, Pennsylvania — Robt. Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benja. Frank- lin, John Morton, Geo. Clymer, Jas. Smith, Geo. Taylor, James Wilson, Geo. Ross. Delaivare — C^SAR Rodney, Geo. Read, Tho. M'Kean. Maryland— Samuel Chase, Wm. Paca, Thos. Stone, Charles Carroll of CarroUton. Virginia — Georgk Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Th. Jefferson, Benja. Harrison, Thos. Nelson, jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. North Carolina — Wm. Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn.' South Carolina — Edward Rutledge, Thos. Heyward, Junr., Thomas Lynch, Junr., Arthur Middleton. Georgia — Button Gwinnett, LYxMan Hall, Geo. Walton, i ^ This arrangement of the names is made for convenience. The states are not mentioned in the original. APPENDIX VI CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA^ We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more per- fect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. . Article. I. Section, i. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, .v^^hich shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and 1 Reprinted from the text issued by the State Department, xxvi APPENDIX XXVll within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Riu)de Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New- York six. New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Mary- land six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies. The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. Sectiox. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years ; and each Senator shall have one Vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expira- tion of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make tempo- rary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Ao-e of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice xxviii APPENDIX shall preside : And no Person shall be convicted without the Concur- rence of two thirds of the Members present. Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to law. Section. 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day. Section. 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business ; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penal- ties as each House may provide. Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, Punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and. with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal. Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be jsitting. Section. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. APPENDIX xxix No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Olifice under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time ; and no Person holding any Oflice under the United Stales, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office. Section. 7. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills. Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presenieil to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections, to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of tliat House, it shall become a law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered en the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him. or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. Section. 8. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States ; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shal' be uniform throughout the United States ; To borrow Money on the credit of the United States ; XXX APPENDIX To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes; To estabhsh an uniform Rule of NaturaHzation, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States ; To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures ; To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current Coin of the United States ; To estabhsh Post Offices and post Roads ; To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries; To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court ; To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations ; To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years ; To provide and maintain a Navy ; To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces ; To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions ; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appoint- ment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings ; — And To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. APPENDIX XXxi Section. 9. The Mic;ration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro- hibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eiglit, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person. The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it. No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. No Capitation, or other direct, Tax, shall be laid, unless in Propor- tion to the Census or Enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. No Money shall be drawn from tlie Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law ; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be pub- lished from time to time. No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, with- out the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or for- eign State. Section, id. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation ; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal ; coin Money ; emit Bills of Credit ; make any thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts ; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Im- posts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into XXXli APPENDIX any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will cot admit of Delay. Article. II Section, i. The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress : but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabit- ant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of ail the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President ; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote ; A quo- rum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be neces- sary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President. APPKXDIX XXXllI The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on whicli they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States. No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligi- ble to the Office of President ; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty-five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resig- nation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be Increased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the fol- lowing Oath or Affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." Section. 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States ; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and. by and with the Advice and Con- sent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers XXXiv APPENDIX and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose ApiDointments are not herein otherwise pro- vided for, and which shall be established by Law : but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session. Section. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Infor- mation of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Considera- tion such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Minis- ters ; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States. Section. 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misde- meanors. Article. Ill Section, i . The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Com- pensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in Office. Section. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Author- ity ; — to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls; — to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction; — to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party ; — to Con- troversies between two or more States ; — between a State and Citizens of another State ; — between Citizens of different States, — between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different APPENDIX XXXV States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens, or subjects. In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Con- suls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. Section. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. Article. IV Section, i. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Section. 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. No Person held to Service or Laboar in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall xxxvi APPENDIX be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due. Section. 3. New Stales may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no nevv State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junc- tion of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all need- ful Rules and Regulatiojis respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Section. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. Article. V The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States. or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect tlie first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article ; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate. Article. VI All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme APPENDIX XXXVii Law of the land ; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to the Contrary not- withstanding. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of tlie several State Legislatures, and all executive and judi- cial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution ; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. Article. VII The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution ijetween the States so rati- fying the Same- THE AMENDMENTS I Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assem- ble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. II A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. Ill No Soldier shail, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. IV The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, sup- ported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. xxxviii APPENDIX V No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. VI In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. VII In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be othenvise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. VIII Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. IX The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- tively, or to the people. 2H APPENDIX xxxi\ XI The Judicial power of the United States shall noc be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State. XII The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the gov- ernment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; ^ The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted ; — The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the Presid(.nt, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional dis- ability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be Vice-President, if such number be a majority, of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a xl APPENDIX majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States- XIII Section i . Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their juris- diction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. XIV Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States : nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num- ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States. or in any way abridged, except for participation in- rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the pro- portion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section '3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con- gress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Con- stitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or APPENDIX xli rebellion against the same, or givcu aid ur comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or eman- cipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section* 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro- priate legislation, the provisions of this article. XV Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article bv appropriate legislation. XVI The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. XVII The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors» of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of each State shall i.ssue writs of election to fill such vacancies : Provided that the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. APPENDIX VII PRONOUNCING LIST OF PROPER NAMES Acadia (a ka'di a) Americus Vespucius (a mer'i cus ves pu'shus) Amerigo Vespucci (a ma ree'go ves poot'che) Andre (au'dra or aii'dri) Andros (aii'dros) Antietam (an te'tani) Balboa (bal bo'a) Barre (bar're) Bonhomme Richard (bo nom' re shiir') Buena Vista (bwa'n'a ves'ta) Cartier (car tya') Cerro Gordo (ser'r5 gor'do) Cervera (thar va'rrt) Cliapultepec (chii pool'ta pek') Chickamauga (chick a niau'grt) Clermont (cler'mont) Coronado (c5 ro na'do) Duquesne (du kan') Faneuil (fan'el) Genet (zhe iia') Guerriere (gar ryar') Hawaii (ha wi'e) Joliet (zho lya') Lafayette (la fa yet') La Salle (la siil') Leisler (lis'ler) Mar-quette (market') Menendez (men en'deth) Oklahoma (ok la ho'ma) Oriskany (o ris'ka ny) Pizarro (pe zar'ro) Resaca de la Palma (ra sii'ka. da lii pal'mr/) San Juan (siin ho an') Santiago de Cuba (siin te ii'go da coo'bf^r) Schley (slili) Serapis (se ra'pis) Sioux (soo) Steuben (stu'ben) Stuyvesant (sti've sant) Toscanelli (tos ca nel'le) Key to pronunciation : a, e, i, 5, u, long; a, e, i, o, u, short; senate, event, idea, obey, unite, care, arm, ask, all, final, fern, recent, orb, rude, full, (irn, food, foot. xiU INDEX Abolition of slavory advocated by Garri- son, 342. petitions in ("ongress, 348. Acadia, 127, 140. Acadians, removal of, 140. Acts of Parliament concerning colonies, 153-170. Navigation Acts, 153. Writs of Assistance, 154. .Stamp Act, 155. Townshend Acts, 158. Duty on tea, 158, 165-168. the Intolerable Acts, 169. Boston Port Bill, 169. act depriving Massachusetts of self- government, 169. Adams, John, 169, 188, 278. Adams, John Quincy, 322, 326, 348. Adams, Samuel, 161, 165, 172, 260. Alabama, the. Confederate warship, 414. Alabama Claims settled, 512. Alaska, purchased, 512. Albany Convention, 135. Albany plan, 135. Algonquins, the, 92. Alien and Sedition laws, 279, 280. Allen, Ethan, 181. Amendments to the Constitution, I-XII, 269, see Constitution in ap- pendix. thirteenth, see appendix. fourteenth, 455, appendix. fifteenth, appendix. American party, 361. Federation of Labor, 509. seamen, impressment of, 294. Americus Vespucius, 36. Amnesty Proclamation (Lincoln's), 450. (Johnson's), 454. Anarchists, Chicago, 508. Anderson, Major, 381, 383. Andre, Major, 230. xli Andros, Sir Edmund, 108. Annexation of Territory, see map opp. p. 524. Antietam, battle of, 408. Antifederalists, 259, 261. Appomattox Court House, 439. Arbitration, 514, 523. Arnold, Benedict, at Quebec, 184. at Fort Stanwix, 200. at Saratoga, 208. treason of, 229. Arthur, Chester A, 505. Articles of Confederation, 244-249. Assassination of Lincoln, 445-447. of Garfield, 504. of McKinley, 517. Assemblies, Colonial, 107, 108. Assistance, Writs of, 152. Atlanta, in Civil War, 433, 434. rebuilt after war, 488. Atlantic cables, 476. first crossed by steamship, 339. Automobile, 478. Bacon's RebeUion, 107. Balboa, 28. Baltimore, Lord, 86. in War of 1812, 308. Bank, first United States, 270. Barre, Colonel, 156. Bell, Alexander, 477. Bennington, battle of, 205. Berkeley, Governor, 107 Blaine, James G., 501. Bland-Allison Silver Act, 497. Blockade in the Civil War, 390, 402, 437. Blockades declared by European nations, 294. Bonhomme Richard, the, 226. Boston settled, 81. Massacre, 159, 161. Tea Party, 164-167. ii xliv INDEX Boston, Port Bill, 167. siege of, 181-185. evacuated by British, 185. Boycott, see Labor disputes. Biaddock, General, defeat of, 136-138. Bragg, General, 423-427. Brandywine, battle at, 208. Brooklyn Bridge, 483. Brown, John, raid of, 370, Bryan, William J., 499. Buchanan, James, 366. Buell, General, 398. Buena Vista, battle at, 352. Buffalo, extermination of, 536. Bu)l Run, first battle of, 395. second battle of, 408. Bunker Hill, battle of, 182. Burgesses, House of, in Virginia, 61. Burgovne, General, 201, 203-205, 207- 209. Burke, Edmund, 156. Burnside, General, 408. Butler, General, 403. Cables, telegraphic, 476. Cabot, John, 26. Calhoun, John C, favors War of 1812, 296. advocates internal improvements, 315. upholds doctrine of state rights, 331, 359. California, desired by the United States, 351. ceded to United States, 354. gold found in, 358. admitted as state, 359. Camden, battle of, 221. Canada, life in, 114-121. expedition to, in Revolution, 184. Canadian frontier in War of 1812, 298- 301, 304-306, 308-309. Canal, Erie, 323. Capital, corporations, trusts, 486, 509. Capital, National, 256, 285, 308. Carolina, North, see North Carolina. Carolina, South, see South Carolina. "Carpetbaggers," 461. Cartier, Jacques, 41. Catholics in Maryland, 61. Cerro Gordo, battle at, 3,53. Cervera, Admiral, 518. Champlain, Lake, in War of 1812, 300. Champlain, Samuel de, 43, 44, 45. Chapultepec, battle at, 353. Charles I, King of England, 118. Charles II, King of England, 119. Charleston, seized by British in Revolu- tion, 221. Chartered colonies, 106, 107. Chase, Salmon P.,^ 363, 366. Chattanooga, siege of, 426. Cherry Valley, Massacre at, 220. Chicago anarchists, 508. burned, 493. exposition, 473. Chickamauga, battle of, 426. Chinese immigration, 484. Civil Service reform, 503, 505. Clark, George Rogers, 223. William, 288. Clay, Henry, favors War of 1812, 296. advocates internal improvements, 315. urges Missouri Compromise, 316. proposes Compromise of 1850, 359. Clermont, the, 290. Cleveland, Grover, 500, 501, 509, 513. Clinton, Sir Henry, 216. Coal first used as fuel, 324. Coal strikes, see Labor disputes. Coinage, see Currency. Colonial Assemblies, 107, 108. Colonies, Dutch, 76-79. English, founded, 49-90. government in, 106-108. life in, 108-111. French, 43, 46, 114-121. Spanish, 35-39. Columbus, portrait, 13. theories, 13, 14, 16. asked aid of Portuguese king, 16. assisted by Spain, 16. first voyage of, 16-21. later voyages of, 21-24. map showing voyages, 23. Compromise, Missouri, 316. of 1850, 358. Compromise tariff of 1833, 499. Compromises in making the Constitution, 252-255. Conc/ird, battle at, 176. INDEX Xl^ Confederacy, organized, 381. Confederation, Articles of, 224-249. Confederate Capital, 382, 395. Congress, Albany, 135. Stamp Act, 154. fir.st Continental, 1(59. second Contincnital, 180. under the Confederation, 244-248. first under the Constitution, 269-271. Congressional plan of Reconstruction, 451. Connecticut settled, 83. Constitution and Guerritre, 302. Constitution formed by Federal Conven- tion, 251-256. ratified by states, 258-261. amended (amendments I-XII), 269. fourteenth amendment, 455. thirteenth and fifteenth amendments, see appendix. Continental Currency, 213. Convention, the Albany, 135. Federal, 249, 251-256. Hartford, 311. Cornwallis, Lord, British general, 194, 221, 229. 232-237. Coronado, 38. Corporations and trusts, 486, 509. Cortez, 35. Cotton gin, 281. Cotton raising, 281. Cowpens, battle at the, 232. Cromwell, Oliver, 118. Crown Point, 136, 181, 201. Crusades, the, 8, 9. Cuba, 514-522. Cumberland Road, 315. Currency questions, 494-499. Custer, General, 473. Davis, Jefferson, 381. Dawes, William, 174. Dearborn, General, 298-300. Debate, Hayne-Webstcr, 332. Debates, Lincoln-Douglas, 369. Declaration of Independence. 188. of Rights, 169. Deerfield, 126. Delaware settled, 86. Lord, 58, 59. De Leon, Ponce, 35, 37. Democratic-Republican party, .-n-.e Hi publican (Jeffersonian). Democratic party, 32.3. De Soto, 38. Detroit in War of 1812, 298. Dewey, Admiral, 517. Dingley Tariff Act, 501. Dinwiddle, Governor, 134. Donclson, Fort, 397. Dorchester Heights, 185. Douglas, Stephen A., 363, 366, 369. Drafting in Civil War, 428. Drake, Sir Francis, 48, 49, 50. Dred Scott Decision, 368. Duqucsne, Fort, 134, 142. Dutch trade with East Indies, 72, 73. sent out Henry Hudson, 73-76. fur trade with Indians, 76. settlement on Manhattan Island, 76. colony of New Netherland, 76-79. Eads, James B., 489. Early, General, 430. Edison, Thomas, 477, 480. El Caney, battle at, 520. Election, presidential, of 1796, 278. of 1800, 285. of 1808, 296. of 1816, 314. of 1824, 322. of 1828. 326. of 1836, 338. of 1840, 347. of 1844, 348. of 1848, 357. of 1852, 361. of 1856, 366. of 1860, 372. of 1868, 457. of 1876, 494. of 1880, 500. of 1884, 500. of 1888, 500. of 1892, 501. of 1896, 501. Electricity, 476-480. Emancipation Proclamation, 41 1-41.S. Ei.ibargo Act, 295. England, Civil War in, 118, 119. commercial difficulties with. 272. En?Jish explorations. 48. xl\- INDEX P'/iiglish settlements, 49-90. attempts by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 49. attempts by Sir Walter Raleigh, 49-52. Virginia, 54-62. Plymouth, 64-70. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Con- necticut, 81-84. Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Georgia, 86-90. Era of Good Feeling, 314. Ericsson, Leif, 4. Erie Canal, 323. Executive departments created, 269. Expansion, territorial, ne.e map opp. 524. Faheuil Hall, 167. Farragut, Admiral, 402, 436. Federalists, 259-261, 271, 273, 278, 279, 280, 296, 311, 314. Field, Cyrus, 476. Fillmore, Millard, 358. Fitch, John, 290. Five Intolerable Acts, 167. Florida discovered, 35. Foote, Commodore, 397. Fort Dearborn, 300. Donelson, 397. Duquesne, 134, 142. Henry, 396. Necessity, 135. Stanwix, 201. Sumter, 381-383. France, struggle of, with England for America, 123-150. alliance with United States in Revolu- tion, 216, 229. ■war threatened with, 279. sells Louisiana to United States, 286. Franklin, Benjamin, 135, 217, 260. Free Silver, demand for, see Currency. Free Soil party, 357. Fremont, John C, 366. French and Indian War, see Last French War. French explorations, Verrazano, 41. Cartier, 41. Champlain, 43, 44, 45. Marquette and Joliet, 46. La Salle, 46. Map, 42. French Revolution, 271. French settlements, 43, 46. Friends, see Quakers. Fugirive Slave Law, 3.59, 360. Fulton, Robert, 290. Gadsden purchase, 353. Gage, General, 167, 172. Gallatin, Albert, 286. Garfield, James A., 504. Garrison, William Lloyd, 342. Gates, General Horatio, 221. General Court of Massachusetts, 82. Genet, "Citizen," 279. Genoa, a trade center, 10. George III, King of England, 156, 23f; Georgia settled, 89. conquered by British in Revolution. 220. Germantown, battle at, 208. Gettysburg, battle of, 416-420. Ghent, Treaty of, 310. Grant, General U. S., captured Forts Henry and Donelson, 396. besieged and captured Vicksburg, 422. at Chattanooga, 423-427. as commander-in-chief, 428-441. as president, 458, 492. "Green Mountain Boys," 181. "Greenbacks," 494. Greene, General Nathaniel, 221, 231, 232. Greenland, Vikings in, 4. Guerrihre taken by the Constitution, 302. Hague Peace Conference, 523, 524. Hale, Nathan, 192. Half Moon, the, 74. Hamilton, Alexander, 249, 260, 270. "Hammering Campaign" against Lee 428-441. Hancock, John, 172. Harrison, Benjamin, 501. William Henry, 304-306. Hartford, settled, 70, 78. Hartford Convention, 311. Harvard College, 82. Hawaii, 513. Hawkins, John, 48. Hay, John, 523. Hayes, Rutherford B., 494. INDEX xlvii Hayue-Webster debate, 332. Henry, Fort, 396. Henry, Patrick, IGS. Henry tlio Navigator, 11, 12. Herkimer, General Nicholas, 2()(). Hessians in the Revolution, 187, 190. Holland in America, sec Dutch. Homestead Act, 471. Hood, General, 433, 435. Hooker, General, 416. House of Burgesses in Virginia, 61. Howe, General, 181, 183, 185, 187, 189, 192, 194, 201, 207, 216. Elias, 341. Hudson, Henry, 73-76. River discovered, 74. Hull, Captain Isaac, 303. General, 298-300. Iceland, V'ikings in, 3. Immigration, 483-486. Impeachment of President Johnson, 457. Implied powers advocated, 271. Impressment of American seamen, 294. Improvements, internal, 315. Independence, Declaration of, 188. War for, 151-241. Indian troubles in early New England, 92-97. tribes, 92. Indians in early America, 30-33. Indians in intercolonial wars, 125, 126, 136. 145. in Revolution, 202, 205. in Ohio, treaty with, 277. make trouble in West, 472. Indies, trade of Europe with, 7-10. attempts to reach by sailing around Africa, 11, 12. reached by Vasco da Gania, 22. attempts to reach by sailing west, see Columbus. Internal improvements, 315. Intolerable Acts, 167. Invincible Armada, the, 51. Iroquois, the, 92, 115. Island No. 10, 398. Jackson, Andrew, in War of 1812, 309. nominated for president, 322. elected president, 326. Jackson, .\ndrew, as president, 329-339. "Stonewall," 406. . James I, King of England, 65. James II, King of England, 108, 1 19. Jamestown settled, 54-62. Japanese immigration, 486. Jay, John, 169, 273. Jefferson, Thomas, 188, 285-287, 295, 301. Johnson, Andrew, 45.3-458. impeachment of, 457. Johnston, General A. S., 396, 398. General J. E., 406, 433, 440. Joliet, French explorer, 46. Jones, Paul, 225. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 362. Kansas, struggle for, 363. Kentucky Resolutions, 280. King George's War, 127. King Philip's War, 94-96. King William's War, 123. King's Mountain, battle at, 223. Knights of Labor, 507. Know-nothing party, see American party. Ku Klux Klan, 463. Labor, Knights of, 507. American Federation of, .509. disputes and strikes, 506-510. Lafayette, Marquis de, 232. La Salle, French explor(;r, 4f'). Last French War, 132-146. Lee, General Charles, 195, 217. Henry (Light Horse Harry), 231. Richard Henry, 169. Robert E., 406-409, 416-420, 428-430. 438-441. Leisler, Jacob, 108. Leopard and Chesapeake, the, 294. Lewis and Clark expedition, 288. Le^\^s, Meriwether, 288. Lexington, battle of, 173. Liberator, the, 342. Liberty, Statue of, 530. Liberty party, 348, 357. Lincoln, Abraham, debates with Douglas, 369. election to presidency, 373. character of, 378. .sent relief to Sumter, 383. xlviii INDEX Liucolu, Abraham, Emancipatiou Proc- lamation of, 411-413. assassinated, 445-447. reconstruction plan of, 449. Lincoln, General, in Revolution, 2U5. Locomotive, first, 324. London Company, 55, 57, 58, 61. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 426. Lords of Trade, 151. Louisburg, 127, 128, 142. Louis XIV, King of France, 120. Louisiana claimed by France, 46. ceded to Spain, 148. bought bj^ LTnited States, 286-288. explored by Lewis and Clark, 288. Loyalists, see Tories. McClellan, General George B., 396, 405- 408, 415. McCormick reaper, 339. Macdonough, Commodore, 309. McDowell, General, 395, 406. McKinley, William, 499, 517. McKinley Tariff Law, 501. Madison, James, 249, 296. Magellan, Ferdinand, 28. Maine, admission of state of, 318. Maine, the, destruction of, 516. Manhattan, settled by Dutch, 76. Manila Bay, battle of, 518. Marion, Francis, 222. Marquette, French explorer, 46. Marshall, John, 280. Maryland settled, 86. Lee's first invasion of, 408. Lee's second invasion of, 416-420. Mason and Slidell, 414. Massachusetts Bay Company, 81. Colony, 81, 82. Massacre, Boston, 159-161. at Cherry Valley, 220. at Wyoming, 220. Massasoit, 68. Mayflower, the, 66. Meade, General George, 416-420. Menendez, 43. Merrimac, see Monitor. Mexican War, 350-354. Mexico, conquered by Cortez, 35. Texas breaks away from, 360. Frepch in, 511. Military rule in the South, 460. Mills Tariff Law, 500. "Minute men," in Revolution, 172, 175, 176. Missionary Ridge, charge up, 426. Mississippi, discovered by De Soto, 38. explored by Marquette and Joliet, 46. control of sought by English and French, 123. improvement of mouth of, 489. Missouri Compromise, 316. Mobile Bay, naval battle in, 436. Monitor and Merrimac, 404. Monmouth, battle of, 217. Monroe, James, 314. Monroe Doctrine, 316. enforced in Mexico, 511. enforced in the Venezuela dispute, 514. Montcalm, Marquis de, 142, 143, 144. Monterey, battle at, 352. Montgomery, General, 184. Morgan, General, 231, 232. Morrill Tariff Law, 500. Morris, Robert, 213. Morristown, 199. Morse, Samuel F. B., 340. Murfreesboro, 413. Napoleon, 288. Narragansetts, the, 93. Nashville, battle at, 435. National debt in 1789, 270. Nationalist movement, 315. National Republican party, 323, 347. National Road, 315. Navigation Acts, 151. Navy, U. S., in Revolution, 225-227. in War of 1812, 302-306, 309. in Civil War, 402-405, 436. in War with Spain, 517-519, 521. Necessity, Fort, 135. Negro slavery, see Slavery. Neutrality, Proclamation of, 279. New Amsterdam, 78, 79. Newfoundland, 127. New France, life in, 114-121. New Hampshire settled, 83. New Jersey settled, 87. New Netherland, 76-79. INDEX xlix New Orleans, battle of, 309. capturo of, in ([."ivil War, 402. New York, 7i). in Revolution, 187- 192. Niagara, Fort, l.'.G, 143. Nieholson, Fran -is, 108. Non-intercourse Act, 295. North, Lord, UVA, 106, 219, 239. North America, nat-iiral resources of, 103. North Carolina settled, 87. Northmen, 3-G. Northwest, comiuest of, in Revolution, 223. Northwest Territory, 247. Nova Scotia, st'e Acadia. Nullification, advocated in Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, 2N(). in South Carolina, in 1832, 331-333. Oglethorpe, James, 89. Ohio Company, 132, 133. Ohio, Indian troubles in, 277. Oklahoma, 473. Ordinance of 1787, 247. Oregon, 340. Oregon, the, ijattleship, 521. ( )riskan.\-, battle at, 200. Otis, .lames, 152. Pacific Ocean, discovered by Balboa, 2S. crossed by jMagellan, 28. Palo Alto, battle at, 351. Panama (\inal, 529-532. Panic, financial, of 1837, 338. of 1873, 494. of 1893, 49,S. Paris, Treaty of, 239. Parliament, see Acts of Parliament. Parties, political, .sec Federalists, Anti- federalists, Repul)licans, National Rcijul)licans, Whigs, Democrats, American party. Fiiberty party. Free Soil party. Progressive party. Patroons, 77. Payne Tariff Law, 502. Peninsular Campaign, 405-408. Penn. William, 87, SS. I'cnnsylvania .settled, 87, 88. Pcquot War, 92-94. Pcrr\-, Commodore, 304-300. Petersburg, siege of, 429-43S. Philadelphia, founded, 88. taken by British in Revolution, 207. Philip, King (Indian), 94-90. Philippine Lslands, 517, 522,527. Phonogra[)h, 477. Pickett's Charge, 418. Pierce, Franklin, 301, 306. Pilgrims, the, 65-70. Pitcairn, Major, 175. Pitt, Fort, 142. Pitt, William, 142, 154, 156. Pittsburg riots, 507, .50S. Pizarro, Francesco, 35. Plattsburg, 309. Plymouth C^ompany, 55. Plymouth Rock, 67. Plymouth settled, 54 70. Pocahontas, 57. Polk, .James K., .348, 351. Polo, Marco, 10. Pontiac's (Conspiracy, 145. Popular Sovereignty, 363. Port Hudson, 403, 423. Porto Rico, 522. Port Royal, 127. Portuguese exploration, 11, 12, 22. Powhatans, 57. Prescott, Colonel, 182. Presidential elections, see Elections. Presidents and Vice-presidents, list of, five api)endix. Princeton, cai)ture of, 198. Progressive party, 533. Proprietary colonies, 86, 88, 90, 106. Protective tariff. 379, 532. Public lands, 471. Puritans, 64, 81. Putnam, General Israel, 189. Quakers, 87. Quebec, settled, 44. captured in Last French War, 143. Queen Anne's War, 125. Railroad, first in .\nierica, 323. development, 468-471. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 49-51. Randolph. John, 325, 326. Reciprocity, 501. I INDEX Reconstruction, 448-464. Acts, 451, 455, 456. Republican party ( Jeffersoniar ) , 271, 272, 273, 279, 280, 285, 296, 314. known as Democratic, 323. (after 1856), 363, 368, 373, 453, 457, 494, 498, 500, 501, 502. Republicans, National, 323, 347. Resaca de la Palma, 351. Resumption of specie payments, 495. Revere, Paul, 174. Revolution, American, 151-241. Rhode Island settled, 82. Richmond, Va., Confederate capital, 394, 405-408, 413, 428-438, 439. Right of petition upheld by J. Q. Adams, 348. Right of search, 294, 311. Roanoke Island, Raleigh's colony on, 50-52. Roqhambeau, Count, 229, 233. Roosevelt, Theodore, 520, 523. Rosecrans, General, 423-426. Royal provinces, 107. Ramsey, James, 290. Russian America (Alaska), sold to United States, 512. St. Augustine founded, 37. old Spanish gate at, 38. St. Clair, General, 203. St. Leger, General, 201, 205. St. Mary's, settled, 86. Salem, Mass., founded, 81. Sampson, Admiral, 518. San Juan Hill, battle of, 520. Santa Fe, 31, 101. Santiago de Cuba, 518. Saratoga, Burgoyne's surrender at, 209. Savannah, Ga., founded,- 90. Savannah, the, 339. Schenectady, massacre at, 124. Schley, Admiral, 519. Schuyler, General, 202, 203-205. Scott, Dred, see Dred Scott decision. Scott, General Wiofield, 352, 394. Search, Right of iM, 311. Secession of Southern states, 379-381. Sedition Law, see Alien and Sedition laws. Separatists, 65. Ser^pis Paul Jones defeats, 226. Seven Days' Battles, 406. Seven Years' War, see Last French War. Seward, William H., 362, 366. Sewing machine, first, 341. Shafter, General William, 519. Sharpsburg, see Antietara. Shays's Rebellion, 248. Shenandoah, Valley of in Civil War, 388, 430. Sheridan, General P. H. 430, 438. Sherman, General W. T., 428, 433-436. 439, 440. Sherman Law, 497. Shiloh, battle of, 399. Ship duels, in War of 1812, 302-.304. Silver, see Currency. Sioux Indians, trouble with, 472. Six Nations, see Irociuois. Slavery, begun in Virginia, 1619, 60. question in Federal Convention, 253. question in Congress, 1820, 316. abolition of, advocated, 342, 348. became foremost question, 349. Wilmot Proviso, 354. Compromise of 1850, 358. Kansas-Nebraska Act, 362. Dred Scott Decision, 368. John Brown's Raid, 370. Secession, 379-381. Emancipation, 411-413. Slave states, 317. Slave trade, opposition to, 254, 316. Slidell, see Trent affai-.. Smith, Captain John, 55, 57, 58. Sons of Liberty, 154. South, the, during Reconstruction period, 460-464. since the War, 488-490. South Carolina settled, 87. Nullification in, 331-333. seceded, 379. Spain, attempts at colonization of, 35-39. Spanish discoveries, map, 36. Balboa, 28. Cortez in Mexico, 3.5. Pizarro in Peru, 35. Ponce de Leon in Florida, 35, 37. De Soto discovered Mississippi, 38. Coronado in Southwest, 38. INDEX Spanish War, 514-522. Specie (^ircuhir, 338. Specie payments, resumption of, 495. Speedwell, the, 06. Spoils system, 331, 503. Stamp Act Congress, 154. Stamp Act passed, 152. repealed, 154. Standish, Captain Miles, 66, 68. Stanton, Edwin M., 456. Stanwix, Fort, 201. Star of the West, the, 382. States' debts in 1789, 270. States' rights doctrine, 280, 331. Steamboat invented, 289. Stephenson, George, 324. Steuben, Baron, 216, 232. Stevens. Thaddeus, 450. Stow(>, Harriet Beecher, 361. Strikes, labor, .see Labor. Stuj've.fant. Peter, 79. vSumner, Charles, 362, 363. Sumter, Fort, fall of, 381-383. SnmttT, General Thomas, 222. S»ipreme Court established, 269. Swanzey, 95. Swedes settled in America, 80. Taft, William H., 527. 'rariff, first passed, 270. liorthern and southern views on, 319. legislation from 1816 to 1828, 324-326. legislation from 1828 to 1833, 331-333. legislation from 1833 to 1909, 499-502. Tariff of Abominations, 326. Taxation without representation, 153, 157, 1.58. Tax on tea, 15(5, 163. Taylor, General Zachary, 351, 357. Telegraph, the, 340. Telephone, the, 477. Temperance movement, 342. Territorial expansion, map opp. 524. Texas, 350. Thames, battle of th(\ 306. Thanksgiving Day, the first, 70. Thomas, General, 426, 435. Ticonderoga, 143, 181, 201, 203, Tilden, SanmelJ., 495. Tobacco in Virginia, 59, Tories, 158, 202, 222, Toscanelli's map, 14. Townshend Acts, 156. Trade routes to the East, 7-12 ; map, 9 Trades unions, see Labor. Treasury, U. S., established, 338. Treaties, 1763, 148. Paris, 1783, 240. Ghent, 1814, 310. Mexican War, 354. Paris, closing Spanish War, 522. Trent affair, 414. Trenton, battle of, 190. Trusts, 486. Turks take Constantinople, 10. Tyler, John, 348. Underground Railroad, 361. Union Pacific Railroad, 469. United States Bank, first. 270. attacked b,\' .Jack.-ion, 336. Valley Forge, luniy at. 214 210. Van Buren, Martin. 339. ^'enezuela boundary (lucstion, 514. Venice, a trade (enter. 10. Verrazano, 41. \'cspucius, .\niericus, 26. Vicksburg, 422. Vikings, 3-0. Vinland, 5. Virginia, colony of, 54-62. Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, 280. Virginia, the, ironclad, 404. Wages, see Labor. War lietween the States, pp. 386-447. War of the Revolution, 152-241. War of 1812. 294-312. War with Mexico, 350-354. War with Spain, 514-522. Washington, George, in the French War, 134, 136, 138. in Revolution, 169, 181, 184. in New York campaign, 189-192. in New Jersey, 194-199. at Valley Forge, 214. at Yorktown, 233-237. '.n Federal Convention, 251-259. inaugurated president, 262. as president, 271, 272, 273, 277, 278. lii INDEX Washington, Colonel William, 231. Washington, city, 285. burned Viy British in ^^'al• of 1812, 308. Wayne, Anthony, 277. Webster, Daniel, first in Congress, 315. in defense of Union, 332. Seventh of March, speech of, 350. West, the development of, 466-471. West Point, in Revolution, 230. A\'est Virginia, 338. Whig party in United States, 347. Whigs, 158. AVhisky Rebellion, 277. Whitney, Eli, 282. Wild-cat banks, 337. A\'ildorness, battles uf, 428. William III, King of England, 119. Williams, Roger, 82-93. Wilniot Proviso, 354. Wilson, Woodrow, 535. Winchester, 430. Winthrop, John, 81. Wireless telegraphy, 478. Witchcraft, 111. Wolfe, General James, 143. Writs of Assistance, 152. Wyoming, massacre at, 220. X. Y. Z. afTair, 279. Yorktown, siege of, 233. Young Republicans. 290. Source Readers in American History SELECTED AND ANNUTATKD BY ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, of Harvard University IN FOUR VOLUMES. ILLUSTRATED No. I. Colonial Children = • ■= Price 40 cents, net No. 11. Camps and Firesides in the Revolution. Price 50 cents, net No. III. How Our Grandfathers Lived « Price 60 cents, net No. IV. Romance of the Civil War • Price 60 cents, net Source Book of American History FOR SCHOvM,S AM) KKADKRS Edited by ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D. Editor of "American History toid hv Comkmporariks," etc. Cloth. i2mo. 6o cents, net "A volume that we have examined with close attention and can commend with confidence. 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