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Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive 
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MiniM, TemperiDg, BoiieaiiDg 
 
 AND 
 
 FORGING OF STEEL 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE PRACTICAL TREATMENT AND 
 WORKING OF HIGH AND LOW GRADE STEEL 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 THE SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF STEEL, THE MOST 
 MODERN AND APPROVED HEATING, HARDENING, TEMPER- 
 ING, ANNEALING AND FORGING PROCESSES, THE USE 
 OF GAS BLAST FORGES, HEATING MACHINES AND 
 FURNACES, THE ANNEALING AND MANUFACTURING 
 OF MALLEABLE IRON, THE TREATMENT AND USE 
 OF SELF-HARDENING STEEL, WITH , SPECIAL 
 REFERENCE TO CASEHARDENING PROCESSES, , 
 THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF MILL- 
 ING CUTTERS AND PRESS TOOLS, THE USE 
 OF MACHINERY STEEL FOR CUTTING 
 TOOLS, FORGING AND WELDING, HIGH 
 GRADE STEEL FORCINGS IN AMERICA, 
 FORGING OF HOLLOW SHAFTS, 
 • DROP-FORGING, AND GRIND- 
 ING PROCESSES FOR TOOLS 
 AND MACHINE PARTS 
 
 BY ' > ' , 
 
 JOSEPH V. WOODWORTH 
 
 Author of "Dies, Their Construction and Use''* 
 
 Illustrated by 201 Engravings 
 
 NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. 
 
 132 Nassau Street 
 
 New York 
 
 1903 
 
■^ 
 
 a o 
 
 COPYRIGHTED, I902, 
 BY 
 
 Norman W. Heni^ey & Co. 
 
 Macgowan & Slipper 
 
 printers 
 
 30 Beekman Street 
 
 New York 
 
 U. S. A. 
 
 ^-:^^^(>3m 
 
TO 
 
 GEORGE WOODWORTH 
 
 MY FATHER, FRIEND AND FEI<I,OW WORKER, TO WHOSE I,OVE, 
 
 AFFECTION AND ENCOURAGEMENT I OWE MORE THAN 
 
 CAN EVER BE REPAID, THIS BOOK IS 
 
 AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED 
 
 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 29 
 
 In preparing this treatise the author has had as an incitement 
 the knowledge that tliere was very little -information to be had on 
 the treatment and working of steel of practical value to the gen- 
 eral mechanic. For this reason he is convinced that a practical 
 book on the treatment and working of the metal as modern de- 
 mands necessitate, that is, in regard to heating, annealing, forg- 
 ing, hardening and tempering processes, cannot fail to prove of 
 interest and value to all mechanics who use tools or who are in 
 any way engaged in the working of metals. 
 
 When the fact is considered that tools made from the best 
 grades of steel will not perform the work required unless they 
 have been treated properly during the various heating processes, 
 the value of a knowledge of the most satisfactory and approved 
 arrangements and methods to the mechanic is at once apparent. 
 
 With the object in view of giving to practical men a book 
 treating and presenting this paramount subject in a clear, con- 
 cise and practical manner, the author has drawn upon a personal 
 experience of many years, gathered all the information obtain- 
 able, eliminating all unnecessary and obsolete matter, and added 
 all that is approved, up-to-date and authentic. 
 
 In regard to originality we lay claim to very little, for, al- 
 though the facts contained in a large number of the items have 
 been gained through years of experience at the forge, bench and 
 machine, we are indebted to others for a greater portion, and 
 merely claim to have, as a great poet has said, "gathered the 
 fruits of other men's labors and hound them zvith our ozvn string." 
 To the technical journals, notably the American Machinist, Ma- 
 chinery, the Iron Age, the Scientific American, the Age of Steel, 
 Modern Machinery, and Shop Talk; to master mechanics of 
 well-known shops, to many American machine-tool and tool and 
 die making concerns, and to individual fellow craftsmen, the 
 author takes pleasure in herein acknowledging his indebtedness, 
 with thanks for a larg-e number of facts contained in this volume. 
 
 The chapters on Miscellaneous Methods, Tables, and on Emery 
 
6 PREFACE. 
 
 Wheel Grinding of tools, have been thought so near akin to the 
 general subject of this work, that they have been given a place and 
 will be found valuable to the tool maker and general machinist. 
 
 Much valuable information was furnished, and many of the 
 engravings which were used to illustrate the work were kindly 
 loaned to the author by the following named firms : Cincinnati 
 Milling Machine Company, Cincinnati, Ohio; American Gas Fur- 
 nace Company, New York, N. Y. ; Faneuil Watch Tool Com- 
 pany, Brighton, Boston, Mass. ; Standard Tool Company, Cleve- 
 land, Ohio; J. H. WilHams Company, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; the 
 Rogers & Hubbard Company, Middletown, Conn. ; Pratt & 
 Whitney, Hartford, Conn. ; Garvin Machine Company, New 
 York, N. Y. ; Armstrong Brothers Tool Company, Chicago, 111. ; 
 Chicago Flexible Shaft Company, Chicago, 111. ; Nicholson File 
 Company, Providence, R. I. ; E. W. Bliss Company, Brooklyn, 
 N. Y. 
 
 Although the writer is aware that his efforts will meet with 
 criticism from those who may feel that it is not technical enough, 
 or that some particular process or special method has been ig- 
 nored, he is pleased to assure the reader that all that it does con- 
 tain has been authenticated, and he is convinced that the 
 majority will find in its pages information which will assist them 
 in overcoming trials and difficulties met with in the working of 
 this "truly zvondrous metal." 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y., December, 1902. 
 
 Joseph V. Wood worth. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 STEEL — ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION — STEEL FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES — 
 
 THE TREATMENT OF WELL-KNOWN BRANDS OF STEEL 
 
 — THE EFFECTS OF HEAT. 
 
 Selection and Identification of Steel — Steel for Different Purposes 
 — Die Steel — Steel Die Forgings — The Treatment of High-Car- 
 bon Steels — Experimental Treatment — The Treatment and 
 Working of Well-known Brands of Tool Steel — Heating for 
 Forging — Heating for Hardening — Treatment of High-speed 
 Self-hardening Steels — Annealed Die and Tool Steel — Treat- 
 ment of Annealed Die and Tool Steel — Treatment of Air-hard- 
 ening Steel — The Best Steel for Tools — Testing Tool Steel — 
 The Grain of Steel — Testing for Toughness — Economy in Test- 
 ing Steel Before Using — Decarbonized Steel Surfaces — How to 
 Know Tool" Steel from Mild Steel — Tool Holders and Tools — 
 Self-hardening Steel Cutting Tools — Speeds for Cutting Tools 
 — Cutting and Durability Qualities of Steel — Judgment, Experi- 
 ence, and Perception in the Working of Steel — The First Effects 
 of Heat — Unequal Expansion — Heat Effects on Clay — 
 The Amount of Force Exerted in Expansion or Contraction — 
 The Second Effect of Heat — Table of Expansion from 32 Deg. 
 F. to 212 Deg. F. — Kinds of Steel Produced in America by 
 the Crucible and Open-hearth Processes 13 to 2^ 
 
 CHAPTER H. 
 
 ANNEALING PROCESSES THE TERMS ANNEALING, HARDENING, AND TEMPER- 
 ING DEFINED — THE ANNEALING OF MALLEABLE CASTINGS. 
 
 The Terms Defined — How to Thoroughly Anneal High-grade Tool 
 Steel Parts — The Proper Heat for Annealing — Annealing in 
 the Charcoal Fire — Good Steel for Good Tools — Annealing — 
 An Annealing Box for Small Parts — Water Annealing — The 
 Effect of the Water Anneal — The Annealing of Tap Steel — 
 Reannealing Tap Blanks — How to Heat for Annealing — An- 
 nealing a Small Quantity of Steel— Annealing Steel in the 
 Open Fire — Quick Methods for Softening Steel — To Anneal 
 Doubtful Steel — Annealing Chilled Cast-iron Dies for Drilling 
 ^Annealing White or Silver Iron — The Annealing of Malle- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 able Castings and the Manufacture of Malleable-iron Machine . 
 Parts — The Foundry, and Preparation of the Castings — An- 
 nealing Furnaces — Packing the Castings — Different Methods 
 of Packing Castings in Pots — Annealing, Straightening and 
 Finishing Malleable Castings — Heating the Annealing O'vens — 
 General Matter Relative to Malleable-iron Manufacturing. .. .36 to 49 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 THE HEATING AND COOLING OF STEEL LOCATION OF HEATING ARRANGE- 
 MENTS THE USE OF GAS BLAST FURNACES AND HEATING MACHINES 
 
 TOUGH STEEL AND HARD STEEL — THE DIFFERENCE. 
 
 The Heating and Cooling of Steel — Proper Equipment for Harden- 
 ing and Tempering — Pomts to be Remembered — The Loca- 
 tion of the Heating Furnace — The Use of Gas-blast Furnaces 
 and Heating Machines — Gas-blast Forges — Their Use — Combi- 
 nation Gas Furnace for General Machine-shop Work — Gas 
 Forge for Small Work — Gas Forge for Heating Drop Forgings 
 — Air-tempering Furnace — Gas Forge for Knife and Shear 
 Blades — Bench Forge — Oven Furnaces for Annealing and 
 Hardening — Case-hardening Furnaces — Heating-machine for 
 Hardening the Edges of Mower Blades — Heating-machine for 
 Hardening Cones and Shells — Heating-machine v^^ith Revolving 
 Trays — Heating-machine for Small Parts — Barrel Heating-ma- 
 chine for Hardening and Tempering Balls, Saw Teeth, Screws, 
 etc — Construction and Operation of Barrel Heating-machine — 
 Heating-machine for Tempering and Coloring Steel — Circular 
 Annealing and Hardening Furnace — Oil Tempering Furnaces 
 — Automatic Heating-machine for Hardening Chain — Cylindri- 
 cal Case-hardening Furnaces — Lead Hardening Furnace — 
 Melting Pots — Cyanide Hardening Furnaces — Regular Sizes of 
 Muffles — MufBe Furnaces — -Tough Steel and Hard Steel — the 
 Difference 50 to 94 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE HARDENING OF STEEL — HARDENING IN WATER^ BRINE, OIL, AND SOLU- 
 TIONS — SPECIAL PROCESSES FOR SPECIAL STEEL. 
 
 Judgment and Carefulness in Hardening — Successful Hardening — 
 Different Quenching Baths— Their Effect on Steel — General 
 Directions and Rules for the Hardening of Steel — Distortion 
 Through Uneven Heating — The Hardening Fire and the Heat — 
 Quenching for Hardening — The Hardening of Long Slender 
 Tools — Hardening Small Parts and Long Thin Parts — Harden- 
 ing in Solutions — Heating in Hot Lead for Hardening — Hard- 
 ening Metal Saws — Mixture to Prevent Lead from Sticking 
 
CONTENTS. 9 
 
 when Heating for Hardening — Hardening Long Taper Ream- 
 ers — The Use of Clay in Hardening — Special Instructions for 
 Hardening and Tempering — Hardening and Tempering Round- 
 thread Dies — Hardening Bushings, Shell Reamers, Hobs, etc. — 
 Hardening and Tempering Collet Spring Chucks — -The Taylor- 
 White Process for Treating Steel 95 to ii6 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 TEMPERING — BY COLORS — IN OIL — ON HOT PLATES — BY THERMOMETER — IN HOT 
 WATER — IN THE SAND BATH — BY SPECIAL METHODS. 
 
 Tempering — Tempering in the Sand Bath — The Effects of Slow 
 Heating and Tempering — Tempering in Oil — Hardening and 
 Tempering Springs — Blazing off Springs — Tempering Rock 
 Drills in Crude Oil — Hardening and Tempering Mill 
 Picks — Straightening Hardened Pieces that have Warped 
 — Tempering Thin Articles — Tempering in the Charcoal 
 Flame — Tempering Wood-planer Knives — Tempering Swords 
 and Cutlasses — Drawing Polished Steel Articles to a 
 Straw Color or Blue — Tempering Solutions — Table of Melt- 
 ing Points of Solids — Table of Tempers to Which Tools 
 should be Drawn — Table of Suitable Temperatures for An- 
 nealing, Working and Hardening — Table of Suitable Tem- 
 peratures for Case-hardening, Core Ovens, Drying Kilns, Bak- 
 ing Enamels and Vulcanizing Rubber — Table of Temper Colors 
 of Steel 1 17 to 12S 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CASE-HARDENING PROCESSES — THE USE OF MACHINERY STEEL FOR CUTTING 
 TOOLS AND THE TREATMENT OF IT. 
 
 The Use of Machine Steel for Press Tools — Outfit for Fine- 
 Grain Case-hardening — Packing and Heating the Work — Case- 
 hardening Cutting Tools — How to Case-harden, Color and An- 
 neal with Granulated Raw Bone — To Case-harden Without 
 Colors — Hardening Extra-heavy Work — Hardening Drawbridge 
 Disc and Similar Work — Hardening Five-inch Thrust Bearing 
 Rings — How to Harden Rolls, Leaving Tenons Soft for Rivet- 
 ing — How to Case-harden Malleable Iron — How to Use Old 
 Bone — Bone and Charcoal — Using the Tell-tale — Obtaining Col- 
 ors with Granulated Raw Bone — Preparation of the Work — 
 Charring the Bone — Packing the Work — Heating — The Bath — 
 How to Dump the Work — Cleaning the Work — Colors from a 
 Light Straw to a Deep Blue — Directions for Annealing with 
 Granulated Raw Bone — Cooling — Annealing Low-carbon Steel 
 Bars — Annealing Iron Castings — Case-hardening with Cyanide 
 of Potassium — Accurate Sectional Case-hardening — To Produce 
 
lO CONTENTS. 
 
 Fine-grained Hardened Machine-steel Parts — Case-hardening 
 the Ends of Steel Rails — Very Deep Case-hardening — To Case- 
 harden Small Iron Parts — To Case-harden with Charcoal — 
 Moxon's Method of Case-hardening — A Case-hardening Mixture 
 for Iron — A Case-hardening Paste — Case-hardening Polished 
 Parts — Case-hardening as it should be Understood 129 to 142 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HARDENING AND TEMPERING MILLING CUTTERS AND SIMILAR TOOLS. 
 
 Hardening Milling Cutters in the Open Fire — Hardening Large 
 Milling Cutters — Hardening and Tempering Milling Cutters in 
 Water and Oil — Advantages of the Method — Hardening V- 
 shaped Milling Cutters — Hardening Hollow Mills — Milling 
 Cutters 143 to 155 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND STRAIGHTENING ALL KINDS OF SMALL TOOLS. 
 
 Hardening Ring Gages — Dipping Small Tools when Hardening — 
 Dipping Half-round Reamers or "Gun" Reamers when Hard- 
 ening — Dipping Fluted Reamers when Hardening — Straighten- 
 ing Long Tools which have Warped in Hardening — Hardening 
 Very Thin Tools so as to Prevent Warping — Warping of 
 Long Tools in Hardening — Temperature Tell-tales for Use 
 in Heating Steel — Working Steel for Tools — Hardening Small 
 Saws — Hardening Cutter-bits — Hardening Mixture for General 
 Smith Work — Tempering Flat Drills for Hard Stock — To Tem- 
 per Gravers — To Temper Old Files — Hardening and Tempering 
 Small Taps, Knives, Springs, etc. — Tempering Small Spiral 
 Springs — To Draw Small Steel Parts to a Blue 156 to 161 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES AND ALL KINDS OF PRESS TOOLS FOR 
 THE WORKING OF SHEET METAL. 
 
 The Hardening ' and Tempering of Press Tools— Hard or Soft 
 Punches and Dies — Hardening and Tempering Drop Dies — 
 How to Harden Large Ring Dies — How to Harden a Long 
 Punch so as to Prevent Warping— Steel for Small Punches 
 — Hardening a Blanking Die— Cracks in Dies— Their Cause 
 — Hardening the Walls of a Round Die— Reannealing a 
 Punch, or a Die Blank — Warping of Long Punches in 
 Hardening — Hardening Very Small Punches— Tempering 
 Small Punches— Hardening Fluids for Dies— Hardening Thick 
 
CONTENTS. II 
 
 Round Dies — Hardening Poor Die Steel — Tempering a Combi- 
 nation Cutting and Drawing Punch — Hardening and Tempering 
 a Split Gang Punch — Hardening and Tempering Large "Cut- 
 ting" or "Blanking" Dies 162 to 174 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 TORGING AND WELDING — HOW TO ACCOMPLISH SATISFACTORY RESULTS IN 
 THE FORGING AND WELDING OF STEEL AND IRON — DROP FORGING. 
 
 Welding Heats — A Good Welding Flux for Steel — Heating Steel 
 for Forging — Steel for Tools which Require to be Forged- 
 High-grade Steel Forgings in America — How Hollow Shafts 
 are Forged — Difficulties Encountered in Introducing High- 
 grade Forgings — Cold Crystallization does not Occur — Tests 
 of Steel under Repeated Stresses — Charcoal — Welding Powder 
 for Iron and Steel — To Make Edged Tools from Cast Steel and 
 Iron — To Weld Cast Iron — Welding Composition for Cast Steel — 
 How to Restore Overheated Steel — Composition to Toughen 
 Steel — Pointer — To Weld Buggy Springs — A French Welding 
 Flux — Compound for Welding Steel — Fluxes for Soldering and 
 Welding — Substitute for Borax in Welding — Drop-forging — 
 Directions for Setting up Forging Drop-Hamm.ers — Government 
 Use of Nickel Steel for Forgings 175 to 194 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, PROCESSES, KINKS, POINTERS AND TABLES FOR 
 USE IN METAL WORKING. 
 
 Increasing the Size of a Reamer when Worn — To Case-harden 
 Cast Iron — Improved Soldering and Tinning Acid — Rules for 
 Calculating Speed — Lubricant for Water Cuts — Babbitting — Lay- 
 ing out Work — Lubricant for Working Aluminum — To Prevent 
 Rust — Lubricant for Drilling Hard Steel — Coppering Polished 
 Steel Surfaces — To Blue Steel Without Heating — To Remove 
 Scale from Steel — To Dis'tinguish Wrought Iron and Cast 
 Iron from Steel — Anti-friction Alloy for Journal Boxes — Solder 
 for Aluminum — Case-hardening with Kerosene — Case-harden- 
 ing Cups and Cones — Drills — Reamer Practice — Reamers and 
 Reaming — Number of Teeth Generally Milled in Reamers — 
 Grinding Twist Drills — Circular Forming Tools — Plain Form- 
 ing Tools — Facing — Counterboring — Soldering — Lacquer for 
 Brass Articles — Removing Rust from Polished Steel and Iron — 
 Miscellaneous Information — Useful Information — Table of 
 Decimal Equivalents of Millimeters and Fractions of Milli- 
 tneters — Table of Decimal Equivalents of Parts of an Inch — 
 Table of Constants for Finding Diameter at Bottom of Thread — 
 
12 . CONTENTS. 
 
 —Table of English or American (U. S.) Equivalent Meas- 
 ures—Table of Weights and Areas of Round, Square and 
 Hexagon Steel— Table of Weights of Iron and Steel Sheets 
 —Table of Weights of Square and Round Bars of Wrought 
 Iron in Pounds per Lineal Foot— United States Weights and 
 Measures — Table of Tap Drills for Machine Screw Taps — 
 Table of Size of Drills for Standard Pipe Taps— Table of 
 Different Standards for Wire Gage used in U. S. — Table of 
 United States Standard Screw Threads — Formulas for Sharp 
 V Thread, United States Standard Thread, Whitworth 
 Standard Thread — The Acme Standard Thread — Table of 
 Thread Parts — Table of ^Average Cutting Speeds for Drills — 
 Table of Cutting Speeds — Horse Power of Belts — Cutting 
 Lubricant 195 to 225 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 GRINDING — THE ACCURATE AND RAPID GRINDING OF TOOLS AND SMALL 
 - MACHINE PARTS — EMERY WHEELS — THEIR USE. 
 
 Cutter and Tool Grinding — Prominent Features — Grinding a Spiral 
 Mill — Grinding Angular Cutters — Grinding Side-milling Cut- 
 ters — Grinding Milling Cutters or Metal Slitting Saws from 8 
 to 12 Inches in Diameter — Gear Cutter Grinding — Grinding 
 Formed Cutters — How to Grind a Worm-wheel Hob — Grinding 
 a Hand Reamer — Grinding a Taper Reamer — How to Grind a 
 Hardened Drilling Jig Bushing — How to Grind a Taper Spindle 
 — How to Grind a Slitting Knife with Beveled Edges — Internal 
 Grinding — Grinding a Straight Edge — Grinding a Shear Plate 
 — How to Grind a Die Blank' to the Required Angle — Grinding 
 a Formed Tool on its Face — The Emery Wheel Used as a 
 Metal Slitting Saw^Grinding a Gage to a Given Dimension- 
 Attachment for Surface Grinding — How to Grind Milling Cut- 
 ters and Metal Slitting Saws Straight or Concave— General 
 Directions — Diamond Tool Holder — A Small Cutter Grinder — 
 Illustration Showing Various Work Performed on a Different 
 Type of Universal Cutter and Tool Grinder — Attachments 
 which are Used on the Machine — Emery Wheels — Their Use — 
 Approximate Speeds for Emery and Polishing Wheels — Table 
 of Articles Made from Crucible Steel, Giving About Percent- 
 age of Carbon they should Contain 226 to 275 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION STEEL FOR VARIOUS 
 
 PURPOSES THE TREATMENT AND WORKING OF WELL-KNOWN 
 
 BRANDS OF TOOL STEEL THE EFFECTS OF HEAT. 
 
 Selection and Identification of Steel. 
 
 It would be a fine thing if we could start with giving the 
 name of a brand of tool steel which would answer for all kinds 
 of tools ; would harden without trouble, and temper evenly in the 
 "good old-fashioned way." But as we cannot do this, we can 
 only hope that some day a steel which will answer for all purposes 
 will be produced ; until then we must rest content with what 
 we have got and through experience learn of the best brand of 
 steel to use for a given purpose. 
 
 There is absolutely no economy in purchasing tool steel be- 
 cause it is cheap. In fact, economy in steel can only be obtained 
 by purchasing a grade of steel which is uniformly of the best 
 quality, as its superior lasting quality, and its ability to retain a 
 cutting edge for long periods make it the cheapest and most 
 satisfactory in the end. Such steel costs more in the beginning, 
 but then cheap steel has often cost almost "its weight in gold" 
 before it was thrown out. Almost every machinist, who has 
 worked in any number of shops, has had experience with the 
 different grades and brands of steel for tools, and he knows that 
 cheap steel is expensive. 
 
 As the first thing necessary to allow of successful metal work- 
 ing, in any branch of the machinist's art is good steel, too much 
 attention cannot be given to the selection of a steel of uniform 
 qualit}^ This can only be brought about through experience in 
 working and using the different brands for purposes required, 
 and when a grade has been procured which can be handled suc- 
 cessfully and gives satisfaction in use, stick to it and never 
 change until you are convinced that you have struck a better one. 
 
 After having selected the brands and grades of steel that are 
 suited for the classes of work required, adopt some method of 
 marking each separate brand so the workmen will be able to 
 recognize them without the fire and water test. The best way 
 to insure against difficulty arising from the mistakes in using 
 the wrong brand of steel is to have each brand or grade striped 
 
14 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 with a different color paint. Have some one stripe the steels 
 along their entire length, as soon as received, and either place each 
 brand in a separate rack with the name of the steel on it, or have 
 a board hanging near the steel rack with short stripes of paint of 
 the colors used and the name of each brand next the stripe de- 
 noting it. In this manner the brand of steel desired can be found 
 in a moment with the certainty that it will be the right brand. 
 
 Steel for Different Purposes. 
 
 For small reamers, taps, small round punches, which are to 
 cut at slow speeds, and other tools of a like nature, use drill rod, 
 not necessarily Stubs — any good American drill rod will answer 
 as well. Never use a very high carbon steel for taps and dies or 
 other threading tools. 
 
 Die Steel. 
 
 In no branch of the machinist's art should more attention be 
 given to the importance of the proper selection of steel than in 
 die-making, as the working qualities of the tools when finished 
 and their efficiency depend upon this more than anything else. 
 
 When ordering steel which is to be used for dies be sure to 
 specify that annealed steel is wanted, as the saving of time and 
 labor in the working of it, and the certainty of the results in the 
 hardening and tempering of it after the re-annealing, will be a 
 source of gratification to the mechanic. When these results 
 are considered the slight extra cost of annealed steel is insig- 
 nificant. 
 
 As to the grade of steel to use for dies, be sure to get a good 
 grade, and as there are several brands of steel on the market 
 which are used principally for dies and punches no difficulty 
 should be experienced in procuring a grade or brand which will 
 prove suitable for any special class of sheet-metal work. 
 
 Steel Die Forgings. 
 
 When steel forgings are required, from which dies are to 
 be made, the job should be given to a smith who understands 
 this branch of his art, as in order for the forgings to machine 
 well and allow of being hardened and tempered as desired, so 
 that the finished tools will accomplish the required results, the 
 smith must understand such work. As too high a welding heat, 
 a raw weld joint, rapid cooling of the forging and other effects 
 
STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION 1$. 
 
 of carelessness are often responsible for the spoiling of an ex- 
 pensive tool in hardening, a good smith is necessary for such 
 work. 
 
 The Treaiment of High-Carbon Steel. 
 
 The treatment of high-grade tool steel is a subject which has 
 been discussed often and to great length, but it is one of the 
 greatest importance to steel users and too much cannot be written 
 on it. How often has a piece of steel been condemned as being 
 of inferior quality when the fault lay, not in the steel, but ia 
 those who had selected and used it. The causes of failure in 
 using a high-grade steel are numerous. Often the proportion of 
 carbon is not right for the purpose required ; then again, the steel 
 is overheated when forging, annealing, hardening or tempering, 
 most frequently in the tempering process, which in high-grade 
 steel is a delicate operation requiring knowledge, skill and ex- 
 perience. 
 
 It is impossible for a machinist to determine the correct har- 
 dening process for high-carbon steels unless he is familiar with 
 the characteristic appearance of fractures of a specimen which 
 has been treated properly. Any operator who has worked steel 
 of good quality and is familiar with the appearance of the differ- 
 ent fractures has no difficulty in avoiding injurious treatment 
 during the hardening process. It is, however, impossible to 
 describe the appearance of fractures of high-grade steel of various 
 hardness in a manner to allow of their being understood by 
 mechanics in general, or in fact to be practically useful to any 
 great extent, this knowledge only being communicated to the 
 operator through experience. 
 
 Experimental Treatment. 
 
 Some idea may be gained of the great and varied alterations 
 produced in high-carbon steel through the different methods of 
 hardening by a description of a test experiment. If a forged or 
 rolled bar of high-grade steel is nicked at a number of places 
 equidistant apart along its entire length a suitable specimen will 
 be obtained for experimental purposes. Place one end of the bar 
 in the fire far enough to allow of heating the first section up to 
 the nick to a white heat. Thus the rest of the bar, being out of 
 the fire, will be heated to a decreasing temperature toward the 
 other end. As soon as the first section is at a white heat, thus 
 burning the steel, through its being of a high carbon percentage^ 
 
i6 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 and the heat of the remainder of the bar becomes a dull red, take 
 the bar from the fire and quench it instantly into a cold water bath. 
 Leave the metal in the bath until cold and then remove and dry 
 it. By testing with a file the first section will, of course, prove 
 
 the hardest, and the intermediate sections of degrees of hardness 
 passing from the softest to the hardest. Thus the conditions of 
 the different sections, when broken apart at the fracture points, 
 will show the operator the results in the steel when hardened at a 
 given temperature. On breaking the pieces at each neck it will be 
 
STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION 
 
 17 
 
 noticed that very considerable changes have taken place in the 
 grain of the metal. The first piece, which has been burnt, through 
 heating to a white, has a very open and crystallized fracture, 
 while the succeeding pieces are of a closer grain as they approach 
 
 the end. Thus the selected piece or section, which has been 
 subjected to the proper degree of heat in accordance with the 
 carbon percentage of the steel, will be found to possess that per- 
 fectly even grain and velvety appearance which is looked upon 
 by all experienced tool steel users as a condition to be prized in 
 
iS HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 hardened steel. The first pieces will probably show cracks from 
 being quenched at too high a temperature, while those at the other 
 end will be hardened throughout as desired. Thus, throug'h an 
 experiment of this kind, we learn that in order to make a piece of 
 steel hard and tough the temperature must be sufficiently high 
 to allow of hardening it through, but not high enovigh to open 
 the grain. 
 
 The Treatment and Working of W ell-Knozvn Brands of Tool 
 
 Steel. 
 
 The brands of tool steel in general use throughout the United 
 States and the ones which are best known and understood among 
 steel users are Jessop's, Hobson's, Crescent, Styrain, Howe- 
 Brown, Sanderson's, Capital and a number of self-hardening 
 brands. In the following we give descriptions for the working 
 of the different brands of which we have been able to obtain 
 data. For all high-grade steels the directions will prove satis- 
 factory. Figs. I and 2 show sections of shapes and sizes of file 
 steel. 
 
 Heating for Forging. 
 
 For Jessop's steels heating for forging is, in its way, quite 
 as important as heating for hardening; care and uniformity in 
 the application of the heat in the first instance is very essential. 
 Should the steel be overheated in this process no amount of care 
 afterward will restore the steel to its former state or remedy the 
 evil ; therefore, when forging, watch the blast and see that the thin 
 edges or exposed parts do not heat too fast. 
 
 In tools carrying a cutting edge, finishing cold and hammer- 
 ing hard is beneficial, such as forgings for cutting dies, for in- 
 stance. 
 
 Heating for Hardening. 
 
 Then comes the vital process of hardening, and no fixed gen- 
 eral rules will answer, as skill and experience are the only reliable 
 standbys. However, a few points will help in the attainment of 
 satisfactory results. Heat slowly and evenly in a charcoal or a 
 coal fire or in a gas muffle. Most mistakes and accidents are due 
 to the steel not being heated to the same temperature throughout ; 
 particularly is this so in large articles such as dies. 
 
 If possible, dip on a rising heat, that is, do not take a tool from 
 the fire and wait until it becomes air cool ; see that vou get it the 
 
STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION 
 
 19 
 
20 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 required heat and dip at once, always remembering that the lowest 
 heat at which steel will harden satisfactorily gives the best 
 results in hardness and toughness, conditions which must go to- 
 gether to insure satisfaction ; therefore do not exceed a low red in 
 heating. 
 
 Plain water, if clear and cold, will generally allow of harden- 
 ing sufficiently ; if not, brine should be used. There are also a 
 number of chemical compounds, receipts for which are given in 
 another chapter of this book, which give excellent results ; a prac- 
 tical experiment is, however, the safest to go by in adopting them 
 for hardening tools for different uses. 
 
 To harden small, intricate and thin tools, which must not 
 twist or warp excessively during the process, an oil bath will be 
 found the best to quench in. 
 
 Do not expose heated steel to a current of air, especially in 
 winter, and in intricate dies or milling cutters it is safer to allow 
 them to cool thoroughly before removing them from the quench- 
 ing solution. In quenching, a strong jet of water will help to 
 attain good results when hardening large dies, etc. 
 
 If you think that a little soap or oil has got into your water 
 bath, a handful of lime will clean it. The best way to do in a case 
 of this kind is to simply empty the tank and refill it with perfectly 
 clear water. 
 
 In hardening milling cutters or similar tools, in which there 
 is likely to be a great strain placed upon the tooth at its exposed 
 edges, it is best to take the chill out of the water by plunging a 
 red hot piece of cast iron into it. In some cases it is necessary 
 to protect exposed portions of such tools with clay and thus lessen 
 unequal contraction and strain. 
 
 Never attempt to harden tool steel without having first re- 
 moved the outer scale or skin ; this applies especially to annealed 
 steel. Also always remember that overheated steel will usually 
 crack when plunged into cold water. At all events it will be 
 useless unless restored. 
 
 Treatment of Jessop's High-Speed, Self-Hardening Steel. 
 
 Heat the steel uniformly and with moderate care, forge to 
 sliape at bright red and do not hammer cold. Having forged to 
 shape, the best results in hardening may be obtained by allowing 
 the tool to cool before the process. 
 
 To harden : Heat the nose of the tool to almost a white heat ; 
 
STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION. 21 
 
 do not be afraid of burning it, but when white hot remove and 
 aliow to cool away from the hearth. From the high temperature 
 a thick scale will result, which should be thoroughly removed by 
 grinding on a wet stone. A dry emery stone is usually more or 
 less detrimental to any steel. 
 
 After using a tool made from this steel for some time, and 
 regrinding five or six times to keep up its cutting qualities to the 
 fullest extent, it is found advisable to re-harden as described 
 above, doing this without re-dressing the tool unless the shape 
 requires alteration. 
 
 Annealed Tool and Die Steel. 
 Every mechanic appreciates the advantages to be gained in 
 using annealed tool and die steel, as it obviates the necessity of 
 annealing before roughing, economizes time and overcomes all 
 risks of overheating or burning during the process of annealing. 
 After roughing it may be heated to a low heat and left to cool 
 and then finished, when the results in hardening and tempering 
 will give perfect satisfaction. 
 
 Treatment of Annealed Tool and Die Steel. 
 
 In hardening tools made from ready annealed steel, heat slowly 
 and uniformly to a low red and use as little blast as possible. 
 This is especially needful in large die steel. 
 
 In forging, above all things avoid overheating and a strong 
 blast. Apply the heat uniformly, turning over the article in the 
 fire so as to give the heat a chance to reach the center. Have the 
 fire of sufficient size to allow of heating the article all over and see 
 that it is free from sulphur or other impurities. Never try to heat 
 a large block of steel in a small fire. 
 
 Treatment of "Capital" High-Grade Steel. 
 In working "Capital" steel it must be heated slowly and forged 
 to shape at a heat suitable for ordinary cast steel. It must be 
 heated gradually to a white welding heat and cannot be spoiled 
 by overheating if it is removed from the fire on the first indica- 
 tion of its reaching a melting point. It must be placed instantly 
 into a cold-air blast produced by a blower or compressed air. If 
 the nose is to be used the tool should be held on a direct line with 
 the blast, but not too close ; as soon as the steel stops sparking 
 turn on the full blast of air-pressure and hold the steel within 
 about two inches of the nozzle until quite cold. 
 
22 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 After the air-hardening process the tool must be thoroughly 
 ground, as the high heat forms a thick scale which must be re- 
 moved entirely in order for the tool to stand. 
 
 In hardening it is also advisable to have the cold air blast as 
 
 I^IG. 4. — SET OP HARDENED AND TEMPERED TURNING TOOLS 
 FOR PRECISION LATHE. 
 
STEEL^ ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION 23 
 
 near as possible to the heating arrangement, so that the tool can 
 be transferred immediately from the fire to the blast. On no 
 account let the point of the tool shift from the direct air current 
 until the tool is cold. If the article is laid down while hardening 
 it must be fastened securely so that the air blast will not shift it. 
 
 The Best Steel for Tools. 
 
 The question that has been asked more often than any other 
 of steel experts, by men responsible for results in metal working, 
 is : ."What make of steel is the best for general tool work?" This 
 question has never been answered satisfactorily and it never will, 
 as no two men handle and work a piece of steel alike, and until 
 mechanics follow instructions given for the working of the dif- 
 ferent brands they must find out through experience the best make 
 of steel for their special purposes. Any of the leading brands of 
 high-grade steel will prove satisfactory for general tool work if 
 heated perfectly, and in these two last words lies the attainment 
 of good results. 
 
 In order for the mechanic to work steel properly he must 
 know the different brands and adopt them for purposes which ex- 
 perience has taught him they are the best suited. Get the gen- 
 eral knowledge of the nature and peculiarities of the different 
 brands of steel and decide for yourself the purposes for which 
 they are best suited. When you obtain a brand that works well 
 when used generally stick to it. 
 
 Testing Too! Steel. 
 When a number of tools are to be made from the same bar of 
 steel, unless a piece of this particular bar has been used before 
 and given satisfaction, it is well to test it, especially when ex- 
 pensive tools are to be made from it. A good way to do this is 
 to cut off a thin disk from one end and harden it at a low red 
 heat. After the piece has cooled, dry it and crack it through the 
 center. Thus any defect which may run through the center of 
 the bar will become apparent. If there are any defects, return 
 the bar to the manufacturer. 
 
 The Grain of Steel. 
 If the steel proves sound the grain should be examined. In 
 doing this do not wet the fracture, as this would discolor the steel 
 and prevent examination. If the steel is good the grain will ap- 
 pear fine and close ; if bad, a coarse appearance will be presented, 
 
24 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 similar to broken cast iron. A coarse grain steel should never 
 be used for tools which will be subjected to much strain, such as 
 milling cutters, for instance. For hardness, test the center of the 
 fracture with a sharp, smooth file. If great hardness is required, 
 break a piece so as to leave a sharp point ; if the point cuts glass, 
 the steel will harden satisfactorily throughout. 
 
 Testing Steel for Toughness. 
 A great many steels will show a fine grain and will be of 
 sufficiently high carbon percentage to allow of hardening satis- 
 factorily, but will not prove tough enough for general usage. In 
 making expensive tools this quality should be determined before 
 proceeding with the machining. Harden a disk and place it upon 
 an anvil and strike the center a heavy blow with a hammer. If 
 it breaks instantly it is too brittle and is not tough enough, but if, 
 on the contrary, several blows are required to break it and at the 
 last blow the disk flattens a bit, it is fine steel and may be used 
 without fear of subsequent failure in hardening. 
 
 Economy in Testing Steel Before Using. 
 While these testing methods are rather costly in the beginning, 
 and in a great many cases can be dispensed with, their adoption 
 when making a number of costly tools will often prevent expensive 
 mistakes. Where a large amount of tool steel is used, some one 
 should be assigned to the task, and when a lot of steel comes in 
 he should cut a disk off each bar in the power hack saw, mark 
 each disk and its bar, and after a sufficient number of disks are 
 at hand he should test them. Thus at a moderate cost the cer- 
 tainty of the steel being satisfactory for required uses will be 
 determined, a large number of costly accidents possibly averted, 
 and a vast amount of time saved through the obviation of indi- 
 vidual testing by the tool-makers. 
 
 Decarbonised Steel Surfaces. 
 A fact which few tool-makers seem to realize, and one which 
 if generally known would save much trouble, is that the surfaces 
 of all steels as they come from the manufacturer are decarbonized 
 and, of course, will not harden. This condition cannot be over- 
 come in the present manufacture of steel, as the action of the 
 oxvgen in the air affects the steel in such a manner, as it is put 
 through the various operations required in its production, as to 
 burn out the carbon in the surfaces. For this reason do not 
 
STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION 
 
 25 
 
 select a piece of steel which will just "skin" up, but take a piece 
 large enough to require taking a good-sized cut off before reach- 
 ing the finishing surface. 
 
 Hoiv to Knoiv Tool Steel from Mild Steel. 
 
 In a great many shops very little attention is given to the 
 steel corner, rack, or box ; the floor is the most popular place for 
 steel storage in a number of shops. Very often machinery steels 
 and tool steels are piled together in one heap, and when the ma- 
 chinist goes to secure a piece he has to wonder "which is which." 
 There are any number of means for finding this out, but we give 
 here a very quick way. To test a piece of steel, touch the end 
 lightly against a dry emery wheel and watch the sparks as they 
 strike. A tool steel gives forth a spark which seems to burst 
 into a bright point of light when it strikes against the frame of 
 the grinder, while a spark from machinery steel is merely a dull 
 red incandescent particle. All air-hardening steels give forth 
 bright red sparks. 
 
 Tool Holder and Tools. 
 
 The engraving. Fig. 5, shows a simple home made tool holder 
 for lathe or planer, while Fig. 6 shows a set of tools to be used 
 
 FIG, 5. — A lathe; tool holder. 
 
26 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Broad 
 
 Nose 
 
 <EL 
 
 Break 
 k Corners 
 
 y> 
 
 Rougli out 
 
 Slots 
 
 77 
 
 \ Rounding 
 ^ Corners 
 
 Flat Bottom 
 Threads 
 
 \ \ Turning Steel 
 
 D 
 
 i> 
 
 Brass 
 \\M\ Turning 
 
 Parting 
 Tools 
 
 I> 
 
 Tool for Shaper 
 
 PIG. 6.— SET OF SELF-HARDENING STEEL-CUTTING TOOLS. 
 
STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION 2^ 
 
 with it. Neither will require a description. A set of these tools 
 and a holder of the construction shown will be found handy 
 things for a tool-maker to have in his drawer. 
 
 Self -Hardening Steel Cutting Tools. 
 
 A great many machinists complain about self-hardening steel 
 cutting tools, and say that it is impossible to accomplish fine re- 
 sults in turning or planed work with them, and for that reason 
 a great many will not use them. Now, when they say that for 
 fine work they are useless, they are right, as it is impossible to 
 get the edges of such tools to keep a keen edge for any length 
 of time so as to allow of taking smooth finishing cuts. But for 
 medium cuts and feeds and coarse thread cutting, machining 
 cast iron in the shaper, planer or lathe, for turning brass castings 
 and also for accomplishing different operations on cast iron parts 
 in the turret lathe, they are unequaled and should always be used 
 where the production of machine parts at the minimum of cost 
 and labor is imperative. For the face-milling of large castings, 
 where inserted tooth cutters are adaptable, the self-hardening 
 steel tools will be found to give the best results. There are sev- 
 eral brands of self-hardening steel on the market in any one of 
 which it will be found possible to hold an edge sufficiently keen to 
 allow of its being used for the purposes herein enumerated. 
 
 Speeds of Cutting Tools. 
 
 To secure the best results from steel used for cutting purposes 
 attention must be given to the use of calculations in or for de- 
 termining the proper speed for the work or tool, according to 
 conditions. As a rule the average machinist does not in ordinary 
 practice make use of these rules, but instead depends on the 
 knowledge acquired through experience and observation. For 
 the benefit of those who are not familiar with rules for finding 
 cutting speeds, and to obviate the necessity of guessing at the 
 proper speed, we give approximate cutting speed at which tools 
 or work should be run in the machining of different metals. 
 Figs. 7 to 24 illustrate tool holders and tools and the manner in 
 which they should be used. 
 
 Cutting speed for cast iron, 14 to 16 circumference or longi- 
 tudinal feet per minute. 
 
 Cutting speed for malleable iron, 16 to 20 circumference or 
 longitudinal feet' per minute. 
 
28 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 FIG. 7 — RIGHT AND LEFT SIDE 
 TOOLS, TURNING. 
 
 FIG, b. — RIGHT AND LEFT SIDE 
 TOOLS, PLANING. 
 
 ^''!iE'„' ' 
 
 31 
 
 FIG. 9. — PLANER TOOL. 
 
 FIG. 10. — MANNER IN WHICH PLAN:SR^ 
 TOOL IS USED. 
 
 x^ 
 
 
 FIG. 12. — CUTTING-OFF TOOL. 
 
 !*«fr«^1«*W|* 
 
 ^ 
 
 PIG. 13. — OFFSET CUTTING-OFF TOOL. 
 
 PIG. 14. — ^TURNING TOOL FOR LATHE. 
 
 FIG. 16. — BORING TOOL. 
 
 FIG. 15. — SHAPER TOOL. 
 
 FIG. 17. — BORING TOOL. 
 
STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION. 
 
 29 
 
 FIG. 20.— CUTTING INSIDK 
 THREAD. 
 
 FIG. 23. — PARTS OF "HOGGING 
 TOOL. 
 
 FIG. 21. — THREAD TOOL. 
 
 FIG. 24. — "HOGGING " CUT. 
 
30 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Cutting speed for steel, 12 to 15 circumference or longitudinal 
 feet per minute. 
 
 Cutting speed for brass, 28 to 40 circumference or longitudinal 
 feet per minute. 
 
 The circumstances and conditions upon which slight variations 
 of the speeds given above depend are numerous, among which 
 are : Whether a roughing or finishing, coarse or fine cut is being 
 taken ; the form and shape of the cutting tools ; the toughness and 
 density of the metals worked upon, and the surface feet machined 
 without regrinding the tool. There is a great deal of work done 
 in the lathe or in the planer which requires tools which project 
 far out of their holders. For such work the cutting speeds must 
 be considerably less than here given. Then, very often, the tex- 
 ture of the metal is tough and hard, necessitating slower speeds 
 and fine feeds in machining. For these reasons, it is a difficult 
 matter to lay down any exact rules for the accurate calculating of 
 cutting speeds ; so we give approximate speeds and leave their 
 variation to the machinist to determine according to the various 
 conditions. 
 
 Cutting and Durability Qualities of Steel. 
 
 The capacity of steel to cut lies principally in its temper, 
 while the durability of the cutting edges depends upon its quality 
 and adaptability to the kind of work for the machining or cutting 
 of which it is used. Thus to secure the best results in cutting 
 tools, steel of the best quality must be used. The cost of good 
 steel for tools should not be considered of much importance as 
 compared with its efi^ciency, because the cost is insignificant w^hen 
 compared with the results possible to attain by its use. Take, 
 for instance, a large milling cutter, or gang of small milling cut- 
 ters, made from good steel and weighing a few pounds, will ma- 
 chine many tons of metal without requiring grinding if subjected 
 to the proper hardening and tempering processes. The time re- 
 quired to machine a given surface depends very much upon the 
 quality of the steel of which this tool or tools is or are made, and 
 will vary thirty or forty per cent from a very slight dift'erence in 
 quality. 
 
 With a steel of a given quality the efficiency of the tools made 
 from it depends most upon the knowledge and skill employed in 
 the forging, annealing, hardening and tempering, and also upon 
 the shape of the cutting edges. So in considering the dift"erent 
 
STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION. 3 1 
 
 qualities of work performed by tools made from the same grade 
 or brand of steel, we must first know of the amount of skill em- 
 ployed in the performance of the heating operations. 
 
 Judgment, Experience and Perception in the Working of Steel. 
 
 To a great many mechanics any steel which will harden is con- 
 sidered good steel. To harden, however, is a very simple matter, 
 but to harden when heated to a definite degree requires skill, 
 and to harden a piece of steel so that it will possess a definite de- 
 gree of elasticity when tempered to a particular point of tempera- 
 ture after hardening requires skill and knowledge both. Thus 
 if all steel which will harden is good steel, and as there is an 
 absence of uniformity in the grades of steel in general use, the 
 operator must rely on judgment, experience and perception to 
 attain satisfactory results. 
 
 Even when the steel operated upon is of a uniform grade, the 
 heating processes will not always bring forth uniform results, 
 because steel decarbonizes somewhat by being heated, and thus 
 a small piece or tool deteriorates by being heated in the open 
 fire, and one often heated to repair or sharpen suffers in propor- 
 tion. From all this it will be understood that hardening and 
 tempering processes of steel must differ according to the size 
 and nature of the work, the amount of uniformity required, and 
 the results which the tools are required to accomplish. From 
 all these considerations we are forced to conclude that the in- 
 formation of value to practical men and the only way to instruct 
 them in the art of steel treatment is by presenting the practice of 
 the best shops and tool-makers and giving the processes and con- 
 ditions in connection with each other. 
 
 The First Effects of Heat. 
 
 Norton, in his "Elements of Natural Philosophy," says : 
 "The first effect of heat on any body, solid, liquid or aeriform, 
 is to expand it. 
 
 "The expansion of gases may be readily shown by an air 
 thermometer. This consists simply of a bulb of glass, with a 
 long narrow stem, dipping into colored water. If the bulb be 
 warmed by the hand, the air within will so expand that a portion 
 will be expelled and rise in bubbles through the liquid. On cool- 
 ing, the portion of air remaining will contract to its former 
 volume, and the water will t^ke the place of the air expelled. 
 
32 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 "The experiment may then be continued indefinitely. The 
 •expansion and contraction may be measured by the scale attached 
 to the stem ; it will be found that all expand equally and regularly 
 for successive increments of heat. 
 
 Unequal Expansion. 
 
 "The unequal expansion of different metals is well shown by 
 a compound bar, made by riveting together two bars of iron and 
 brass, at different points along their whole length. . . . 
 
 "If the bar is straight at ordinary temperature, it will so bend 
 when hot water is poured on it that the brass will be on the con- 
 vex side of the curve, and bend in the opposite direction when 
 cold water is poured on it. The brass expands and contracts 
 more than the iron, and the bar curves to accommodate the in- 
 equality of the length which results. This principle has been 
 applied to the construction of metallic thermometers. 
 
 Heat Effects on Clay. 
 
 "Clay does not expand by heat, but contracts permanently, by 
 reason of chemical changes in its particles. In the experiments 
 detailed, the bodies will be found to contract on cooling and as- 
 sume their original volume as soon as they attain their former 
 temperature. Certain metals, as lead and zinc, are exceptions 
 to this law of cooling, the contraction being at each time a little 
 less than the expansion. 
 
 "From this experiment it is evident ( i ) that the volume of all 
 b)odies is increased by heat; (2) that this increased volume is due 
 to motion among the molecules of the bodies, which tends con- 
 tinually to separate them; (3) that the intensity of the heat may 
 ht measured by the degree of the molecular motion. From these 
 and other considerations it is assumed that heait is that mode of 
 molecular motion zvhich may he measured by the expansion of 
 bodies. 
 
 "By this definition it is understood, (i) that the molecules of 
 every body are in continual motion; (2) that when this motion 
 increases in intensity the body becomes warmer; (3) that when 
 this motion decreases in intensity the body becomes cooler. An 
 older theory, which regarded heat as imponderable matter, has 
 been generally discarded, while some of its terms have been re- 
 tained ; hence it must be understood that when heat is described as 
 passing from one body to another, it means that the molecular 
 
STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION. 33 
 
 motion of one body is communicated to the molecules of another, 
 and not that any material agent has passed between them. 
 
 The Ainoiint of Force Exerted in Expansion or Contraction. 
 
 "The amount of force exerted in expansion and contraction 
 is enormous, for it is equal to that which would be required to 
 stretch or compress the material to the same extent by me- 
 •chanical means. 
 
 "Water, at the temperature 128 deg. Fahrenheit is compressed 
 ^000044 of its volume by the pressure of one atmosphere. On 
 being heated from 32 deg. Fahrenheit to 212 deg. Fahrenheit it 
 -expands .0466 of its volume. Therefore, to restore boiling water 
 to its bulk at freezing would require a pressure of over one thou- 
 ;sand atmospheres. The expansive force of water for each de- 
 gree Fahrenheit is nearly ninety pounds per square inch. Hence, 
 if a closed vessel be completely filled with cold water, it must 
 ;speedily burst when heat is applied. 
 
 "A bar of wrought iron expands, for each degree Fahrenheit, 
 with a force of nearly two hundred pounds to the square inch. 
 This force had a curious application in the Museum of Arts and 
 Trades in Paris. The walls of an arched gallery had bulged 
 -outward by the weight of the arch. Iron bars were placed across 
 the building and screwed into plates on the outside. The alternate 
 iDars were then heated, and as soon as they had expanded the plates 
 v/ere screwed up tightly to the walls. As the bars cooled and 
 contracted, they drew the walls closer together. The operation 
 was repeated until the walls had attained the vertical position. 
 
 "On the same principle tires are fastened on wheels. The 
 tire, made a little smaller than the wheel, is heated red hot, and 
 while expanded is placed in position. On cooling, it not only 
 .secures itself on the rim, but holds all the other parts of the wheel 
 in position. 
 
 "It is often necessary to take into account the changes of 
 length produced by heat. In railways a small interval must be 
 left 'between the ends of the iron rails. Iron bars built into 
 necessary lengths should be left free at one end. 
 
 "Brittle substances, as glass and cast iron, often crack on being 
 heated suddenly, because the outside is heated sooner than the 
 inside, and thereby causes an unequal expansion. A sudden 
 cooling, by inducing unequal contraction, has the same efifect. 
 The thicker the plate the greater the liability to fracture. 
 
34 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 The Second Effect of Heat. 
 
 "The second effect of heat on a sohd is to change its molecular 
 condition to melt it. Some solids, as paper, wood and wool, do 
 not melt, but are decomposed. The temperature at which solids 
 melt differs for different substances, but is invariable for the same 
 substance, if the pressure is constant. This temperature is called 
 the melting point. 
 
 Table of Expansion from 32 deg. F. to 212 deg. F. 
 
 Linear. Cubical. 
 Solids. I I 
 
 Flint glass 1/1248 1/416 
 
 Platinum 1/1131 i/377 - 
 
 Steel 1/926 1/309 ^^ 
 
 Iron 1/846 1/282 
 
 Brass 1/536 i/i79 
 
 Silver 1/524 1/175 
 
 Zinc 1/340 1/113 
 
 Tin 1/516 1/172 
 
 Fluids. 
 
 Mercury 1/55 
 
 Water 1/21 . 3 
 
 The fixed oils 1/12 . 5 
 
 Alcohol 1/9 
 
 Air and permanent gases 180/491" 
 
 Kinds of Steel Produced in America by the Crucible and Open 
 Hearth Processes. 
 
 Steel is produced in America by the crucible and open-hearth 
 processes in bars, rods, sheets, plates, wire, forgings and rolled 
 shapes. 
 
 The different kinds of steel produced by these methods com- 
 prise : Fine tool and die steel, self -hardening steel, ax and hatchet 
 steel, cvitlery steel, surgical and fine knife steel, composite die steel, 
 oil well and artesian bit steel, mining drill steel, annealed die- 
 blocks and cutter blanks, tool steel forgings, circular and long 
 saw plates, boiler and fire box plates, hot-rolled and cold-rolled 
 strip steel, polished high-grade drill rods and wire, needle wire, 
 resistance wire rods, music wire rods, nickel steel rods ; wire of 
 every grade, shape and size, bright, annealed and tempered ; cru- 
 
STEEL^ ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION. 35 
 
 cible steel rods, clock and watc!i spring steel, pen steel, magnet 
 steel, heavy gun forgings and projectiles, gun barrel steel, spring 
 steel, machinery steel, merchant bar steel, machinery steel forg- 
 ings, cold-drawn screw steel, hammer and sledge steel, welding 
 steel, soft center and soft back plow steel, agricultural steel of all 
 descriptions, sleigh shoe and toe-calk steel, wedge steel, laminated 
 safe steel, skate steel, etc. 
 
 One of the largest producers of steel in the world, by the cru- 
 cible and open-hearth processes, is the Crucible Steel Company 
 of America, Pittsburg, Penn. This company's products include 
 all of the steels above enumerated as well as many others too 
 numerous to mention. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 ANNEALING PROCESSES THE TERMS ANNEALING, HARDENING AND 
 
 TEMPERING DEFINED THE ANNEALING OF MALLEABLE CAST- 
 INGS. 
 
 The Terms Defined. 
 
 Annealing, hardening and tempering, are three terms used to 
 distinguish the different processes through which tool steel and 
 various other metals are required to pass in order to allow of their 
 heing used for the various purposes required in the atts. In 
 ■order that the mechanic may be able to adopt these processes to 
 the best advantage in the making of tools for different kinds of 
 work, he must learn that annealing means something more than 
 heating a piece of steel red hot and allowing it to cool ; hardening 
 more than heating red hot and plunging into water, and, that 
 tempering, something more than coloring a piece of steel. In fact 
 he must realize that the annealing, hardening and tempering of 
 steel is an art in itself, and that in order to become skilled in it, 
 constant vigilance, experience and study are necessary, from "the 
 ground up." 
 
 Metals are. annealed by slowly cooling them from a high tem- 
 perature. Annealing generally increases the flexibility, softness, 
 and ductility of bodies, and in this manner metals that have be- 
 come brittle through excess of strain in rolling, drawing, twisting, 
 hammering, forging or other mechanical means, may have their 
 properties restored by annealing. 
 
 Steel and a number of other metals, if cooled suddenly after 
 having been heated to a high temperature, become more brittle and 
 m.ore elastic than before. For instance, if a piece of tool steel is 
 heated to a white heat and then plunged into a bath of ice-water 
 or mercury, it will become almost as hard as a diamond, and will 
 be very elastic and so brittle that it can only be used for drilling 
 tempered steel or chilled iron, or for coining and engraving dies 
 and files of the hardest kinds. 
 
 When steel is in its softened condition it may be worked into 
 any shape required in the arts. To harden steel after it has been 
 worked, it is strongly heated and suddenlv cooled, and as it is 
 rendered too brittle by this hardening process (for ordinary pur- 
 
ANNEALING PROCESSES. 37 
 
 poses, at least), something of its elasticity must be sacrificed and a 
 portion of its hardness removed by reheating the steel to a lower 
 temperature and allowing it to cool slowly. This process is called 
 "drawing" or "tempering." The temper to which a piece of steel 
 should be drawn depends upon the use to which it is to be put, 
 and is regulated by varying the temperature of the second heat- 
 ing, the higher the degree of heat the softer the steel. 
 
 When a steel tool or article has been hardened, then polished 
 or ground and reheated, the film of oxide on its surface becomes, 
 at a temperature of 420 deg. F., of a light straw color, then 
 through intermediate hues to a violet yellow at 509 deg. F., blue 
 at 550 deg. F., while at 725 deg. F. the steel passes to a red heat. 
 These colors guide the workman in his efforts to temper the 
 tools as required. Light yellow is the temper required for all 
 articles or tools requiring a keen edge ; a deeper yellow for fine 
 cutlery, while violet is the temper for table knives requiring flexi- 
 bility more than a hard brittle edge, and blue for all articles or 
 tools which are required to be very flexible. 
 
 How to Thoroughly Anneal High-Carbon Tool Steel Parts. 
 
 Very often a large number of accurate small tools are to be 
 made from high-carbon steel, and as they are required to be 
 hardened perfectly so as to not warp, bulge, crack or shrink ex- 
 cessively, they must be perfectly annealed before finishing. 
 
 The most satisfactory rnethod for annealing high grade tool 
 steel parts is to pack in granulated charcoal in an iron box, ar- 
 ranging the parts so that they will not come higher than within 
 one inch of the top of the box, and cover with well packed char- 
 coal. Then place the box in the furnace or forge and heat to a 
 bright red, at which it should be held for some time, depending 
 upon the size of the parts to be annealed. For instance, parts 
 not over one inch in diameter or thick, if kept at a red heat for 
 an hour, after a through heat, will be found to have annealed as 
 desired ; large pieces must be kept hot for a period correspond- 
 ing to their size and shape. After the heat, allow the box to 
 cool off slowly and do not remove the parts until perfectly 
 cool. 
 
 The Proper Heat for Annealing. 
 
 It Has been found through experience that the proper Keat 
 for annealing is almost a forging heat. Keep at a bright red 
 long enough to overcome all strains which may have a tendency 
 
38 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 to manifest themselves during the hardening process. It is not 
 well to use cast iron chips or turnings for packing, as they will 
 decarbonize the steel to such an extent as to prevent successful 
 hardening afterward. Packing parts too near to the walls of 
 the annealing box will have almost the same effect as the chips; 
 in fact, it will be worse, as the decarbonizing effect will be unequal 
 and the surfaces nearest the box sides will be affected, thus mak- 
 ing whatever hardening possible unequal. 
 
 Annealing in the Charcoal Firei — 
 
 A great many shops have not the facilities to allow of using 
 the above described annealing process, and in such very satisfac- 
 tory results may be attained by heating the steel in a good char- 
 coal fire to about an even forging heat. After heating, put a 
 few inches of the fire ash in a box, and on top of the ash place 
 a soft pine board, then place the heated work on top and cover 
 the box. The wood will char and smolder and the steel will re- 
 main hot for a considerable period. Often a box of cold ashes 
 may be used to accomplish the same results to a less extent, as the 
 cold ashes or lime — either one acts the same — are apt to chill the 
 hot steel. However, when either of the three materials are used 
 hot, good results will be obtained. 
 
 Good Steel for Good Tools. 
 
 One of the points that a great many mechanics seem to forget 
 is the necessity of having good steel in order to do good tool- 
 making. Often upon asking a toolmaker, who was engaged in 
 making a tool or die, what brand of steel he was using, the 
 writer has been met with the answer : "I don't know." Make it 
 your business to discover the best brands for different purposes 
 and then stick to them. A steel that is good steel will show, when 
 hardened and broken, a white fracture free from coarse spots. 
 Get a steel of a carbon percentage that will allow of its being an- 
 nealed and hardened at a low red heat, as steel which requires 
 a very high heat to anneal and harden, will, nine times out of ten, 
 prove utterly unsatisfactory, and tools made from it will crack, 
 chip or spring when in use. 
 
 Annealing. 
 
 Although it does not seem to be generally known, the suc- 
 cessful hardening of a piece of steel depends greatly on the an- 
 
ANNEALING PROCESSES. 39 
 
 tiealing of it previous to machining it, and in order to harden 
 properly it is necessary that the correct processes of anneaUng 
 should be understood. Always anneal any odd-shaped piece, or 
 one with an irregular-shaped hole in it, after having roughed it 
 down. The best way to anneal such pieces is to pack them in 
 charcoal in an iron box, being sure to have as much charcoal at the 
 sides of the box as at the bottom, in order that the heat shall not 
 penetrate too quickly. The box should be kept at a red heat for 
 an hour, and then left in the ashes over night to cool. The proper 
 heat for such pieces in annealing should always be higher than the 
 heat required to harden the same piece. Experience has taught 
 us that a heat almost as high as a forging heat will be the means 
 of overcoming any undue tension or strain which may become ap- 
 parent when the piece is hardened. 
 
 An Annealing Box for Small Parts. 
 
 A good way to make an annealing box for small parts is to take 
 a piece of, say, 3-inch iron pipe about 10 inches long. Tap both 
 ends of the pipe and fit plugs to them ; cast iron will do. One of 
 the ends may then be closed and the charcoal and parts to be an- 
 nealed packed in, after which the other plug can be screwed in. 
 With a box of this kind no sealing is necessary, as the screw plugs 
 prevent the entrance of the air. 
 
 Water Annealing. 
 
 Very often a piece of steel is required for a repair job or some 
 other job in a hurry, and there is no time to anneal it in the regu- 
 lar way. At other times a piece which has been hardened re- 
 quires to be machined. When confronted with the above condi- 
 tions, a tool-maker can fall back on the "water annealing" and 
 after he has tried it a few times he will be delighted with the re- 
 sults. There are several methods of doing this, and we give here 
 the best of them all : The mechanic may adopt any of them, accord- 
 ing to the results secured from each. The first method is to heat 
 the steel slowly to a dull cherry red ; then remove it from the fire 
 and with a soft piece of wood try the heat, as it decreases, by 
 touching the steel with the end of the stick. When the piece has 
 cooled so that the wood ceases to char, plunge the steel quickly 
 into an oil and water bath. On machining the steel it will be 
 found to be very soft. 
 
 The second method for water annealing is to heat the steel 
 
40 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 slowly to a red heat, then allow it to lie in the ashes a few min- 
 utes until almost black, then drop it into soapsuds and allow it 
 to cool. 
 
 Very often a piece of steel annealed in this manner will turn 
 out much softer than if annealed in the regular manner by packing 
 ill powdered charcoal and allowing it to cool over night. A good 
 way to make sure as to the time to drop the steel into the bath,, 
 is to allow it to cool until almost black, then touch it with a file^ 
 if the steel does not brighten for an instant and then turn blue, 
 wait a few seconds and repeat the experiment. If, upon the 
 second trial, the blue appears and then a spark right afterward, 
 drop the steel instantly into the bath, and when cool it will be 
 found to be as "soft as butter." 
 
 Sometimes a piece of steel which is to be used as a punch or 
 die blank, upon starting to machine it, proves hard, although it 
 has been annealed. When this is the case, never try to finish it 
 before reannealing it ; instead, rough it down, clean out the cen- 
 ters and anneal it over again. The time required to reanneal a 
 piece of steel will be more than made up in the machining of it. 
 
 The Effects of the Water Anneal. 
 
 Although it may seem strange to some, it is a fact that results 
 possible to attain in steel which has been water annealed cannot 
 be obtained by any other methods. Water annealing seems to- 
 give a certain texture to the grain of the steel, which is not ex- 
 actly softness, but is different from that obtained by charcoal ash 
 annealing. When a piece of steel has been properly water annealed 
 and is turned in the lathe using a lubricant, it will present a 
 strange dead-white appearance and the turnings will be short 
 and come off like little bristles. 
 
 In steel annealed in the usual manner the turnings will gen- 
 erally come off in long close-curled lengths, and the surface 
 of the work will present a more or less torn texture, even when 
 the tool used is very keen. This tearing is caused by the steel 
 being so soft as to give way and crowd up into little lumps just 
 slightly ahead of the cutting edges of the tool. Thus in cutting 
 screw threads in ordinary annealed steel it is almost impossible to 
 get a smooth, clean thread. 
 
 The water annealing, however, seems to overcome this un- 
 pleasant feature, in that it seems to give the requisite stiffness 
 of texture to prevent this tearing. Considering the results, the 
 
ANNEALING PROCESSES. 41 
 
 water anneal will contribute to the best results being attained in. 
 a large variety of lathe work. 
 
 We are unable to state just what chemical or molecular action 
 the water anneal has on steel. It is not a softening action, as 
 compared with the effects of ordinary annealing, but instead a 
 sti-ffness and tightness of the particles which allows the cutting 
 edge of the tool to creep beneath the shell and peel it off. 
 
 The Annealing of Tap Steel. 
 
 Most of the large establishments in which taps, reamers, etc.,. 
 are manufactured have most of their steel annealed at the places 
 where it is made. This has been done for some years with the 
 possible exception of the steel from which long stay-bolt taps 
 are made, they having been found to require more care in anneal- 
 ing than the steel manufacturers give them. 
 
 During an interview a few years ago, Mr. F. A. Pratt, of the 
 famous American firm of Pratt & Whitney, spoke as follows in 
 regard to the working of tap steel : 
 
 "We have most of our tap steel annealed at the place where 
 it is made. We have had it done in this way for some years, with 
 the exception of our long stay-bolt taps, which we have found 
 to require more care in annealing than the steelmakers give them. 
 
 "More steel is injured, and sometimes spoiled, by over-anneal- 
 ing than in any other way. Steel heated too hot in annealing will 
 shrink badly when being hardened ; besides, it takes the life out 
 of it. It should never be heated above a low cherry red, and it 
 should be a slower heat than it is when being hardened. It should 
 be heated slowly and given a uniform heat all over and through 
 the piece. 
 
 "This is difficult to do in long bars and in an ordinary furnace. 
 The best way to heat a piece of steel, either for annealing or 
 hardening, is in red hot, pure lead. By this method it is done 
 uniformly and one can see the color all the time. We do some 
 heating for annealing in this way, and simply cover up the piece 
 in saw-dust, and let it cool there, and we get good results. All 
 steelmakers know the injurious effects of over-heating steel and of 
 over-annealing, but their customers are continually calling for 
 softer steel and more thorough annealing. Until users are edu- 
 cated up to the idea of less annealing and to working harder steel, 
 both will suffer, for the user will continually complain of poor 
 steel. 
 
42 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 "Several years since we caught on to the fact that steel was 
 injured by over-annealing, and that good screw threads could not 
 be cut in steel that was too soft ; our men would rather take the 
 steel bar direct from the rolls without any annealing than take the 
 risk of annealing. At present we get it from the makers in passa- 
 ble condition, but not as it should be, and unless the steelmakers 
 find some way to heat the bars to a^niform heat, and at a low 
 cherry red, we must either use it raw from the bar or anneal 
 it ourselves. We find, also, that this soft annealing makes a much 
 greater shrinkage and spoils the lead of the thread, and that from 
 the bar without any annealing there is very little trouble in this 
 respect. 
 
 "When O. H. and Bessemer machine steel was first introduced 
 it was poorly made and hard to work. Users constantly urged 
 the makers to make it softer, until when a maker could say his 
 steel was as soft as iron, and not more than o.io to 0.15 of i per 
 cent, carbon, he had the market. This company found out early 
 that this soft machine steel was almost worthless. A shaft would 
 bend easily in working, and if a lead screw was to cut it was not 
 possible to get a smooth thread and a good finish. 
 
 "Now we either make shafts and spindles of cast steel of a 
 high carbon or of machine steel of about 50 per cent carbon, with- 
 out annealing. Our men kicked at first, but now they complain 
 if it is soft, because they cannot cut a good thread and cannot keep 
 it as true." 
 
 Re-Annealing Tap Blanks. 
 
 Often, from improper annealing, a tap blank proves too hard 
 for thread cutting, this coming about in the annealing processes, 
 from not heating properly or not knowing the nature of the steel. 
 When this is the case always re-anneal the blank, and the loss 
 of temper and wearing out of good tools in trying to cut a thread 
 on too hard stock will be obviated. Before re-annealing take a 
 rough cut-off and clean out the centers. 
 
 Hozv to Heat for Annealing. 
 
 When annealing steel, heat very slowly to a red — never heat 
 it hot enough to raise scale — and allow lots of time for cooling. 
 A piece of steel heated hot enough to scale will never work well 
 unless re-annealed by some method which will restore it from its 
 almost burnt state. 
 
ANNEALING PROCESSES. 43 
 
 Annealing a Small Quantity of Steel. 
 When only a small quantity of steel is required heat to a 
 cherry red in a charcoal fire and pack in sawdust in an iron box. 
 Keep the steel in the pack until cold. For a large quantity, which 
 is required to be very soft, pack with granulated charcoal in an 
 iron box as follows : Having at least % or ^ inch in depth of 
 charcoal in the bottom of the box, add a layer of granulated char- 
 coal to fill spaces between the steel, and also }4 or % inch space 
 between the side of the box and the steel, then more steel, and 
 finally i inch in depth of charcoal well packed on top of the steel. 
 Heat to a red and hold for from two to three hours and do not 
 remove the steel from the box until cold. 
 
 Annealing Steel in the Open Fire. 
 Although the annealing of steel can be best accomplished by 
 some of the regular packing materials, there are cases, such as an 
 emergency job, when this cannot be resorted to, because of the 
 time necessitated. When a piece of annealed steel is wanted in a 
 hurry, try heating in an open fire and water annealing — heating 
 in a charcoal fire to a dull red, then letting the steel cool natur- 
 ally in the day light until the red disappears, and then quenching 
 in cold water. 
 
 Quick Methods for Softening Steel. 
 
 In the following we give a few methods for the quick anneal- 
 ing of steel, gathered from various sources : 
 
 Cover over with tallow, heat to a cherry red in a charcoal fire 
 and allow it to cool itself. 
 
 Heat the steel to a low cherry red and allow to cool in a dark 
 place until black. Then quench in the juice or water of common 
 beans. 
 
 Cover with clay, heat it to a cherry red in a charcoal fire and 
 allow to cool slowly. 
 
 To Anneal Doubtful Steel. 
 There are some kinds of steel which will not anneal satisfac- 
 torily even when packed in air-tight boxes in powdered charcoal. 
 To anneal steel of this kind, cover it with fine clay and heat to 
 a red heat and allow it to cool over night in the furnace. 
 
 Annealing Chilled Cast-iron Dies for Drilling. 
 As drawing and forming dies are often made of chilled cast 
 
44 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 iron, and as not infrequent!}' holes are required to be drilled in 
 them, it is well to know how to soften it to allow of drilling the 
 holes. To do this, heat the die to a cherry red and let it lie on 
 the coals. Then place a piece of brimstone, circular in shape and 
 a little larger in diameter than the hole to be drilled, on the spot 
 where the hole is to be. Let the die lie in the fire until it has died 
 out and the metal has cooled, and the brimstone will have softened 
 the iron entirely through within the radius of its diameter when 
 solid. 
 
 Annealing White or Silver Iron. 
 To anneal white or silver iron so that it may be drilled or 
 chipped, put it into a steel furnace or other converting furnace 
 together with a suitable quantity of ironstone, iron ore, some of 
 the metallic oxides, lime, or any other combination of these sub- 
 stances reduced to a powder, or any other substance capable of 
 combining with or absorbing the carbon of the crude iron. The 
 more or the longer the heat is applied, the more nearly malleable 
 the iron will become. 
 
 The Annealing of Malleable Castings and the Manufacturing of 
 Malleable Iron Machine Parts. 
 One of the largest establishments in this country devoted to 
 the manufacture of malleable iron machine parts, is situated in 
 Hoosick Falls, N. Y;, and is controlled by the Walter A. Wood 
 Mowing and Reaper Machine Company. A description of their 
 plant, methods, etc., will tend to an, intelligent understanding of 
 how malleable iron machine parts are produced. 
 
 The Foundry and Preparation of the Castings. 
 
 The malleable department, exclusive of its sheds, has a floor 
 space of over 163,000 square feet, the foundry alone measuring 
 485 X 125 feet. In this department, in which 350 men are em- 
 ployed, of whom 135 are molders, there are three furnaces with a 
 capacity of three heats each in a twelve-hour day. The largest 
 furnace, almost at the entrance of the foundry, will melt fourteen 
 tons of metal at each heat, while the other two in the center of 
 the foundry and at the extreme end, respectively, will each melt 
 ten tons. 
 
 The castings produced are mostly of small size and are made 
 from gated patterns. After they have been removed from the 
 molds they are broken from the gates and are sent to the preparing 
 
ANNEALING PROCESSES. '45 
 
 department, where they are sorted, and all lumps, fins and gate 
 joints are removed. The castings as they come from the molds are 
 almost as brittle as glass and it is possible to split or break them 
 with a light blow of a hammer. It is very interesting to watch 
 the men in this operation. They can take a casting, set the 
 •edge or lump to be removed on an iron block and break it off 
 at the joint with one blow, leaving the portion where the joint 
 "was as smooth as the rest of the casting. 
 
 Annealing Furnaces — Packing the Castings. 
 After the castings have been sorted and prepared they go to 
 another department to be packed into the annealing pots. These 
 pots are cast,, and are about 24 inches long, 12 inches deep and 
 12 inches wide, and an inch thick. A mixture consisting of 
 •common sand, fine steel turnings and steel scale from the rolling 
 mills is then wet with sal-ammoniac (which prevents the steel 
 turnmgs and scale from adhering to the castings during the an- 
 nealing process) and packed around the castings in the annealing 
 pots. The pots are now taken to the annealing room. In this 
 room there are eight ovens, the walls of which are three feet 
 thick and the tops and bottoms four feet thick. To build each of 
 these ovens 4,500 red brick and 1,500 white or firebrick were re- 
 quired. In each oven there are flues three feet square, running 
 the full length of the oven and out into the stack at one end. 
 There is also one intermediate flue, and a flue at each side into 
 Avhich the crude oil blast is fed. 
 
 Different Methods of Packing Castings in Pots. 
 There are various methods for packing castings for annealing. 
 The term "packing" is a shop one applied to the class of materials 
 which are used for the above purpose, and in addition, supply 
 •oxygen or have the latter in their composition. A number of 
 different materials are used for the former purpose which are 
 used principally on lighter castings. Almost anything that will 
 :stand up well while hot is suitable, like ground burned fire brick, 
 iron borings, and sand. As they of themselves do not supply 
 ■oxygen, it is necessary in using them that oxygen be obtained 
 by means of a coating of rust or oxide upon the castings either 
 bjcfore or after charging the pots. In rusting them before, much 
 of the oxide becomes rubbed off in packing. Packing the cast- 
 ings wet will do, provided there is some certainty of their being 
 
46 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 oxidized before heating. Wetting the packing with diluted am- 
 nionia is a very sure means, and is the most satisfactory way of 
 handhng this material. 
 
 Packing or charging castings in the pots, so that they retain 
 their shape and do not scale or warp while hot, is a process that 
 cannot be well described. In general, they should be packed 
 with a view to keeping the packing in close contact with the 
 castings during the settling of the contents of fhe pot. For in- 
 stance, flat plates or sections should be packed on edge ; if on the 
 side, they will scale on the bottom, from which the packings have 
 settled. This explains why some castings scale and others do 
 not in the same pot. Castings having projections or unequal 
 sides, which can therefore be stacked on top of each other, are 
 built up from the bottom plate with a view to balancing the pile. 
 All long sections and long castings, unless packed in pots that 
 will admit of their being placed horizontal, should be set upon 
 the bottom plate vertically. I have seen castings 5 feet long 
 become ^ inch longer than the pattern, because they were packed 
 some inches above the bottom plate and hung in the pot during 
 settling. As a general rule, there is a relation between the amount 
 of the packing and the castings, or between the oxygen in the 
 packing and the carbon in the castings ; there can therefore be a 
 condition where there is not sufficient packing between the cast- 
 ings to anneal. There should always be an excess in favor of the 
 packing. The packing of the castings is carried upward with a 
 view to meeting the unequal heating of the pots — that is, heavy 
 castings in the top and light ones in the bottom, separated by 
 plates when the occasion requires it. Beginning with the bottom 
 plate, the first pot is usually a new one. They do not take the 
 heat readily, on account of the sand upon them, and for this 
 reason should be broken in on top. Owing to their weight, how- 
 ever, it is not practical to use them there. Building or packing 
 continues upward, the pots being placed according to their age, 
 the top pots passing through the service. 
 
 Annealing, Straightening and Finishing of Malleable Castings. 
 Tn the malleable department of the Wood works, in each an- 
 nealing oven, pots containing twenty tons of castings are 
 packed as close together as possible, after which the vents and 
 doors are sealed up and the ovens are heated. It requires twen- 
 ty-four hours of steady blast to get the ovens and castings to a 
 
ANNEALING PROCESSES. 4/ 
 
 white heat. They are then kept at that temperature for five days 
 and five nights, after which the blasts are turned off and the 
 vents at the tops of the ovens opened. After the vents have been 
 open for five hours. the door is pulled down and five hours later the 
 nearest pots are removed, and in the course of a few hours the 
 others are taken out and allowed to cool. They are then dumped 
 and the castings are sorted. All that have cracked or blistered 
 or have warped excessively are thrown out. The good castings 
 are then sent to the straightening department to be straightened 
 and reformed, so as to fit the jigs and fixtures which are used 
 for machining those which are required to be machined and to 
 m.ake the others interchangeable. The straightening and re- 
 forming of the castings are accomplished by dies in powerful 
 presses. There are seven different machines, one a hydraulic 
 press of seven tons, one five-ton power press, and two powerful 
 drop hammers. On shelves surrounding the straightening room 
 are hundreds of sets of dies. The dies for the large castings are 
 of gray iron, while those for the small parts are of hard iron. 
 The dies are cast in the department's own foundry by first getting 
 a plaster model of the inside of the master patterns and one of 
 the outside and then casting the dies from this model. 
 
 After the straightening and re-forming process, the castings 
 are sent to the grinding and finishing department. Here all 
 lumps and fins which were not removed before the annealing are 
 ground off. The parts to be machined are finished in special 
 jigs and fixtures on the drill press, milling machine or lathe, as 
 most suitable, and the castings are then ready for the storeroom. 
 
 As every size and style of casting produced in the foundry is 
 numbered, and as the numbers run from i to 2,503, some idea may 
 be formed of the storage space required. The patterns used are 
 of composition metal. They are stored in a fireproof vault, 65 
 by 25 feet and 12 feet high. 
 
 Heating the Annealing Ovens. 
 To heat the annealing ovens, crude petroleum is used, the oil 
 being pumped from three tanks sunk in the ground 300 feet from 
 the ovens and 200 feet from the engine-room in which pumps are 
 located. One tank holds 13,000 gallons of oil and the other two 
 6.000 gallons each. The large tank is located beneath the rail- 
 road track and is filled from tank cars, and this in turn fills the 
 small ones. The pump used to pump the oil to the annealing 
 
48 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 ovens runs continually and has not been shut down twelve hours 
 in a year. To melt the iron used in the malleable iron foundry 
 soft coal is used, the furnaces being so constructed as to allow 
 ■of the coal being placed in the front part and the metal and other 
 materials required to produce hard iron at the back, the heat 
 being driven in on the mixture by air pressure. 
 
 General Matter Relative to Malleable Iron Manufacturing. 
 
 Mr. Robert Leith, the superintendent of the department, has 
 been with the Wood Company for twenty-five years, and has been 
 responsible for the many innovations in his department tending 
 to economic production, one of which is to use in his foundry all 
 ■of the scrap steel produced in the main works. He has used 100 
 pounds of the scrap steel to every ton of iron, and has secured the 
 very best of results by so doing. Formerly it was necessary to 
 sell the scrap steel for almost nothing, in comparison with its 
 cost to the firm, but now the malleable department disposes of 
 all of it. The output from the malleable department per week 
 is usually 150 tons of good castings, the bad work coming from 
 the foundry and annealing department not being counted. The 
 power required for the department is derived from a 150 horse- 
 power engine, which has been in use over twenty-five years, and is 
 to-day a fine example of what care and a good engineer can do 
 for an engine in regard to its longevity. 
 
 On the harvesting machinery manufactured by the Wood 
 Company a great deal of chain is used. The links composing 
 these chains are produced in the malleable department and the 
 chains are assembled and finished there. The links are cast from 
 gated patterns, as many as fifty links to each mold. The gating 
 is done in such a manner that when the castings have been 
 broken from the gate bars very little irregularity of surface is 
 evident; what projections remain are ground off after the anneal- 
 ing process. The chains are assembled in continuous lengths by 
 an automatic machine, the links being fed through a chute at the 
 front and the chain fed out automatically at the back. The 
 chains are subjected to various tests to insure their being the 
 length required. Often (as the links are not machined before as- 
 sembling) some of the chains will be shorter than required, this 
 coming about through unequal rapping when molding, etc., the 
 part where the links unite being thicker in some than in others, 
 the accumulation in the course of a number of links making quite 
 
ANNEALING PROCESSES. 4^ 
 
 a difference in the length of the chain. This defect is overcome 
 by means of another machine, in which the chains are stretched 
 until they are of the required length. 
 
 There is a metal pattern shop connected with the department 
 in which all the patterns used in the foundry are finished. In 
 this shop some of the finest metal pattern-work that I have ever 
 seen is turned out, as is evidenced by the fact that out of a thou- 
 sand castings of a certain shape only two were found to be "off" 
 enough to prevent their being machined in the fixtures provided 
 for them. Besides producing all the malleable castings which 
 the works require, the department also does custom work, and it 
 has the reputation of having done some of the finest work in the 
 country. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE HEATING AND COOLING OF STEEL — LOCATION OF HEATING 
 
 ARRANGEMENTS THE USE OF GAS BLAST FURNACES AND 
 
 HEATING MACHINES — TOUGH STEEL AND HARD STEEL; THE 
 DIFFERENCE. 
 
 The Heating and Cooling of Steel. 
 
 There are any number of shops in which a great deal of un- 
 necessary expense is incurred in the anneahng, hardening and 
 tempering of steel through improper heating and cooling during 
 the processes ; and while often inexperience is the cause of such 
 expense, more often the crude and obsolete means employed for 
 lieating and cooling are to blame. 
 
 The fact is obvious to all that where expensive tools are 
 made, proper facilities should be provided for the heating proc- 
 esses through which they are put. If there is any economy in 
 providing fine machine tools and employing skilled mechanics 
 to make fine small tools and utterly ignoring the requirements for 
 the annealing and tempering of them, we fail to see it. 
 
 Now, while a plain ordinary forge is all right and will be 
 found to be all that is necessary for the annealing and tempering 
 of rough tools, it will not do for fine ones. When it is considered 
 that an accurate cutting tool which has been annealed properly 
 before finishing, and then carefully and accurately hardened and 
 tempered afterward, will accomplish many times the amount of 
 vfork that an imperfectly treated one will, the expense incurred 
 in providing suitable heating facilities is insignificant, when the 
 longevity of the tools treated is considered. In shops where a 
 fair number of fine cutting tools are made and used, the cost of 
 proper heating arrangements will be made up in a short time by 
 the money saved through the use of properly hardened and tem- 
 pered tools. Another thing : after having installed a suitable 
 hardening plant, hire a mechanic to run it who understands the 
 treatment of steel. With this combination, and a supply of good 
 high-grade steel, there will be no dissatisfaction with the working 
 ciualities of the cutting tools ; if there is, there v/ill be no excuse 
 for it ; carelessness will be to blame. 
 
HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 
 
 51 
 
 BIG. 2S. — TYPES OF EXPENSIVE MILLING CUTTERS. 
 
52 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 The only way to heat steel properly and thoroughly is to not 
 expose it to the action of air when hot, as the air will decarbonize 
 the surfaces considerably. "^Thus, when" steel is heated in a muffle 
 furnace an even degree of heat is assured and all air is excluded. 
 
 Proper Equipment for Hardening and Tempering. 
 
 The proper equipment for annealing, hardening and temper- 
 ing tools of different types can be decided by noting the various 
 descriptions for obtaining the best results given in this and other 
 chapters of the book. A number of types of furnaces, mufflers 
 and other arrangements are shown in this chapter and their use 
 and adaptation for different classes of work explained. 
 
 Points to be Remembered. 
 
 To heat and cool steel properly, remember the following : 
 Never heat a piece of steel which is to be annealed above a bright 
 red. Never heat a piece to be hardened above the lowest heat at 
 which it will harden, and the larger the piece the more time re- 
 quired to heat it is required, which will have to be higher than a 
 smaller piece of the same steel, because of the fact that a large 
 piece takes longer to cool than a smaller piece, as when a large 
 piece of steel is plunged into the bath a large volume of steam 
 arises and blows the water away from it, thus necessitating more 
 time in the cooling. Thus, when the tool or die is very large, a 
 tank should be used to harden it in, into which a stream of cold 
 water is kept constantly running, as otherwise the red hot steel 
 will heat the water to such a degree that the steel will remain 
 soft. 
 
 The Location of the Heating Furnace. 
 
 Although in a great many shops very little importance is 
 attached to the proper placing and locating of the furnace which 
 is to be used during the hardening processes, it will be found that 
 if the location chosen is in a darkened corner where the sun's 
 rays will not come near it, the best results will be attained. No 
 matter what kind of hardening is to be done, the heating arrange- 
 ments should never be located where there is too strong a light, 
 or where the sun shines in at any time of the day. If the light 
 is uniform it will not be difficult to attain uniform results, while, 
 on the contrary, if the light is too bright, there is a chance of 
 heating the steel too hot and, when it becomes darker, not hot 
 
HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 53 
 
 enough. When a uniform light is maintained during the day the 
 men become accustomed to it and no trouble is experienced in get- 
 ting the best of results. 
 
 The Use of Gas Blast Furnaces and Heating Machines. 
 
 The use of gas blast furnaces and heating machines has now 
 become so extensive as to have almost completely superseded the 
 old methods, and the furnaces and machines are now used in se- 
 curing the highest possible efficiency in the use of heat for me- 
 chanical purposes as well as in the processes of metallurgy and 
 chemistry. 
 
 Gas blast furnaces are designed for the economical use of gas 
 as fuel in forges, crucible furnaces, annealing, enameling, case- 
 hardening ovens, assaying, cupeling and other muffle furnaces, 
 japanning ovens, and drying and baking kilns, in all of which 
 the heat is generated by a properly proportioned mixture of gas 
 and air, injected under positive pressure, through burners espe- 
 cially adapted to each of the different kinds of gas in common 
 use. 
 
 Heating machines may be called "modern machine tools," 
 made for special heating processes, as they are combinations of 
 gas furnaces and moving machinery for the automatic feeding 
 and discharging of work which is to be annealed, hardened, tem- 
 pered or forged in quantities. 
 
 The chief advantages derived from the use of gas as a fuel are 
 the perfect adjustment of temperatures to suit exact require- 
 ments, which is impossible with either solid or liquid fuel ; the 
 ease with which any desired degree of heat can be obtained by 
 simple adjustments of two valves, the uniformity of its distri- 
 bution within given space, the partial or complete absence of oxida- 
 tion, and, generally, the perfectly uniform condition under which 
 any heating process can be performed irrespective of the quanti- 
 ties of work to be heated. 
 
 The gas consumption, cost of gas as compared with other 
 fuel, while an important factor in determining the adoption of 
 gas furnaces for the cruder operation of melting or forging, 
 scarcely deserves consideration with reference to furnaces or 
 heating machines for hardening, tempering or annealing large 
 quantities of work, because no approximately equal amount of 
 perfect work can be produced by the use of any other fuel than 
 gas. 
 
54 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Gas Blast Forges — Their Use. 
 
 Gas blast forges heat the work quickly, uniformly, and ^with 
 little or no scale. They are always ready for use and develop 
 the r.equired amount of heat in a few minutes. They are used lu 
 machine shops for tool dressing and forging ; in the production of 
 quantities of small forgings, such as cutlery, and for drop forg- 
 ings generally. 
 
 While offering decided advantages, no single gas forge or 
 furnace can replace the ordinary coal forge in everything, because 
 to be thoroughly effective, as well as economical in gas con- 
 sumption, the gas forge must be made for a definite range of 
 work, and its heating space limited so as to conform to its size 
 and shape, with only fair allowance for clearance space. 
 
 In order to determine the applicability of any of the various 
 styles of gas forges now on the market, the dimensions of the 
 entrance, height, width, depth, and length of the heating chamber 
 must be considered, and a fair allowance made for clearance. 
 When samples of work to be done are furnished to the manu- 
 facturers of such machines, together with a statement of the 
 quantities to be heated in any given time, they will design special 
 forges. 
 
 When gas blast forges are used in forging the overheating of 
 the metal is entirely prevented, a non-oxidizing atmosphere re- 
 ducing the scale to a minimum, thus supplying properly heated 
 stock as fast as it can be handled. 
 
 For welding, special forges should always be designed for any 
 particular kind of work, so that the blast will be confined closely 
 to the joint to be made. In welding tires, the diameter, width 
 and thickness will determine the shape of the entrance to the forge 
 and conform to it. 
 
 Combination Gas Furnace for General Machine Shop Work. 
 
 In Fig. 26 we illustrate a combination gas furnace ready to 
 operate. 
 
 This furnace combines on one base three most useful furnaces 
 for general machine shop and tool work. It will heat quickly 
 and uniformly any piece or pieces that will go into its various 
 openings. The muffle can be heated to a good heat for hardening 
 in from ten to twelve minutes and kept at the desired temperature 
 indefinitely. The forge will heat a piece i inch round to a good 
 
HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 
 
 55 
 
 hardening heat in one minute, starting with the furnace cold. 
 The crucible full of lead can be heated to cherry red in about 
 thirty-five minutes. 
 
 A furnace of this type occupies very little room ; does not 
 require to be connected to chimney ; can be placed right in the 
 tool room or anywhere it is most convenient ; can be started in- 
 stantly, and covers a range of uses that makes it practically indis- 
 pensable. All sorts of small tools, such as dies, milling cutters, 
 
 PIG. 26. — COMBINATION GAS FURNACE. 
 
 reamers, punches, taps, drills, springs, cutlery, marking rolls, 
 etc., can be' heated in the muffle under the best possible condi- 
 tions, 
 
 A section of this combination furnace, showing the muffle 
 with walls cut away to illustrate arrangements of combustion 
 chamber and muffle, is shown in Fig. 2^. 
 
 The flame is projected from the double burners downward into 
 the chamber encircling the muffle ; the lining is of such shape that 
 a rotary motion is imparted to the flame, causing same to distri- 
 
56 
 
 BLARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 bute itself evenly all over the inclosed space ; the products of 
 combustion are drawn ofif by the two small openings at the top of 
 
 the chamber. The muffle is 
 heated rapidly and evenly 
 ^throughout; the degree of heat 
 is under perfect control; the 
 work is absolutely secluded from 
 the products of combustion, a 
 feature of the greatest import- 
 ance in heating dies, milling cut- 
 ters and other expensive tools. 
 Absolute uniformity can be 
 maintained; overheating can be 
 entirely avoided, difficult pieces 
 can be hardened without danger 
 of cracking by reason of an even 
 heat throughout. 
 
 Every manufacturer whose 
 product involves the machining 
 
 FIG. 27. — SECTION OP FURNACE 
 CONTAINING MUFFLE, SIZE 
 5x8x15 INCHES. 
 
 FIG. 28. — FORGE SECTION OF FURNACE. SIZE OF OPENING, 
 2,}4x4)4 INCHES. LENGTH, 1 4 INCHES. 
 
HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 
 
 57 
 
 of metals realizes the necessity of having modern apparatus for 
 systematically applying heat, the output of his entire plant depend- 
 ing quite as much on the temper of his tools as on any other one 
 condition. To get good results from tools use good steel and 
 harden and temper it properly and the result will invariably be 
 satisfactory. 
 
 The forge section of this furnace is shown in Fig. 28, 
 
 The combustion chamber is circular in form and is heated 
 
 FIG. 29. — CRUCIBLE SECTION OF FURNACE. 
 
 by two burners which project the flame downward, the form of 
 the lining giving the flame a rotary motion, evenly distributing 
 it all over the chamber. The heat is under perfect control. This 
 forge is very convenient for dressing and hardening tools and 
 small forgings and for a variety of work where seclusion from the 
 products of combustion is not required. 
 
 In Fig' 29 is shown the crucible section of the furnace. The 
 
58 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 combustion chamber is circular in form ; burners are so arranged 
 that the flame is projected into the chamber without striking the 
 crucible direct. A rapid centrifugal motion is imparted, dis- 
 tributing the heat evenly and thoroughly. The products of com- 
 bustion are drawn off at vent in the rear. 
 
 For heating a great variety of small pieces the lead bath offers , 
 m.any advantages over other methods. By keeping the tempera- 
 ture of the lead at the proper point, overheating is impossible and 
 uniformity is secured. Small pieces can be heated very rapidly 
 by this method. 
 
 For tempering a crucible (Fig. 30) similar to the one used for 
 
 FIG. 30. — CRUCIBLE. 
 
 the lead bath is filled with beef tallow. The exact heat required 
 to temper or draw the work is easily maintained as indicated by 
 a thermometer, which should be suspended in the bath. For all 
 small tools, milling cutters, screw springs, punches, dies, etc., there 
 is no method of tempering (or drawing) so satisfactory as this. 
 Temperatures that have been found to give the best results can 
 repeatedly be employed. The work to be tempered can be sus- 
 pended in the liquid tallow by means of a wire basket, or other 
 convenient method, and can be left there indefinitely without dan- 
 ger of the temper running too low ; all parts of the piece or pieces 
 immersed, whether of thin or thick section, will be evenly 
 heated. 
 
HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 59 
 
 Gas Forge for Small Work. 
 The gas forge shown in Fig. 31 is of a type commonly used 
 for dressing and hardening tools and smaller forgings. The 
 heating chamber is circular inside, and its capacity is Hmited iir 
 
 PIG. 31. — GAS FORGE. ENTRANCE, 6 INCHES WIDE BY 3 INCHES 
 HIGH ; DEPTH OE HEATING SPACE, 6 INCHES. 
 
 the size of the entrance to the heatmg chamber, and a correspond- 
 ing opening in the back is ordinarily closed by a "plug," which 
 can be removed when a clear passage through the furnace is re- 
 
6o 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 quired. Two burners project into the heating chamber from the 
 distributing pipe, D, W, so adjusted that direct contact of the 
 flames with the work is avoided. Perfect combustion is steadily 
 maintained, the work is quickly and evenly heated and oxidization 
 reduced to a minimum. 
 
 The furnace is connected with air by a tin pipe at B, and the 
 
 FIG. 32. — GAS forge; FOR HEATING DROP FORGINGS, 
 
 cock A controls the air supply. Gas connects with union from 
 the nearest supply pipe by ^-inch pipe at P, and globe valve G 
 controls the gas supply. The small cock C feeds a "pilot light" 
 in the mouth of the furnace, which is left burning so as to 
 instantly light the forge when the main supply is turned on. The 
 bottom of the furnace can be cleaned of scaling by removing a 
 plug which is held in place by the set screw I, which passes 
 
HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 6l 
 
 through the hanger, K. The air relief valve R is a test valve to 
 show the air pressure at the furnace, and when this has been found 
 sufficient it can be weighted down tight. 
 
 Gas Forge for Heating Drop-Forgings. 
 
 The style of forge shown in Fig. 32 is extensively used for 
 drop forgings, to heat blanks continuously and keep them at the 
 proper heat. The heating space is 10 inches deep, 8 inches wide 
 and 3 inches high. The burners, B, penetrate the chamber from 
 opposite sides and the flames do not strike the work direct. , The 
 blanks rest upon a fire brick bottom, which is removable from the 
 rear for cleaning out the chamber. This forge is extensively used 
 in connection with oil gas, but can be adapted to every other 
 kind. 
 
 Air Tempering Furnace. 
 
 Air tempering furnaces of the type shown in Fig. 33 are used 
 for drawing the temper of steel work of all kinds, but more espe- 
 cially for small light work in quantities. While cutters, punches^ 
 dies and knife blades are perfectly tempered in heated oil, in oil 
 tempering furnaces, the air tempering furnace is used when the 
 oil stain is objectionable, or when it is desired to show a bright, 
 clear, temper color of any desired shade, from a light straw to a 
 blue or gray. 
 
 The furnace contains an iron muffle with a horizontal partition 
 in the bottom which forms an air-heating chamber below the 
 level of the entrance into which the air is forced from the blower 
 which operates the furnace, the injection of which is controlled by 
 the valve H. From this air heating chamber the heated air is 
 disiributed through numerous fine holes so as to keep the muffle 
 filled with heated air under a slight pressure, which is exerted 
 around a thermometer stem when the door is closed. 
 
 The burner is controlled by the air valve A, and the gas valve^ 
 G. The connection with blower is to the drum, D, and gas is 
 brought to the gas valve, G. The burner distributes the heat 
 evenly under the muffle and around it, so that the atmospheric 
 temperature within the working space of the muffle is perfectly 
 even throughout. , 
 
 The work is placed upon a wire tray and evenly distributed 
 over its surface, and is constantly subjected to the action of fresh 
 air heated to the proper degree. 
 
 The tray containing the work rests upon the open grating 
 
62 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 shown in the cut, which is raised above the bottom of the muffle, 
 and the heated air is forced through and around the work from 
 the perforated heating chamber, thus coming in contact with 
 freshly heated air constantly. 
 
 The operation is as follows : 
 
 It will-require about 40 minutes to heat a furnace of this type 
 
 FIG. 33. — AIR TEMPERING OVEN. 
 
 to the 600 deg. required for a blue temper. This temperature 
 being indicated by the thermometer, the work is inserted and the 
 door closed. The thermometer will then show a decided decrease 
 in temperature due to the absorption of the heat by the work. 
 After lapse of a certain time, determined by the weight of the 
 
HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 
 
 (^z 
 
 charge, the temperature will commence to rise again, and when 
 it gets back to, say, 600 deg., where the thermometer stood when 
 the work was inserted, the work is promptly removed. 
 
 It should be remembered that the thermometer will not indicate 
 the precise temperature at which steel reaches a certain temper 
 color under other conditions, but the temperature at which work 
 will reach the exact temper color desired being once noted, the 
 
 FIG. 34. — GAS FORGE FOR KNIFE AND SHEAR BLADES. 
 
64 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 furnace will perform the same work with the same degree of heat 
 ill the same time, so that the operator will then be able to turn 
 out successive charges by simply watching the thermometer and 
 a clock. 
 
 Gas Forge, for Knife and Shear Blades. 
 The construction of the furnace shown in Fig. 34 is similar to 
 that of an oven furnace, but the firebrick slab upon which the 
 work rests is ridged. These ridges form the partitions for the 
 
 PIG. 35. — BENCH FORGE. 
 
 heating of each blade separately. The slab is as wide as the en- 
 trance, and does not extend to the rear, but leaves a narrow slot 
 through which the heat is forced from under the slab upward 
 around the rear end of the slab and then forward in even volume 
 to the vent, E, over the entrance. 
 
 In order to protect the points and thin ends of the blades, the 
 corrugated slab may be covered as far as necessary by the fire- 
 brick slab, F, and thus heated by conductivity rather than direct 
 action of the flame, while the thicker portions of the blades are 
 
HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 65 
 
 directly subjected to it. The difference in the time required to 
 heat the thin and the heavier portions of the blade is thus approxi- 
 mately equalized, and the whole blade heated uniformly to the 
 exact degree required. 
 
 The cut represents a furnace made especially for shear blades 
 from 8 to 12 inches long, and will accommodate 12 blades at a 
 time, and will heat blades for forging or hardening as fast as 
 they can be conveniently handled. 
 
 Bench Forge. 
 
 The bench forge shown in Fig. 35 is a handy little gas forge 
 to be placed on the work bench, for forging and tempering small 
 tools, heating the ends of rods or small pieces of metal of any 
 kind. The heating space or chamber is i^ inches wide and 
 high and 3 inches deep, heated evenly throughout by two side 
 .burners whose focus is in the center of the slot. Work can be 
 placed over the slot and heated from below, or the slot can be 
 covered by a slab shown in cut, and the heat confined to the 
 chamber and raised to a very high degree quickly. 
 
 The forge can be permanently connected with gas pipe and air 
 supply, or by rubber hose to be movable. 
 
 Gas is supplied through ^-inch pipe, varies according to 
 work done and quality of gas, and the amount consumed is too 
 small to be considered when its work is taken into account. 
 
 Oven Fnrnaces for Annealing and Hardening. 
 
 Oven furnaces are used to heat a square or oblong space of any 
 desired dimensions, evenly throughout, to any required degree of 
 heat from a cherry red to a white heat, and especially to main- 
 tain any required temperature steadily for any desired length 
 of time. 
 
 They will do the work of muffle furnaces perfectly except 
 where an absolute seclusion of the work from the products of 
 combustion is necessary. They are used for heating cutters, dies, 
 reamers, shear blades, saws, and for annealing all kinds of metal 
 work in quantities. 
 
 The annexed cut of oven furnace, Fig. 36, is typical of all oven 
 furnaces except dimensions and the shape of entrance high. The 
 entrance closed by the door, E, is 12 inches wide and 6 inches 
 high. The firebrick slab, S, separates heating chamber above it. 
 
 The slab, S, covers the full length of the heating chamber from 
 
66 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 front to rear, and is supported by small angle bricks located be- 
 tween the burners so as not to obstruct them. 
 
 The width of the slab is less than that of the interior of the 
 chamber, so that a slot is formed between the edges of the slab 
 
 '^J' 
 
 FIG. 36. — OVEN furnace; FOR HARDENING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 and the side walls of even width throughout. The burners, C, 
 bolted to the distributing channel, B, are transposed with refer- 
 ence to the opposite series of burners, and arranged so that the 
 injected flames pass one another in opposite directions alter- 
 nately. The injection of the fuel under pressure forces the heat 
 
HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 6/ 
 
 through the slots on each side of the slab, S, into the heating 
 chamber above it, in even volume, and when the combustion cham- 
 ber under the slab, S, has been heated up, the heat rapidly accumu- 
 lates in the heating chamber. The products of combustion are 
 released by the vent-holes, V, which being in the center, draw 
 the heat upward from both sides, thus thoroughly heating the 
 Toof of the oven, from which the heat is reflected downward. 
 
 By the proportionate arrangement of all parts of the construc- 
 tion the heated chamber is evenly heated, and a block of steel 
 placed as shown in the cut, will be heated up with perfect even- 
 ness simultaneously from all sides. The vestibuled entrance 
 materially lessens the cooling-ofif effect produced by the opening 
 door, E. 
 
 The gas supply and burners can be readily adjusted so that no 
 flame whatever will be visible in the heating chamber, but as this 
 would conduce to oxidation, the proportion of gas is indicated 
 when a very small flame issues from the vent, V, after the furnace 
 has become thoroughly heated. For all metal work the at- 
 mosphere in the heating chamber should be just visible by a 
 "flimmering" effect, which indicates a non-oxidizing atmosphere. 
 
 The advantages of an oven furnace over a "muffle" consist 
 in the more immediate and direct action of the heat upon the 
 work, the lessened running expense by dispensing with costly and 
 perishable muffles, and the adaptability of this furnace to very 
 much larger work. 
 
 Case-Hardening Furnaces. 
 
 Case-hardening furnaces of the type shown in Figs. 37 and 38 
 are oven furnaces in construction, but being intended for work 
 requiring the continuous application of higher heat, the linings 
 are much heavier, and the entrance is closed by solid firebrick 
 plugs, P, which are inserted and withdrawn by the cast iron car- 
 riers, D. As their name indicates they are mainly used for the 
 process of case-hardening in cast-iron boxes, but also for anneal- 
 ing heavy steel dies, hubs, tool steel, etc. The slab which divides 
 the combustion chamber from the heating chamber is heavier than 
 in oven furnaces, properly supported by brickwork to bear heavy 
 weights, and cast-iron rails are placed over the slab on which the 
 boxes are removed in and out. 
 
 The burners, B, cover the whole length of the heating space; 
 the opposite burners are connected to one gas and one air valve, 
 
68 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 which control the supply. The door plug, P, is of the exact size 
 and thickness of the entrance, so that it can be easily inserted or 
 removed by cast-iron skeleton door, D. 
 
 The advantages of gas blast case-hardening furnaces are that 
 they do work more quickly and thoroughly than in the best of 
 coal ovtos in use, because from the beginning of the operation all 
 
 FIG. 37.— CASE-HARDENING FURNACE. 
 
 the boxes inserted — and all parts of each box — are heated sim- 
 ultaneously and alike, and that the heat can be kept constant at the 
 maximum degree which the cast-iron boxes will stand. These 
 advantages shorten the process materially, and when once the 
 time required for a given amount and kind of work has been as- 
 certained, the same result can be produced thereafter, in the same 
 time. 
 
HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 
 
 6q 
 
 ^Heating Machine for Hardening the Edges of Mozver Blades. 
 The machine shown in Fig. 39 is used for hardening the edges 
 of mower blades, and will operate as fast as the blades can be 
 dropped into the jaws of the link belt K at I. The jaws are so 
 formed as to expose only the edge of the blade as far as it is to be 
 hardened, to the action of the heat, while the body of the blade is 
 
 FIG. 38. — CAS?;-HARDENING PURNACE. 
 
 protected by the shape of the jaws as they close upon the blade 
 before entering the heating chamber. 
 
 The speed of delivery is regulated by a countershaft with 
 friction cone, placed above the machine and connected with the 
 driving pull, H. The burners, B, emit a short focus flame from 
 both sides and are under the perfect control of the gas valve, G, 
 and the air valve, A. The jaws of the link belt open as they pass 
 over the center of the sprocket at I, where the blades are inserted, 
 closing just as they enter the furnace, and the blades pass through 
 the heating space at the proper speed, first ascertained by a few 
 
70 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 pilot blanks run through the furnace, and are dropped mto the 
 cooling bath from the mouth, E, at the exact heat required for 
 hardening the cutting edges. 
 
 The gas connects at union, G, and air, under a pressure of at 
 least I pound to the square inch, at A. Where the machine is to 
 be used on one uniform kind of blade, the proper speed may be 
 experimerftally obtained, and the friction cone countershaft dis- 
 
 FIG. 39. — HEATING MACHINE FOR HARDENING MOWER BLADES. 
 
 pensed with. Where the blades differ in thickness or size, a fric- 
 tion cone is indispensable. 
 
 Heating Machine for Hardening Cones and Shells. 
 
 In Fig. 40 is shown a furnace that is used for hardening 
 
 cones, shells, pinions and similar small work, which can be stuck 
 
 on the pins, which are inserted in the links of the endless chain. 
 
 The work passes through the evenly heated furnace at a properly 
 
HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. /I 
 
 regulated speed and is discharged from the mouth, F, as fast as it 
 is fed into the bath, T, without needless exposure to the air. The 
 heat is under absolute control and the speed of the chain is ad- 
 justed to it so as to impart the exact temperature to the work re- 
 quired for proper hardening. When constantly used for the same 
 work the proper speed of the chain is ascertained experimentally 
 by turning the pull by hand and then speeding the machine ac- 
 
 PIG. 40. — HEATING MACHINE FOR HARDENING CONES AND SHELLS. 
 
 cordingly. When used for a variety of work countershaft with 
 friction cone pulleys is needed. 
 
 Heating Machine with Revolving Trays. 
 
 The furnace shown in Fig. 41 is used for tempering needles, 
 
 small blades, springs and screws. Its action depends. upon heated 
 
 air, with temperature so regulated that articles of irregular shape 
 
 can be exposed to it long enough to impart the correct color or 
 
72 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 PIG. 41. — HEATING MACHINE WITH REVOLVING TRAYS, 
 
HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 73 
 
 temper to the heavier section, without overheating the thinnest 
 and lightest part of the same piece. This is accompHshed by 
 regulation of the burner, v^diich is usually divided into three sec- 
 tions, each under separate control. By these means the injection 
 of the heat evenly throughout the furnace is easily secured, and 
 the overheating of either end or the center is prevented. The 
 burners heat an air chamber connected with the air drum by the 
 pipe and valve A3, and heated air is distributed in the heating 
 chamber through perforations in the top of the air chamber under 
 light pressure, relieved through the vent cock at N. The work is 
 placed in the pans, DD, which rotate at a speed of twice or thrice 
 per minute, hanging loosely from rods connected with spokes 
 around the driving shaft in the center, which receives motion from 
 the worm gear, IH, connected with power. The door, E, is closed 
 v/hen furnace is charged with work, and opened for its observation. 
 When open, the door forms a shelf or rest for the pans. The 
 thermometer indicates a degree of temperature somewhat different 
 from the actual heat in the furnace. Once tried for a certain 
 temper of color, it is a perfect guide for repeating the same re- 
 sult. 
 
 Heating Machine for Small Parts. 
 
 The style of heating machine shown in Fig. 42 is used for 
 heating large quantities of small steel work of uniform size and 
 weight, evenly and uniformly, to any required degree for hard- 
 ening, or for annealing the same, automatically. The work is 
 placed on the cast-iron link belt, Ci, which revolves entirely 
 within the heating chamber, N, except where momentarily exposed 
 at entrance, M, to receive the work. The burners, B, penetrate 
 from each side of the furnace above the link belt, and are perfectly 
 controlled by the gas valve, G, and the air valve, A. 
 
 The belt is supported by sprockets in the heating chamber, 
 whose shafts revolve on the rolls, D. The belt is moved at re- 
 quired speed by means of a friction cone which is placed above the 
 machine and connects with the driving sprockets, F, by the chains, 
 HH. 
 
 The weight and size of the work, and the degree of heat which 
 it requires, determine the speed at which the belt is moved, 
 and consequently the output. The temperature of the heating 
 chamber and the speed of the belt being under perfect control, 
 the output is only limited by the time it takes to heat the work to 
 the exact degree required. 
 
74 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 
 
 /^ 
 
 The cooling part is not a part of the machine, but is shown 
 merely to illustrate the whole operation. A proper cooling bath 
 is important. It should be of ample size, and so arranged as to 
 promptly cool the work without varying materially the tempera- 
 ture of the oil. Gas connection is made to the union, G, and an 
 air blast from a positive pressure blower connects at A. 
 
 Barrel Heating Machine for Hardening Balls, Sazv Teeth, Screws, 
 
 Etc. 
 A type of machine designed for hardening quantities of bicycle 
 
 FIG. 43. — AUTOMATIC BARREL HEATING AND HARDENING MACHINE. 
 
 balls, but which has since been used for hardening detachable 
 saw teeth, pens, nuts, bolts, screws, and other work not exceed- 
 mg two and one-half inches in any dimension, is shown in Figs. 
 43 and 44. 
 
 Steel work of any shape is evenly and thoroughly heated to 
 
76 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 the exact degree required, regardless of its shape, the thinnest and 
 thickest ])arts being discharged at exactly the same temperature. 
 
 The machine is capable of heating from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds 
 of steel work per day, the rate of delivery depending upon weight 
 and shape of the piece. 
 
 The cooling bath marked X in the cut is merely a suggestion 
 and its size depends upon the work to be done, as well as upon 
 the available water supply for cooling. Its size and construction 
 
 FIG. 44. — LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH CENTER OP BARREL 
 HEATING MACHINE. 
 
 also depend upon the temperature of the water to be used, and 
 will vary under different circumstances. 
 
 Dififerent methods are employed to cool oil baths. One is to 
 draw the hot oil from the top, running it through pipes immersed 
 iii cold water, and pumping it back to the bottom of the tank 
 cooled. Another is as illustrated. The tank holding the oil is 
 shallow and water jacketed, the water being circulated at the rate 
 required to keep the bath at proper temperature, determined by 
 reference to a thermometer. 
 
 Where the water supply itself is not sufficiently cool, the bath 
 
HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. yj 
 
 may require cooling by ice, or the operation of the furnace may 
 have to be Hmited to the capacity of the bath. 
 
 In several instances a machine of the type has heated work 
 faster than it could be cooled, and the possible output therefore 
 greatly depends upon the bath. 
 
 Construction and Operation. 
 
 The cylindrical body of the machine heavily lined with fire- 
 brick incloses a solid cast-iron cylinder with a spiral way, 2% 
 inches to 3 inches wide. The shaft of this "spiral way cylinder'* 
 is a heavy wrought-iron pipe containing the wrought-iron spiral, 
 E. This hollow shaft and the cast-iron spiral cylinder revolve 
 together. The heat is generated over the drum and is evenly dis- 
 tributed from both sides of the burners, R. The products of com- 
 bustion are allowed to enter the spiral drum, thus excluding- 
 atmospheric air from it to prevent oxidation, and find their vent 
 through the bottom of the furnace by being forced through the 
 charge, L 
 
 The work being placed in the hopper, B, which is kept filled to 
 the level of the entrance, the scoop, C, revolving with the cylinder, 
 fills itself with work as it is rotated downward, and empties its 
 contents into the stationary funnel, D, when it rotates to a position 
 above it. From this feeding funnel, D, the work drops into the 
 spiral way, E, and is propelled to the opposite end of the inner 
 spiral, where it drops into the outer cast-iron spiral way, H, in 
 which it is propelled in the opposite direction and drops from the 
 cylinder, I, to the chute, K, into the cooling bath, L. 
 
 The stationary feeding funnel, D, with the scoop, C, the in- 
 terior spiral, E, and the cast-iron spiral drum, IH, revolve to- 
 gether by action of the worm gear, P O. The number of revolu- 
 tions required to discharge the work at the proper heat are experi- 
 mentally ascertained, and the rate of discharge being once estab- 
 lished, the machine will turn out a perfectly uniform product. 
 
 The speed is regulated by a "friction cone" countershaft placed 
 overhead, from which the power is transmitted to the pulleys, O. 
 
 The furnace is lighted by withdrawing the plug, N, and turn- 
 ing on the air full, inserting a torch, and then turning on just 
 sufficient gas, so that the burners emit a perfectly blue flame. 
 The gas and air supply valves, A and G, permit the heat to be 
 regulated to exact requirements. The temt^erature of the drum 
 can be observed by the removal of the lighting plug, N, and by 
 
yS HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 means of the friction cone the time required for heating and de- 
 livery can be regulated with precision. 
 
 It will usually require from 45 minutes to one hour to heat the 
 spiral wayS~-lor hardening. At the expiration of that time the 
 machine will turn out the work at a regular rate. Where thin 
 and thick work are put through the machine together, the time of 
 delivery will be determined by the heaviest article put through, 
 but the lightest or thinnest will not be overheated unless the tem- 
 perature is allowed to increase beyond the highest degree required 
 by hardening. 
 
 The main body of the machine is a solid fireclay cylinder in- 
 closed by a heavy sheet-iron casing. All bearings are ball or 
 roller bearings, needing but little lubrication. Both heads of the 
 machine can be removed for the inserting of a new cylinder when 
 required, the body of the furnace resting independently lipon the 
 table, thus remaining in position if heads are detached. 
 
 Heating Machine for Tempering and Coloring Steel. 
 
 A machine for tempering and coloring steel work in quantities 
 with perfect uniformity is shown in Fig. 45. The cut represents 
 an improved type of machine which has been in satisfactory opera- 
 tion for several years, for tempering and coloring pens, bicycle 
 chain link blocks, penholders, saw teeth, screws, buttons, and 
 other similar work not over two inches in any dimension. 
 
 The operation is performed by subjecting the work to the 
 action of sand or ground flint heated to the proper degree re- 
 quired for any grade of temper, and a bright, clean and perfectly 
 uniform temper color is obtained when the work has been properly 
 prepared for coloring by thorough cleansing. 
 
 The capacity of the machine depends upon the size and weight 
 of the articles, but as a criterion for its efficiency we can say that 
 we have witnessed bicycle chain blocks and insertable saw teeth 
 being put through at the rate of 150 pounds per hour. 
 
 The work is placed in the hopper, X, containing a small scoop, 
 which at every revolution deposits a measured quantity into a fun- 
 nel leading into the heating drum. This drum, contained in the 
 main body of the machine, is provided with a spiral way which 
 gradually propels the work to discharge Z. 
 
 The spiral partitions are inclosed by a perforated cylinder, 
 through which sand or flint heated to the proper temperature to 
 
HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 
 
 79 
 
 obtain a desired temper or color is constantly sifted upon the 
 v/ork. 
 
 Provisions are made to keep a sufficient quantity of sand stored 
 
 FIG. 45. — HEATING MACHINE; FOR TEMPERING AND COLORING. 
 
 above the work, so as to secure its even distribution into all the 
 spiral divisions of the drum, thus effecting its uniform action upon 
 the work. 
 
 The outer casing of the drum is subjected to an evenly distri- 
 
8o 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 buted heat, controlled by proper adjustment of the gas valve, G^ 
 and the air valve, B. 
 
 The speed at which the work passes through the spiral drum is 
 regulated hf a friction cone placed above the machine, and the 
 temperature by reference to the thermometer, I. 
 
 By noticg the temperature at which differ'jnt colors are ob- 
 
 FIG. 46. — CIRCULAR ANNEALING AND HARDENING FURNACE. 
 
HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 8l 
 
 tained by a given rate of delivery, the exact conditions of heat 
 and speed under which a variation of color or temper is obtained 
 can be readily observed and the perfect uniformity of the output 
 assured. 
 
 Circular Annealing and Hardening Furnace. 
 
 The furnace shown in Fig. 46 is used for heating large rims, 
 rings, discs, dies and other circular steel blocks which do not ex- 
 ceed 30 inches in diameter and 10 inches in thickness. 
 
 The illustration shows a circular block, K, resting upon the fire- 
 brick supports, H, so placed that they do not in any way obstruct 
 the flames emitted from the four burners, B. The direction of 
 the flame is tangential at the proper angle, to secure a rotary or 
 whirling motion of the flame, and the even distribution of the heat, 
 effecting the perfectly even heating of the work. This should be 
 placed centrally, i. e., equidistant from the inner walls of the 
 cylindrical casing. 
 
 The cover, D, is attached to the cover lift, and held by the 
 adjustable chains, EE. It is lifted by a toggle joint by pulling the 
 lever handle inserted in the socket, L, forward, and easily swings 
 to either side. To replace the firebrick cover, the clasp, M, on 
 the sheet iron belt which tightly incloses it is unscrewed, and a 
 new brick lining inserted. The valve, G, admits gas and connects 
 with the gas supply. A connects with air supply. 
 
 Oil Tempering Furnaces. 
 
 Furnaces of the type shown in Figs. 47 and 48 are used for 
 tempering steel work in oil or tallow, and have the advantage 
 over similar apparatus heated by coal that the heat is evenly dis- 
 tributed and penetrates the bath from all sides, that the temperature 
 is under perfect control, that no flame can escape from the com- 
 bustion chamber to ignite the oil or fumes arising from it, and 
 that the temperature of the oil can be raised to an exceptionally 
 high degree without risk of flashing. They are made in shapes 
 and sizes to suit, round, square or oblong. 
 
 Furnace, Fig. 47, has the burners, B, arranged in two separate 
 sections of four, two on each side, each section being under 
 separate control of the gas and air valves below the distributing 
 pipes, D and E, respectively. 
 
 To heat up the bath, both sets of burners are turned on, and 
 when the desired temperature is reached, as indicated by the ther- 
 
82 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 mometer, L, one set of four burners can instantly be put out of 
 use, so as to prevent the too rapid increase of the heat to the flash 
 point. 
 
 The work is placed in the basket, K, wHch may be filled to the 
 top. The irilmersion of the work in the bath quickly reduces its 
 
 FIG. 47. — OIL TEMPERING FURNACE. 
 
 temperature, and the work remains in the bath until the ther- 
 mometer shows that the heat of the bath is restored in the proper 
 degree. The best oil to be used is "Black Tempering Oil," gen- 
 erally supplied by the agencies of the Standard Oil Company, 
 
HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 
 
 83 
 
 which can be raised to a temperature of 600 deg. F., and will tem- 
 per steel from straw color to a light blue. The basket, K, is 18 
 inches long, 10 inches wide and 8 inches deep. 
 
 Oil tempering furnace, Fig. 48, in its construction is similar 
 
 PIG 
 
 CIRCULAR OIL TICMPERING FURNACB. 
 
 to that of a soft metal furnace. The pot is 10^ inches in diam- 
 eter, 10 inches deep, and the temperature is regulated by reference 
 to the thermometer, T, held in place by the clamp, K. The bulb 
 of the thermometer extends below the middle of the bath, and the 
 burners are arranged to distribute the heat with perfect evenness 
 around the pot. 
 
 For small work a wire basket is used to contain the articles to 
 be treated, while larger work is suspended in the bath in any con- 
 venient way. The temperature being under the perfect control 
 of the gas and air valves, G and A, the bath is heated until the 
 thermometer shows the proper heat. When work is submerged 
 in the bath it cools down, and the work remains there until the 
 
84 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 85 
 
 temperature rises again to the original degree, when the work 
 is removed. 
 
 Heating Machine for Hardening Chain. 
 
 This machine shown in Fig. 49 is one of many heating devices 
 built for special purposes. 
 
 The idea successfully accomplished in this machine is to harden 
 chains made from sheet steel, which passes from reel Ri first 
 through the heating space into the cooling bath and is received on 
 reel R2 perfectly and uniformly hardened. 
 
 By the accurate adjustment of burners and speed of travel a 
 perfect uniformity in hardness of all the links is secured, the 
 cooling bath is kept at a uniform temperature by proper circula- 
 tion of the water or oil, which is drawn off the top, and after cool- 
 ing is pumped back into the bath at the bottom. After the chain 
 is hardened and wound upon the reel the whole reel is inserted 
 in an oil tempering furnace to be drawn to the exact temper 
 required. 
 
 Cylindrical Case-Hardening Furnace. 
 
 Furnaces of the type shown in Fig. 50 are used for case-hard- 
 ening car axles of about 6 inches in diameter and not exceeding 8 
 feet in length. 
 
 The axle is inserted in the wrought-iron tube, R, having an 
 interior diameter of 10 inches. The axle is placed in the exact 
 center of the retort and the carbon packed tightly around it, after 
 covering such parts as are not to be case-hardened with fire-clay 
 or some other non-carbonaceous material. The retort being 
 packed it is let down into the furnace from a suitable crane over- 
 head, and the cover, K, put in position as shown, when the furnace 
 is ready for operation. 
 
 The distribution of the heat evenly from the bottom to the top 
 of the retort is effected by two independently controlled sets of 
 burners ; the lower set by the valves G2 and A2, and the upper set 
 by the valves G3 and A3, while the common supply valves are 
 Gi and Ai. G stands in each case for gas and A for air. 
 
 The proper adjustment having been made on the lower and 
 upper sets of the burners so as to secure an approximately correct 
 distribution of the heat, the main gas and air valves are alone 
 utilized to control the temperature, and the distribution of the 
 heat properly over the whole length is then effected by the two 
 vents, one in the bottom indicated by M2, arxi one on top in the 
 
86 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Vl( 50. — CYLINDRICAI. CASE-HARDENING FURNACE FOR CASE 
 HARDENING CAR AXLES. 
 
HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 
 
 87 
 
 center of the cover, K. The top vent being closed entirely, the 
 heat is driven downward and the products of combustion escape 
 through the vent, N2. If N2 is closed and cover vent wide open, 
 the heat is forced upward too rapidly, but by partly closing both 
 vents, as much as will be found necessary from observation, a 
 
 l^IG. 51. — CYLINDRICAL CASE-HARDENING FURNACE. 
 
88 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 perfectly uniform distribution of the heat is effected without a 
 very close adjustment of the relative strength of the upper and 
 lower burner tiers. 
 
 The regulation of the distribution by the vent holes is espe- 
 cially important when the temperature is to be raised quickly 
 and the burners turned on as full as possible in both tiers. 
 
 Each row of burners has three burner tips, F, as shown, which 
 
 FIG. 52. — ^SOFT METAL FURNACE FOR LEAD HARDENING. 
 
 enter the cylinders from four sides at the proper angle to secure 
 a rotary motion of the flame around the retort without impinging 
 upon it. The body of the furnace contains three observation holes 
 closed by the plugs, Li, L2, and L3. The lighting hole is not 
 visible in cut but is indicated in the rear of the furnace by N2 and 
 closed by the plug Ni. 
 
 Lead Hardeui)i(:^ Furnace. 
 The style of furnace shown in Fig. 52 is used for heating lead 
 
HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 
 
 89 
 
 in black lead crucibles of any regular size for hardening steel 
 work. 
 
 Any black lead crucible used for lead hardening must be regu- 
 larly emptied after each operation. If the lead is allowed to cool 
 and solidify, the crucible will crack when heated up again. 
 
90 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Melting Pots. 
 Fi&s- 53. and 54 show charts of pots used for melting soft 
 metals andifor heating cyanide or lead for hardening, and oil or 
 tallow for tempering. 
 
HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 
 
 91 
 
 Cyanide Hardening Furnaces. 
 The furnace shown in Fig. 55 is of a type used for heating 
 steel work in cyanide of potassium for hardening; they are used 
 "by the leading bank note engravers in the United States for hard- 
 ening transfer rolls and engraved plates, and by manufacturers 
 
 I^IG. 55. —CYANIDE HARDENING FURNACE FOR CUTTERS, 
 DIES, ROLLS, ETC. 
 
92 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 for hardening- cutters, dies, springs, and other steel work requiring- 
 a hardened surface. Their general features are also utilized in 
 apparatus for heating chemical solution where the escape of 
 
HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 93 
 
 poisonous fumes from the pot or caldron into the room must be 
 prevented. It contains a cast-iron or steel pot suspended by a 
 flange with raised edge in the center of the heating chamber. 
 The two opposite burners, BB, inject the flames into the space 
 "between the pot and surrounding firebrick lining, and heat the 
 pot evenly without coming in direct contact with it. The two 
 lighting holes in front are closed after the furnace is put in op- 
 €ration, and the products of combustion find their outlet in the pipe, 
 E, which extends upward in the rear and enters the elbow on the 
 sheet-iron pipe, S, passing the draft hole near the top of the hood, 
 H. The heat from the combustion chamber is thus injected into 
 the draft pipe, S, and a positive draft is created which carries ofif 
 the fumes as they rise from the pot. Thus the poisonous fumes 
 are carried ofif into the chimney, and with ordinary care none 
 escapes into the room. Gas and air are indicated at G and A. 
 
 Regular Sises of Muffles. 
 
 The annexed chart. Fig. 56, shows the regular sizes of muffles 
 which are on the market. The number of the muffle corresponds 
 to the number of the furnace, so that orders for the muffles can 
 be given by the furnace number, or a furnace ordered by the num- 
 ber of the muffle. 
 
 The dimensions of muffles are their interior measurement. 
 
 MiMe Furnace. 
 
 The muffle furnace shown in Fig. 57 is typical of large sizes 
 for heavy kinds of work requiring high heat. It is entirely en- 
 cased in cast-iron framework firmly bolted together, with heavy 
 linings and carefully trimmed and fitted fireclay sections. The 
 casing is filled in above and around the arch with non-conducting 
 material to lessen radiation, and the muffle 'bottom is protected 
 l)y extra supports, as in oven furnaces, to prevent sagging under 
 weight. 
 
 Tough Steel and Hard Steel — The Difference. 
 
 Although few mechanics seem to be aware of it, there is con- 
 siderable difference between steel which is hard and steel which is 
 iDOth hard and tough, i. e., when a tool has been hardened and 
 tempered to the degree thought best for the work which it is to 
 perform and the edge does not stand up, but, instead, crumbles 
 away, the steel is hard but is not tough and was heated wrongly in 
 
94 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 hardening, or was not quenched right. On the contrary, when a 
 tool has been heated properly and hardened and tempered as it 
 should be, it can be very hard and the edge will hold because for 
 given degrees of hardness the same degree of toughness has been 
 imparted during the heating and hardening processes. 
 
 FIG. 57. — MUFFIvB FURNACE. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE HARDENING OF STEEL HARDENING IN WATER^ BRINE, OIL, 
 
 AND SOLUTIONS — SPECIAL PROCESSES FOR SPECIAL STEEL. 
 
 Judgment and Carefulness in Hardening. 
 
 As a great deal depends on the judgment and carefulness of 
 the man who does the hardening in a shop, in all large manufac- 
 turing establishments the job of doing all the hardening should 
 be given to one man. On this man's efficiency and judgment will 
 depend the increasing or the reducing of the cost account, as one 
 piece of steel which has been hardened properly will accomplish 
 many times as much as a piece which has been hardened imper- 
 fectly. The manner in which the operator puts the steel into the 
 quenching liquid will be responsible more than anything else, for 
 having the pieces come out hard and free from cracks or deformi- 
 ties. Work with deep recesses will often have to go into the water 
 with the recessed part first, or vise versa, according to the shape 
 and location of the same. 
 
 When hardening large pieces which are worked out in the 
 center, a stream of water striking against them is often abso- 
 lutely necessary. There are some grades of steel which will give 
 the best results if they are removed from the water as soon as the 
 vibration has ceased and laid aside until cold. Experience, skill, 
 and good sound judgment are necessary to do good hardening. 
 
 Successful Hardening. 
 
 In almost every establishment where any large amount of steel 
 is hardened, some one man will be found who is considered an 
 expert in the art. When such men really possess the required 
 judgment and skill they are careful in the heating and quenching, 
 and good results are attained. Very often, however, the man who 
 is considered an authority on the subject, possesses very little real 
 knowledge, but instead, through pure "gall" and "nerve," takes 
 chances and either comes out on top or manages to cover up his 
 mistakes. Beware of such men ; they are responsible for more 
 bad work in the shop than any others. 
 
 First and foremost, the effect of annealing on steel which is 
 
96 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 desired to be afterward hardened must be understood and appre- 
 ciated. First, the anneahng process softens and allows the steel 
 to be worked into shape with ease. Second, it removes all strains 
 sustained in the manufacture, such as rolling, hammering and 
 forging. Thus experience teaches that it is necessary to anneal 
 any odd shaped piece after all the surface scale has been removed 
 and the piece roughed down. 
 
 Different Quenching Baths — Their Effect on Steel. 
 
 As, next to proper heating, more depends upon the quenching 
 
 than anything else, it follovv^s that the effects of the use of the 
 
 various kinds of baths are required to be understood. The most 
 
 generally used bath is usually cold water, though not infrequently 
 
 FIG. 58. — SCREW MACHINE SPRING THREADING DIES. 
 
 -salt is added or a strong brine is used. The following will be 
 found to answer well for the work mentioned : For very thin and 
 delicate parts, an oil bath should be used for quenching. For 
 small parts which are required to be very hard, a solution composed 
 of about a pound of citric acid crystals dissolved in a gallon of 
 water will do. For hardening springs, sperm oil ; and for cutting 
 tools, raw linseed oil will prove excellent. 
 
 Boiled water has often proved the only bath to give good 
 results in a large variety of work, the parts requiring hardening 
 being heated in a closed box or tube to a low red heat and then 
 quenched. Sometimes the water should be boiling, at others quite 
 hot, and then again lukewarm. Experience will teach the operator 
 
THE HARDENING OF STEEL. 
 
 97 
 
 ■which is the best for special work. If a cutting tool such as a 
 hollow mill, a spring threading die or a similar tool is to be hard- 
 ened in a bath of this sort dip it with the hole up or the steam will 
 prevent the Uquid from entering the hole and leave the walls 
 soft. A tendency to crack will also prevail if this is not done. 
 The generation of steam must be considered when hardening 
 work with holes or depressions in it, and attention must be paid 
 to the dipping of the part so as to prevent the steam from crowd- 
 ing the water away. Clean water steams rapidly, while brine 
 and the different acid solutions do not. 
 
 General Rules and Directions for the Hardening of Steel. 
 
 The effect of heat on steel is to expand it, even or uneven 
 •expansion depending upon the care and throughness of the heat- 
 ing operation. Thus if one part of a piece is heated quicker or 
 hugher than another the expansion is uneven, and the shape of the 
 part changes to accommodate the local expansion. The conse- 
 quence is that distortion takes place and remains permanent. 
 In machine parts which have been finished and fitted or in any 
 part which it is not practicable to grind afterward, the distor- 
 tion often prevents the use of the piece, especially is this so in 
 "tools. 
 
 Distortion Through Uneven Heating. 
 
 We will suppose, for instance, that a part with a thin side or 
 •edge such as the cutter blade of the thread tool shown in Fig. 
 59, is to be hardened. To do this successfully the thin parts 
 must be handled or manipulated in the fire so that the frail side 
 
 Pig. 59. — PATENT THREAD TOOL AND PARTS. 
 
98 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 will not reach the hardening heat before the rest of the body of 
 the piece, or it will become warped or distorted, this coming 
 about, not through the difference of temperature of the various 
 parts as some imagine, but, instead, through the more solid parts 
 being too strong to permit expansion, and when expansion is at 
 last accommodated it has been at the expense of the frailer part 
 of the metal. From this it must not be inferred that the part 
 having the smallest sectional area is the weaker while being 
 heated, but instead that it is as strong as the rest except when 
 at the same temperature. The following extracts from an article 
 by the late Joshua Rose, M.E., in an early number of the 
 Scientific American Supplement, explains this in a manner which 
 leaves nothing to be desired : 
 
 "For example, suppose we have an eccentric ring, say ^ inch 
 
 FIG. 60. — SPECIAL ROUGHING TURRET REAMER. 
 
 thicker on one side than the other, and heat it midway between 
 the thick and thin sides to a cherry red ; while those sides are 
 barely red-hot, the part heated to cherry red will be the weakest, 
 and will give way most to accommodate the expansion, because the 
 strength due to its sectional area has been more than compen- 
 sated for by the reduction of strength due to its increased tem- 
 perature. The necessity of heating an article according to its 
 shape then becomes apparent, and it follows that the aim should 
 be to heat the article evenly all over, taking care specially that 
 the thin parts shall not get hot first. ... If the article is 
 large enough, the thin part may be covered, or partially so, dur- 
 ing the first of the heating by wet ashes. If, however, the article 
 is of equal sectional area all over, it is necessary to so turn it in 
 the fire as to heat it uniformly all over; and in either case care 
 
THE HARDENING OF STEEL. 99 
 
 should be taken not to heat the steel too quickly, unless, indeed, 
 it is desirable to leave the middle somewhat softer than the out- 
 side, so as to have the outside fully hardened and the inside some- 
 what soft, which will leave the steel stronger than if hardened 
 ecjually all through. Sometimes the outside of an article is heated 
 more than the inside, so as to modify the tendency to crack from 
 the contraction during the quenching, for to what degree the 
 article expands during the heating, it must contract during the 
 
 e» 
 
 FIG. 6i. — turre;t tap. 
 
 cooling. Whether the heating be done in the open fire or in a 
 heating mixture, it must be done uniformly, so that it may be 
 often necessary to hold the article for a time with the thick part 
 only in the melted lead or other heating material ; but in this 
 case it must not be held quite still, but raised and lowered gradu- 
 ally and continuously to insure even heating. 
 
 The Hardening Fire and the Heat. 
 "The size of an article will often be an important element 
 for consideration in heating it, because, by heating steel in the 
 open fire, it becomes decarbonized ; and it follows that the smaller 
 the article in sectional area the more rapidly this decarbonization 
 takes place. In large bodies of metal, the decarbonization due 
 to a single heating is not sufficient to have much practical sig- 
 nificance; but if the tool requires frequent renewal by forging, 
 the constant reheating will seriously impair its value ; and in 
 any event it is an advantage to maintain the quality of the steel 
 at its maximum. To prevent decarbonization for ordinary work 
 charcoal instead of coal is sometimes used ; and where hardening 
 is not done continuously it is a good practice, because a few pieces 
 
lOO HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 of charcoal can be thrown upon the fire and be ready for use on 
 a few minutes' notice. Charcoal should be used for the heating 
 ior the forging as well as for that for the hardening. Green 
 coal should ncA^er be used for heating the steel for the hardening, 
 even if it is for the forging process ; because, while the steel is 
 being well forged, its quality is maintained, but afterward the 
 -deterioration due to heating is much more rapid. A coke suitable 
 for hardening should be made and always kept on hand. To 
 obtain such a coke make a large fire of small soft coal well wetted 
 and banked up upon the fire ; and with a round bar make holes for 
 the blast to come through. When the gas is out of the interior 
 coal, and the outside is well caked, it may be broken up with a 
 bar, so that the gas may be burnt out of the outside, and then 
 the blast may be stopped and the coke placed ready for use at a 
 moment's notice. Good blacksmiths always keep a store of this 
 coke for use in making welding heats as well as for hardening 
 processes. . . . If an article has a very weak part, it is neces- 
 sary to avoid resting that part upon the coal or charcoal of the 
 fire ; otherwise the weight may bend it, and in heating long slen- 
 der pieces they should bed evenly in the fire or furnace, or, when 
 red hot, the unsupported parts will sag. In taking such pieces 
 from the fire, the object is to lift the edges vertically so that the 
 lifting shall not bend them ; and this requires considerable skill, 
 because it must be done quickly, or parts will become cooled 
 and will warp, as well as not harden so much as the hotter 
 parts. 
 
 Quenching for Hardening. 
 "We now come to the cooling or quenching, which requires 
 
 FIG. 62. — MILLING CrTTER. 
 
THE HARDENING OF STEEL. 
 
 lOI 
 
 as much skill as the heating to prevent warping and cracking, 
 and to straighten the article as much as possible during the cool- 
 ing process. The cooling should be performed with the view to 
 prevent the contraction of the metal from warping the weaker 
 parts ; and to aid this, in cutters of the type shown in Fig. 
 62, tooth parts are sometimes made a little hotter than «he 
 more solid parts of the article, the extra heat required 
 to be extracted compensating in some degree for the di- 
 minution of the sectional area from which the heat must be 
 extracted. Water for cooling must be kept clean, and in that 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 SHANK 
 
 1 strugftt I 
 
 TIPW 
 
 ! 
 
 RESMER 
 
 s 
 
 H^H 
 
 ^■^Ib^H 
 
 
 
 iSJiil 
 
 Hiilii 
 
 M 
 
 L ^ i 
 
 
 f »»»V»»V»T»»»»V7S 
 
 fV»»»»».»»»».»»"»"=""-- 
 
 : 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 r * I 
 
 
 C ^j-. 
 
 
 
 
 ''S 
 
 FIG. 63. — STAY BOLT TAP. 
 
 case becomes better from use. It may be kept heated to about 
 100 deg. F., which will diminish the risk of having the article 
 crack; any corners should be made as rounded as possible. If 
 the water is very cold, and the heat hence extracted very rapidly 
 from the outside, the liability to crack is increased ; and in many 
 cases the water is heated to nearly the boiling point, so as to 
 retard the extraction of the heat. Since, however, the hardening 
 of the steel is due to the rapid extraction of its heat, increasing 
 the temperature of the water diminishes the hardness of the 
 
 FIG. 64. — SPIRAL LIPPED REAMER. 
 
 steel, and it is necessary to counteract this effect as far as possi- 
 ble, which is done by adding salt to the water. . . . All arti- 
 cles that are straight or of the proper form while leaving the 
 fire should be dipped vertically and lowered steadily into the 
 water ; and if of weak section or liable to crack or warp, they 
 should be held, quite still, low down in the water until cooled 
 quite through to the temperature of the water. If the article 
 is taken from the water too soon, it will crack, and this is a 
 common occurrence, the cracking often being accompanied by a 
 
I02 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 sharp, audible "click." Pieces of blade form sBoiild be dipped 
 edgeways, the length of the article lying horizontally and the 
 article lowered vertically and held quite still, because, by mov- 
 ing it laterally, the advancing side becomes cooled the quickest, 
 and warping and cracking may ensue. Straight cylindrical pieces 
 
 Sellers Hob. 
 
 Short Shank Hob 
 for Sizing Dies. 
 
 X,ong Taper Die Tap 
 for Cutting Solid Dies. 
 
 FIG. 65. — HOBS OR MASTER TAPS. 
 
THE HARDENING OF STEEL. IO3 
 
 are dipped endwise and vertically. When, however, the dipping 
 process is performed with a view to leave a sufficient heat in the 
 body of the article to draw to a lower temper the part dipped, 
 the method of proceeding is slightly varied." 
 
 The Hardening of Long Slender Tools. 
 
 In order to harden long slender tools, such as stay-bolt taps, 
 "hob" taps and long, taper die taps, for instance, so as to not 
 require subsequent straightening or grinding, care is necessary in 
 the machining as well as the hardening operations. It is not de- 
 sirable to use the highest carbon steel when a large tool is to be 
 made if the hardening method given below is to be used. 
 
 Have the stock for the tool about ]4, inch larger than the 
 finish diameter and rough down to within 1-16 inch of size. Then 
 pack in an iron box in powdered charcoal and reheat, heating 
 to a red and being sure to heat evenly and slowly. This will re- 
 move all strains which may have taken place in the steel during 
 the manufacture. The slower the steel cools the better will be 
 the results in the hardening, as it may be heated to a lower heat 
 which will have a tendency to refine it. 
 
 Sometimes when the rough-down blanks for long tools have 
 been annealed by the method described above, upon taking them 
 from the annealing box some will be found to have sprung. When 
 this occurs do not attempt to straighten while cool, but instead, 
 if possible, turn the bulge out. If this cannot be done, heat to a 
 cherry red and straighten while hot and re-anneal. After finish- 
 ing, test the tool for trueness, and then harden as follows : 
 
 Have a box large enough to allow the tools to stand upright 
 and to leave lots of space for packing at the top, bottom and sides. 
 Pack the packing material around tightly, put the lid on the box 
 and heat thoroughly through, testing for heat with test rods, and 
 when the proper heat is obtained hold it for a few hours, then 
 remove the box and draw the tools carefully from the pack with 
 a pair of tongs and quench in a bath of raw linseed oil which 
 may be kept at a sufficient low temperature by some simple cool- 
 ing arrangement. 
 
 When dipping the heated tools quench straight down into the 
 center of the oil and move vertically until a black appears, when 
 they may be moved to the edge of the bath tank. In an oil bath 
 the contents should be agitated so that the oil will circulate and 
 flow toward the center, thus keeping the vapor generated by con- 
 
I04 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 tact of the heated steel and oil away from the work. By doing" 
 this there will be no soft spots in the work when hardened. 
 
 Hardening Small Parts and Long Thin Parts. 
 When a large number of very small parts, such as cutter 
 blades of the type shown in Fig. 66, are to be hardened they 
 
 FIG. 66. — PATENT SQUARE THREADING TOOI.. 
 
 should be packed in closed iron boxes, and the box heated.. 
 When all the parts have reached the proper heat, they should be 
 dumped into the quenching bath, of either oil or water, as the 
 nature of the work may require. Another way by which small 
 parts may be heated uniform is by means of a lead bath. Keep- 
 
 PIG. 67. — COMBINED DRILL AND COUNTERSINK. 
 
 the lead at the proper heat and cover the top with powdered char- 
 coal and coke. 
 
 Very small tools, such as small piercing punches, etc., should 
 be hardened in an oil bath or in luke warm water, as if cold 
 water is used they will cool too quickly and come out of the bath 
 cracked or so brittle as to be useless. Never heat a piece of steel 
 for hardening hot enough to ra-se scale on it ; even when it is- 
 
THE HARDENING OF STEEL. 
 
 105, 
 
 a very large piece this can be overcome by heating very slowly 
 in a packing box. When steel has been heated too hot and then 
 quenched, the grain is rendered coarse and brittle, and, although 
 it may be drawn to the desired temper, it will break quicker than 
 
 FIG. 68. — TWIST DRILL. 
 
 a piece which has been hardened at a very low heat and not tem- 
 pered at all, although the piece which was heated too hot and 
 hardened and drawn will be softer than the other piece. 
 
 When hardening long, flat or round objects they should be 
 
 FIG. 69. — TWIST DRILL. 
 
 dipped endwise, holding them perpendicular with the surface of 
 the bath. When this is done the articles will come out perfectly 
 straight, or at least very little sprung. When dipped otherwise 
 such tools will warp. When dipping a half-round tool dip it with 
 
 FIG. 70. — TURRFT REAMFR FOR FINISHING. 
 
 the half-round side at an angle of about twenty degrees with the 
 surface of the water and it will come out either almost straight, 
 or straight. 
 
I06 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Hardening in Solutions. 
 
 In order to harden a large number of steel tools or pieces so 
 that uniform hardness and temper will be attained, and so that 
 the steel will come out of the process white and clean, as is often 
 required, the following process may be adopted : First, in the 
 heating of the steel, a solution which will project it from the 
 fire and another to chill it quickly are necessary. This last 
 solution will also give the desired clean white appearance to the 
 steel. The receipt for this first solution is, equal quantities of sal- 
 soda and borax in water containing one ounce of cyanide of 
 potassium to the gallon. For the second solution, a strong brine 
 made of salt and water, and about the same amount of cyanide 
 as salt, will do. Have the water hot and add about two ounces 
 of sulphuric acid to each gallon of water used ; when mixed, put 
 away in a cool place and keep well covered. 
 
 To use the solutions proceed as follows : Fill all holes near 
 the edge of the steel with fireclay; then dip into the first solution 
 and place the steel immediately on the fire while wet. Heat 
 slowly and carefully and be sure not to heat any one portion of 
 the work faster than another, as the slower the heat the more 
 uniform its distribution in the piece. When the proper tempera- 
 ture has been reached, which should be a clear bright red, dip 
 the work straight down into the hardening solution ; when it 
 has cooled, remove from the bath, and work of silvery whiteness 
 and uniform hardness will be the result. When heating long 
 slender pieces in this solution, dip them endwise, and do not shake 
 about, but instead, revolve, if possible, rapidly. 
 
 Heating in Hot Lead for Hardening. 
 
 There is a large class of work which can be best heated for 
 hardening in red-hot lead. It is a very rapid and satisfactory 
 method for such tools as small counter-bores, reamers, shank, 
 mills, knurls and parts such as bicycle cones, balls, cups, and sew- 
 ing machine and typewriter parts. What makes the lead par- 
 ticularly valuable for heating such parts is that a uniform heat 
 can be applied without danger of burning or scaling the inside be- 
 fore the center is heated. 
 
 When heating in lead a graphite crucible placed so that a 
 uniform heat will be maintained beneath and around the pot will 
 prove the best. As to the lead to use, care must be taken to get 
 a brand with as little sulphur in it as possible. Never use scrap 
 
THE HARDENING OF STEEL. 
 
 107 
 
 lead, as it will ruin the steel. Chemically pure lead should always 
 be used. 
 
 There are a great many compounds in use to prevent the lead 
 from sticking to the work. One of the best is the following : One 
 pound of powdered cyanide dissolved in one gallon of boiling 
 
 FIG. 71. — HEAVY KNURIvS. 
 
 water ; allow to cool, and then dip the articles to be heated in the 
 solution; remove and allow to dry thoroughly before putting 
 them into the lead. Moisture will make the lead fly. 
 
 Small articles of an even size and thickness throughout can 
 be put into the lead cold, while irregular pieces must be heated 
 
 FIG. 72. — DOUBIvE KNURLING TOOL. 
 
 nearly red before putting into the lead in order to prevent un- 
 equal expansion. 
 
 By keeping the surface of the lead covered with broken char- 
 coal, drops will be prevented from forming. After the heating 
 has been concluded empty the crucible. 
 
Io8 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 To get good results when hardening by heating in lead, stir 
 the liquid occasionally so as to equalize the heat, as the bottom, 
 will always be hotter than the top. When tools or parts with 
 fine projections or teeth are heated, take a stiff brush and clean 
 off any particles of lead which may stick in them before quench- 
 ing. This is necessary as steel will not harden when lead has 
 stuck to it, as the spots do not come in contact with the bath. 
 
 Hardening Metal Saws. 
 To harden metal saws or articles of a similar nature, provide 
 a pair of flat cast-iron plates and oil the faces well with a heavy 
 oil. Heat the saws in a box or some other arrangement which 
 will prevent the fire from coming in contact with them (a flat 
 plate will do) and prevent the article from warping during the 
 
 ^-.■r^T^i 
 
 I^IG. 72,. — METAL SAW. 
 
 heating process. When heated to a bright red remove the article 
 and place it on the lower oiled plate and drop the other plate on 
 it quickly, and hold it down until the article is cold. If a pair 
 of hinged plates are used one man can do the job; if not, two 
 will be required. 
 
 Mixture to Prevent Lead from Sticking. 
 The formula here given is taken from the report of the Chief 
 of Ordnance of the United States War Department, and is used 
 when hardening files, and has also given good results when hard- 
 ening small taps, milling cutters, reamers, broaches, rotary files 
 and similar tools having fine teeth. The following is a copy o£ 
 the report : 
 
THE HARDENING OF STEEL. IO9 
 
 "Before hardening-, the files are treated with a mixture of salt 
 ■and carbonaceous materials to protect the teeth from decarboniza- 
 "tion and oxidation. The kinds and proportions of the ingredients 
 are given in the following table : 
 
 "Pulverized and charred leather i pound. 
 
 "Fine family flour ij^ pounds. 
 
 "Fine table salt 2 pounds. 
 
 "The charcoal made from charred leather should be triturated 
 until fine enough to pass through a No. 45 sieve. 
 
 "The three ingredients are thoroughly mixed and incorporated 
 while in a dry state and water is then added slowly to prevent 
 lumps, until paste formed has the consistency of ordinary varnish. 
 When ready the paste is applied to the file- with a brush, care 
 heing taken to have the teeth well filled with the mixture. The 
 surplus paste is then wiped off the file by the brush and the file 
 is placed on end before a slow fire to dry. If dried too quickly, 
 the paste will crack or blister ; if not dried enough, the remain- 
 ing moisture will be transformed into steam when dipped into 
 the heated lead bath and cause an ebullition or sputtering of the 
 lead, throwing out minute globules of the latter which may en- 
 danger the eyes of the operator. The fusing of the paste upon 
 the surface of the file indicates the proper heat at which the file 
 should be hardened." 
 
 Hardening Long Taper Reamers. 
 
 The hardening of long taper reamers of small diameter, so 
 ras to prevent them from coming through curved or twisted, is one 
 •of the most difficult operations for the hardener, and we can only 
 advise the necessary precautions used by those who succeed with 
 such work. The steel should be annealed a second time before 
 the finishing cut is taken, by heating slowly in a low fire by pack- 
 ing it in an iron box or tube with powdered charcoal, fine sand, 
 or clean ashes ; then finished. The heating for hardening should 
 be done in the same manner as the re-annealing. When the box 
 and reamer have been heated thoroughly to a bright cherry red the 
 reamers should be carefully drawn out endwise, so as to prevent 
 the possibility of bending while hot ; and immediately quenched 
 "vertically in an oil bath. Any variation from a vertical position 
 "while dipping is liable to warp the work, through one side cool- 
 
no HARDENING;, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 ing faster than the other. In drawing temper, care should be 
 taken to heat evenly on all sides, so as to bring them to the same 
 straw color, brown or light blue, according to whatever use the 
 tool is to be put. Long delicate reamers should always be ground 
 to size after the hardening and tempering operations. 
 
 The Use of Clay in Hardening. 
 
 Very often in die and tool work it is desired that a piece with 
 a hole in the center should be hard around the outside and soft 
 around the hole, or a punch is required to be hard at both ends 
 and soft in the center. To accomplish these results with ease 
 use clay in the following manner : When the stock around the 
 hole is to be left soft and the outer edges of the piece hardened, 
 fill the hole with clay and pad it at both sides, then heat the piece 
 and plunge it into the water. When cool, remove the clay and 
 the stock around the hole will be^found to be soft while the edges 
 will be as hard as required. To harden both ends of the punch 
 and leave the center soft, put a bandage of clay around the center, 
 or desired soft portion, about ^ of an inch thick and bind it 
 with a piece of thin sheet metal. Heat and quench, and the de- 
 sired result will be accomplished. 
 
 When hardening dies or other press tools in which there are 
 holes near the edges of the work, fill the holes with clay before 
 heating and the tendency to crack will be overcome. When the 
 holes are not filled with clay (when the steel is quenched) steam 
 generates in the holes and cracks start, or excessive warping oc- 
 curs, due to the fact that the steam does not escape fast enough 
 and the contracting of the metal is unequal. 
 
 Special Instructions for Hardening and Tempering. 
 
 Often when tool steel is brought, special instructions will be 
 given as to the method of hardening and tempering it. Some- 
 times these instructions are followed out and oftener they are 
 not. Now in all cases when such instructions are given, don't 
 forget to go by them, otherwise do not buy that brand of steel, 
 but instead secure a brand which you can harden as you think 
 best. There are various brands of steel on the market which are 
 used for a number of special purposes and which possess qualities 
 which other brands do not (in regard to cutting at h^gh speeds, 
 removing large amounts of stock, etc.) which require hardening 
 
THE HARDENING OF STEEL. Ill 
 
 at different temperatures and tempering at special colors. If you 
 require this sort of steel for any special purpose, don't try to find 
 out why the special instructions are given, but do as directed, and 
 if the results are what the makers claim for it, it does not make 
 any difference if you have to harden it in a cake of soap — the 
 result is the thing. 
 
 Hardening and Tempering Round Thread Dies. 
 
 A good way to harden and temper round thread dies of the 
 type shown in Fig. 74 is to proceed as follows : The die after 
 having been drilled, worked, filed, etc., 
 should be split at D, leaving about 1-32 inch 
 of wall as shown. Heat carefully and 
 quench in water bath, after which polish the 
 sides. To temper use the lead bath. Enter 
 the die into the bath edgeways up to about 
 the dotted line shown in Fig. 74. After 
 holding it in the bath for about a minute re- fig. 74 — thread die. 
 move and examine. If the heating has been 
 
 done correctly the part A will have turned blue while the point 
 E will not be drawn at all. Treat B likewise, and in turn C and D. 
 When this is done properly there will be sufficient heat contained 
 in the outer portion to gradually draw and temper the point E, 
 which may be anything from a light yellow to a dark yellow, as 
 the case may require. In the tempering, a few drops of lard oil 
 on the teeth at intervals when required will check the temper 
 and prevent it from running out further at one point than an- 
 other. A little practice will teach the operator how much heat 
 to subject the outside portion of the die to so as to allow of all the 
 point E coming to the same temper. 
 
 After the tempering process the die may be repolished and 
 then the wall left at D removed by grinding with a thin emery 
 wheel, or by entering a small narrow face set and hitting it a 
 sharp blow, when the wall will break out. The reason for leaving 
 the thin wall at D is to hold the ends firm while hardening, 
 thus preventing excessive shrinking and warping. Split bush- 
 ings may be hardened in the same manner. 
 
 Hardening Bushings, Shell Reamers, Hobs, Etc. 
 A device useful in the hardening of bushings, shell reamers, 
 
112 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 fig. 75- — usefui, 
 :eardening device. 
 
 hobs, etc., is shown in Fig. 75, and consists 
 of a piece of drill rod, R, threaded about an 
 inch longer than the length of the article to 
 be hardened, and nut and washer located as 
 shown. The dotted lines show the work to 
 be hardened, AAAA, asbestos washers, BB, 
 common iron washers, the whole being held 
 together between the two nuts. Heat the 
 entire arrangement to the proper tempera- 
 ture and quench in water in the usual man- 
 ner. By using a device of this sort an up- 
 ward flow of water through the article is 
 prevented, as is the consequent sudden chill, 
 thus eliminating to a certain extent the tend- 
 ency to warp or crack. In such tools in 
 which the outside only is desired to be hard- 
 ened, the method is an excellent one, as the 
 inside will remain comparatively soft, unless 
 very thin, when it will harden clear through. 
 
 Hardening and Tempering Collet Spring Chucks. 
 The following kink we have found very handy when making 
 collet spring chucks of the shape shown in Fig. 76. After finish- 
 ing them in the lathe, leaving, of 
 ■course, enough stock to lap and 
 grind to a finish, face them on an 
 arbor and saw the spring slots as 
 shown; that is, at the end of each 
 slot, as shown at T and V. In- 
 stead of cutting completely through 
 at this point, leave a very thin wall 
 about ys inch long at the end of 
 
 the cuts. Then harden and temper the chucks as desired, and 
 after lapping the inside to size, place on an arbor and grind the 
 tapers as required ; then take a small, narrow broach and by 
 •entering it into the slots and hitting it a sharp blow with a ham- 
 mer the thin wall will break through. This kink I have used 
 to the best advantage in shops which had no grinding facilities. 
 When proceeding as aforesaid it was possible to finish the outside 
 and taper to size before hardening without the possibility of the 
 chucks running out to any noticeable extent. Of course for 
 
 EIG. 76. — SMALL COLLET 
 SPRING CHUCK. 
 
THE HARDENING OF STEEL. II3 
 
 work of the utmost accuracy this method would not do. But 
 then again work of the utmost accuracy is not accomplished in 
 shops where the tool facilities are not up to date. 
 
 The Taylor-White Process for Treating Steel. 
 
 In the September, 1901, number of the Journal of the Franklin 
 Institute was published a paper by Charles Day upon the Taylor- 
 White process for treating tool steel, and the results obtained 
 with steel so treated, at the works of the Link Belt Engineering 
 Company, Philadelphia, Pa. When this process was first an- 
 nounced facts were given and quoted reports of tests made at the 
 works of the Bethlehem Steel Company, Bethlehem, Pa., where 
 the process was developed by Messrs. Taylor and White. The 
 paper by Mr. Day gives information upon air hardening steels in 
 general before reverting to the subject of steel treated by the 
 Taylor-White process. 
 
 Mr. Day says that air-hardening steels have unquestionably 
 replaced the carbon variety for roughing work, the efficiency of 
 the former ranging from one and one-half to twice that of the 
 latter. This gain is because air-hardening steels hold their cut- 
 ting edge at much higher temperatures than carbon steels and 
 consequently can be worked at proportionately greater cutting 
 speeds. The usual method of hardening air-hardening steels is 
 well known, manufacturers usually placing a great stress on the 
 fact that the tool must be heated over a cherry red, otherwise it 
 will be burned and so ruined. The object of Messrs. Taylor and 
 White was to obtain some exact knowledge on this matter, and 
 extensive experirnents were conducted in the belief that a tool 
 steel could be produced to give still better results than those 
 already obtained. 
 
 The new process depends upon the fact that although both 
 carbon and air-hardening steels deteriorate rapidly when the tem- 
 perature rises above a cherry red, there are some chemical com- 
 positions that may be used for air-hardening steels which are 
 much improved as cutting tools if they are raised to a higher 
 temperature in the hardening process. Their maximum efficiency 
 is reached when the steel is heated to a point where it crumbles 
 when tapped with a rod. The point to which air-hardening steel 
 was formerly heated in the process of hardening is between 1,500 
 and 1,600 deg. F., and is called the breaking-down point. Steel 
 having the new treatment is heated to 2,000 deg. F. The com- 
 
114 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 position found to give the best results consists of an air-harden- 
 ing steel containing about i per cent of chromium and 4 per cent 
 of tungsten ; while for very hard metals, such as the chilled scale 
 on cast-iron, etc., 3 per cent of chromium and 6 or more per cent 
 of tungsten are good. The variation in carbon seems to matter 
 but little, steel varying from 85 to 200 points giving equally good 
 results. 
 
 The tool is cooled rapidly from the "high heat" (2,000 de- 
 grees) to a point below the breaking-down temperature, in a lead 
 bath, arid then slowly in the air, or lime, etc., as the case may be. 
 It is essential that at no time the temperature should rise, as in 
 such a case the tool would be seriously impaired. After the 
 steel has cooled off, its efficiency is found to be further increased 
 by subjecting it to what is termed the "low heat" for about ten 
 minutes; this temperature raiiging from 700 deg. to 1,240 deg. 
 F. After cooling from the "low heat" the tool is ready for use. 
 It is not essential to anneal the steel when reforging and the tools 
 can be worked with comparative ease. 
 
 In the operation of the Taylor-White process apparatus is 
 employed by means of which temperature can be controlled within 
 very narrow limits, which accounts for the uniformity of results 
 obtained with the tools treated by this process. 
 
 About 97 per cent of the material worked upon at the shops of 
 the Link Belt Engineering Company is cast-iron. In order to 
 make a rough test on cast-iron one tool was obtained from Bethle- 
 hem and put to work on a 7-foot boring mill turning the inside 
 of a cast-iron ring. The time required to do this work with their 
 old tools had been determined many times in setting piece rates, 
 and was about fourteen hours. With the Taylor-White tool the 
 time was reduced to three and one-half hours, and a gain of 75 
 per cent made. While steel used heretofore was not the best ob- 
 tainable, and was probably not worked to its highest efficiency, 
 there was, nevertheless, a large saving due to the new steel. 
 
 Some interesting data was also obtained from an order of 
 rope sheaves, the time required on similar work having been tabu- 
 lated for several years. The average time required to machine 
 thirteen sheaves with the old tools was nine and one-half hours ; 
 the same for sixteen similar sheaves, the roughing being done by 
 Taylor- White tools, was five hours and five minutes, or a saving 
 of 465^ per cent. 
 
 Assuming, however, the time for setting up, forming, boring 
 
THE HARDENING OF STEEL. II5 
 
 and polishing the same when the sheaves were finished with old 
 tools as with the treated tools, since the latter are not suitable for 
 cutting finishing cuts, the time for roughing would have been 
 7.85 hours and a saving of 56.3 per cent was made in operations 
 where it was possible to use treated tools. 
 
 In order to obtain some data with regard to pressure on the 
 points of tools for given depth of cuts, feed, etc., and at the 
 same time to show the effect of the treatment, a cast-iron ring 
 six and one-half feet in diameter was bolted to the table of a 
 seven-foot mill. The first .tool used was one treated for hard 
 material. It cut 106 pounds of metal in 10 minutes, and when 
 removed was in perfect condition. A "Mushet" tool under the 
 same condition last<^,d but one minute, and removed 5J^ pounds 
 of metal. The actual pressure against the tool in each case ex- 
 ceeded 3^4 tons, while the pressure per square inch with another 
 self-hardening tool was 143,000 pounds. 
 
 Eighteen months ago a 50 horse power engine supplied the 
 power for about 40 machine tools in the Link Belt Engineering 
 Company's works, and also run the pattern shop and grinding 
 room. The actual horse power developed had been found to 
 average 45. Of this 27 horse power was consumed by the shaft- 
 ing, leaving but 18 horse power for actual work. After the new 
 tools were in general use and the machine pushed to obtain the de- 
 sired results, it became apparent that the power was absolutely in- 
 adequate; indicator cards from the engine frequently showed 
 an overload of 60 per cent, and at this point it was found essen- 
 tial to put motors on some of the larger tools. 
 
 The following particulars about the process have been fur- 
 nished by the Bethlehem Steel Company: 
 
 "The practical speeds at which these tools will run has been 
 found to be from two to four times that of any steels which we 
 have experimented with, and we have endeavored to obtain the 
 "best in the market. 
 
 "The process, which is applied after the tool has been dressed 
 or machined to shape, penetrates to the center of the steel, even 
 in the largest tools we have ever treated, i. e., 4 inches square. All 
 of the standard brands of self-hardening steel which have been 
 experimented with are improved to a more or less extent by the 
 treatment ; it is preferred, however, to use a steel of special com- 
 position in order to get the greatest uniformity and maximum re- 
 sults. This special steel forges so much more readily than the 
 
Il6 HARDENING. TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 general nin of self -hardening steels that tools of different shapes 
 may be easily made up. 
 
 "W'e have also discovered a simple and comparatively rapid 
 method of annealing of special steel, by which tools may be easily 
 machined to shape, making it applicable to twist drills, chasers, 
 inserted cutters, etc., which have theretofore not been made from 
 self-hardening steel. 
 
 "A great advantage in the use of these tools is that when cut- 
 ting dry at the rate of maximum efficiency the chips should come 
 off blue. These blue chips enable a foreman at a glance to tell 
 whether the work is being done at the proper speed when running 
 under water at the proper cutting and allowing the tool to cut 
 dr\- for a few moments. 
 
 "The apparatus used in the Taylor-White process offers also 
 a simple and effective means of heating any other tools at uniform- 
 it}' and higher qualities in this class of steel, as well as self-hard- 
 ening steel. 
 
 "As is well known, tempering steels of different makes and 
 different qualities require different temperatures for hardening 
 to obtain the best results ; therefore, by means of our apparatus, 
 which is capable of closely controlling temperature, these points 
 may be accurately determined for each class of steel, and made 
 use of in daily practice. The operation of the process is ex- 
 tremely simple, as it is controlled by apparatus which regulates 
 the different steps, and does not require skill or expert labor."' 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 TEMPERING BY COLORS — IN OIL — ON HOT PLATES — BY THERMOM- 
 ETER IN HOT WATER IN THE SAND BATH BY 
 
 SPECIAL METHODS. 
 
 Tempering. 
 
 In the term "tempering" we include all processes which tend to 
 reduce the hardness of steel to a degree recognized inside the 
 color test by color, and also all processes by which the degree of 
 hardness is lowered, modified, tempered, or lessened. It is wrong 
 to apply the term "temper" to processes which at one operation 
 leave the steel harder than any degree of the color test ; a process 
 which does not reduce the hardness of steel to a degree denoted 
 by some color in the color test should be termed hardening. 
 
 If instead of the color, in tempering, the degree of temperature 
 required were given, the process would be very much simplified. 
 Thus 430 degrees would denote the same degree of hardness as a 
 faint yellow and all degrees of hardness above that would have 
 to be specified in less temperature, while all degrees of softness 
 down to a blue tinged with green would be included in degrees 
 of temperature up to 630. The degrees of softness below that 
 denoted by color test or thermometer are : bright red in the dark, 
 720 degrees ; red hot in twilight, 884 degrees, and red visible by 
 day, 1,077 degrees. The degrees of softness below them are indis- 
 tinguishable by the test ; they remain unknown quantities of de- 
 grees, and are only indicated by the ease with which the metal 
 can be machined. 
 
 The universal adoption of thermometer test for tempering will 
 remove the technical objection to the color test, i. e., that the 
 color obtained on the piece of steel through heat is no indication 
 that the steel possesses apy above its natural degree of hardness ; 
 as steel, wrought iron and cast iron will assume, when polished 
 and heated to the necessary degree of temperature, all the colors 
 of the test. Thus the color on a piece of steel is simply an indi- 
 cation that it has been heated to a certain degree, not that it is 
 tempered, or in fact that the heating process has in any way 
 changed the degree of hardness or softness. 
 
Il8 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Tempering when done by a second operation modifies the 
 hardness imparted to the steel by the first one and depends for its 
 uniformity upon the uniformity of the first process. For instance, 
 if a number of pieces of steel of uniform grade are heated to the 
 same degree of temperature, and quenched in water until cold, 
 then removed, then tempered to the same color, they will of course 
 be possessed of an equal degree of hardness ; but if other pieces 
 of steel of a different carbon percentage are subjected to exactly 
 the same process in all its details, leaving upon them the same 
 temper color, they will not possess the same degree of hardness 
 as those of the first lot. From this we learn that temper colors 
 may be proof of equality in the degree of temper in pieces of the 
 same steel, but the same is not indicative of any uniform degree 
 of hardness in diflferent steels. 
 
 In the hardening of inexpensive cutting tools the above facts 
 make very little difference, as for such tools special brands of steel 
 are procurable which will harden sufficiently to give accuracy to 
 the color test of tempering, when heated to any degree of heat from 
 a blood red to a yellow red ; the difference in hardness in the 
 steel when quenched at either degrees of heat being too small 
 to entitle them to consideration in tools which are inexpensive to 
 make. 
 
 In the tempering of special tools the exact degree of temper 
 which experiment has determined must be given. A tool user 
 knows that in the shade of yellow in the color test alone enter over 
 a range of 70 degrees, and that within these 70 degrees lies a wide 
 range of hardness. It is much better to adopt a tempering process 
 that will determine with accuracy the first heating temperature, 
 as, for instance, the heating of a tool in melted lead, melted salt, 
 or melted glass and then quenching it into a cooling bath the tem- 
 perature of which may be maintained by suitable means, and then 
 drawing the temper in a bath of oil heated to and maintained at the 
 degree of temperature required. When such methods are used, 
 if the steel used is of a brand which experience in using has taught 
 to be uniform, the greatest obtainable accurate degree of temper 
 will be obtained in both the operations, and the tools will be hard- 
 ened better and more reliable than could be obtained under the 
 color test. 
 
 In most establishments where large numbers of hardened tools 
 or parts are required the methods described are in use ; but 
 when the articles are large or only a few small parts at intervals 
 
TEMPERING. IIQ 
 
 are required, it would not of course pay to keep the heating ar- 
 rangements constantly ready. It is then that the open fire and the 
 color test must be adopted. It is under the latter conditions that 
 the skill, experience, and judgment of the hardener are called 
 into use, as from the time the steel is put in the fire until it is 
 quenched and tempered, upon him depends absolutely the entire 
 success of the operations. 
 
 Tempering in the Sand Bath. 
 When a number of pieces of the same size or of slightly dif- 
 ferent sizes have been hardened and it is desired to draw them 
 all to the same temper, the sand bath will be found to give the 
 most uniform results. This consists of an iron box filled with 
 sand and heated over the fire or in a muffle to the temperature re- 
 quired. When the sand has been heated to the required degree, 
 the tools to be tempered are lowered into it and removed when 
 the color denoting the temper required appears. 
 
 The Effects of Slow Heating and Tempering. 
 Always remember that the slower the temper is drawn, the 
 tougher the steel will be. When steel is slowly heated in temper- 
 ing and the heat is distributed equally over the entire piece, the 
 molecules assume the most stable position with regard to each 
 other, and when the tool is in use, all are alike affected by any 
 shock sustained. The effects of heat on copper and bronze are 
 exactly opposite to those manifested by steel, as when sUch metals 
 are cooled slowly they become brittle and hard, but when cooled 
 rapidly soft and malleable. 
 
 Tempering in Oil. 
 Almost all large shops in which any amount of hardening and 
 tempering are done have discarded the method of tempering by 
 colors and have adopted the more reliable methods of doing it in 
 oil, gaging the heat by thermomenter. A kettle containing the oil 
 i<5 placed on the fire and heated to the right temperature ; the 
 hardened parts are thrown in and left in the liquid until drawn. 
 By this method there is no possibility of overdrawing, as it is im- 
 possible for the parts to become hotter than the oil. When tem- 
 pering in this manner it is not necessary to brighten the work 
 before the operation, and when a lot of such work is done it will 
 be accomplished much cheaper than if the old method were used ; 
 besides, the most satisfactory results will be attained. 
 
120 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Hardening and Tempering Springs. 
 As very often springs are included in the constructions of 
 fixtures, appliances, and machines, it is well to understand how to 
 harden and temper them successfully. For small and medium- 
 sized springs use a solution composed of one-half sperm oil, one- 
 half neat's foot oil with an ounce of rosin, and the springs will 
 come out of the bath tempered as desired. For heavy springs, 
 which have to exert a great deal of pressure, use hot water. Have 
 the water boiling and plunge the springs, when at the proper heat, 
 into it. By adopting this method no burning off will be necessary, 
 as the springs will be the proper temper. What is more, they will 
 not break or "crawl up" when in use. 
 
 Biasing Off Springs. 
 
 To temper springs by "blazing off" use cottonseed oil. For 
 some work, however, a mixture of this and fish oil will work bet- 
 ter than either of the two oils alone. In doing this work experi- 
 ments will determine just what oil or what proportion of a 
 mixture of the two will contribute to attaining the best re- 
 sults. 
 
 Tempering Rock Drills in Crude Oil. 
 
 For the tempering of rock drills crude oil will give the best re- 
 sults, and by using it as a quenching bath even the amateur may 
 temper steel to stand like an expert; This is so because when 
 using oil a slight variation in temperature does not produce the 
 effect on steel that water does. The experience with crude oil 
 
 FIG. 77. — rock: DRILt STEEL. 
 
 for the tempering of rock drills by one who understands the 
 requirements of such work is of value and may cause its rriore 
 extensive use. B. Hastings, in the Mining and Scientific Press, 
 states : 
 
 "It is a very rare thing for an oil-tempered drill to break, and 
 it wears much better than a water-tempered one. The most 
 
TEMPERING. 121 
 
 serviceable slack tub I found to be common five-gallon oil can, 
 with the top left as a flap or cover to throw down and smother 
 flame in case the oil ignites from the hot steel. If the vessel is 
 left open the ignition, if it does occur, is of little consequence, 
 like that of coal tar ; but with a partially closed tub or tank can, 
 the accumulated gases are liable to produce 'fireworks,' as the 
 writer can testify. There is really no necessity for such incon- 
 venience, however, as the proper heat for plunging the steel — a 
 bright red — is a little below the point necessary to flash the oil. 
 I do not use more than five inches of oil in the bottom of the 
 can. The hotter the oil becomes, the better are the results. The 
 consumption of oil is small, principally due to that portion 
 sticking to the drills on withdrawal. Plunging them in loose dirt 
 afterward will clean them." 
 
 Hardening and Tempering Mill Picks. 
 
 Bath for Hardening. — Take 2 gallons rain-water, i ounce cor- 
 rosive sublimate, 2 of sal-ammoniac, i of saltpeter, i^ pints of 
 rock salt. The picks should be heated to a cherry red, and cooled 
 in the bath. The salt gives hardness, and the other, ingredients 
 toughness to the steel ; and they will not break, if they are left 
 without drawing the temper. 
 
 Composition for Tempering Cast-Steel Mill Picks. — To 3 
 gallons of water add 3 ounces each nitric acid, spirits of hartshorn, 
 sulphate of zinc, sal-ammoniac, and alum ; 6 ounces salt, with a 
 double handful of hoof parings; the steel to be heated a dark 
 cherry red. It must be kept corked tight to prevent evapora- 
 tion. 
 
 To Temper Picks. — After working the steel carefully, prepare 
 a bath of lead heated to the boiling point, which will be indicated 
 by a slight agitation of the surface. In it place the end of the 
 pick to the depth of 1J/2 inches, until heated to the temperature 
 required. The principal requisites in making mill picks are : First, 
 get good steel. Second, work it at a low heat ; most blacksmiths 
 injure steel by overheating. Third, heat for tempering with- 
 out direct exposure to the fire. The lead bath acts merely as 
 a superheater. 
 
 Straightening Hardened Pieces Which Have Warped. 
 When a piece of steel has been carefully heated and just as 
 carefully quenched, there is little chance of its warping. But 
 
122 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 when a piece does warp, before it can be used for the purpose 
 required, it must be straightened. To do this proceed as follows : 
 Take two "V" blocks and place them on the bed of an arbor press 
 or a straightening press — either one will do — and place the piece 
 or tool on the "V" blocks with the concave side down. Then take 
 a Bunsen burner, with a hose attached to it for the gas supply, 
 and heat the concave side ; do this slowly, and do not heat hot 
 enough to draw the temper. While the steel is hot apply sufficient 
 pressure to spring the piece or tool back into shape. A large 
 number of hardened pieces, which would otherwise prove useless, 
 may be saved by straightening them in this manner. 
 
 Tempering Thin Articles. 
 Articles of thin material, like springs, which require a spring 
 temper, are frequently treated by dipping in oil and then burning 
 off the oil over the fire. Blacksmiths adopted this method in- 
 stead of trying to temper by watching the color, as it is found 
 that it subjects the piece to just about enough heat to produce 
 the desired results. In the case of thicker pieces, however, like 
 tools, it is much better to use the hot iron and watch the color. 
 The temper can thus be drawn to just the point desired, and the 
 steel will be tempered more uniformly both on the outside and in- 
 side than when the other method is used. 
 
 Tempering in the Charcoal Flame. 
 A great many mechanics prefer to temper in a charcoal flame. 
 To do this properly the thickest portion, or the part not requiring 
 any temper, should be held in the flame ; and as it becomes heated, 
 the tool should be wiped at intervals with an oily piece of 
 waste. The oil will keep the temper even and prevent drawing 
 more in one place than in another. In drawing the temper of any 
 tool it should always be done slowly, as if it is done rapidly the 
 temper is apt to run out before one is aware of it. 
 
 Tempering Wood Planer Knives. 
 
 The following extract from an article contributed to the 
 "Woodworker" gives a practical method for tempering wood 
 planer knives : 
 
 "We have one batch of knives that will not hold an edge in 
 oak unless drawn to a temperature of about 400 degrees, and as 
 this shows a very indistinct color it is not easy to get without a 
 
TEMPERING. 1 23; 
 
 thermometer. As these are 6, 8, and lo-inch knives, they cannot 
 be hardened in water without a reasonable certainty of cracking: 
 back the length of the bevel in one or more places ; and as oil will 
 not carry off the heat fast enough to keep the body of the knives 
 from drawing the edge, it promised a serious problem to solve. 
 This was managed in the following manner, and after a few 
 trials I was able to obtain the proper degree of hardness without 
 drawing for temper at all. 
 
 "Take a vessel of proper width to receive the length of knife^ 
 put some water in the bottom and pour an inch of oil on top. 
 Heat the edge of your knife an even cherry red back as far as 
 you wish to harden it, and holding it level thrust the edge into 
 the oil for a moment until the color leaves, then slowly let it down 
 into the water. The oil cools without cracking, and the water 
 prevents the heat in the body from drawing the edge. It is not 
 necessary to harden all long knives in this manner, as the oil 
 alone will produce a sufficient hardness in ordinary cases if a large 
 enough body of oil is used and the edge of the knife is immersed 
 with a stirring motion. . It can then be tempered to about 500 
 degrees by the heat of the body of the knife and suddenly cooled 
 in water at about 80 degrees. These long knives are pretty sure 
 to warp some when tempering or hardening in this way, the back 
 or soft steel side contracting more than the face. To straighten^ 
 lay face down on an anvil and with a round-nosed machinist's 
 hammer give a quick, sharp blow, distributed evenly between the 
 back edge bevel and the line of front end of slots. Be careful 
 to hammer directly over the spot resting on anvil or the knife 
 will vibrate in the hand and the force of the blow will be diffused 
 and lost. This gentle hammering stretches the back of the knife,, 
 and when its length equals the face it will be straight." 
 
 Tempering Swords and Cutlasses. 
 The tempering of swords so that they will stand the United 
 States government test may be accomplished by heating in a char- 
 coal fire to a bright red and quenching in pure water, afterward 
 drawing the temper in a charcoal flame. 
 
 Drawing Polished Steel Articles to a Straw Color or Blue. 
 The surface of polished steel articles will acquire a pale straw 
 color at 460 degrees F., and a uniform deep blue at 580 degrees F. 
 The other shades between these may be had at intermittent tem- 
 peratures. 
 
124 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Tempering Solutions. 
 
 1. Saltpeter, sal-ammoniac and alum, of each 2 ounces; salt, 
 I J/2 pounds; soft water, 3 gallons. Never heat over cherry red; 
 draw no temper. Sal-ammoniac and iron turnings or filings 
 make good rust joints. 
 
 2. To 6 quarts of soft water add i ounce of corrosive sublim- 
 ate and two handfuls of common salt. When dissolved the mix- 
 ture is ready for use. The first gives toughness, the latter hard- 
 ness to the steel. Remember this is deadly poison. 
 
 3. Water, 3 gallons ; salt, 2 quarts ; sal-ammoniac and salt- 
 peter, of each 2 ounces ; ashes from white ash bark, i shovelful. 
 The ashes cause the steel to scale white and smooth as silver. 
 Do not hammer too coMr^ To avoid flaws do not heat too high, 
 which opens the pores of the steel. If heated carefully you will 
 get hardness, toughness and the finest quality. 
 
 4. Salt, 4 ounces ; saltpeter, j^ ounce ; pulverized alum, i 
 ounce to i gallon of soft water. Heat the articles to a cherry 
 red, and quench, but do not draw temper. 
 
 5. Saltpeter and alum, each 2 ounces ; sal-ammoniac, }4: ounce ; 
 salt, iy2 ounces to 2 gallons of soft water. Heat parts to be 
 tempered to a cherry red and quench. 
 
 Tables of Colors^ Melting Points and Suitable Tempers for 
 
 Given Tools. 
 The following tables have been carefully arranged and will 
 be found to be approximately correct : 
 
 Melting Points of Solids. 
 
 Deg. F. 
 
 Aluminum i,i57 
 
 Antimony from 811 to 1,150 
 
 Bismuth from 476 to 512 
 
 Copper from 1,929 to 1,996 
 
 Lead from 608 to 618 
 
 Mercury 39 
 
 Tin •....• .from 44210 451 
 
 Zinc from 680 to 779 
 
 Wr't" 
 
 Cast iron 2,477 
 
 Gold 2,587 
 
 Silver 1,250 
 
 Steel , 2,501 
 
 Glass 2,277 
 
 Brass 1,897 
 
TEMPERING. 1 25 
 
 Melting Points of Solids — Continued. 
 
 Wr't" 
 
 Platinum 3,077 
 
 Cadmium 602 
 
 Saltpetre 600 
 
 Sulphur 225 
 
 Potassium 135 
 
 Table of Tempers to Which Tools Should be Drawn, Arranged 
 Alphabetically. 
 
 Tool. Color. Deg. of Tern. F. 
 
 A 
 
 Augers Light purple 530 
 
 Axes Dark purple 550 
 
 All cutting tools for soft material Very light yellow 420 
 
 All hand taps and dies Straw yellow 460 
 
 All kinds of hand reamers Straw yellow 460 
 
 All percussion tools for metal Blue 549 
 
 B 
 
 Bone-cutting tools Very pale yellow 43a 
 
 Boring cutters Straw yellow 460 
 
 Butt mills for brass Very light yellow 420 
 
 Burnishers Very light yellow 420 
 
 Bending and forming dies Dark yellow 490 
 
 c 
 
 Chasers Straw yellow 460 
 
 Coppersmiths' tools Light purple 530 
 
 Cold chisels for steel Light purple 530 
 
 Cold chisels for cast iron Dark purple 550 
 
 Cold chisels for wrought iron Light purple 530 
 
 Circular saws for nletal Light purple 539 
 
 Cutting tools for iron Light yellow 440 
 
 Collets Dark yellow 490 
 
 Chuck jaws Dark yellow 490 
 
 Chisel for wood Spotted red-brown 510 
 
 Clutch bolts Very dark blue 601 
 
 Cams with sharp corners Very dark blue 601 
 
 Clutch springs Blue 549 
 
 D 
 
 Drifts Brown yellow 500 
 
 Dental and surgical instruments Light purple 530 
 
 Drawing mandrels Very light yellow 420 
 
 Drills for brass Straw yellow 460 
 
 E 
 
 Edging cutters Light purple 530 
 
 Embossing dies. Light yellow 440 
 
.126 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Table of Tempers to Which Tools Should be Drawn, Arranged 
 Alphabetically- — Continued. 
 
 Tool. Color. Deg. of Tem. F^ 
 
 F 
 
 Ji'lat drills for brass Brown yellow 500 
 
 Flat drills for steel and iron Straw yellow 460 
 
 Firmer chisels Dark purple 550 
 
 JFraming chisels Dark purple 550 
 
 G 
 
 ■Gimlets Dark purple 550 
 
 Gauges Brown yellow 500 
 
 H 
 
 Hammer faces Very pale yellow 430 
 
 Hand plane irons Brown yellow 500 
 
 Half-round bits ^f. Straw yellow 460 
 
 Hack saws Dark purple 550 
 
 Hand tools Light yellow 440 
 
 Hand springs Purple blue 529 to 531 
 
 Hammers and drop dies Spotted red-brown 510 
 
 r 
 
 Ivory-cutting tools Very pale yellow 430 
 
 Inserted saw teeth Straw yellow 460 
 
 J 
 
 Jaw pieces Purple blue 529 to 531 
 
 L 
 
 Leather-cutting dies . . Straw yellow 460 
 
 Lathe tools for brass Very light yellow 420 
 
 Large cutting dies . Straw yellow 460 
 
 iarge forging dies for press Dark yellow 490 
 
 M 
 
 Moulding and planing tools Dark purple 550 
 
 Milling cutters Straw yellow 460 
 
 Milling cutters for brass Very light yellow 420 
 
 N 
 
 Needles Dark purple 5SO 
 
 P 
 
 Press dies for brass Light purple 530 
 
 Press dies for cold-rolled stock Brown yellow 500 
 
 Press dies for sheet steel Straw yellow 460 
 
 Press dies for leather Straw yellow 460 
 
 Press dies for paper Dark blue 570 
 
 Penknives Straw yellow 460 
 
TEMPERING. 1 2/ 
 
 Table of Tempers to Which Tools Should be Drawn, Arranged 
 Alphabetically — Continued. 
 
 Tool. Color. Deg. of Tcm. F. 
 
 Planer tools for iron Straw yellow 460 
 
 Planer tools for steel Very pale yellow 430 
 
 Parts subject to shocTc Very dark blue 601 
 
 Paper cutters Very pale yellow 430 
 
 R . 
 
 Rock drills Straw yellow 460 
 
 Reamers Straw yellow 460 
 
 S 
 
 Shell reamers Brown yellow 500 
 
 Screw-cutting dies Straw yellow 460 
 
 Scrapers for brass Very pale yellow 430 
 
 Steel-engraving tools Very pale yellow 430 
 
 Scrapers Very light yellow 420 
 
 Slight turning tools Very pale yellow 430 
 
 Screw drivers Dark purple 550 
 
 Springs Dark purple 550 
 
 Saws for wood Dark blue 570 
 
 Saws for bone and ivory Dark purple 550 
 
 Stone-cutting tools Brown yellow 500 
 
 Small milling cutters Straw yellow 460 
 
 Shear blades Dark yellow 490 
 
 Springs Very dark blue 601 
 
 T 
 
 Twist drills Brown yellow Soa 
 
 Taps Straw yellow 460 
 
 Threading dies for brass Light yellow 440 
 
 1 ruing blocks Straw yellow 460 
 
 Tools for wood, to be filed Purple blue 529 to 531 
 
 Tools for wood, not to be filed Spotted red-brown 510 
 
 • W. 
 
 Wood-engraving tools Very pale yellow 430 
 
 Wood-boring cutters Brown yellow 500 
 
 Wire-drawing dies Straw yellow 460 
 
 Table of Suitable Temperatures for — Deg. F. 
 
 Annealing steel 900 to 1,300 
 
 Annealing malleable iron (furnace iron) 1,100 to 1,400 
 
 Annealing malleable iron (cupola iron) 1,500 to 1,700 
 
 Annealing glass (initial temperature) 950 
 
 Working glass 1,200 to 1,475 
 
 Melting glass (into fluid) 2,200 
 
 Hardening tool steel 1.200 to 1,400 
 
128 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Table of Suitable Temperatures for — Deg. F. 
 
 Casehardening iron and soft steel 1,300 to 1,500 
 
 Core ovens in foundries 350 
 
 Drying kilns for wood 300 
 
 Baking white enamel 150 
 
 Baking red and green enamel 250 
 
 Baking black enamel ■. . . 300 
 
 Vulcanizing rubber 295 
 
 Table of Temper Colors of Steel. Deg. F. 
 
 Faint yellow 430 
 
 Straw color 460 
 
 Dark straw 470 
 
 Brown yellow 500 
 
 Purple 530 
 
 Blue 550 
 
 Full blue 560 
 
 Polish blue J> 580 
 
 Dark blue 600 
 
 Pale blue 610 
 
 Blue tingsd with green 630 
 
 Bright red in dark 725 
 
 Red hot in twilight 884 
 
 Red visible by day 1,077 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CASEHARDENING PROCESSES THE USE OF MACHINERY STEEL FOR 
 
 CUTTING TOOLS AND THE TREATMENT OF IT, 
 
 The Use of Machine Steel for Press Tools. 
 For a large number of purposes, particularly in the line of 
 sheet metal working, machinery steel tools, if properly hardened, 
 will answer as well and sometimes better than tool steel ones, and 
 if the following process is used to harden such tools they will be 
 found to give the best of results and may be used with success for 
 cutting the different metals. In order that the parts or tools may 
 do their work and last long, they must be hardened very deep and 
 come out with a fine compact grain. For dies which are to be 
 used for punching regular shaped blanks from light soft stock, 
 m.achine steel casehardened tools will give excellent satisfaction, 
 as they are far cheaper to make and will last as long as though 
 made of tool steel. 
 
 OutUt for Fine Grain Casehardening. 
 To do this work properly the following outfit is necessary : 
 A good hardening oven, a number of hardening boxes, a good 
 supply of raw bone, granulated, the same amount of granulated 
 charcoal, some hydro-carbonated bone and the same amount 
 of charred leather. A tank large enough to hold a good supply 
 of water, a small tank so arranged as to allow of heating to any- 
 desired temperature, and a bath of raw linseed oil, and the outfit 
 will be complete. 
 
 Packing and Heating the Work. 
 Pack and heat the work as you would for regular caseharden- 
 ing, and leave it in the oven to cool. When perfectly cool heat 
 the pieces in hot lead and quench the same as tool steel. If the 
 pieces are small they should be re-packed in the hardening box 
 with granulated charcoal and heated. When packing in charcoal 
 do not mix with any kind of bone or any other carbonizing mat- 
 ter ; such substances open the grain, and the object of the second 
 heat is to close the grain. The hardening heat should be as low 
 as possible, and the hardened pieces will come out close in grain. 
 
130 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 with a hard, tough surface all over, while the center remains soft 
 and the piece will be stronger than if made of tool steel. 
 
 Casehardening Cuiting Tools. 
 When machine steel tools are to be used for cutting they 
 should be packed for the first heat in a mixture composed of equal 
 parts of charcoal and charred leather, finely granulated. The use 
 of charred leather gives a much tougher effect to the steel than 
 bone, as the leather is almost free from phosphorus, while bone is 
 not, and as phosphorus makes steel brittle the substance which 
 contains the least amount of it should be used. Tools which are 
 tc be used for bending and forming may be packed in bone, which 
 will carbonize them as required. When using either bone or 
 leather an equal amount of granulated charcoal mixed with it will 
 prevent the kernels of bone and leather from adhering and form- 
 ing a solid mass when hot, and as charcoal is an excellent con- 
 ductor the pieces packed within the hardening box will be heated 
 quicker than if no charcoal were used. 
 
 How to Caseharden, Color and Anneal with Granulated Raw 
 
 Bone. 
 In order to attain good and satisfactory results in caseharden- 
 ing by the use of granulated raw bone, as well as to color and 
 anneal properly with it, the treatment of the steel must be in ac- 
 cordance with the use to which it is subsequently to be put. In 
 the following we give special directions for casehardening, color- 
 ing and annealing machine steel by the use of Hubbard's granu- 
 lated raw bone. The matter was kindly furnished to the author 
 by the manufacturers of the bone, Rogers & Hubbard Company, 
 Middletown, Conn., who have gone to much trouble and expense 
 in order to discover the best methods for casehardening, coloring 
 and annealing under different conditions, and for parts used for 
 special purposes. 
 
 To Caseharden Without Colors. 
 Pack the work to be hardened in a cast-iron box. The box 
 should be of suitable size ; use a box about 4 inches deep, 4 inches 
 wide and 8 inches long. Put a layer of granulated raw bone in 
 the bottom, then a layer of work to be hardened, and so on until 
 the box is full within i^ inches of the top. This space may be 
 filled with old bone that has been used. Put on the cover and 
 Ijd and lute with clay. In packing, be sure to keep the work at 
 
CASEHARDENING PROCESSES. I3I 
 
 least one-half an inch from the sides and ends of the box. Heat 
 to a good cherry red from three to four hours, according to the 
 •depth of hardening desired. Dump the whole contents in clear, 
 cool, soft water. Delicate pieces should be dumped in oil. For 
 larger work use a larger box and keep in longer. 
 
 Hardening Extra Heavy Work. 
 
 To harden pieces 4 inches and upward in diameter the work 
 should be packed in clear raw borie, No. i or No. 2, surrounded 
 by at least lyz to 2 inches of the "one," and heated to an orange, 
 or almost white heat, for 18 hours, and then plunged into cold 
 running water, salt water preferred. If the piece does not harden 
 liard enough at one operation, it should be repacked and heated 
 again, the same as the first time, and plunged into cold water as 
 before. Great care should be taken in heating these pieces. After 
 the heat is up to the required temperature, it should be kept so 
 until the piece is ready to be plunged into the water. 
 
 Hardening Drawbridge Disc and Similar Work. 
 
 Large flat pieces require especial care and treatment. For 
 liardening pieces or discs 2 feet in diameter and 4 inches thick, put 
 four or five inches No. i granulated raw bone in bottom of pack- 
 ing box. On this bed lay work to be hardened flat side down, 
 pack at least four inches of granulated raw bone around the 
 •diameter and on top. If you have any charred leather, a thin 
 layer added next to the work may prevent scaling, but it is not 
 a necessity. After packing, cover the box with an iron cover and 
 4ute with clay. Heat to a bright cherry red and hold at this heat 
 for eight or ten hours. These large flat pieces have a tendency 
 to warp a little, but this can be reduced to a minimum by being 
 careful not to heat above a good cherry, and by dipping the pieces 
 ■edgewise into a large body of cold water, which has a steady 
 stream running into it, or some other way of keeping the water 
 agitated. 
 
 In hardening large flat pieces, there are four essential points 
 — plenty of bone; even, steady, bright cherry heat; dip edgewise; 
 large body of water that is kept agitated. 
 
 Hardenin)g Five-inch Thrust Bearing Rings. 
 If made from ordinary soft machinery steel with about .10 per 
 cent or .15 per cent of carbon, it would be necessary to pack them 
 
132 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING, 
 
 in No. 2 granulated raw bone and heat twelve hours to a good 
 bright cherry red, then re-pack and heat nine hours again to a 
 good bright cherry red. Dip in salt water singly (do not dump). 
 We would advise using a cast-iron box 11 inches long, 7 inches 
 deep, 6 inches wide, covered with an iron cover that will fit inside. 
 Lute around the edge with clay. Such a box will hold ten rings. 
 
 To Harden Rods or Rolh, Leaving Tenons Soft for Riveting. 
 
 Finish the pieces to the required diameter, leaving a little extra 
 length for trimming, but do not turn the tenons on the end or ends. 
 Pack and heat the pieces as usual, but do not dump. Allow the 
 work tOv remain in the boxes until all heat has passed off the 
 same as the annealing. On being taken from the boxes the pieces 
 are thoroughly annealgd with the outer surface carbonized to a 
 greater or less depth, according to the time they were in the 
 furnace. After turning the tenon heat the piece to a cherry and 
 plunge into cold water the same as to harden tool steel. On re- 
 moving from the bath the work will be found to be extremely 
 hard wherever the outer surface has not been removed since car- 
 bonizing, but wherever this surface has been removed, as in turn- 
 ing the tenon, the softness of the original stock has been removed. 
 If the stock is reqviired in rods for tenon, screw or similar ma- 
 chines, cut in pieces as long as your furnace and pots will take, 
 carbonize and anneal as described above. The finished work from 
 these rods upon coming from the machines is ready to harden, 
 leaving such portions, soft as have been turned or cut after car- 
 bonizing. 
 
 The principle of this method is that only carbonized portions 
 will harden when heated and chilled and as the carbon enters but 
 a short distance the carbonized surface may readily be removed, 
 thus leaving the original stock, which will not harden, exposed to 
 the action of the fire and water. The principle may be adapted to 
 a great variety of uses where hardness and softness are required 
 on the same piece. 
 
 When it is not practical to remove any of the stock in order 
 to remove the carbonized surface, the parts desired soft may be 
 protected by covering them with a coating of fire-clay, thus pre- 
 venting the carbonizing of the stock at these particular points, 
 with the result that when plunged in the cold bath they will re- 
 main soft. 
 
CASEHARDENING PROCESSES. 133 
 
 To Caseharden Malleable Iron. 
 
 If malleable iron is thoroughly malleable it should be treated 
 exactly the same as any wrought iron. If it is only half annealed, 
 as sorne of it is, then there are no directions to give in regard to 
 it. Sometimes it will take a light casehardening, sometimes it 
 will harden half way through, other times all the way through, 
 according to the condition it is in. If it is thoroughly decar- 
 bonized, as it could be, then it is just about the same as a piece 
 of iron. 
 
 In order to obtain the best results it is necessary to employ 
 a furnace that gives and maintains a good uniform heat. 
 To Use the Old Bone. . 
 
 After dumping the pots, sepaEat-etthe bone Jrom the work and 
 dry it thoroughly ; it will then be coal black. This can be used 
 again by adding new granulated raw bone, about one part new to 
 two of the old. Place upon your bench a box each of the 
 gi anulated raw bone and the bone black ; one is white, the other 
 black ; a mixture will make a gray. For very small work, screws, 
 etc., use a dark gray^, i. e., two or three parts bone black and one 
 of the raw bone. For very large work use white or raw bone ; 
 a little proportion of raw bone and burned bone to be used for 
 different sizes of work. The different shades of gray make an 
 easy and reliable guide after having once become familiar with 
 them. 
 
 Pameacha raw bone may be used in exactly the same way. 
 The shades of the color are not as true a guide, however, as the 
 pameacha raw bone is quite dark-colored itself. 
 
 Constant burning will finally turn the bone white; it is then 
 valueless for casehardening. 
 
 Bone and Charcoal. 
 The following is recommended by a reliable party as a prac- 
 tical and economical method of using granulated raw bone : For 
 ordinary iron work, such as set or cap screws, etc., use one part 
 granulated raw bone to three parts pulverized charcoal, thoroughly 
 mixed; in this we pack our work in iron pots, then sprinkle a 
 little charcoal dust on the top. In casehardening Bessemer steel 
 or fine small drawn work we diminish the quantity of bone some- 
 what. Pameacha raw bone may be used in the place of the 
 granulated raw bone, but the proportion of charcoal should be 
 somewhat diminished. 
 
134 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Using the T ell-Tale. 
 Parties who have had but little experience in casehardening- 
 may find the "tell-tale" a help to them. The tell-tale consists of 
 a piece of round iron, as near the size of the work to be hardened 
 as possible, that reaches down into the center of the pot, extending 
 up through the cover about high enough for the tongs. The hole 
 in the cover should be just large enough to allow the pin or tell- 
 tale to slip out readily. When you think the work has been in 
 long enough, remove the tell-tale with the tongs without dis- 
 turbing the pot, and plunge it immediately into cold water. There 
 may be one or more tell-tales in the cover, as desired. If the tell- 
 tale shows the work to be hardened to sufficient depth, dump as 
 instructed, otherwise leave in longer, and test as before. 
 
 To Obtain Colors with Granulated Raw Bone. 
 This process not only' gives the finest colors and mottling, but 
 it casehardens the work at the same time. 
 
 Preparation of the Work. 
 To obtain bright colors, the work must be nicely polished and 
 perfectly clean ; poorly finished, greasy work will not take bright 
 colors. A clean, brightly polished surface is necessary for the 
 finest 'work. 
 
 To Char the Bone. 
 
 To produce the colors the granulated raw bone must be thor- 
 oughly charred. This can be easily and cheaply done by putting 
 it into iron boxes about 9 x 9 x 36 inches, covering tightly and 
 placing it in the furnace at night, after the work has been with- 
 drawn. The remnant of fire and heat of the retort is sufficient 
 to char the bone during the night. If, however, there is much 
 fire left, it must be partially deadened, as the object is to simply 
 char the bone without burning it. If the smaller boxes are used, 
 they must be watched and taken out when "one" is charred. If 
 there is sufficient oven room this can be arranged so as to be done 
 during the day. 
 
 To Pack the Work. 
 
 Pack the work in a cast-iron box of suitable size for the work ; 
 for screws or similar work J4 to ^ inch, use box 4 inches deep, 
 4 inches wide and 8 inches long. Put a layer of charred bone in 
 the bottom, then a layer of the work to be hardened and colored, 
 and so on until the box is filled to within ij^ inches of the top; 
 
CASEHARDENING PROCESSES. I35 
 
 fill this Space with charred bone, put on the cover and lute with 
 clay. In packing, be , sure and keep the work at least ^^2 inch 
 from the sides and ends of the box, and do not let any two pieces 
 of the work come in contact. 
 
 The Heat. 
 
 Place the boxes in the furnace and bring to a cherry red, and 
 hold at this heat two to four hours. To get nice colors, the heat 
 must be held uniform ; if too hot, there will be no color. A good 
 nice cherry red. must be maintained from the time the boxes are 
 placed in the furnace until they are ready to dump. With very 
 small work this time may be reduced somewhat ; with heavy work 
 it may be increased. A little practice will be necessary to deter- 
 mine this point. 
 
 In order to obtain the best results it is necessary to employ a 
 furnace that gives and maintains a good uniform heat. 
 
 The Bath. 
 While good colors can be obtained in rather hard water, yet 
 soft water will give much better results. The bath should be 
 arranged as follows : Bring your water pipe up through the bot- 
 tom of the barrel reaching about half way to the top ; make the 
 outlet about six inches from the bottom of the barrel ; into your 
 supply pipe connect a pipe from an air pump so that the air and 
 water will mix in the pipe and come into the barrel together. 
 When dumping, have a running stream of water and air floating 
 into the barrel. Hang a sieve under the surface of the water in 
 which to dump the work. While the air pump is not absolutely 
 necessary, yet its use gives more satisfactory results. Running 
 water is necessary if large lots are to be dumped, as the water 
 must be kept cold. Small lots may be dumped into the bath of 
 still water. 
 
 To Dump the Work. 
 
 When the work is ready to dump, draw the boxes from the 
 furnace, hold them close to the surface of the water over the sieve 
 and dump, turning over the box quickly. This operation requires 
 the nicest care, in order that the air may not strike the iron before 
 it reaches the water. If the air strikes the iron, it assumes a black 
 or blue-black streaked color. 
 
 Cleaning the Work. 
 Separate the work from the bone and boil out in clean water. 
 
136 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Dry in sawdust and oil over slightly, which will bring out the 
 color and keep it from tarnishing. 
 
 Colors from a Light Straw to a Deep Blue. 
 Caseharden the articles as instructed, then roll them in a 
 tumbling barrel of some sort, until they are brought to a proper 
 finish. After they are thoroughly polished, place them in a cyHn- 
 der and tumble them over a regular gas blaze until drawn to a 
 desired color, then plunge in cold water, dry in sawdust and oil 
 slightly to avoid tarnishing. By using a regular gas blaze, and 
 noting the exact time required, the process can be timed exactly 
 to produce any color desired from the light straw to a deep blue. 
 If preferred, you can put the pieces in a wire cylinder where you 
 can see the color, and revolve over a slow fire. The fire must be 
 free from gas or the pieces will be stained. 
 
 Directions for An'^ealing with Granulated Raw Bone. 
 
 Pack the work to be annealed about the same as for case- 
 hardening, but it is not necessary to keep the pieces separate, using 
 the bone that has been burned a number of times until it is almost 
 white. Place in the oven and heat until it is heated through to 
 a cherry red. 
 
 Cooling. 
 
 As soon as the work has reached the required heat stop the 
 blast, and if the oven is not required for further use, let the boxes 
 remain in the furnace and cool down with the fire. Upon remov- 
 ing the boxes from the oven cover them with warm ashes, old 
 burned bone or air-slacked lime, so as to retain the heat as long 
 as possible. Do not remove the work from the boxes until all 
 heat has passed ofif. The more gradual the cooling the better 
 the results. 
 
 To Anneal Low Carbon Steel Bars. 
 
 For bars 6^ inches in diameter use 9-inch iron pipe for pack- 
 ing box, other sizes in proportion. Pack the steel in a mixture of 
 half charcoal and half bone that has been used once or twice. 
 This proportion does not tend to recarbonize more than five (5) 
 per cent, and in all cases it is sufficient to maintain the amount of 
 carbon originally in the steel. Great care must be taken in heating 
 steel for annealing, heating it only to the same degree of heat that 
 you would for casehardening, i. e., a good cherry red. Heavy bars 
 6 inches to 7 inches in diameter should be placed in the furnace 
 
CASEHARDENING PROCESSES. 137 
 
 in the morning and left in until the next morning, but no draft 
 should be allowed on during the night. Upon removing the box 
 from the furnace cover them with warm ashes, old burned bone or 
 air-slacked lime, so as to retain the heat as long as possible. Do 
 not remove the steel from the boxes until all heat has passed off. 
 
 Smaller bars are treated in exactly the same way except the 
 length of time required for heating; this diminishes as the size of 
 the bar is reduced. 
 
 To Anneal Iron Castings. 
 
 To anneal small or thin iron castings, pack them in a cast-iron 
 pot with a mixture of bright cast-iron turnings or filings and 
 pulverized charcoal, half each ; have a layer of the mixture be- 
 tween the castings ; it will help to keep them from warping and 
 heat them more uniformly. Place the pots in the oven and bring 
 to a good bright cherry red, then let them cool off. If it is neces- 
 sary that they be very soft, hold them at a bright red for two or 
 three hours. 
 
 It is absolutely necessary that the castings be left in the pots 
 to cool off. 
 
 In order to obtain the best results it is necessary to employ a 
 furnace that gives and maintains a good uniform heat. 
 
 Casehardening with Cyanide of Potassium. 
 
 The casehardening of machinery steel with cyanide of potas- 
 sium can be accomplished in a number of different ways. The 
 most common method of casehardening with cyanide is to heat 
 the article to almost a white heat and soak it into a cake of the 
 cyanide, then reheat and plunge into water. This method, how- 
 ever, is a very poor one except for special jobs or a few small 
 articles. 
 
 A highly satisfactory method of casehardening with cyanide 
 can be attained by melting the cyanide in an iron pot, and dipping 
 the heated articles into it. To use this method for hardening 
 small articles a cast-iron pot will answer, while for large pieces 
 or ones with delicate portions, which are to be merely colored, a 
 mild steel pot will be necessary. 
 
 In Fig. 78 a cheaply made pot of the second kind is shown. 
 It can be made of flat mild steel from two pieces of 54-ii^ch to 
 ^-inch thick, which should be bent to the shape shown and riveted 
 and welded together. With a pot of this kind soft steel pieces may 
 Tdc heated in the cyanide, and when dipped properly in water will 
 
138 
 
 HARDENIXG. TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 show Up with colors equally as clear as those possible to attain by 
 packing and heating ia bone and leather. One decided advantage 
 of this process, for certain articles, is that delicate parts will not 
 spring out of shape, as no hardness is produced in them, which 
 is a decided advantage in a large variety- of work which is re- 
 quired to be colored, but not hard. 
 
 When the articles are desired to be hard the cast-iron pot may 
 be used, although care will be necessan,- in order to prevent ex- 
 cessive warping in any but very small pieces. 
 
 FIG. 78. — SHEET STEEL POT FOR CYANIDE HARDENING. 
 
 A strange thing about this process is that the first time a !iew 
 steel pot is used the work heated in it will come through as hard 
 as if a cast-iron pot was used. To overcome this, heat a new pot 
 once before doing any work. Where a great deal of this work is 
 done a hard coal-burning furnace should be built with a lid of 
 cast-iron on the top or roof, in which a hole about the shape of the 
 pot has been cored. In hardening or coloring by this method be 
 sure that the articles are perfectly dn.- before putting them into 
 the cyanide. If there is any moisture or dampness in the grain 
 the cvanide will flv like hot lead. 
 
CASEHARDEXIXG PROCESSES. I39 
 
 Accurate Sectional Casehardening. 
 
 The accurate sectional casehardening of special machinery- 
 steel parts may be accomplished by a special process so that the 
 hard and soft surfaces may be controlled with absolute accuracy. 
 
 Take the article or part, of which sections only are desired to 
 be hardened, and coat the surfaces requiring hardening with black 
 Japan enamel, having first thoroughly cleaned the surfaces to be 
 afterward enameled, and after they are perfectly dr\- have the 
 work plated with copper, being sure that the Japan coating has 
 not been eaten away by any cleaning fluids. 
 
 After plating, the piece must be carbonized, which ordinarily 
 requires from three to four hours at a bright red heat in bone 
 dust. At this heat the pores of the metal open and freely absorb 
 the carbon. After the heating period has expired remove the 
 box and allow the article to cool slowly in the bone dust. When 
 the part is cold remove from the bone, heat to a red in an open, 
 fire and quench in cold water. 
 
 The fracture of a piece of metal treated as described above 
 will present a fine velvety appearance, this being brought about 
 through the second heating. If the part is quenched after the 
 first heating or working process, a coarse grain will be the crude 
 result. 
 
 Upon testing the properly heated piece with a file, it will be 
 found that the plated surfaces are soft and the Japanned ones hard. 
 This result comes about through the copper plating preventing the 
 absorption of carbon during the roasting process and the Japan 
 burning off and allowing the opposite to occur, allowing the carbon 
 to penetrate to a depth of 1-16 inch. By repeating the process 
 the hardened surface will deepen and the structure of the metal 
 will not deteriorate. 
 
 To Produce Fine Grained Hardened Machine Steel Parts. 
 
 The reason why machinery steel has not been adopted and used 
 extensively in place of expensive tool steel is that ver\- few me- 
 chanics are able to harden it so as to produce a fine grain. When 
 it is considered that machine steel would replace to advantage 
 many tool steel parts if the process for producing a fine grain was 
 generally known the value of the method is ob\4ous. 
 
 All steel parts which are subjected to pressure, w^ear. or con- 
 cussion are required to have a strong close-grained backing in 
 
I40 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 order to stand up well when in use. Tool steel has this fine grain, 
 while machine steel in its natural condition has not, and when case- 
 hardened, by the ordinary process, the grain becomes even coarser 
 through the pores opening during the heating process when the 
 carbon is absorbed ; the higher the heat to which such parts are 
 brought the coarser the grain. 
 
 To harden machine steel parts and articles so as to produce 
 a grain equal to that of high-grade tool steel proceed as directed 
 in this chapter under heading, "The Use of Machine Steel for 
 Press Tools. '^ The process will answer for all parts and articles 
 "which can be made from mild steel which will be subjected to 
 strain, wear or pressure, such as cutting dies for thin stock, form- 
 ing and bending dies, cams, plug, ring, and snap gages ; bicycle, 
 sewing and typewriting machine parts, spindles, and a variety of 
 other parts which will Suggest themselves to the reader. 
 
 Casehardening Ends of Steel Rails. 
 
 A process for casehardening the ends of track rails, which or- 
 dinarily are of comparatively short endurance because of the 
 greater wear to which they are subjected, has been invented by 
 M. E. Coyan, of the Carnegie Steel Company's Works, at Home- 
 stead, Pa. The process obviates loss of service, now quite general, 
 in having to remove tracks with battered ends, while the inter- 
 mediate portions are yet sound. The description of the process 
 as given in the "Railway Review" is given below : 
 
 In operation the rails are passed through the finishing rolls and 
 are sawed off and placed on a horizontal table. Located at 
 each end of the table and near one side is a spray designed to 
 deposit a casehardening solution on the ends of the hot rails as 
 they enter the table. The rails are kept moving across the table 
 the same as in usual treatment, the casehardening material burning 
 and soaking into the ends until the rail runs in contact with water 
 sprays, located just opposite the casehardening sprays, and so 
 constructed as to extend half the length of the table. The ends 
 coming in contact remain in the bath until they reach the opposite 
 side of the table, where they pass from out of the bath and are 
 carried away for straighteninp-. 
 
 Very Deep Casehardening. 
 When small mild steel articles are required to be hardened very 
 deep, put the parts into a crucible and add enough cyanide of 
 
casehardeninG processes. 141 
 
 potash to cover them when melted. Cover the crucible and heat 
 as required, then remove parts and quench into a cold water bath» 
 Parts treated in this manner will harden very deep. 
 
 To Caseharden Small Iron Parts. 
 
 Put into an iron pot, or crucible, i part prussiate of potash 
 and 10 parts of common salt, fuse together, and put articles in. 
 Allow the parts to remain in the liquid for 30 minutes, after which 
 quench in cold water, and a good caseharden will result. 
 
 To Caseharden zmth Charcoal. 
 
 To caseharden with charcoal, the articles finished, but not pol- 
 ished, should be put into an iron pot, and covered with an animal 
 or vegetable charcoal, and brought to a red heat, when they will 
 cement. The heat should be kept up for a period varying with the 
 size and description of the articles worked upon, 
 
 Moxon's Method of Casehardening. 
 
 Cow's horn or hoof is to be baked or thoroughly dried and 
 pulverized in order that more may be packed in the box with the 
 articles to be worked upon. Bones reduced to dust will answer the 
 same purpose. To this add an equal quantity of bay salt; mix 
 then with this stale chamber-lye, cover the iron with this mixture, 
 and bed it in th^ same as loam, or inclose it in an iron box. Lay 
 it on the hearth to dry and harden, and then put into the fire. Heat 
 the mass until a blood red heat — no higher — appears, and then 
 remove the iron and quench in cold water. 
 
 A Casehardening Mixture for Iron. 
 
 A good casehardening mixture for iron is composed of equal 
 parts prussiate of potash, sal-ammoniac and saltpeter; add 4}^ 
 ounces more of sal-ammoniac and 7 gallons of water. Heat the 
 iron red hot and soak it in, the composition. 
 
 A Casehardening Paste. 
 
 To caseharden iron parts quickly and satisfactorily, make a 
 paste with a concentrated solution of loam and prussiate of potash. 
 Coat the parts to be hardened with the paste and heat them to a 
 bright red, after which allow them to cool to a dull red and therL 
 quench in a cold water bath. 
 
342 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Casehardening Polished Parts. 
 
 To caseharden mild steel or iron parts which have been pre- 
 viously finished and polished, heat them to a bright red in a closed 
 fire and wipe them with prussiate of potash. When the prussiate 
 appears to decompose and dissipate, quench the article or part in 
 ■cold water. When the process has been conducted properly the 
 surface of the parts will be well hardened to a depth sufficient to 
 resist a file. This process will be found to be a great improve- 
 ment over the ordinary method as the application of the prussiate 
 allows of casehardening a part, or a number of parts, of the ar- 
 ticles and still leave the remaining sections soft. 
 
 Casehardening as it Should be Understood. 
 
 In order to caseharden successfully it is not merely necessary 
 to follow the directions herein given. The principles must be un- 
 derstood and retained in order that the operation shall be accom- 
 plished in a manner fitting special requirements. In the first place 
 the operation of casehardening consists first and foremost of giving 
 -a surface to steel or iron that will be capable of receiving a great 
 external hardness, while the interior remains soft and in its natural 
 tough state. Thus the part will be capable of withstanding wear, 
 strain and concussion when in use. Second, the above mentioned 
 results can only be accomplished satisfactorily by packing and heat- 
 ing the parts in close vessels filled with animal carbon. 
 
 The following being kept in mind, no difficulty will be experi- 
 enced in performing casehardening operations successfully : Pack 
 in a good animal carbon, make the box air-tight by luting with 
 day, place in fire and keep at a red heat for a length of time suffi- 
 cient to allow of hardening to the depth desired — a half hour of 
 lieat will allow of hardening 1-32 inch deep, an hour 1-16 inch, 
 two hours }i inch, and so forth, the longer the heating period the 
 greater the depth to which the pieces will be hardened. After the 
 heating period has elapsed the parts may be taken from the box 
 and quenched in cold water, or better still, they may be reheated 
 to a cherry red and then quenched. When cool, remove from the 
 water and dry thoroughly, to prevent rusting, by riddling them in 
 a sieve with dry sawdust. To keep delicate articles from blistering 
 during the heating process, dip them into a powder of burnt bones, 
 leather, or some other coaly animal matter. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HARDENING AND TEMPERING MILLING CUTTERS AND SIMILAR TOOLS. 
 
 Hardening Milling Cutters in the Open Fire. 
 
 For the hardening of milHng cutters and tools of a similar na- 
 ture, water or brine is mostly used, the liquid being kept in a tank 
 with an exhaust pipe and a supply pipe connected with it. Solu- 
 tions are used to some extent and good results are obtained. On 
 the whole, however, success in hardening such tools depends prin- 
 cipally upon the man who does the heating and quenching. 
 
 To harden a milling machine cutter in the open fire, have a 
 large, high charcoal fire and bury the cutter well in it and use only 
 enough blast to heat the work to the required temperature, being 
 careful to get the heat uniform throughout. If the cutter has not 
 been annealed after roughing and drilling the hole through it, re- 
 move it from the fire when red hot and allow it to cool ofif slowly 
 until a black appears. It can then be again placed in the fire, 
 slowly brought to the required heat, plunged into the bath of tepid 
 water or brine and worked around well until it stops "singing." 
 At this point it should be removed and instantly plunged in the oil 
 bath and left there until it is cool, when the strain should be re- 
 moved by holding over the fire until it is warm enough to snap 
 when touched by a drop of water. It can then be laid aside and 
 the temper drawn at leisure. In hardening punch press dies they 
 can be treated the same; if there are any screw holes for stripper 
 or guide screws they should be filled with fire clay, graphite or 
 asbestos. Much depends on an even, uniform heat ; uneven heat 
 causes more cutters and dies to crack than high heat. Steel should 
 never be given any more heat than is necessary for the operation 
 desired. 
 
 Hardening Large Milling Cutters. 
 
 Large, plain or former milling cutters, say over 3^^ inches in 
 diameter and 4 inches long, to harden should be packed in a mix- 
 ture of equal quantities of granulated charred leather and charcoal, 
 taking care not to have any part of the mill within, say, 2 inches of 
 the box at any point. Keep it in the furnace for 4 to 4}^ hours 
 after the box is heated through to a low red ; remove the box from 
 
144 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 'f:\ 
 
 ■H*Y(fn"^^^^S 
 
HARDENING MILLING CUTTERS. 
 
 145 
 
 PIG. 80. — TYPES OF MILLING CUTTERS. 
 
146 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 the furnace at the expiration of the time and quench the cutter in 
 a bath of raw hnseed oil, twirhng it around rapidly in the oil so as 
 
 FIG. 81. — SPECIAL FORM- 
 ING CUTTER. 
 
 FIG. 82. — DOUBLE FACE 
 
 MILL. 
 
 to cause the oil to come in contact with the teeth. Allow the 
 cutter to remain in the oil until cold. A formed mill with heavy 
 teeth does not need to have the temper drawn. Mills with 
 
 FIG. 83.— GANG OF STRAIGHT-FACED MILLING CUTTERS. 
 
 teeth cut in the ordinary manner should be run quite as long, and 
 may be drawn for ordinary work to a light straw color, or if drawn 
 
HARDENING MILLING CUTTERS. 
 
 147 
 
 in a kettle gaging the heat by a thermometer to 425 or 430 degrees 
 Fahr. 
 
 We have seen a large number of milling cutters and similar 
 tools treated by this method and have never known one to be lost 
 by cracking. In years of experience with this method we have had 
 but a few pieces crack. 
 
 Hardening and Tempering Milling Cutters in Water and Oil. 
 A rapid and highly satisfactory method for hardening and 
 tempering milling cutters is by the combined oil and water method. 
 
 FIG. 84. — GANG OF MILLING CUTTERS FOR MACHINING A 
 WIDE-FORMED SURFACE. 
 
 When only a small quantity of such tools are required, this method 
 will be found superior to the ordinary hardening and tempering 
 method. 
 
 The method is as follows ; The cutter to be hardened is heated 
 
 FIG. 85. — FORMED FACE MILL. 
 
 FIG. 86. — SHELL END MILL. 
 
 to a proper uniform temperature, quenched into a cold-water bath 
 and left there long enough to harden the outside only, but not 
 enough to cool the steel clear through. It is then taken from the 
 v/ater as quickly as possible and plunged into lard oil and held 
 
148 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 there until the outside is almost cold. The tool is then taken from 
 the oil and the "temper" immediately drawn by allowing the heat 
 remaining in the core of the tool to draw the teeth ; this may be 
 aided to some extent by holding the tool in the flame of the forge 
 or furnace. The reheating should be continued until the oil com- 
 mences to smoke. To insure an even temper it is best to then 
 
 FIG. 87.— GANG OF CUTTERS. 
 
 plunge the tool for an instant into the oil and again heat, doing 
 this several times until the smoke rises evenly from all over the 
 tool. This second plunge into the oil tends to cool off any fine 
 points that might become overheated, while the tool is not left in 
 the oil long enough to cool ofif the thicker parts, thus insuring a 
 more uniform and evener heat than would be the case if the tool 
 were heated all at once. 
 
 Advantages of the Method. 
 The above-described method may seem to some to be a more 
 
 FIG. 
 
 . — SPFCIAL MILLING CUTTER. 
 
 tedious one than that ordinarily used, but as the time saved is con- 
 siderable, and the results, particularly in experienced hands, are 
 much more reliable, it should be adopted where good milling cut- 
 ters are required. 
 
 The ordinary method of tempering tool-steel milling cutters is 
 
HARDENING MILLING CUTTERS. 
 
 149 
 
 to heat the cutter to the proper temperature and then cool it "dead 
 cold" in water, brine, or solution. When cold it is removed from 
 the bath and the teeth are polished. Then the cutter is "drawn" 
 to the proper color by heating from some external means, such as 
 over a red-hot piece of iron or a low fire, or in oil or sand bath. 
 
 The polishing for tempering takes considerable time, as it must 
 be pretty well done in order to allow the temper colors to show up 
 
 PIG. 
 
 SPECIAL END MILL. 
 
 PIG. 90. — TAPER MILL. 
 
 properly. Then, again, the steel is "dead cold" and will require 
 considerable heat to raise it to the proper temperature to give the 
 desired temper. All the heat that goes into the steel must go 
 through the cutting edges, leaving them as soft as, if not softer, 
 than the body of the tool, when they should be the hardest part of 
 the tool. By the other methods the results are different, as the 
 
 PIG. 91. — PORMED BUTT MILL. 
 
 teeth, or cutting edges, which are, of course, the parts that are 
 wanted hard, are hard ; while the central part or core of the tool 
 is comparatively soft, which is in all cases a desirable condition. 
 
 When milling cutters are hardened in water they often crack, 
 cracking taking place not, as might be imagined, when the hot 
 steel is first plunged into the water, but about that time the central 
 part is becoming real cold, as the outside cutting edges are properly 
 
I50 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 hardened while the inside is yet comparatively hot ; and when the 
 inside cools and contracts while the outside remains rigid, the 
 cracking takes place. The slower the tool is cooled, the longer the 
 time in which the central metal has a chance to "adjust" itself to 
 molecular changes, and consequently there is less liability of crack- 
 
 I^IG. 92. — FORMED BUTT MILI*. 
 
 ing. For this reason hardening in oil is not as liable to crack 
 tools, but for the same reason the tools are not as hard. 
 
 By the oil and -water method the outside is hardened in water 
 and the inside in oil, thus giving the cutting edges the required 
 hardness and at the same time lessening the tendency of cracking 
 or warping by more slowly cooling the inside. 
 
 FIG. 94. — ANGLE END MILL. 
 
 FIG. 95. — FORMED BUTT MILL. 
 
 A good way to decide upon the proper instant at which to draw 
 the tool from the water, when hardening the outside, is to put the 
 hand in the water near the tool, and as soon as the water ceases to 
 boil on the surface of the steel, the tool should be removed from 
 the water and plunged into the oil bath. 
 
HARDENING MILLING CUTTERS. 
 
 151 
 
 The object of this cooHng first in water and then in oil is this : 
 The outside of the tool is wanted very hard ; the inside somewhat 
 softer. The faster the heat is abstracted from the heated tool, the 
 harder it becomes ; so by first plunging it into the water the cutting 
 edges are given the desired degree of hardness, and as soon as 
 they are hardened, the tool, with the central part still hot, is 
 
 FIG. 96. — SPECIAI, PORMBD BUTT MILL. FIG. 97. — ^END MILLS. 
 
 plunged into oil ; and as the oil does not abstract the heat as fast 
 as the water, the steel has more time to adjust itself to molecular 
 motion and there is less tendency to crack. Again, the oil left 
 on the outside of the tool serves as an indicator for determining 
 the temperature at which to reheat the steel to give the proper 
 temper. As the tool is not completely cooled in the oil, very little 
 
 FIG. 98. — ^SPFJCIAL MILL. 
 
 external heat is required to draw it. In fact, the drawing of the 
 temper really begins immediately upon removing the tool from 
 the water bath. 
 
 Lard oil is the best to use in tempering in this way, and it has 
 been found that the oil commences to show a very faint smoke at 
 about the same temperature as a light straw; the proper temper 
 may be considered as reached when the smoke is seen coming 
 from all parts of the tool. 
 
152 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Tools tempered in this way will prove to be harder and yet 
 tougher than those tempered according to the ordinary method. 
 Milling cutters from Yx inch in diameter up have been tempered 
 
 FIG. 99. — SPECIAI, MIJJ,. 
 
 FIG. 100. — ANGULAR END MILL. 
 
 in this way, as well as taps of various kinds and sizes ; reamers 
 and other like tools so tempered have always been very satis- 
 factory. 
 
 Hardening V-Shaped Milling Cutters. 
 The following directions for hardening V-shaped milling cut- 
 
 FIG. lOI. — DOUBLE SLOTTING FND MILL. 
 
 FIG. 102. — FND MILL. 
 
 FIG. 103. — FACING 
 
 MILL. 
 
 ters for milling tool steel if followed out will be the means of se- 
 curing satisfactory results. 
 
HARDENING MILLING CUTTERS. 
 
 153 
 
 Heat the cutters in a gas furnace, open fire or in a hot lead 
 bath. Not so much depends on the means used for heating as 
 upon how hot and whether uniformly heated; and as to lead stick- 
 ing to the work, if it is used, there should be little trouble if pure 
 lead is used with plenty of broken charcoal on top to prevent 
 oxidation; but if there is still trouble it can be avoided by coating 
 the article with salt before putting into the lead-heating bath. 
 This is easily done by warming the work up to a blue and dipping 
 in a strong solution of salt and water. 
 
 In hardening, the cutters may be cooled in cold water or brine, 
 temperature depending on the character of cutter, whether very 
 
 FIG. 104. — HOLLOW MILLS. 
 
 delicate or not. With some heavy cutters it might be ice cold, 
 while in the case of very thin, delicate cutters it would be better 
 to have the bath up to blood heat or even higher; it is simply a 
 question of preventing cracking. 
 
 Remove the cutters from the cooling bath as soon as the teeth 
 have cooled sufficiently to harden, and instantly immerse them in 
 oil to remain there, if convenient, until cold. 
 
 Hozv to Harden HoUozu Mills. 
 
 When hollow mills are to be hardened, care should be taken 
 
 when heating not to heat very much above the teeth, as it is not 
 
 necessary for the back to be hard. When the proper heat has 
 
 been attained, the mill should be inverted and hardened in the 
 
154 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING, 
 
 bath with the teeth up, and it should be worked up and down 
 rapidly in the bath in order to force the contents into the hole. 
 Better results are always attained if this method of dipping is 
 adopted with pieces having holes running part way through them, 
 as then the steam can escape and the water can enter the hole ; 
 whereas, if dipped with the opening down, steam which generates 
 rises in the hole, and as there is more steam than the hole can con- 
 tain, it escapes from the bottom and blows the water from the 
 teeth, not allowing them to harden properly. Vapors generated 
 in the bath are a source of annoyance often overlooked by inex- 
 perienced hardeners, and often cause a great deal of trouble. 
 
 Milling Cutters. 
 
 Milling cutters may be classified in four distinct types. The 
 
 first and probably the most common form is known as the axial, 
 
 Fig. 105, in which the surface cut is parallel to the axis of the 
 
 cutter. This cutter has teeth on its periphery only ; these may be 
 
 ^^'^mm 
 
 S'IG. 105. — AXIAL TYPE 
 OV' MII^LING CUTTER. 
 
 Radial 
 PIG. 106. — RADIAL TYPE OF 
 MILLING CUTTER. 
 
 straight or spiral teeth. Cutters of this character, made in ap- 
 propriate widths, are used very much for milling broad, flat sur- 
 faces and for cutting keyways in shafts. For deep cuts, or for 
 slitting metal, they are made of large diameter and thin. These 
 are called metal-slitting saws, and are ground hollow on the sides 
 for clearance. 
 
 The second class of cutters is known as the radial. Fig. 106, m 
 which the surface cut is perpendicular to the axis of the cutter. 
 These cutters are called radial because their teeth are used in a 
 plane parallel to the radii of the cutter. End mills, face mills, 
 butt cutters, etc., are all tools in this class. 
 
 The third class of cutters is the angular, Fig. 107, in which the 
 surface cut is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the axis of the 
 
HARDENING MILLING CUTTERS. 
 
 155 
 
 cutter, but is at some angle with this axis. Frequently cutters are 
 made with two different angular cutting edges, in which case the 
 angle is marked on each side.. 
 
 The fourth class of cutters is the formed cutter, as shown in 
 
 Angular 
 I^IG. 107. — ANGULAR TYPE OI*' 
 MILLING CUTTER. 
 
 PIG. 108. — FORMED TYPE OE 
 MILLING CUTTER. 
 
 Fig. 108. The cutting edge of this class is of an irregular outline^ 
 When properly backed off, these cutters can be ground and retain 
 their original form. Gear cutters, tools for grooving taps, etc., 
 are all classed as form cutters. 
 
 Among the numerous engravings in this book will be found 
 
 FIG. 109.— CUTTER EOR SPIRAL MILLS. 
 40* ON ONE SIDE, 12' 
 
 INCLUSIVE ANGLE B IS 52' 
 ON OTHER. 
 
 illustrations of a large number of cutters which are used on mill- 
 ing machines. In most cases it is advisable to use a cutter of 
 small diameter rather than of large diameter. Cutters from ij'2 
 to 2 inches in diameter are the most economical for general 
 milling. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND STRAIGHTENING ALL KINDS OF 
 SMALL TOOLS. 
 
 Hardening Ring Gages. 
 
 To harden ring gages and other tools of a similar nature so 
 that they will harden around the hole and leave the remaining 
 parts soft, clamp the tool between flange-ended tubes and allow 
 
 FIG. no. — U. S. STANDARD THREAD GAGiCS, EXTERNAL 
 AND INTERNAL. 
 
 a stream of water or brine to circulate through them. By this 
 method the walls will harden out as far as the inner edges of the 
 clamping flanges. 
 
 Dipping Small Tools When Hardening. 
 
 When small tools such as penknife blades, razor, lancet, chisel, 
 gage-bit, place spoke sheaves, three and four square files, round 
 and flat files, iron-shaving knives are to be hardened great care 
 must be taken to dip them into the quenching bath endwise or 
 perpendicularly. By doing this they will come out straight, 
 while, on the contrary, if they are slanted while dipping, there 
 will be a tendency to warp. 
 
HARDEN, TEMPER AND STRAIGHTEN SMALL TOOLS. 1 5/ 
 
 Dipping Half-Round Reamers When Hardening. 
 
 When hardening half-round reamers or any other tools that 
 are solid and half-round, enter them at an angle of about twenty 
 degrees with the surface of the bath. This will tend to keep them 
 straight. In a half-round tool there is once and a half as much 
 surface in the half-round portion to be hardened as on the flat 
 side, and as in hardening the contraction of the steel is equal, 
 according to the surface, it is necessary to dip the half-round 
 side at the angle mentioned. As the half-round portion has a 
 greater percentage of contraction than the flat side, the unequal 
 contraction will draw the reamer to one side and warp it. 
 
 Dipping Fluted Reamers When Hardening. 
 
 When hardening fluted reamers, dip them perpendicularly to 
 a short distance beyond the fluting, that is to say, about half an 
 inch, and withdraw and return them a number of times. This 
 will harden all the lips, and prevent them from cracking off at 
 
 PIG. III. — COUNTERSINK. FIG. 112. — SMALL ANGLE MILL. 
 
 the water's edge, which is usually the case when a piece of steel 
 is dipped into a certain depth and allowed to cool without moving. 
 A number of different tools are often broken off at the ends in this 
 way, without anyone knowing what caused them to crack. 
 
 Straightening Tools Which Have Warped in Hardening. 
 
 When a piece of steel which has been hardened and tempered 
 is found to have sprung, it may be straightened as follows : Heat 
 it slightly, not enough to draw the temper, and it may be straight- 
 ened on the anvil with a hammer. This cannot be done when the 
 piece is dead cold. It is best, however, to straighten a piece when- 
 ever possible between the centers of a lathe, or on a block of w^ood 
 with a mallet. Warm, the steel will yield readily to the blows of 
 the mallet, but cold, it will break like glass. 
 
 A sword blade which has warped in hardening may be ham- 
 mered flat ; too much hammering, however, will cause the blade 
 to lose its elasticity. When this occurs it may be returned to its 
 elastic state again without re-hardening by heating slowly to a 
 
158 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Spring temper. This method may be adopted to advantage for 
 other kinds of work also. 
 
 Hardening Very Thin Tools so as to Prevent Warping. 
 
 A good way to harden very thin tools so as to insure against 
 their warping is to heat them carefully and stick them into a raw 
 potato. Then remove and temper as desired over a gas flame. 
 
 Warping of Long Tools in Hardening. 
 
 Trouble with the warping or the twisting of long tools, such 
 as taps and reamers, in hardening and tempering, can be avoided 
 
 If'IG. 113. — INSERTED CUTTER PIPE TAP. 
 
 if care is taken. If, in hardening, one can so manage as to retain 
 a soft center in the article there will be, or need be, but little 
 difficulty in overcoming the warp. This will at least be found 
 true in large tools which have a larger proportion of soft core than 
 those of smaller cross-section. With these last, and in fact, in 
 all, care must be taken to lower the tool perfectly square into the 
 quenching bath, so that the heat will be absorbed equally from all 
 •sides. This desirable tendency will be increased if the tool is 
 lowered in the center of the bath. 
 
 If the above is true about the hardening bath, it is equally 
 
HARDEN, TEMPER AND STRAIGHTEN SMALL TOOLS. 1 59 
 
 SO of the heating bath, where melted lead or other liquids are used 
 for heating. One thing must be remembered, and that is that 
 there will be no use in taking the trouble to cool a tool equally if 
 it has been heated unequally. For this reason, tools should be 
 immersed squarely and centrally into the heating-bath, and turned 
 around. The turning process will also contribute to good results, 
 in quenching. 
 
 Temperature "Tell-Tales" for Use in Heating Steel. 
 
 In order to show just how hot steel is that is being annealed 
 in a muffle or box, supply some one-fourth inch rods, which may be 
 pulled out from time to time to test the temperature. 
 
 Working Steel for Tools. 
 
 In forging steel for tools great care must be taken to hammer 
 .all sides alike. The careless and unequal hammering of steel 
 when forging is responsible for a great deal of bad work in hard- 
 ening. Another thing, steel, when being forged, should be heated 
 as hot as it will stand until finishing, and should then be ham- 
 mered until almost black-hot. This treatment will set the grain 
 of the steel finer, and give a tool a better edge when finished. The 
 reason for heating the steel to a bright red heat while forging is 
 simply because it makes the steel tougher when hardened and 
 softer when annealed ; while, on the contrary, when steel is worked 
 at a low red heat, the continued shocks of the hammer will so 
 harden it as to make it almost impossible to anneal it, and at the 
 same time render it too brittle, when hardened, for general use. 
 
 Hardening Small Sazvs. 
 
 To harden small saws such as are used for screw head slotting, 
 etc., heat on a flat surface and clamp between two thick cast-iron 
 plates, which should be perfectly level and coated with a heavy 
 grease. 
 
 Hardening Cutter-Bits. 
 
 Cutter-bits such as are used in lathe tool holders should be 
 hardened regularly when soft at the lower ends. When too soft 
 to use they should be laid aside until a sufficient number of them 
 are at hand to be hardened. They can then be heated by putting 
 them into a box and heating them to a dull red, and the end of 
 •each stuck into a perforated iron pan, the bottom of which should 
 
l6o HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 be covered with just a sufficient depth of water to harden them 
 up as far as desired. The tools may then be ground and put with 
 the new cutters. Do not let high-grade steel such as should be 
 used for cutter-bits get into the smith's fire. 
 
 Hardening Mixture for General Smith Work. 
 
 Salt, 2 ounces; copperas, i^ ounces; sal-ammoniac, 1^2 
 ounces; saltpeter, i^ ounces; sal-soda, ij^ ounces, and black 
 oxide magnesia, 8 ounces. The last two ingredients should be 
 added after the others are mixed together. Before mixing the 
 ingredients, pulverize them separately, and then mix well and dry 
 before using. Use like yellow prussiate of potash and plunge in 
 water. 
 
 Tempering Flat Drills for Hard Stock. 
 
 Procure good high degree steel and heat to a cherry red, and 
 hammer until nearly cold, forming the end into the requisite 
 flattened shape, then heat it again to a cherry red, and plunge it 
 into a lump of resin or into quicksilver. A solution of cyanide 
 of potassium in rain water is sometimes used for the tempering 
 plunge-bath, but it will not give the result that quicksilver or resin 
 will. 
 
 To Temper Gravers. 
 
 Gravers may be tempered in the same way as drills ; or the 
 red-hot tool may be pressed into a piece of lead in which a hole 
 about half an inch deep has been cut to receive the graver ; the 
 lead melting around the article will give it an excellent temper. 
 
 To Temper Old Files. 
 
 Grind out the cuttings on one side of the file until a bright 
 surface is obtained ; then moisten the surface with a little oil, 
 and place the file on a piece of red-hot plate with the bright side 
 upward. In about a minute the bright surface will begin to turn 
 yellow, and when the yellow has deepened to about the color of 
 straw, plunge in cold water. 
 
 Hardening and Tempering Small Taps, Knives, Springs, Etc. 
 
 Secure a piece of pipe of sufficient diameter and length to ac- 
 commodate the piece, and heat one end, flatten together on the 
 anvil, and weld so it will not leak. Fill the pipe with lead and 
 set it up in the fire. When the lead has melted, immerse the tool 
 
^HARDEN, TEMPER AND STRAIGHTEN SMALL TOOLS. l6l 
 
 and let it remain until the lead is red-hot. Then quench in a 
 salt water bath and when cool remove it. To temper the tool, heat 
 a large piece of iron in the forge to a red heat. Grease the tool 
 all over with tallow. Remove the iron from the forge and lay on 
 the anvil. Hold the tool over hot iron by means of tongs or 
 pliers, turning it all the time until the desired color is obtained 
 and then drop it into linseed oil. A good and uniform temper 
 should result. 
 
 Tempering Small Spiral Springs. 
 
 To temper small spiral springs heat to a cherry red in a char- 
 coal fire, and harden in oil. To temper, blaze off the oil three 
 times ; the same as for small flat springs. 
 
 To Draiv Small Steel Parts to a Blue. 
 
 Fill a cast-iron box with sand and heat it red hot. Then put 
 the article, which has been first highly polished, into the sand and 
 when the right color appears remove and quench in oil. 
 
 Small steel parts of guns, typewriters, sewing machines, etc., 
 may be blued cheaply and well in a solution of ten parts saltpeter 
 and black oxide of manganese, heated in an iron pot to the point 
 where sawdust thrown on it will flash. 
 
 Small pieces may be strung on wires in considerable quanti- 
 ties and dipped in solution, a minute or two being sufficient time 
 ordinarily, although of course this will vary with the thickness of 
 the pieces. The blue produced by this process is what is called 
 Government Blue and is not quite equal to the English Blue, which 
 is secured with hot charcoal and whiting, as all gunmakers will 
 understand, but it will answer very well and is very much cheaper. 
 
 If springs are to be blued, they may be hardened and polished 
 and the bluing process will draw them to the proper temper at 
 the same time, and the temper will be very uniform. 
 
 It will be well to bore some holes in the solution before plac- 
 ing on the fire to heat, for if a vent is not provided there will be 
 a commotion. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES AND ALL KINDS OF 
 PRESS TOOLS FOR THE WORKING OF SHEET METAL. 
 
 The Hardening and Tempering of Press Tools. 
 
 Of the hardening and tempering of dies and all manner of 
 press tools too much cannot be written, as upon the results of 
 this part of their construction depends the efficiency of the tools. 
 For heating dies a gas furnace is preferable, but when this is not 
 at hand a good clean charcoal fire will do. 
 
 For hardening large dies it is indispensable to have a large 
 tank which should be arranged in such a manner as to insure the 
 rapid cooling of the steel. A tank of this kind can be arranged 
 by fixing two or three rods across the inside about 12 inches 
 below the surface of the water, and a pipe let into the tank in 
 such a manner as to allow of a circulation of a stream of water 
 
 IflG. 114- — COMBINATION DIES, WITH HARDENED AND GROUND TOOL 
 STEEL WORKING PARTS SOLID-FORGED TO WROUGHT-IRON PLATES. 
 
 from the bottom upward. When the die is to be quenched the 
 water should be turned on and kept running until the steel has 
 cooled. When a good circulation of water is kept up in the tank 
 there will not be any soft spots in the die after hardening. 
 
 It is often necessary to construct dies from forgings of 
 wrought iron and tool steel, and, as the dies when finished are 
 required to be hardened, it is necessary there should be a good 
 weld between the two parts. To accomplish this result, when 
 welding mix mild steel chips, from which all of the oil has been 
 
THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES. 
 
 163 
 
 removed, with the borax and there will be no difficulty in produc- 
 ing a clean weld and one which will not buckle or separate in 
 hardening. 
 
 Hard or Soft Punches and Dies. 
 At times, when tools are required for sheet-metal working, 
 it is hard to determine whether a punch and die should be hard- 
 ened, or whether one of them should be left soft, and if so, 
 which one? The stock to be worked and the nature of the work 
 liave to be considered when deciding this matter. Some classes of 
 work will be accomplished in the best manner by using a soft 
 punch and a hard die ; others when a hard punch and a soft die are 
 
 FIG. 115. — "push-through" FIG. I16. — SOLID BOTTOM CUTTING 
 
 CUTTING AND DRAWING AND DRAWING DIE. 
 
 DIE. 
 
 used, while in a majority of cases the best results will be obtained 
 by using a punch and die that are both hard. For punching or 
 shearing heavy metals both die and punch should be hard, while 
 for all metals which are soft and not over 1-16 inch thick, a soft 
 punch and a hard die will be found to work v/ell. By leaving 
 one of the dies soft it will be easy to produce clean blanks during 
 the life of the tools, as when the punch and die become dull it 
 will only be necessary to grind the hard one, upset the soft one 
 and shear it into the die. 
 
 Hardening and Tempering Drop Dies. 
 If there is one class of tools the hardening of which is less gen- 
 erally understood than others, it is the class used for drop press 
 work. When dies of this class are to be hardened special care 
 is necessary. Instead of plunging the whole die into the quench- 
 
164 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 ing bath (when heated properly) set it in an inclined position 
 and direct a strong stream of cold water onto the face of the die. 
 By having the stream strong the whole die face will be covered, 
 and the contraction of the metal at the surface will be equal. 
 Allow the water to strike the die until the bath ceases to boil, 
 and then gradually diminish the stream and allow the die to cool 
 slowly. By placing the die in the inclined position when hard- 
 ening, the water will run off the face and thereby the bottom will 
 remain soft and hot while the die portion proper will be hard, 
 which is always a desirable condition in dies of this kind. At 
 the same time the temper can be drawn by the heat remaining in 
 the base of the die. When the colors appear turn the water on 
 until cool. 
 
 When a muffle is used to heat steel parts for hardening, pro- 
 vide a number of 3-16-inch rods. Put them in with the steel 
 
 Redrawing Punch. Inside Blank Holder. Redrawing Die 
 
 PIG. 117. — REDRAWING DIE WITH INSIDE BLANK HOLDER. 
 
 and remove one from time to time during the heating process 
 to test the temperature. 
 
 To anneal white or hard iron die parts so that they may be 
 machined with ease, put the parts into an iron box and pack 
 around them a mixture composed of equal parts of common 
 sand, fine steel turnings and steel scale from the rolling mills. 
 Wet the mixture with the solution of sal-ammoniac, after which 
 place the box in a furnace and heat to a white heat. Keep the 
 heat for five or six hours, and then allow the box to cool slowly. 
 When cool remove the castings and they will be found to be 
 malleable enough to allow of cutting them. The packing of the 
 mixture mentioned above and the wetting of it with the solution 
 contributes to the annealing, and allows of the castings or parts 
 coming through the process free from scale and lumps. 
 
 Hotv to Harden Large Ring Dies. 
 To harden large ring dies, which are to be ground after hard- 
 
THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES. I65 
 
 ening, and which are required to be very hard about the center 
 of the hole and the walls, they should be heated in large iron 
 boxes as follows : Put a layer of fine powdered charcoal about 
 2 inches deep in the bottom of the box and place the die on it. 
 Fill the die and then cover it to a depth of about ^ inch with a 
 mixture of 4 parts powdered charcoal to i part of charred leather, 
 then put a loose cover on the box and place in the furnace. 
 After heating about three hours or more, according to the size of 
 the die, the metal will be at a red heat. It should then be allowed 
 to remain at a low heat for about an hour, which will insure its 
 heating uniformly throughout. The heat should then be in- 
 creased until the die comes to a full red heat ; it is then ready to 
 be quenched. 
 
 Remove the box from the furnace, and with two pair of tongs, 
 and a man at opposite sides, if the die is too large for one man 
 to handle, draw the die from the box, clean, and quench squarely 
 
 Dra-wing Punch. Blank Holder and Die. 
 
 Cutting Punch. 
 
 FIG. 118. — DOUBLE-ACTION CUTTING AND DRAWING DIE. 
 
 into the water, working up and down until the red has entirely 
 disappeared, then let it lie still until cool. When cool remove 
 the die from the water and heat, to remove the strain and chill 
 of hardening, until drops of water sprinkled on it will steam. 
 Then lay it aside in an even temperature where it will cool off 
 slowly. 
 
 When large ring dies are hardened in the manner described 
 above there need be no fear that they will warp, crack or shrink 
 excessively or unevenly. 
 
 Hardening a Long Punch so as to Prevent Warping. 
 Often, after carefully hardening a long punch, it will be 
 
i66 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 found to have warped during the process — often to such an ex- 
 tent as to make it useless. There is a way by which this tend- 
 ency of the steel may be eliminated altogether — at least the warp 
 will be so little as to not affect the working qualities of the tool. 
 To eliminate the possibility of warping lower the steel, when at 
 the proper heat, squarely into the tub, lowering it as far as pos- 
 sible in the center of the water. When this is done the heat will 
 be absorbed equally from all sides and the tendency to warp 
 excessively will have been overcome. 
 
 Steel for Small Punches. 
 
 When small punches are required to punch heavy stock or 
 to operate at high speeds, never use drill rod or Stubs steel, for 
 the reason that such steel is of the finest high carbon variety and 
 will crystallize rapidly under concussion. In place of such ma- 
 terial use one of the low grades of steel ; one which in order to 
 harden it will be necessary to heat to white heat, and the punches 
 will last much longer than if made from the best grades of steel. 
 
 For small punches which are required to pierce thin, soft 
 stock, or to operate at a slow speed, get the best grades of steel 
 procurable, as for such uses the finer the grade the better results 
 which will be obtained. 
 
 Hardening a Blanking Die. 
 In order to harden a blanking die properly great care should 
 
 of the steel, and second in the 
 
 be taken ; first in the 
 
 heating 
 
 Drawing Punch. Blank Holder. Die. 
 
 FIG. 119. — WASH-BASIN DRAWING DIE. 
 
 quenching. In all shops where dies or other tools which require 
 hardening are constructed, a gas furnace or "muffle" should be 
 used for heating, but when a "muffle" is not handy charcoal 
 should be used. After a good clean fire has been built, all screw 
 and dowel holes in the die should be plugged with fire clay or 
 asbestos. By taking these precautions the tendency of the steel 
 to crack around the holes is, as far as possible, eliminated. We 
 
THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES. 167 
 
 now heat the die to an even cherry red, so that the entire plate 
 will be the same temperature ; then remove it from the fire and 
 dip it endwise into the water (which should first be warmed 
 slightly to take the chill out), being careful to dip down straight, 
 and not to move it or shake it around as that would increase the 
 possibility of the die warping, or shrinking excessively. After 
 removing the die from the water it should be immediately 
 warmed. Now grind the face of the die ; heat a thick piece of 
 cast-iron red hot, and place the die upon it ; it can then be drawn 
 evenly to any temper desired. By taking a piece of oil waste 
 and wiping the face of the die as it is heating, the different colors 
 will show up clear. When the color denoting the temper re- 
 quired appears, remove the die and allow it to cool off slowly. 
 
 Cracks in Dies — Their Cause. 
 
 When a piece of tool steel in itself of no great commercial 
 value is worked out and finished into an intricate die the labor 
 cost amounting to a large sum, the steel is, of course, very valu- 
 able ; and if cracks show after the hardening process, or the die 
 is spoiled, it means a great loss to the establishment. 
 
 Now in the first place, although we are apt to usually con- 
 found cracks with hardening, very often the trouble can be 
 traced to the preceding operations of annealing, forging and 
 finishing. Of course there is a large number of dies spoiled 
 through carelessness or inexperience in hardening, but still we 
 believe there is as great an amount spoiled through imperfect 
 preceding operations or through the operator not being familiar 
 with the nature of the steel. 
 
 A die may be carefully heated tO' give the proper temperature 
 throughout, and may be quenched in the bath in the most ap- 
 proved manner, but if it is not "slightly warmed" after removing 
 it from the hardening bath, it is liable to crack. This reheating 
 may be done in a number of ways. The best way is to hold the 
 die over the fire until it is heated to a temperature sufficient to 
 cause a few drops of water to steam when sprinkled on it. The 
 heat will not be sufficient to make any of the temper colors 
 appear. 
 
 The author has been connected with one establishment where 
 thousands of dies were made every year, and every die was re- 
 heated after hardening, in the following manner : A large tank 
 provided with a perforated tray with means for raising and lower- 
 
l68 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 ing it was used. The tank was filled with water to within' two 
 inches of the top and a steam pipe was connected with it. Then 
 the water was kept at the boiling point, and the die directly after 
 hardening was placed upon the tray which was then lowered 
 into the bath. 
 
 We have known dies to crack while being in the forge when 
 the blaze touched the die portion proper. This being brought 
 about by a sudden heat and then a cold blast of air causing the 
 steel to expand and then suddenly contract again, at a certain 
 point, and as the consequent expansion and contraction in the 
 die does not extend over the entire surface, the charge was local 
 and cracks resulted. 
 
 A die made from a blank cut from a bar and machined and 
 worked out without annealing is liable to crack when subjected 
 to the hardening process, particularly if the blank is for a blank- 
 ing die of odd shape, as shown in Fig. 120. If annealed bar steel 
 is used the necessity of reannealing is also imperative as the first 
 annealing does not eliminate the liability of cracking. 
 
 When it is not possible to anneal the die blank before finish- 
 ing to size, the next best thing to do is to heat the die uniformly 
 throughout to a red heat, then remove it from the fire and allow 
 it to cool until black. It may then be reheated to the proper 
 temperature and hardened. In a forming die the bulky portion 
 has a tendency to contract away from the small portions, which 
 being frail, harden first and do not alter their shape, while the 
 bulky portion continues to contract unevenly, after the thin por- 
 tion becomes ridged, and cracks are apt to appear when the tool 
 is removed from the quenching. By heating the die to a high 
 or red heat and then allowing it to cool to a black before the 
 hardening heat this uneven contraction is to a certain extent pro- 
 vided for. 
 
 In hardening a die the quenching of it so that the frailest por- 
 tion enters the bath first and hardens before the thickest por- 
 tion, will most invariably cause cracks to appear, as unequal con- 
 traction takes place and the heavy portion contracting the most, 
 changes shape in attempting to draw with it the frailer portions. 
 Another cause of cracks in dies is the use of improper means 
 for grinding. When a die is ground on a machine on which 
 no provision is made for water cooling, or where a fine wheel is 
 used, cracks often result, coming about through the steel being 
 unevenly heated during the grinding. Thus, by using a coarse 
 
THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES. 
 
 169 
 
 wheel with a free water supply this disagreeable possibility will 
 be eliminated. 
 
 Hardening the Walls of a Round Die. 
 Often, in die work, it is desired that the walls of a drawing 
 die, for instance, or some other part, such as the inside of a 
 
 FIG. 120. — BIvANKING DIE). 
 
 hollow punch, should be hard and the remaining portion of the 
 piece soft. This may be accomplished by proceeding as follows : 
 Clamp the die or punch, as the case may be, between flanges on 
 
170 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 the ends of tubes, being sure to have the steel at the proper heat. 
 Then allow a stream of cold water or brine to circulate through 
 the tube and the metal will harden in depth as far as the inside 
 edges of the flanges while the remaining portion will remain soft. 
 
 Reannealing a Punch or Die Blank. 
 Sometimes a piece of steel, which is to be used for a punch 
 
 FIG. 121. — PUNCHES FOR PERFORATING HEAVY STOCK 
 
THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES. 
 
 171 
 
 or die, upon starting to machine it, proves hard, although it has 
 been annealed. When this is the case, never try to finish it before 
 reannealing it; instead, rough it down, clean out the centers, if 
 there are to be any, and anneal it over again. The time re- 
 quired to reanneal the piece of steel will be more than made up 
 in the machining of it. 
 
 Warping of Long Punches in Hardening. 
 Often after carefully hardening a long punch it will be found 
 to have warped during the process, often to such a degree as to 
 make it useless. There is a way to avoid this altogether, or at 
 least the warp will be so slight as to not affect the efficiency of 
 the tool. To insure against warping, plunge the steel, when at 
 the proper heat, squarely into the bath, lowering as far as pos- 
 sible into the center of the liquid. When this is done the heat 
 will be absorbed equally from all sides and the tendency to warp 
 excessively will have been eliminated. 
 
 Hardening Very Small Punches. 
 When a large number of very small piercing punches are to 
 be hardened they should be packed in closed iron boxes and the 
 box heated. When all the parts have reached the proper heat 
 they should be entered into a bath of either oil or water, as the 
 nature of the work may require, through a funnel. This will in- 
 sure the entering of the parts vertically and prevent warping. 
 Another way by which small punches may be heated uniform is 
 by means of the lead bath. Keep the lead at the proper heat and 
 cover the top with powdered charcoal and coke. 
 
 Tempering Small Punches. 
 Almost all large die shops in which any amount of hardening 
 and tempering are done have discarded the method of tempering 
 by colors, and have adopted the more reliable method of doing it 
 in oil, gaging the heat by thermometer. A kettle containing 
 the oil is placed on the fire and heated to the right temperature 
 for the degree of temper desired in the work. The hardened 
 parts are then thrown into the liquid until drawn. By this 
 method there is no possibility of overdrawing, as it is impossible 
 for the parts to become hotter than the oil. When tempering 
 punches in this manner it is not necessary to brighten them be- 
 fore the operation, and where a lot of such work is done, it will 
 
172 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 be accomplished much cheaper than if the old method were used ; 
 besides the most satisfactory results will be attained. 
 
 Hardening Fluids for Dies. 
 
 We have heard a great deal about hardening fluids, for which 
 it is claimed dies can be hardened better than in water or in brine. 
 Such fluids are composed chiefly of acids and will rot the steel, 
 and we should advise keeping away from them, as where it is 
 not possible to harden die steel in clear water or strong brine, 
 the steel is useless and should be dispensed with. When quench- 
 ing the heated steel dip down straight and don't shake it about, 
 but after keeping it stationary for a few seconds, move it around 
 slowly, keeping it vertical all the time. When the die or punch 
 is of an intricate shape, about three inches of oil on the top of 
 the water will toughen it and contribute to helping the steel 
 retain its shape while hardening, and prevent it from warping or 
 cracking during the process. Lastly, immediately after harden- 
 ing and before grinding, the steel should be placed on the fire 
 and slightly warmed, to take the chill and contraction strain out 
 and not laid aside for a while, as we have seen dies that were laid 
 aside after hardening (that were intact) after a few hours, show 
 cracks. 
 
 Hardening Thick Round Dies. 
 
 Often round dies, which are very thick in proportion to 
 their diameter, contract excessively in the center during the 
 hardening process, often to such a degree as to make them unfit 
 for use. To overcome this tendency have an arrangement by 
 which a stream of water may be forced through the hole without 
 wetting the outside ; allowing the water to only come in contact 
 with the inside of the die. By doing this the walls of the die will 
 be hard while the outside will remain soft, as when the temper 
 is drawn the hole will remain straight and true. In shops where 
 grinding facilities are not at hand this method will work ex- 
 cellently. If possible use strong brine for the hardening fluid. 
 
 Hardening Poor Die Steel. 
 Quite frequently in making dies we run across a piece of steel 
 which after working will not respond satisfactorily to the usual 
 hardening process. When this occurs prepare a solution com- 
 posed of two handfuls of common salt and one ounce of corrosive 
 sublimate to about six quarts of water and when the steel has 
 
THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES. 
 
 '^TZ 
 
 reached a good red heat plunge into the bath. The corrosive 
 subHmate gives toughness to the steel and the salt hardens. This 
 solution is deadly poison; exercise care in using it. 
 
 Tempering a Combination Cutting and Drawing Punch. 
 
 After the face of the punch has been slightly sheared, and 
 the edges of the drawing die sHghtly rounded and highly pol- 
 ished, the punch is hardened and then drawn by laying it alter- 
 nately on each of its four sides on a hot plate, tempering the 
 cutting edges to a dark blue and leaving the inside or drawing 
 die portion as hard as possible. When finishing the blanking 
 portion of the punch, care has to be taken to do it so that the 
 drawing portion will be perfectly central. 
 
 Hardening and Tempering a Split Gang Punch. 
 The best way to harden and temper a split gang punch is by 
 the following method : It should first be heated and hardened in 
 clear oil, dipping it from the back, and thus preventing — as far 
 as possible — the legs from crawling in toward each other because 
 of the channel between them. By dipping from the back this 
 will be overcome, as by the time the cutting face is immersed 
 the back will be hard and set. It should then be polished and 
 tempered by drawing from the back to a dark blue to within % 
 inch of the cutting faces and quenched when those portions are a 
 dark straw color. 
 
 Hardening and Tempering Large "Blanking" or "Cutting" Dies. 
 
 Large "blanking" or "cutting" dies of the type shown in 
 Figs. 122 to 127 require considerable skill and experience to 
 harden and temper correctly. They should be carefully heated 
 and then quenched into a large tank of water and when cold 
 warmed on the fire to take the chill and strain out. 
 
 Cutting dies consist of an upper "male" die or "punch," and 
 the lower, or "female" die. They may be made in almost any 
 size and shape for cutting out flat blanks in tin, iron, steel, alumi- 
 nium, brass, copper, zinc, silver, paper, leather, cloth, etc. Ordi- 
 narily, the lower die Is hardened and tempered to a degree best 
 suited for the work, while the punch is left comparatively soft, 
 so that it can be "hammered" up when worn. Sometimes, as in 
 the case of playing-card dies, it is preferable to reverse this and 
 make the punch hard, leaving the die soft. Circumstances de- 
 
174 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 termine whether any or how much "shear" should be given to the 
 cutting edge. For ordinary work in tin, brass, etc., a moderate 
 amount of shear is desirable. These dies require to be made with 
 the utmost care, of materials specially adapted for the purpose, 
 and by experienced and skillful workmen. Ordinarily, the steel 
 cutting rings are welded to wrought-iron plates, after which they 
 
 :^iG. 125. — ^die;. 
 
 PIG. 127. — DIK. 
 
 are hardened, carefully tempered and ground on special machin- 
 ery. In some cases it is preferable to fasten the steel dies in 
 cast-iron chucks or die-beds by means of keys or screws. This 
 applies more particularly to small dies. For cutting thick iron, 
 steel, brass, and other heavy metals both the die and punch should 
 1)6 hard and provided with strippers. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 FORGING AND WELDING — TO ACCOMPLISH SATISFACTORY RESULTS 
 IN THE FORGING OF STEEL AND IRON DROP FORGING. 
 
 Welding Heats. 
 
 In the welding of steel to steel or steel to iron without injur- 
 ing the quality of the material, the process involved is one in 
 which great care, judgment and skill are necessary, particularly 
 in dealing with the degrees of heat. Because of its greater flexi- 
 bility the welding heat of steel should be lower than that of iron 
 and thus the more flexible the steel the harder it is to weld. 
 Mild steel can be welded much more easily than high carbon or 
 tool steel. Ordinary cast steel such as double shear steel, con- 
 taining as it does a smaller proportion of carbon than "tool 
 steel," may be easily welded, as its texture, which is very fibrous, 
 is partly restored through hammering or rolling. Thus for all 
 ■edge tools for wood this steel will give good results as it will 
 ■carry a very keen cutting edge. 
 
 A Good Welding Flux for Steel. 
 
 A good flux for welding steel is sal-ammoniac and borax. 
 The borax of commerce as sold by chemists is composed of a 
 very large proportion of water, and in order to use this, it should 
 be put into an iron or other suitable vessel and boiled over the 
 fire until all the water is expelled, after which it should be ground 
 to a powder before it is used. When it is desired to mix sal- 
 ammoniac with borax the proportions are about i6 parts borax to 
 I of sal-ammoniac. In heating a piece of steel for forging it 
 should be placed in the center of a close hollow fire and the wind 
 put on very sparingly, so as to allow the mass to heat equally 
 through and through. If, on the other hand, it is put into the fire 
 and the blast turned on full the outside of the metal will become 
 red hot before the center; therefore the expansion of the outside 
 away from the center will cause internal strains, which will not 
 be visible until the tool is hardened, and then the hardener will be 
 blamed. 
 
176 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Heating Steel for Forging. 
 A great many smiths say that steel should not be heated above 
 a cherry red ; but the best way is to heat the steel to as high a 
 heat as it will stand with safety, and draw down under steam 
 hammer, if there is one handy. Then the whole mass will draw 
 down in the center as well as around the outside, where, on the 
 contrary, by heating to a cherry red one would only be drawing 
 the outside away from the center, which would show fracture 
 when cooled. We do not mean that the steel should be heated 
 high when the tool is nearly finished ; then the cherry red heat will 
 do, being also careful not to hammer after the red has disappeared, 
 but put it back in the fire and heat as evenly as possible. Sulphur 
 is the greatest enemy to contend with in the heating of steel. 
 To fully illustrate the effects, heat a piece of cast steel almost to 
 the scintillating heat, and by holding a piece of sulphur against 
 it, it will drop to the floor, the same as a piece of sealing wax 
 would do with a match. A man who is forging and welding iron 
 should never be asked by the foreman to dress a tool, as that 
 man is blind to the colors of steel which reveal themselves in the 
 tempering. 
 
 Steel for Tools Which Require to he Forged. 
 
 In purchasing tool steel for the various kinds of tools that are 
 used in metal working it is best to state to the steel maker what 
 kind of tools the steel is required for, as steel that is suitable for 
 cold chisels is too low in carbon for lathe and planer tools. High 
 carbon steel cools far quicker under the blows of the hammer 
 than low, and the scales that fall from the former are small and 
 silky while the latter are large. 
 
 The amount of working one will get out of a tool which has 
 been properly forged, tempered and ground is unlimited. It is a 
 bad economy to buy cheap steel for tools of any kind. It only 
 results in worry and vexation and poor work. 
 
 High Grade Steel Forgings in America. 
 Few people are probably aware of the important change that 
 has taken place in machine construction in this country as a 
 direct result of the improvements in the manufacture and forging 
 of crucible cast steel, first introduced by the Bethlehem Steel Com- 
 pany, Pennsylvania, U. S. A. Without these improvements the 
 large power units now used in the electric generating stations 
 
FORGING AND WELDING. 1/7 
 
 would have been impossible, for no forgings could have been 
 obtained that would have been able to sustain the tremendous 
 strains of such machinery. When steel forgings were first em- 
 ployed for large work they were generally considered inferior to 
 iron forgings, because, as is well known, steel is not as easily 
 forged as iron and is more easily injured in the process, while 
 the methods used in forging were not adapted to the requirements 
 of the new material. The improvements in the manufacture of 
 steel came through the efforts of the government to obtain steel 
 suitable for large guns and the parts of marine engines, which, 
 according to law, had to be built in this country, and of Ameri- 
 can material. A brief history of how the change of iron forgings 
 to high-grade steel forgings came about, and the manner in which 
 hollow shafts are forged, is given in the following and is taken 
 from a paper by Mr. H. F. J. Porter, read before the 1902 meet- 
 ing of the Engine Builders' Association : 
 
 At the time George H. Corliss built his Centennial engine he 
 had his own smithshop in which his shafts and other engine forg- 
 ings were built up out of small fagots of wrought iron. This 
 was about the time when steel began to encroach upon iron in the 
 trades. Before this time wrought iron was a staple article in the 
 market. The quality of this material, coming from the rolling 
 mills, was very high, demands for high grades having brought 
 about methods of precaution which supplied the trades with ex- 
 tra refined iron, very free from slag and dirt. The small forges 
 sparsely scattered about the country were equipped with ham- 
 mers of ten tons falling weight with top steam, sufficient in capa- 
 city to thoroughly work and weld together the few fagots of 
 iron which were required to build up the moderate sized forgings 
 which the various industries demanded. When steel made its ap- 
 pearance, however, manufacturers generally began to appreciate 
 the fact that the market contained a new material, stronger and 
 more reliable than wrought iron. Desirous of having the forged 
 parts of their mechanisms smaller and lighter, they attempted at 
 once to obtain forgings made of this metal. Had the forgers 
 made proper efforts to acquaint themselves with the nature of 
 the new material before attempting to supply.it, a very different 
 condition of affairs would have come about, not only in the forg- 
 ing industry, but in the steel industry at large, which resulted 
 from the first unintelligent effort at production. At the meet- 
 ing of the Railway Master Mechanics and Master Car Builders, 
 
1/8 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 at Old Point Comfort, in 1899, Captain (now Admiral) Robley 
 D. Evans delivered an address in which he said : 
 
 "In 1882 I had the good fortune to be a member of what is 
 known as the first advisory board for rebuilding- the navy. It 
 was an awfully hot summer, and fifteen of us, rather impatient in- 
 spirit, got together in Washington, presided over by Admiral 
 John Rodgers. When we looked the field over, we found that 
 we had no navy at all ; we were hopelessly behind the age, and it 
 seemed hardly worth while to rebuild our navy. I shall never 
 forget as long as I live the trouble I caused in that small conven- 
 tion by proposing that we should build steel ships. I was the 
 original steel man, and when I proposed that all ships in future 
 should be built of steel. Admiral Rodgers adjourned the board 
 for three weeks to prevent a fight." 
 
 Now the animus referred to by Admiral Evans was induced 
 by the fact that forgings which were being supplied at this time 
 were of just such a type as might be expected to be produced by 
 men who had not acquainted themselves with the requirements of 
 the new material. While some were excellent in every way, others 
 were different in strength, or contained concealed cavities and 
 were unreliable in general. The supplies of material running so ir- 
 regular in quality reflected unfavorably upon the steel industry at 
 large and developed a prejudice against steel generally, from 
 which it has scarcely recovered in the minds of many users 
 of forgings, even at the present day. It was fortunate for the 
 country that the advisory board referred to contained as stalwart 
 a champion of steel as Admiral Evans, for after they had visited 
 the various ordnance works abroad and had seen steel worked 
 (properly, they returned home and recommended to the Secretar}' 
 of the Navy Mr. Tracy, that by all means the new navy should 
 be built of this metal, and as there were no properly equipped 
 steel forges in this country, one would have to be built to furnish 
 the necessary armor, guns and engine forgings required in the 
 construction of modern naval war vessels. Meanwhile, this board 
 had overcome, through the good offices of its secretary, the 
 personal objections heretofore existing on the part of Sir Joseph 
 Whitworth to the use of his special steel casting and forging 
 processes elsewhere than in his own works, which were con- 
 sidered foremost in the manufacturing of ordnance. Without 
 entering into the details which accompanied the immediate estab- 
 lishment in this countrv of the great ordnance works of the 
 
FORGING AND WELDING. 179 
 
 Bethlehem Steel Company, it is sufficient to say that in their 
 ■equipment not only were special appliances in use in this English 
 works duplicated, but their size was doubled. A contract was 
 also entered into at the same time by which the great works of 
 Schneider & Co., of Le Creusot, France, which stood first among 
 the makers of armor plate, were also duplicated at the Bethle- 
 hem plant. Thus there arose in this country a forging plant at 
 •once larger and superior to any in the world. 
 
 During the years this plant was being erected there were 
 many engineers who, appreciating the superior advantages of steel 
 forgings when properly produced over those made of wrought 
 iron, systematically sent abroad for their steel forgings. It was not 
 until 1889 that the country obtained its first high-grade steel 
 ■commercial forgings from the Bethlehem works. These had 
 been gladly specified by the engineers above mentioned who were 
 impatiently waiting to get their steel forgings nearer home than 
 in Europe. Machine and tool builders of this country were thus 
 made acquainted for the first time with steel forgings intelli- 
 gently produced. There are to this day many users of steel forg- 
 ings who, not having carefully investigated the methods con- 
 sidered necessary to produce them, think that a steel forging 
 is made by merely hammering a rolled steel billet to the form 
 required ; and such as order their forgings without specifying 
 more definitely the grade called for by the special service to 
 which the forging is to be submitted may get a forging of that 
 type. The forging industry has grown from the blacksmith 
 shop, a once familiar adjunct to an engine works, and has become 
 a specialty; and a modern steel forge is not now thought com- 
 plete unless it melts its own raw material and converts it into 
 the finished product under the supervision of chemists, metallurg- 
 ists, physicists and microscopists. 
 
 How Holloiv Shafts Are Forged. 
 
 There are two ways of making a forging hollow. The ordi- 
 nary way of getting rid of the center of a forging is simply to 
 bore it out. After boring, it is tempered and thus the strength is 
 restored which was taken away with the material which was 
 in the center. 
 
 Another way of getting rid of the center of large forgings 
 is to forge them hollow. A person who has not considered the 
 subject carefully would naturally think that the first thing to do in 
 
l8o - HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 making a hollow forging would be to cast a hollow ingot. It has 
 been mentioned that there were various defects which occur in 
 ingots, the most serious of which are "segregation" and "piping" 
 and that it is in the center and upper portion where those defects 
 occur. If an ingot were to be cast hollow, a solid core of fire- 
 brick or similar material would replace the center metal, and 
 instead of one on the outside there would be two cooling surfaces, 
 one on the outside and one around the core, and the position of 
 the last cooling would be transferred to an annular ring, midway 
 between these surfaces, where the "piping" and "segregation" 
 . would collect. This would not be satisfactory, because the metal 
 there is what must be depended upon for the strength of the 
 hollow forging. It is necessary, therefore, to collect the "piping" 
 and "segregation" in the center and the top, where the metal has 
 been added to the original ingot for the purpose. 
 
 Then having cut off the top and bored out the center, the 
 "piping" and "segregation" are entirely eliminated and what is 
 left is as sound and homogeneous a piece of steel as can be 
 obtained. 
 
 After the hole has been bored in the ingot, the next process is 
 to re-heat it, and, as before explained, this process is not as de- 
 licate a one as if the ingot were solid. The heat affects the center 
 equally with the interior and they expand together and the 
 danger of cracking is not incurred. When the ingot is re- 
 heated a steel mandrel is put through its hollow center, and sub- 
 jecting the two to hydraulic pressure the metal is forced down 
 and out over the mandrel. Thus an internal anvil is practically 
 inserted into the forging and there is, therefore, really much less 
 than one-half the amount of metal to work on than if the piece 
 were solid. 
 
 When the work of shaping is completed the forging is re- 
 heated to the proper temperature and then either annealed in the 
 usual manner or plunged into a tempering bath of oil or brine, to 
 set the fine grain permanently that has been established by the re- 
 heating. A mild annealing follows to relieve any surface or other 
 strains that may have been occasioned by the rapid cooling. 
 
 Hollow forgings oil-tempered and annealed are considered the 
 best grade of forgings made, and any forgings made otherwise, 
 although they may be suitable for the service to which they may 
 be applied, cannot be looked upon in any other manner than as 
 of an inferior cfrade. 
 
FORGING AND WELDING. lOl 
 
 That Steel forgings of such high grade were being manufac- 
 tured for commercial purposes in this country was first brought 
 to the attention of manufacturers generally at the World's Fair 
 in Chicago. Here were exhibited stationary engine forgings 
 which compared favorably with those sent over by European 
 forges. The Ferris wheel shaft, 45 feet long and 32 inches out- 
 side diameter, with a 16-inch hole through it, represented the 
 largest made up to that time. The soliciting of orders for such 
 forgings, however, at once aroused the latent prejudice still ex- 
 isting against steel forgings, and the prices demanded being some- 
 what in excess of those which wrought iron or ordinary steel 
 forgings could be obtained for, prevented at first the very rapid 
 introduction of this product into the commercial field. 
 
 Difficulties Encountered in Introducing High-Grade Forgings. 
 
 It hardly seemed necessary to explain to an engineer or any 
 one authorized to purchase, and therefore presumably competent, 
 that if he wanted material to sustain severe usage in the nature of 
 alternating stresses, to which all forgings are subjected, he should 
 select a material possessing a very high elastic limit. And yet it 
 Avas not unusual to find that those very people preferred to use 
 wrought iron for their engine crosshead and crank pins and 
 shafts in preference to steel, because, as they said, "steel being 
 crystalline is brittle and snaps off suddenly under such services 
 as that under consideration, while iron having fiber, is tougher 
 and yields before breaking." Most of these men know better, 
 but had not given the subject sufficient thought, or they would 
 have perceived that their statements were not consistent. They 
 said that the steel connecting rods they had tried had broken off 
 short without any warning, while rods made of wrought iron had 
 simply bent up, and after having been straightened out were re- 
 placed as good as new. 
 
 These people did not stop to think that a steel rod that broke 
 off had done so at its ultimate strength, or under a stress of from 
 80,000 to 90,000 pounds per square inch, whereas the iron rod 
 which had doubled up had done so at its yielding point of 25,000 
 to 30,000 pounds per square inch. In other words, their engines 
 with wrought iron rods were failing all over the country under 
 loads about one-third what they were standing up to when sup- 
 plied with steel rods, yet the men were blaming the steel for help- 
 ing them out of their troubles. 
 
l82 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Then again they complained that steel shafts and crank pins 
 heated up, while wrought iron ran cool. When it was proved to 
 them that laboratory experiments showed the coefficient of friction 
 of these metals to be the same, and that any difiference in heating 
 was caused by local circumstances, such as poor lubrication, ex- 
 cessive pressure, etc., they said they did not care for laboratory 
 experiments. They had an engine in one place with a steel shaft 
 that never would run cool, while another with a wrought-iron 
 shaft had never given any trouble, and they were passing judg- 
 ment on their own experience. Persistent exposure of these fal- 
 lacies gradually brought about a change in sentiment. 
 
 "Cold Crystallization" Docs Not Occur. 
 It took a long time to persuade people who had seen broken 
 forgings which showed a coarse crystalline section that the 
 metal had not crystallized from shock or vibration in service, 
 but had been forged in such a manner that the crystallized 
 condition of the ingot from which the forging had been 
 made had not been changed by the forging process or by 
 subsequent heat treatment. And these are the people even now 
 who consider themselves conservative, who would rather have 
 their forgings made of a mild steel which is weak, than of a high- 
 carbon steel which is strong, simply because the old ideas are not 
 yet eradicated from their minds. Tests were made at the gOA'- 
 ernment testing bureau at Watertown by rapidly bending bars 
 forward and backward within their elastic limit, with the follow- 
 ing results, and these have given engineers an idea of the com- 
 parative endurance of wrought iron, steel and nickel steel, r.i 
 such ser-vice as that to which crank pins, shafts, etc., are subject. 
 
 Tests of Steel Under Repeated Stresses. 
 
 Under a Fiber Stress of 40,000 Pounds per Square Inch. 
 
 Wrought iron breaks after 50,000 alternations of stress. 
 .15 p. c. carbon steel " " 170,000 " " " 
 
 .25 p. c. " " " " 229,000 " " " 
 
 •35 P-C. " " " " 317,000 
 
 •45 p. c. " " " " 976,000 " " " 
 
 3% p. c. nickel steel, carbon .25 to .30 p. c, 1,850,000 alternations of stress. 
 4^/2 P- c. " " " .25 to .30 p. c, 2,360,000 " " '' 
 
 55^ p. c. " " " .25 to .30 p. c, 4,370,000 " " 
 
 Charcoal. 
 The best qualities of charcoal are made from oak, maple, beech 
 
FORGING AND WELDING. 183 
 
 and chestnut. Between 5 and 17 per cent of coal will be ob- 
 tained when the wood has been properly burned. A bushel of 
 coal from hardwood weighs from 29 to 31 pounds and from 
 pine 28 to 30 pounds. 
 
 Welding Powder for Iron and Steel. — For welding iron and 
 steel a composition has lately been patented in Belgium, consisting 
 of iron filings, 40 parts ; borax, 20 parts ; balsam of copaiba or 
 some other resinous oil, 2 parts, and sal-ammoniac, 3 parts. They 
 are mixed, heated and pulverized. The process of welding is 
 much the same as usual. The surfaces to be welded are powdered 
 with the composition and then brought to a cherry red heat, at 
 which the powder melts, when the portions to be united are taken 
 from the fire and joined. If the pieces to be welded are too 
 large to be introduced at the same time into the forge, one can 
 be first heated with the welding powder to a cherry red heat and 
 then others afterward to a white heat, after which the welding 
 may be effected. 
 
 To Make Edge-Tools from Cast-Steel and Iron. — This method 
 consists in fixing a clean piece of wrought iron, brought to a 
 welding heat, in the center of the mould, then pouring in melted 
 steel, so as to entirely envelop the iron, and then forging the 
 mass into the shape required. 
 
 To Weld Cast-iron. 
 
 Take 3 parts of good class white sand, refined solution fost- 
 ering and rock salt of each i part ; heat the pieces to be welded 
 in a charcoal fire, occasionally taking out and dipping into the 
 composition, until they are of a proper heat to weld. Then 
 take immediately to the anvil and weld together. If done care- 
 fully by one who understands welding iron, there will be a good 
 strong weld. 
 
 Welding Composition for Cast-Steel. — Take borax, 10 parts ; 
 sal-ammoniac, i part ; grind or pound them roughly together, then 
 fuse them in a metal pot over a clear fire, taking care to con- 
 tinue the heat until the spume has disappeared from the surface. 
 When the liquid appears clear, the composition is ready to 
 be poured out to cool and concrete ; afterward, being ground 
 to a fine powder, it is ready for use. To use this composition, 
 the steel to be welded is first raised to a bright yellow heat, 
 it is then dipped into the welding powder, and again placed in 
 
184 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 the fire until it attains the same degree of heat as before; it is 
 then ready to be placed under the hammer. 
 
 How to Restore Overheated Steel. 
 
 A number of receipts for compositions which will restore over- 
 heated steel are given in the following: 
 
 To Restore Overheated Cast-Steel. — Take 1% pounds borax, 
 % pound sal-ammoniac, ^ pound prussiate potash, i ounce 
 rosin. Pound the above fine, add a gill each of water and alcohol. 
 Put in an iron kettle, and boil until it becomes paste. Do not boil 
 too long or it will become hard on cooling. 
 
 To Restore Overheated Steel. — Borax 3 pounds ; sal-ammon- 
 iac, I pound ; prussiate potash, ^2 pound ; alcohol, i gill ; soft 
 water, i pint. Put into an iron pan and hold over a slow fire until 
 it comes to a slow boil and until the liquid matter evaporates ; be 
 careful to stir it well from the bottom and let it boil slow. This 
 receipt is very valuable ; no matter how badly the steel is over- 
 heated it will restore and make it as durable as ever. 
 
 To Restore Overheated Steel and Improve Poor Steel. 
 
 Borax, 3 ounces ; sal-ammoniac, 8 ounces ; prussiate of potash, 
 3 ounces; blue clay, 2 ounces; rosin, 1I4 pounds; water, i gill; 
 alcohol, I gill. Put all over a slow fire ; let it simmer until it dries 
 to a powder. Heat the steel not above a cherry red ; dip into this 
 powder and afterwards hammer. 
 
 Composition to Toughen Steel. — Rosin 2I/2 pounds ; tallow 2I4 
 pounds; pitch 114 pounds. Melt together and apply to the steel 
 while hot. 
 
 Pointer. 
 
 Rosin on the blacksmith's forge improves and toughens steel. 
 When the tool is hot, dip it into the rosin, then hammer. 
 
 To Weld Buggy Springs. 
 To weld buggy springs first scarf one piece of spring, and 
 then weld onto it a piece of spring cut off about three-quarters 
 of an inch longer than the first ; heat and upset until one-quarter 
 thicker at end than spring scarf. Now upset the other piece 
 until as near thickness of first piece as possible ; scarf and weld. 
 Leave a trifle heavier at weld, and if the work has been done 
 properly the weld can be warranted not to break. Use a 4I/2 
 pound hammer in making this weld, and keep at it until finished. 
 
FORGING AND WELDING. 
 
 185 
 
 A French Welding Flux. 
 In using a flux, as is necessary when welding steel, or^ iron 
 and steel, it is oftentimes difficult to keep the flux in place on 
 
 FIG. 128. — 1,500-POUND FRICTION ROLL FORGING DROP WITH 
 GEARLESS LIFTER. 
 
 account of its quickly melting and running off the weld. M. J. 
 Lafitte, Paris, France, has devised a flux consisting of a borax 
 mixture in which is incorporated a fine wire netting to hold it 
 
186 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
FORGING AND WELDING. 187 
 
 together. It is rolled out in thin sheets and divided into squares 
 which are easily broken apart for use. Tests of steel specimens 
 welded in the French government works show a remarkably 
 high efficiency of the welds. This is due to the high protective 
 power of the flux which prevents the formation of oxide on the 
 surface of the welds. 
 
 Compound for Welding Steel. — The following composition 
 has in a number of cases proved superior to borax for welding 
 steel : Mix coarsely powdered borax with a thin paste of prussi- 
 ate blue ; then let it dry. 
 
 Fluxes for Soldering and Welding. 
 
 For iron or steel, borax or sal-ammoniac ; tinned iron, rosin or 
 chloride of zinc ; copper and brass, sal-ammoniac or chloride zinc ; 
 zinc, chloride of zinc ; lead, tallow or rosin ; lead and tin pipes, 
 rosin and sweet oil. 
 
 Substiftite for Borax in Welding. 
 
 Copperas, 2 ounces ; saltpeter, i ounce ; common salt, 6 ounces ; 
 black oxide of manganese, i ounce ; prussiate of potash, i ounce. 
 
 All pulverized- and mixed with 3 pounds good welding sand. 
 
 High carbon steel can be welded with this at a lower heat 
 than is required with borax. 
 
 Drop-Forgings. 
 
 Drop forging is the art of forging with drop hammers and 
 may be designated as "machine blacksmithing." The inception of 
 the art dates back to about 1853 when Colonel Samuel Colt 
 adopted drop-hammers to make parts for firearms. The ma- 
 chines, processes and tools used in the art have since been greatly 
 improved and the products of the drop forging industry are nov/ 
 used in a majority of the mechanical arts. Figs. 130 to 140 
 illustrate parts produced by drop forging. 
 
 The dies used for making drop-forgings are made in two 
 parts. One part (the upper) is fastened in the ram or hammer 
 of the drop, which moves vertically between two uprights or guides 
 and is raised by means of friction rolls controlled by the operator. 
 The other part of the die (the lower) is fixed in the anvil o^ 
 base of the hammer. The ram raises until released, when it falls 
 instantly, striking with the upper die the heated bar of metal 
 placed on the bottom die and forcing it into impressions in both 
 dies. By a series of such blows the complete article is formed. 
 
l88 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 An idea of the extensive use to which drop-forgings have 
 been put may be gained from the fact that J. H. Williams & 
 Co., of Brooklyn, N. Y., a company devoted exclusively to the 
 making of drop-forgings, started in 1889 with a forging plant of 
 three drop-hammers, and it now consists of forty-three drop- 
 hammers, with trip-hammers, steam hammers, upsetting ma- 
 chines and other apparatus. 
 
 The necessary dies used to produce drop-forging of special 
 shapes and sizes are usually made from a drawing or model, pre- 
 ferably the latter as it facilitates designing the dies and allows 
 
 FIG. 130. — DROP-FORGKD CRANK SHAFTS. 
 
 of figuring the cost of the tools much easier than could be done 
 from a drawing. 
 
 In making drop-forging dies the die sinker must know whether 
 the drawing and model show finished or forging size ; he needs 
 also to know the allowance desired in machining. It is usual 
 to add 1-32 inch on each surface to be machined unless the piece 
 is to be finished by grinding or polishing only, in which case i-ioo 
 inch is allowed ; surfaces not to be machined or ground are made 
 close to size. Forgings vary slightly in thickness — say from 
 i-ioo inch to 1-32 inch — depending on their shape and the ma- 
 terial used. They can, however, be made to gage by a re-striking 
 operation ; this operation requires separate dies and entails addi- 
 tional expense. 
 
FORGING AND WELDING. 
 
 189 
 
 I^QQ^ggj^^^ 
 
 FIG. 131. — DROP-FORGED WRENCHES. 
 
190 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 In addition to forging dies, the cost and endurance of which 
 ■depend upon the work required of them, trimming dies are neces- 
 
 FIG. 132. — SPEICIAL DROP-FORGINGS. 
 
 #5?^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^.. 
 
 FIG. 133. — SPECIAL, DROP-FORGING. 
 
 sary to remove the surplus metal thrown out between the forg- 
 ing dies in working. 
 
 Before using the finished set of dies for forging, a lead proof 
 is struck up which is submitted to the customer. The proof often 
 
FORGING AND WELDING. IQI 
 
 varies from the model or drawing by what is called draft. This 
 is the taper necessary on the forgings to allow of drawing them 
 from the dies while working, and it averages about seven degrees. 
 It can be obtained by adding to or taking from the forging; 
 usually the draft metal is added. 
 
 Establishments devoted exclusively to the manufacture of drop 
 forgings carry a large and assorted stock of material from which 
 to make the forgings. But in new dies, where the size of metal 
 required cannot be determined until they are tried in the hammer, 
 delays in obtaining the right sizes sometimes occur. As poor m..^- 
 terial cannot be used, drop-forgings are, therefore, not only 
 superior to hand-forgings tfecause the metal is improved by the 
 
 if 
 
 FIG. 134. — DROP-PORGED PIG. 135. — DROP-FORGED 
 
 GFAR. BRACKETS. 
 
 forging operation, but also because the nature of the process 
 requires a good quality of material. 
 
 Forgings from steel of high carbon usually require annealing 
 before they can be machined. While making drop-forgings they 
 are carefully brushed with steel wire brushes to remove the scale, 
 but if they are to be machined they are pickled in diluted sul- 
 phuric acid to insure the complete removal of the hard outer skin. 
 Often small drop-forgings are tumbled instead of pickled. 
 
 Those who require drop-forgings will be saved undue expense 
 if they inform manufacturers of the use for which the forgings 
 are intended. The price is largely affected by the quantities made 
 with one setting of the tools. It costs as much to set dies for lOO 
 as for 1,000 pieces, and the forging work is also more costly m 
 small lots. Prices for special drop-forging are made per piece, 
 
192 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING, 
 
 not per pound, and vary with the nature of the work, the material 
 used and the quantity taken. 
 
 The cheapest drop-forgings in the long run are those most uni- 
 form in size and quality and close to finish dimensions, thus sav- 
 ing labor, time, tools and money. 
 
 Directions for Setting up Forging Drop-Hammers. 
 It is very important to have a good foundation, and we recom- 
 mend as the cheapest and best, when it can be obtained, a log 
 large enough in diameter at the butt end for the drop to stand 
 on, and long enough to enter the ground six or eight feet. 
 
 FIG. 136. — SPECIAL DROP- 
 FORGINGS. 
 
 PIG. 137. — DROP-FORGED 
 BRACKET. 
 
 First dig a hole one foot deeper than is necessary to receive the 
 log, and large enough to leave a space of about one foot all 
 around it. Before the log is put into the hole, fill the bottom with 
 grout one foot deep ; then, after placing the log in the hole so that 
 it will stand perpendicular, grout it nearly to the top of the 
 ground. 
 
 For light drops, it will do very well to put a large flat stone 
 under the bottom of the log and fill it with earth, well stamped 
 down. Now adze the top of the log level ; then make a depres- 
 sion in the center of the surface, about six inches square and two 
 inches deep, with a groove about one inch wide leading to the 
 
FORGING AND WELDING. 
 
 193 
 
 edge of the block, to allow the scales and dirt to pass off, and 
 not to get under the drop to make it rock or it will be unsteady. 
 When, because of the size of the drop, or for other reasons, a log 
 cannot be obtained large enough to put it on, take numbers, say 
 one foot square, and bolt enough of them together to make it of 
 -suitable size, when set up on end to receive the drop. Grout, and 
 fill in, in the same manner as for the log. Chestnut and oak are 
 the best. 
 
 For forging drops with hammers weighing 1,000 to 2,000 
 pounds, some manufacturers build a masonry foundation 8 to 12 
 feet square at the base, tapering to the size of anvil shape at the 
 top, and 10 to 14 feet deep, with about 4 feet in height of oak 
 
 FIG. 139. — DROP-FORGED 
 YOKE. 
 
 FIG. 138. — DROP-FORGED 
 HOOK. 
 
 FIG. 140.— DROP-FORGED 
 SHAFT BRACKET. 
 
 timbers at the top bolted together on end. The hole around this 
 foundation is then filled with grouting. If only a rock or stone 
 foundation can be had, place about one-half inch of sheet rubber 
 or rubber belting under the bottom of the drop. There is danger 
 of getting a foundation too solid for a drop. There should be 
 some elasticity, and when set on a log or timber the desired 
 effect is obtained ; and when placed upon stone the rubber belting 
 is sufficient. A suitable foundation having now been obtained, 
 and the drop fastened to the same on a line with a shaft that is 
 to drive it, brace the drop at the top by rods, one end of which 
 can be secured to the building, and the other to the lifter, in 
 holes provided for that purpose. The belts m.ust run back away 
 from the operator. 
 
194 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Government Use of Nickel Steel for Forgings. 
 
 With a view to their utilization in the various mechanical de- 
 partments of the government of the United States, the Bureau of 
 Steam Engineering has undertaken extensive experiments with 
 various metals. One result already is the adoption of nickel steel for 
 forgings and other parts of steam engines. It is contended that 
 the principal advantage of nickel steel over ordinary carbon steel 
 for forgings lies in the relation which the elastic limit bears to 
 the tensile strength, the former being in a sense the true strength 
 of the metal. The elastic limit of nickel steel is much higher 
 than that of carbon steel of the same tensile strength and elonga- 
 tion, very often 30 per cent higher and in some cases as much 
 as 50 per cent higher. The principal drawback to the commer- 
 cial use of nickel steel has been the first cost of producing it, 
 which in many cases is higher than the cost of ordinary finished 
 forgings. 
 
 A decided virtue of nickel steel, according to government 
 report, is the facility with which a low carbon steel will harden, 
 it being the practice after a forging is forged and rough ma- 
 chined, to heat it and quench it in oil, which hardens it very 
 much; afterward the forging is submitted to an annealing pro- 
 cess which removes any strains set up in the metal by the sudden 
 cooling which it receives. Nickel steel, after the first cost of 
 production, is not much more expensive to forge than any carbon 
 steel that runs over ,40 per cent carbon, and about the same care 
 is necessary in heating and forging as is required by a high car- 
 bon steel. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, PROCESSES, KINKS, POINTS AND TABLES 
 FOR USE IN METAL WORKING. 
 
 Increasing the Size of a Reamer When Worn. 
 
 To increase a reamer to size when w*orn, burnish the face of 
 each tooth with a hardened burnisher, which can be made from a 
 three-cornered file nicely polished on the corners. This will in- 
 crease the size from 2 to lo thousandths in diameter. Then hone 
 back to the required size. 
 
 To make a tap or reamer cut larger than itself, put a piece 
 of waste in one flute, enough to crowd it over and cut out on one 
 side only. In larger sizes -(1% inch or over) put a strip of tin 
 on one side and let it follow the tap through. 
 
 To Case-Harden Cast-iron. 
 
 Heat to a red heat, roll in a composition consisting of equal 
 parts of prussate of potash, sal-ammoniac and saltpeter, pulver- 
 ized and thoroughly mixed. Plunge while yet hot into a bath con- 
 taining 2 ounces of prussate of potash and 2 ounces of sal-am- 
 moniac to each gallon of cold water. 
 
 Rules for Calcidating Speed. 
 
 The diameter of driven given to find its -number of revolu- 
 tions : 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of 
 revolutions and divide the product by the diameter of the driven. 
 The quotient will be the number of revolutions of the driven. 
 
 The diameter and revolutions of the driver being given to find 
 the diameter of the driven that shall make any number of revolu- 
 tions : 
 
 Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of 
 revolutions and divide the product by the number of required rev- 
 olutions of the driven. The quotient will be its diameter. 
 
 To ascertain the size of pulleys for given speeds : 
 
 Rule. — Multiply all the diameters of the drivers together and 
 all the diameters of driven together ; divide the drivers by the 
 
196 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 driven. Multiply the answer by the known number of revolu- 
 tions of main shaft. 
 
 Improved Soldering or Tinning Acid. 
 Muriatic acid i pound ; put into it all the zinc it will dissolve 
 and I ounce of sal-ammoniac, then it is ready for use. 
 
 Lubricant for Water Cuts. 
 
 Strong sal soda water or soap water is much better than clear 
 water to use where water cuts are being taken, either on lathe or 
 planer. 
 
 Babbitting. 
 
 Put a piece of rosin the size of a walnut into your Babbitt ; 
 stir thoroughly, then skim. It makes poor Babbitt run better, 
 and improves it. Babbitt heated just hot enough to light a pine 
 stick will run in places with the rosin in, where, without it, it 
 would not. It is also claimed that rosin will prevent blowing 
 when pouring in damp boxes. 
 
 Laying Out Work. 
 In laying out work on planed or smooth surfaces of steel or 
 iron, use blue vitriol and water on the surface. This will copper- 
 over the surface nicely, so that all lines will show plainly. If on 
 oily surfaces, add a little oil of vitriol ; this will eat the oil off 
 and leave a nicely coppered surface. 
 
 Lubricant for Working Alinninuin. 
 Use kerosene oil (coal oil) for drilling or turning aluminum. 
 
 To Prevent Rust. 
 To prevent rust on tools, use vaseline, to which a small 
 amount of powdered gum camphor has been added ; heat together 
 over a slow fire. 
 
 Lubricant for Drilling Hard Steel. 
 Use turpentine instead of oil when drilling hard steel, saw 
 plates, etc. It will drill readily when vou could not touch it with 
 oil. 
 
 Coppering Polished Steel Surfaces. 
 To copper the surface of iron or steel wire, have the wire per- 
 fectly clean, then wash with the fcillowino- solution, when it will 
 
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. I97 
 
 present at once a coppered surface : Rain water, 3 pounds ; sul- 
 phate of copper, I pound. 
 
 To Blue Steel Without Heating. 
 To blue steel without heating, apply nitric acid ; then wipe off 
 the acid, clean, oil and burnish. 
 
 To Remove Scale from Steel. 
 Scale may be removed from steel articles by pickling in water 
 with a little sulphuric acid in it, and w^hen the scale is loosened, 
 brushing it with sand and stiff brush. 
 
 To Distinguish Wrought and Cast-iron from Steel. 
 Elsiner produces a bright surface by polishing or filing, and 
 applies a drop of nitric acid, which is allowed to remain there 
 for one or two minutes, and then washed ofif with water. The 
 spot will look a pale ashy gray on wrought-iron, a brownish black 
 on steel, a deep black on cast-iron. It is the carbon present in var- 
 ious proportions which produces the difference in appearance. 
 
 Anti-Friction Alloy for Journal Boxes. 
 Zinc, 17 parts; copper, i part; antimony, I/2 part. 
 This possesses unsurpassable anti-friction qualities and docs 
 not require the protection of outer castings of the harder metal. 
 
 Solder for Aluminum. 
 
 A great drawback to the use of aluminum for many purposes 
 is the difficulty of soldering it. A number of solders are known 
 that are fairly successful when manipulated by skillful hands. 
 The following one was recommended by Prof. E. Wilson in a 
 paper read before the Society of Arts. The constituents are 28 
 pounds block-tin, 3.5 pounds lead, 7 pounds spelter, and 14 
 pounds phosphor-tin. The phosphor-tin should contain 10 per 
 cent phosphor. The following instructions should be followed 
 when soldering aluminum : Clean off all dirt and grease from the 
 surface of the metal with benzine, apply the solder with a copper 
 bit, and when the molten solder covers the surface of the metal, 
 scratch through the solder with a wire brush, by which means the 
 oxide is broken and taken up. Quick manipulation is neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Case-Hardening zvith Kerosene. 
 
 There is a process of hardening steel by petroleum which is 
 
198 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 not generally known. The article to be treated is first thoroughly 
 rubbed with ordinary washing soap, and then placed in a char- 
 coal fire and heated to a cherry red. Then it is plunged into 
 petroleum. There is no fear of the oil igniting, but it is wise 
 not to have a naked light too near. Parts hardened by this 
 method are said to have no cracks nor do they warp, and after 
 hardening, owing to being white, can be finished without any 
 cleaning or grinding. 
 
 Case-Hardening Cones and Cups. 
 
 For case-hardening small pieces, such as the cups and cones 
 used in bicycle bearings, the following method has been found to 
 work well in practice. It is somewhat different from the usual 
 plan followed by case-hardeners in bicycle factories : First, sur- 
 round the article with yellow prussate of potash, then with leather 
 (old boots will do), then with clay, and pack in an iron box of 
 some sort, usually a piece of gas pipe. Plug up the ends with 
 clay ; place the whole in the fire and keep at a red heat for four 
 or five hours, then quench in water. The usual difficulty with 
 vrorkers in a small way is to keep the articles at a uniform tem- 
 perature for such a long time. 
 
 Drills. 
 
 As a rule, the cutting edges of twist drills are formed with 
 a cutter of correct form to produce a radial line of cutting edge; 
 thus a different form of cutter is required for milling the flutes 
 of straight flute drills. 
 
 Drills are generally made of .002-inch or .003-inch taper per 
 foot for clearance and have the major part of land on the periph- 
 ery ground away for the same purpose, about .003 inch on a side. 
 
 Drills for brass should be made with straight flutes ; those 
 for cast-iron and tool-steel should in most cases have spiral flutes, 
 at an angle of about 16 deg. ; soft steel, 22 deg. 
 
 Chucking drills, for use on cored holes, or as followers of 
 solid twist drills, are quite often provided with from three to 
 eight flutes ; the latter, on large work, are very efficient. Care 
 should be taken in grinding, to insure all teeth cutting simultan- 
 eously. These tools are made of solid, shell, and inserted type. 
 
 The inserted type are preferable for straight flutes over 2% 
 inches, and for angular flutes over 4 inches, on account of cost. 
 
 For drilling a large hole in a spindle the latter should be sup- 
 
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. I99 
 
 ported in a back rest, and the drill entered through a drill bush- 
 ing to start perfectly true. Then, by using a drill with one cut- 
 ting edge and ground on the outside, a long, straight hole may 
 be readily produced. An ordinary twist drill will do practically 
 the same if the center is made female, the only objection being 
 -that this form is much more difficult to grind. 
 
 Reamer Practice. 
 
 The following particulars in regard to the exjperience of the 
 well known American firm, the Lodge & Shipley Machine Com- 
 pany, in making and using reamers, were given by their Mr. 
 William Lodge : 
 
 The only reamer we use that is out of the ordinary is a taper 
 reamer made with only three blades. These are cut as deep as the 
 strength of the stock will permit and have very little clearance, 
 which is obtained by grinding the blades convex — not flat or hol- 
 low — as shown in Fig. 141. The reamer is used where a consider- 
 
 mQ. 141. — TAPER REAMER WITH THREE BLADES. 
 
 able amount of metal is to be removed. For instance, we would 
 bore a hole of the right size for the smah end of the reamer and 
 then move it up so that it would cut a length anywhere from three 
 to six inches, feeding very rapidly. We have bored thousands of 
 holes with this style of reamer, getting the best results we ever 
 obtained with the least trouble and in the quickest time. 
 
 Many reamers are in use that are known as "home-made," 
 that is, made by the parties themselves. We have found a great 
 mistake in such reamers. It often occurs that the flutes are cut 
 too shallow and the spacing is entirely too close; that they are 
 evenly spaced instead of staggered, and very often have an even 
 number of teeth, all of which is likely to cause chattering and 
 breaking of taper reamers. An evenly spaced reamer will begin to 
 chatter the moment the cutting edge refuses to cut, especially 
 
200 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 when cutting steel and when evenly spaced, one blade will jump 
 into the space or chatter mark made by the blade in advance of it. 
 Another serious fault with any reamer, either straight or taper, 
 is too much clearance. This will invariably cause a reamer to 
 chatter. 
 
 As to reamers for brass, we never make them oversize, and 
 we always make the blade of the reamer for brass the same as 
 we would grind a tool for cutting brass, namely, instead of using 
 a radial line on the center as in other cutting tools, we throw the 
 cutting edge of the blade off from the center at an angle of at 
 least 20 degrees out of the radial line, as shown in Fig. 142. Thus, 
 in turning brass, if you had a tool that was ground straight and 
 mounted it in the tool post exactly at the center of the work you 
 would find that the tool wtould chatter. Take the same tool and 
 
 FIG. 142. — re;amer for brass. 
 
 grifid it oh the top to an angle as above described and toward the 
 underside of the blade, and it would cut quite freely and without 
 any chattering. At all times, however, it is necessary to keep the 
 cutting edge of the reamer for brass extremely sharp, because 
 the very moment the cutting edge is dull it will begin to bind and 
 scream sufficiently loud to drive you out of the shop. Reamers 
 for reaming brass require twice or three times the attention in 
 keeping to a sharp edge that other reamers require. 
 
 For hand reaming we never have to exceed 3-1000 in any 
 material, and all our machine reaming is done by a reamer with 
 very much coarser blades than the ordinary commercial reamer. 
 They are made so that they may be ground on the points, are fed 
 rapidly, and the tool used in advance of them leaves in no case less 
 than 1-32 and often as much as 1-16. 
 
 Reamers and Reaming. 
 In order to ream uniform holes (as regards diameter) in a 
 
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 20I 
 
 screw machine, it is necessary to always have an equal amount of 
 stock for the reamer to remove. This can be best accomplished 
 by using two reamers, one for roughing, and one for finishing. 
 The roughing reamer should be preceded by a single pointed 
 boring tool (or its equivalent), to insure a true hole. On thin 
 work a finishing reamer should be of "rose form," so as to be 
 self-supporting and prevent enlargement of the hole by its weight. 
 
 For steel, reamers are ground straight, while for cast-iron, 
 brass and copper it often becomes necessary to grind same slight- 
 ly back tapering to prevent roughing up. 
 
 The teeth on reamers for steel and cast-iron should be on 
 center, while for brass they should be slightly ahead of the cen- 
 ter. 
 
 On machine reaming, when possible to do so, the reamers are 
 hung loose and allowed to follow the true or concentric hole made 
 by a single-pointed boring tool. This can be done by having a 
 "floating" reamer with a pin entered through the holder and the 
 reamer at the back end, the hole in the reamer being larger than 
 the pin so as to allow it to find its own center. 
 
 Square reamers (scrapers) are often used for fine finishing, 
 especially on brass. Expansion reamers possess many desir- 
 able features ; but there are few, if any, that can be adjusted and 
 used for sizing, without grinding the cutting edges each time 
 they are expanded, as unless perfectly fitted in as regards tapers, 
 etc., the separate teeth do not expand equally. 
 
 As a matter of cost, however, this additional grinding amounts 
 to but little in comparison with that of a new solid or shell 
 reamer of large diameter, two and a fourth inches or more. 
 
 Number of Tee'th Generally Milled in Reamers. 
 
 3-16 to y^ inch diameter, 6 teeth. 
 ^ to 134 inches diameter, 8 teeth. 
 1% to i^ inches diameter, 10 teeth, 
 i^ to 2}i inches diameter, 12 teeth. 
 2^ to 3 inches diameter, 14 teeth. 
 
 3 to 4 inches diameter, 16 teeth. 
 
 4 to 5 inches diameter, 18 teeth. 
 
 A long hole can be reamed straight by pulling back slightly 
 after the reamer has commenced to cut. 
 
 On Babbitt, reamers of the usual form are used, with the ex- 
 ception that the point is ground tapering about y^-'mch. long, to 
 
202 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEAUNG. 
 
 a diameter equal to size generated by boring tool. This gives a 
 smooth hole, free from lines, also prevents rings. Left-hand 
 spiral flutes are recommended. 
 
 On taper reamers for screw machine, use 2^ inches per foot 
 and upward. They will cut much easier if made with left-hand 
 spiral flutes or angle, but on account of difficulty in grinding this 
 is not often done. 
 
 For forming or curving reamers for projectile work, the above 
 holds good. Reamers i^ to 2]/\ inches taper per foot should 
 have flute straight for finishers, the roughers either of the deep 
 form or with a left-hand spiral thread nicked around. The ream- 
 ers to i^ inches taper per foot are fluted left-hand to prevent 
 drawing in when cutting. 
 
 Roughing, taper and forming reamers are sometimes made 
 from steel with an undercut, and also with right-hand spiral, and 
 they remove the stock very rapidly. 
 
 Speeds for reaming should range from 20 to 30 per cent less 
 than turning and drilling speeds. (See tables, pages 123 and 
 124.) 
 
 On large taper reamers, with slight taper, it has been found 
 good practice to make each tooth a different left-hand spiral and 
 also to "stagger" the teeth as regards spacing. 
 
 Rose reamers are quite often ground tapering, that is, small 
 at back, .003 to foot, and then are less liable to rough up the hole 
 they are reaming, and give a straight hole very nearly correct in 
 diameter. 
 
 Grinding Tzvist Drills. 
 
 Grinding twist drills accurately is generally admitted to be 
 difficult. To know the number of revolutions a drill should run 
 is of great importance in order to obtain the most economical re- 
 sults. The illustration, Fig. 143, shows opposite sides of the 
 Standard Twist Drill Grinding Gage, made of steel i-16-inch 
 thick. The angle of the gage is ground to exactly 59 degrees. 
 The scale on the gage is graduated so that the cutting edges of 
 the drill can be measured and ground exactly the same length. 
 The straight edge of the gage is a 2-inch scale graduated by 
 eighths of an inch ; opposite each eighth mark is a number, which 
 is the best speed to run a drill of corresponding size of diameter. 
 
 In using the gage, hold it with the left hand and place the 
 drill in the gage with the cutting edges of the drill facing you. 
 The rest of the lip of the drill must be lower than the cutting 
 edge, which will give the drill clearance and allow the edges to 
 
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 
 
 205, 
 
 cut. Always keep Tzvist Drills sharp and run them at the proper 
 speed. If you want to force a drill to do work quickly, run at 
 the right speed, but increase the feed. 
 
 Circular Forming Tools. 
 
 Circular forming tools for machine steel and cast-iron should 
 have a generous amount of clearance. 
 
 Care must be taken on particular forms, when forming cutters 
 are not on center, that they are formed with this point taken 
 into consideration. 
 
 Forming cutters with steps having great difference of diam- 
 
 160 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 660 
 
 23 J - 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 320 
 
 150 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 220 
 
 Ha- 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 160 
 
 gs 
 
 — 
 
 Opposite 
 
 sides of 
 
 standard 
 
 — 
 
 130 
 
 73- 
 
 — 
 
 twist 
 
 drill grinding gauge 
 
 
 
 105 
 
 63 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 90 
 
 38- 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 — ;: 
 
 80 
 
 32 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 70 
 
 40- 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 12 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 58 
 
 39 - 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 36 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 49 
 
 33- 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 31 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 4] 
 
 29- 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 FIG. 143. 
 
 eter, and also with sharp corners, if made in sections, harden 
 more easily and safely. 
 
 Circular threading tools for inside threading must be mucli 
 smaller than the work ; about one-third is the proper practice. 
 
 Care should be exercised to use a correct angle of chaser. 
 
 Plain Forming Tools. 
 Plain forming tools should have a clearance of from 6^^ to lo 
 degrees. 
 
204 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Rake: Machinery steel 8 to 13 degrees. 
 
 Rake : Tool steel, medium, 6 to 9 degrees. 
 
 Rake : Brass, none. 
 
 The clearance on tools for brass is quite often stoned off its 
 cutting edge to prevent "biting in" (due to ease of cutting) and 
 then chattering, due to great thickness of chip and consequent 
 difficulty in severing. The "stoning off" also tends to act as a 
 support for the cutter. 
 
 Facing. 
 
 For steel and cast-iron, cutters with from 6 to 12 degrees rake 
 cut very freely. The clearance should be from 3;^2 to 10 degrees ; 
 when there is any tendency to chatter, the cutting edge should be 
 stoned on clearance face sufficiently to prevent "biting in." On 
 very broad work it often becomes necessary to make cutters with- 
 out any rake or angle, but allow scraping, to prevent chatter. 
 
 In practice it is found advantageous to place cutter ahead of 
 center, exposing a larger cutting edge to work, giving thinner 
 chip. 
 
 In multiple or inserted cutter heads, it is well to unevenly 
 space the cutters ; as a precaution against chattering, have the cut- 
 ters "staggered." 
 
 Use machines with large bearings, and with chucks close to 
 same, for good results. 
 
 Lubricant in Milling Steel or Wrought Iron. 
 
 In milling steel or wrought iron, keep cutter thoroughly wet 
 with lubricant. Sal soda dissolved in water is often used. A 
 better lubricant for milling cutter, drill, etc., is : Lard oil, 5^ 
 gallon ; whale oil soap, 2 pounds ; sal soda, 3 pounds ; water, 10 
 gallons. Have the soap so it will dissolve readily. Boil the whole 
 until dissolved. 
 
 Counterhoring. 
 
 For cast-iron and steel, counterbores are generally made with 
 ten to sixteen degrees angle, i. e., spiral; for brass they are cut 
 straight. Clearance is from five to ten degrees. On brass, 
 "stone" the clearance edge to prevent chattering. 
 
 Counterbores internally lubricated are recommended for steel 
 for use to depth of one-half of the diameter or more. 
 
 Angle clearance on all tools must be more than spiral gen- 
 erated by feed, at smallest diameter of cutting point plus suffi- 
 cient to be really forced in work (about 3 degrees). 
 
miscellanp:ous methods, tables, etc. 
 
 205 
 
 Soldering. 
 There are many kinds of solders, from that which will melt 
 in boiling water to hard brass solder that melts only at white 
 heat. As a rule, the harder the solder the stronger the joint. Of 
 the white solders silver is the hardest. For all solders that require 
 a red heat, borax is used as a flux, and the solder will run anywhere 
 the borax goes. Rubbing the joint with a pointed piece of iron will 
 help the solder to run into the joint. The parts to be soldered 
 should, of course, be cleaned. The solder will not stick to the 
 work until the surface of the work is heated to the melting point 
 of the solder. Don't try to solder with a cold iron, and, with 
 
 PIG. 144. — COUNTERBORE. 
 
 FIG. 145. — COUNTERSINK. 
 
 large pieces, heat them to the melting point of the solder or use 
 a very hot iron. Always use a solder with a much lower melting 
 point than that of the metal to be soldered. 
 
 Useful Information. 
 
 Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four 
 times. 
 
 A cubic foot of water weighs 62^ pounds, and contains 1,728 
 cubic inches, or 7^ gallons. 
 
 A gallon of fresh water weighs 81-3 pounds, and contains 231 
 cubic inches. 
 
 To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons : Multiply the 
 area in inches by the height of stroke in inches. Divide this prod- 
 uct by 231 (being the cubical contents of a gallon in inches) ; 
 the quotient is the capacity in gallons. 
 
:206 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 To find the area of a circle or cylinder : Square the diameter 
 in inches and multiply the product by .7854. 
 
 Example : What is the area of a 12-inch circle? 
 
 i2Xi2^i44+.78S4=i 13.0976 square inches. 
 
 Rust joint cement (quick setting) : i part sal-ammoniac in 
 powder (by weight), 2 flour of sulphur, 80 iron borings, made to 
 -a paste with water. 
 
 Rust joint (slow setting) : 2 parts sal-ammoniac, i flour of 
 sulphur, 200 iron borings. 
 
 The latter is best if joint is not required for immediate use. 
 
 Metal to expand in cooling : 9 parts lead, 2 antimony, i bis- 
 muth. 
 
 Glue to resist moisture : i pound of glue in 2 quarts of 
 skimmed milk. 
 
 To color or coat zinc : Dissolve i ounce blue vitriol in 4 ounces 
 -water, add teaspoonful nitric acid. Apply with cloth. 
 
 Lacquer for Brass Articles. 
 
 A good lacquer for brass articles is made from best orange 
 -shellac dissolved in a good alcohol (i to 2 ounces gum to the 
 ^int) and filtered through filter paper. This is excellent for brass, 
 and for silver the bleached shellac may be substituted. Some pre- 
 fer to use the lacquer thin and the work heated to about 115 
 degrees Fahr., a temperature that will vaporize the alcohol and 
 leave a firmly adhering coat of gum if the work has been prop- 
 •erly cleansed. 
 
 Removing Rust from Polished Steel and Iron. 
 
 In the Journal of the United States Artillery directions were 
 ;given for caring for ordnance, and the treatment recommended 
 for rust on polished steel is as follows : Cyanide of potash is 
 most excellent for removing rust, and should be made much use 
 -of. Instruments of polished steel may be cleaned as follows : 
 First soak, if possible, in a solution of cyanide of potassium in 
 the proportion of one ounce of cyanide to four ounces of water. 
 Allow this to act till all loose rust and scale is removed and then 
 ■polish with cyanide soap. 
 
 The cyanide soap referred to is made as follows : Potassium 
 ■cyanide, precipitated chalk, white Castile soap. Make a saturated 
 solution of the cyanide and add chalk sufficient to make a creamy 
 paste. Add the soap cut in fine shavings and thoroughly in- 
 
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 20/ 
 
 corporate in a mortar. When the mixture is stiff cease to add 
 soap. It may be well to state that potassium cyanide is a violent 
 poison. ) 
 
 For removing rust from iron the following is given : Iron may 
 be quickly and easily cleaned by dipping in or washing with nitric 
 acid, one part ; muriatic acid, one part ; water, twelve parts. 
 After using wash with clean water. 
 
 Miscellaneous Information. 
 
 Area of a circle = diameter X -.7854. 
 
 Circumference of a circle = diameter X 3-i4i6. 
 
 Given the area of a circle to find the diameter, divide the area 
 by .7854 and extract the square root. 
 
 Area of a hexagon = length of one side X 2.598. 
 
 Cubic contents in inches of a bar of iron = area of one end in 
 inches by its length, in inches. 
 
 Weight of cast iron, per cubic inch, .26 pound ; of wrought 
 iron, .278; of steel, .283; of copper and bronze, .32; of brass, .3. 
 
 A wrought-iron bar one square inch in section and one yard 
 long weighs 10 pounds. Steel is about two per cent heavier than 
 wrought iron. Cast iron is about six per cent lighter than wrought 
 iron. 
 
 To find the surface speed in feet per minute of an emery 
 wheel or milling cutter : Divide the number of revolutions of the 
 wheel per minute by 12, and multiply the result by 3.1416 times 
 the diameter of the emery wheel in inches. 
 
 To find the number of revolutions a wheel must run for a 
 given surface speed, multiply the surface speed in feet per min- 
 ute by 12 and divide the result by 3.1416 times the diameter in 
 inches. 
 
 Given, the diameter of a hexagon nut across the fiats, to 
 find the diameter across corners, multiply the diameter across 
 flats by 1. 156. 
 
208 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 TABLE OF DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF MILLIMETERS AND 
 FRACTIONS OF MILLIMETERS. 
 
 T^o mm. = .0003937 inch. 
 
 MM 
 
 Indies 
 
 MM 
 
 Inches 
 
 MM 
 
 Inches 
 
 5V 
 
 .00079 
 
 ft 
 
 .02047 
 
 2 
 
 07874 
 
 5% 
 
 .00157 
 
 u .. 
 
 .02126 
 
 3 
 
 I1811 
 
 T% 
 
 .00236 
 
 u 
 
 .02205 
 
 4 
 
 15748 
 
 5% 
 
 .00315 
 
 u 
 
 .02283 
 
 5 
 
 19685 
 
 ■io 
 
 .00394 
 
 u 
 
 .02362 
 
 6 
 
 23622 
 
 Z% 
 
 .00472 
 
 3 1 
 
 .02441 
 
 7 
 
 27559 
 
 .V 
 
 .00551 
 
 If 
 
 .02520 
 
 8 
 
 31496 
 
 5% 
 
 .00630 
 
 u 
 
 .02598 
 
 '9 
 
 35433 
 
 5% 
 
 .00709 
 
 u 
 
 .02677 
 
 lO 
 
 39370 
 
 i§ 
 
 .00787 
 
 u 
 
 .02756 . 
 
 II 
 
 43307 
 
 ii 
 
 .00S66 
 
 u 
 
 .02835 
 
 12 
 
 47244 
 
 12 
 •55 
 
 .00945 
 
 3 7 
 
 So 
 
 .02913 
 
 13 
 
 51181 
 
 13 
 So 
 
 .01024 
 
 u 
 
 .02992 
 
 14 
 
 55"8 
 
 u 
 
 ,01102 
 
 u 
 
 .03071 
 
 15 
 
 5905s 
 
 H 
 
 .01181 
 
 n 
 
 •03150 
 
 16 
 
 62992 
 
 U 
 
 .01260 
 
 u 
 
 •03228 
 
 17 
 
 66929 
 
 H 
 
 •01339 
 
 u 
 
 •03307 
 
 18 
 
 70866 
 
 18' 
 
 ■5(J 
 
 .01417 
 
 u 
 
 .03386 
 
 19 
 
 74803 
 
 M 
 
 .01496 
 
 H 
 
 •03465 
 
 20 } 
 
 78740 
 
 le 
 
 •01 575 
 
 n 
 
 •03543 
 
 21 
 
 82677 
 
 B 
 
 .01654 
 
 u 
 
 .03622 
 
 22 
 
 86614 
 
 U 
 
 .01732 
 
 u 
 
 .03701 i 
 
 23 
 
 9055' 
 
 U 
 
 .01811 
 
 n 
 
 .03780 
 
 24 
 
 94488 
 
 U 
 
 .01890 
 
 n 
 
 .03858 
 
 ,^5 
 
 98425 
 
 U 
 
 .01969 
 
 I 
 
 •03937 ': 
 
 26 j I 
 
 02362 
 
 
 10 mm. 
 
 = 1 centimeter ^0.39 
 
 ^y inches. 
 
 
 
 10 cm. 
 
 = I decimeter = 3.92 
 
 7 inches. 
 
 
 
 10 dm. 
 
 = I meter =39-3 
 
 7 inches. 
 
 
 
 25.4 mm 
 
 = I En 
 
 ^lish inch. 
 
 
 
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS^ TABLES^ ETC. 
 
 209 
 
 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF PARTS OF AN INCH. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ,01563 
 
 H 
 
 .32813 
 
 
 
 If 
 
 .70313 
 
 ^v 
 
 .03125 
 
 ii 
 
 .34375 
 
 
 It 
 
 
 .71875 
 
 ^ 
 
 .04688 
 
 H 
 
 .35938' 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 .7343B 
 
 1/ 
 /16 
 
 .0625 
 
 % 
 
 .375 
 
 /4 
 
 
 
 .75 
 
 #4 
 
 .07813 
 
 1^ 
 
 .39063 
 
 
 
 F4 
 
 .76563 
 
 3% 
 
 .09375 
 
 hi 
 
 .40625 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 .78125 
 
 /4- 
 
 .10938 
 
 H 
 
 .42188 
 
 
 
 ti 
 
 .79688 
 
 1/ 
 
 .125 
 
 /16 
 
 ,4375 
 
 I3X 
 
 
 
 .8125 
 
 ■h 
 
 .14063 
 
 2a 
 
 B4 
 
 .45313 
 
 
 
 If 
 
 .82813- 
 
 ^ 
 
 .15625 
 
 ^f 
 
 .46875 
 
 
 §i 
 
 
 .84375 
 
 ii 
 
 .17188 
 
 li 
 
 .48438 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 .85938 
 
 3/ 
 yi6 
 
 .1875 
 
 /2 
 
 .5 
 
 /z 
 
 
 
 .875 
 
 il 
 
 .20313 
 
 il 
 
 .51563 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 .89063 
 
 1^ 
 
 .21-875 
 
 r^ 
 
 .53125 
 
 
 It 
 
 
 .90625 
 
 M 
 
 .23438 
 
 35. 
 
 64 
 
 .54688 
 
 
 
 If 
 
 .92188 
 
 X 
 
 .25 
 
 /I6 
 
 .5625 
 
 15/ 
 /I6 
 
 
 
 .9375 
 
 il 
 
 .26o63 
 
 i^4 
 
 .57813 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 .95313 
 
 h 
 
 .28125 
 
 M 
 
 .59375 
 
 
 li 
 
 
 .96875 
 
 .. ^ 
 
 .29688 
 
 30 
 64 
 
 ..60938 
 
 
 
 fl 
 
 .98438 
 
 Vi^ 
 
 .3125 
 
 5^6 
 
 .625 
 
 .64063 
 .65625 
 .67188 
 
 ..6875 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1.00000 
 
2IO 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 CONSTANTS FOR FINDING DIAMETER AT BOTTOM OF THREAD. 
 
 Threads 
 per Inch. 
 
 u. s. 
 
 Standard 
 Constant. 
 
 V Thread 
 Constant. 
 
 Threads 
 per Inch. 
 
 u. s. 
 
 Standard 
 Constant. 
 
 V Thread 
 Constant. 
 
 64 
 
 .02029 
 
 .02706 
 
 16 
 
 .08118 
 
 .10825 
 
 60 
 
 .02165 
 
 .02887 
 
 14 
 
 .09278 
 
 . 12357 
 
 56 
 
 .02319 
 
 .03093 
 
 13 
 
 .09992 
 
 . 13323 
 
 50 
 
 ^02598 
 
 .03464 
 
 12 
 
 . 10825 
 
 .14433 
 
 48 
 
 .02706 
 
 .03608 
 
 11 
 
 .11809 
 
 . 15745 
 
 44 
 
 .02952 
 
 .03936 
 
 10 
 
 . 12990 
 
 . 17320 
 
 40 
 
 .03247 
 
 .04330 
 
 ■9 
 
 .14433 
 
 .19244 
 
 36 
 
 .03608 
 
 .04811 
 
 8 
 
 . 16237 
 
 .21650 
 
 32 
 
 .04059 
 
 05412 
 
 7 
 
 . 18555 
 
 .24742 
 
 30 
 
 .04330 
 
 .05773 
 
 6 
 
 .21650 
 
 .28866 
 
 28 
 
 .04639 
 
 .06185 
 
 b'A 
 
 .33618 
 
 .31490 
 
 26 
 
 .04996 
 
 06661 
 
 5 
 
 .25980 
 
 .34650 
 
 24 
 
 .05412 
 
 07216 
 
 4K 
 
 .28866 
 
 .38488 
 
 22 
 
 .05904 
 
 .07872 
 
 4 
 
 .32475 
 
 .43300 
 
 20 
 
 06495 
 
 .08660 
 
 S'A 
 
 .37114 
 
 .49485 
 
 18 
 
 07216 
 
 09622" 
 
 3 
 
 43333 
 
 .57733 
 
 C = Constant for number of threads per inch. 
 
 D = Outside diameter. 
 
 D^= Diameter at bottom of thread. 
 D^ = D — C. 
 
 Example. — Given outside diameter of U. S. S. screw 
 thread, 2 inches, 4V2 threads per inch; find diameter at 
 bottom of thread. D=^2 inches; for 4% threads U. S. 
 S. constant, C = .2886 ; then diameter at bottom of thread 
 D' = 2 — .2886^1.7114 inches. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 
 
 211 
 
 METRIC AND ENGLISH OR AMERICAN (u. S.) EQUIVALENT 
 MEASURES. 
 
 Measures of Length. 
 
 I foot = 
 I inch 
 
 .3048 meter. 
 . ( 2.54 centimeters. 
 ' / 25.4 millimeters. 
 
 ( ^.37 inches. 
 I meter = i 3.28083 feet. 
 
 ( 1.0936 yds. 
 1 centimeter =i .3937 inch. 
 
 1 millimeter = j?3937 inch, or 
 ( sV inch nearly. 
 1 kilometer = 0.62137 mile. 
 
 Measures of Surface. 
 
 I ^^..o..«. ^^t^, i 10.764-square feet. Jl square yard = .836 square 
 1 square meter = ^ , jgg g^^^^^ ^^^ j ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ _ 0929 square 
 
 1 square centimeter = 15.5 sa. in. \\c„„„^^;„ 
 I square millimeter = .00155 sq. in. 1 1 square in 
 
 meter, 
 meter. 
 6.452 sq. centimeters. 
 645.2 sq. millimeters. 
 
 Measures of Volume and Capacity 
 
 35 314 cubic feet. 
 
 1 liter : 
 
 1 cubic yard = .7643 cubic meter. 
 
 f .02832cubicmeter. 
 1 cubic ft. = < 28.317 cubic decimeters 
 
 1 28.317 liters. 
 
 1 cubic inch = 16 387cubiccentimeters. 
 1 gallon (British) = 4 543 liters. 
 1 gallon (U. S.) 5= 3.785 liters. 
 
 1 cubic meter = < 1.308 cubic yards. 
 1 264.2 gallons (231 
 cubic inch). 
 
 1 cubic decimeter = S61.0|^-^i^fe- 
 
 1 cubic centimeter = .061 cubic inch. 
 1 cubic decimeter. 
 61.023 cubic inches. 
 0353 cubic foot. 
 1.0567 quarts (U. S.) 
 
 2642 gallons (D. S.) . 
 2.202 lbs, of water at 62°F. 
 
 Measures of Weight. 
 
 1 gram = 15.432 grains. 11 grain = .0648 gram. 
 
 1 kilogram = 2.2046 pounds. 1 ounce avoirdupois = 28.35 g^ams. 
 
 1 .9842 ton of 2240 lbs. ^ pound = .4536 kilograms. 
 1 metric ton = j ^9.^ cwts. |, t,„,f 22401bs. = { ^feSr^m^^- 
 
 MisoeUaneous. 
 
 1 kilogram per meter = .6720 pouodif per foot. 
 
 1 gram per square millimeter = 1.422 pounds per square inch. 
 
 1 kilogram per square meter = 0.2084 " " foot. 
 
 1 kilogram per cubic meter = .0624 " cubic " 
 
 1 degree centigrade = 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 1 pound per foot = 1.488 kilograms per meter. 
 
 1 pound per square foot == 4.882 kilograms per square meter. 
 
 I pound per cubic foot = 16,02 kilograms per cubic meter. 
 
 1 degtee Fahrenheit = .5556 degrees centigrade. 
 
 I Calorie (French Thermal Unit) = 3.968 B. T. U. (British Thermal Unit). 
 
 1 wnrsp Power — i >^'<W0 foot pounds per miuutc. 
 1 Horse Power - ^ ^^g ^^^1^.^ "■ 
 
 1 watt (Unit of Electrical Power) = {,^^ f^°rpounds"per minute, 
 f 1000 Watts. 
 1 Kilowatt =< 1.34 Horse Power 
 
 (44240 foot pounds per minute. 
 
212 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND AREAS OF ROUND, SQUARE AND HEXAGON 
 STEEL. 
 
 Weight of one cubic inch = .2836 lbs. 
 Weight of one cubic foot = 490 lbs. 
 
 h 
 
 Area = 
 
 = Diam.2 x 
 
 .7854. 1 
 
 Area = Side2 x 1. 
 
 Area = Diam.2x.86a 
 
 Round. 1 
 
 Square. 
 
 Hexagon. 
 
 Is 
 
 Weight 
 Per 
 Inch. 
 
 Area 
 Square 
 Inches. 
 
 Circum- 
 ference 
 Inches. 
 
 Weight 
 Per 
 Inch. 
 
 Area 
 Square 
 Inches. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Per 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Area 
 Square 
 Inches. 
 
 il 
 
 .0002 
 .0009 
 .0020 
 .0035 
 
 .0008 
 .0031 
 .0069 
 .0123 
 
 .0981 
 .1963 
 .2995 
 .3927 
 
 .0003 
 .0011 
 .0025 
 .0044 
 
 .0010 
 .0039 
 .0088 
 .0156 
 
 .0002 
 .0010 
 .0022 
 .0038 
 
 .0008 
 .«034 
 .0076 
 .0135 
 
 1 
 
 .0054 
 .0078 
 .0107 
 .0139 
 
 .0192 
 .0276 
 .0376 
 .0491 
 
 .4908 
 .5890 
 .6872 
 .7854 
 
 .0069 
 .0101 
 .0136 
 X177 
 
 .0244 
 .0352 
 .0479 
 .0625 
 
 .0060 
 .0086 
 .0118 
 .0154 
 
 .0211 
 .0304 
 .0414 
 .0510 
 
 i 
 
 II 
 
 ,0176 
 .0218 
 .0263 
 .0313 
 
 .0621 
 .0767 
 .0928 
 .1104 
 
 .8835 
 
 .9817 
 
 1.0799 
 
 1.1781 
 
 .0224 
 .0277 
 .0335 
 .0405 
 
 .0791 
 .0977 
 .1182 
 .1406 
 
 .0194 
 .0240 
 .0290 
 .0345 
 
 .0688 
 .0846 
 .1023 
 .1218 
 
 11 
 
 .0368 
 .0126 
 
 .0557 
 
 .1396 
 .1503 
 .1726 
 .1963 
 
 1.2762 
 1.3744 
 1.4726 
 1.5708 
 
 .0466 
 .0543 
 .0623 
 .0709 
 
 .1651 
 .1914 
 .2197 
 .2500 
 
 .0405 
 .0470 
 .0540 
 .0614 
 
 .1428 
 .1658 
 .1903 
 .2161 
 
 ys 
 
 .0629 
 .0705 
 .OT85 
 .0870 
 
 .2217 
 
 .2485 
 .2769 
 .3068 
 
 1.6689 
 1.7671 
 1.8653 
 1.9635 
 
 .0800 
 .0897 
 .1036 
 .1108 
 
 .2822 
 .3164 
 .3526 
 .3906 
 
 .0693 
 
 Xfm 
 
 .0866 
 .0959 
 
 .2444 
 .2743 
 .3053 
 .3383 
 
 i 
 
 .0959 
 .1053 
 .1151 
 .1253 
 
 .8382 
 .3712 
 .4057 
 .4418 
 
 2.0616 
 2.1598 
 2.2580 
 2.3562 
 
 .1221 
 .1340 
 .1465 
 .1622 
 
 .4307 
 .4727 
 .5166 
 .5625 
 
 .1058 
 .1161 
 .1270 
 .1382 
 
 .3730 
 .4093 
 .4474 
 .4871 
 
 i 
 
 .1359 
 .1470 
 .1586 
 U705 
 
 .4794 
 ;5185. 
 .5591 
 .6013 
 
 2.4543 
 2.5525 
 2.6507 
 2.7489 
 
 .1732 
 .1872 
 .2019 
 .2171 
 
 .6103 
 
 .6602 
 .7119 
 .7656 
 
 .1499 
 .1620 
 a749 
 .1880 
 
 .5286 
 .6712 
 .6165 
 .6631 
 
 Y 
 
 12090 
 .2227 
 
 .6450 
 .6903 
 .7371 
 .7854 
 
 2.8470 
 2.9452 
 3.0434 
 3.1416 
 
 .2329 
 .2492 
 .2661 
 .2836 
 
 .8213 
 
 .8789 
 
 .9384 
 
 1.0000 
 
 .2015 
 .2159 
 .2305 
 .2456 
 
 .7112 
 .7612 
 .8127 
 .8643 
 
 1^ 
 
 .2515 
 .2819 
 .3141 
 .3480 
 
 .8866 
 
 .9940 
 
 1.1075 
 
 1.2272 
 
 3.3379 
 3.5343 
 3.7306 
 3.9270 
 
 .3201' 
 .3589 
 .4142 
 .4431 
 
 L128? 
 1.2656 
 1.4102 
 1.5625 
 
 .2773 
 .3109 
 .3464 
 .3838 
 
 .9776 
 1.0973 
 1.2212 
 1.3531 
 
 il 
 
 .3837 
 .4211 
 .4603 
 .5012 
 
 1.3530 
 1.4849 
 1.6230 
 1.7671 
 
 4.1233 
 4.3197 
 4.5160 
 4.7124 
 
 .4885 
 .5362 
 .5860 
 .6487 
 
 1.7227 
 1.8906 
 2.0664 
 2.2500 
 
 .4231 
 .4643 
 .5076 
 .5526 
 
 1.4919 
 1.6373 
 
 1;SII 
 
 i 
 
 .5438 
 
 .5882 
 
 1 .6343 
 
 .6821 
 
 1.9175 
 2.0739 
 .2.2365 
 2.4053 
 
 4.9087 
 
 5.1051 
 
 6.3014 
 
 . 6.4978 
 
 .6930 
 ,7489 
 ,8076 
 .8685 
 
 2.4414 
 2.6406 
 2.8477 
 3.0625 
 
 .5996 
 .6480 
 .6994 
 .7521 
 
 2.il43 
 2:2847 
 2.4662 
 2.6532 
 
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 
 
 213 
 
 WEIGHTS AND AREAS OF RDUND^ SQUARE AND HEXAGON 
 STEEL. 
 
 Continued. 
 
 V H 
 
 Is 
 
 Round. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Hexagon. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Per 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Ill 
 'J' 
 
 ¥ 
 
 3fS 
 S% 
 
 SM 
 
 3?% 
 
 4 
 
 4'/8 
 
 45i 
 4Ji 
 4J^ 
 
 454 
 
 5^ 
 b% 
 
 
 
 ^J5 
 
 .7317 
 .7831 
 .8361 
 .8910 
 
 .9475 
 1.0058 
 1.0658 
 1.1276 
 
 1.1911 
 1.2564 
 1.3234 
 1.3921 
 
 1.5348 
 1.6845 
 1.8411 
 2.004tt 
 
 2.1752 
 2.3527 
 2.5371 
 2.7286 
 
 2.9269 
 3.i323 
 3.3446 
 3.5638 
 
 3.7900 
 
 4.0232 
 4.2634 
 4.5105 
 
 4.7645 
 5.0265 
 5.2935 
 5.5685 
 
 5.8504 
 6.1392 
 6.4351 
 6.7379 
 
 7.0476 
 7.3643 
 7.6880 
 8.0186 
 
 8.7007 
 
 9.4107 
 
 10.1485 
 
 J0.9I42 
 
 i2J529l 
 
 Area 
 Square 
 Ihcffies. 
 
 2.5802 
 2.7612 
 2.9483 
 3.1416 
 
 3.3410 
 3.5466 
 3.7583 
 3.9761 
 
 4.2000 
 4.4301 
 4.6664 
 4.9087 
 
 5.4119 
 5.9396 
 6.4918 
 7.0686 
 
 7.6699 
 8 2958 
 8.9462 
 9.6211 
 
 10.3206 
 11.0447 
 11.7932 
 12.5664 
 
 13.3640 
 14.1863 
 15.0332 
 15.9043 
 
 16.8002 
 17.7205 
 18.6655 
 19.6350 
 
 20.6290 
 21.6475 
 22.6905 
 23.7583 
 
 24.8505 
 25.9672 
 27.1085 
 28.2743 
 
 30.6796 
 33.1831 
 88.7847 
 88:4845 
 
 44.1786 
 50.2655 
 
 Circum- 
 ference 
 Inches. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Per 
 
 Inch. 
 
 5.6941 
 5.8905 
 6.0868 
 6.2832 
 
 6.4795 
 6.6769 
 6.8722 
 7.0686 
 
 7.264» 
 7.4613 
 7.6575 
 7.8540 
 
 8.2467 
 8.6394 
 9.0321 
 9.4248 
 
 9.8175 
 10.2102 
 10.6029 
 10.9966 
 
 11.3883 
 11.7810 
 12.1737 
 12.5664 
 
 12.9591 
 13.3518 
 13.7445 
 14.1372 
 
 14.5299 
 14.9226 
 15.3153 
 15.7080 
 
 16.1007 
 16.4934 
 16.8861 
 17.2788 
 
 17.6715 
 18.0642 
 18.4569 
 18.8496 
 
 19.6350 
 20.4204 
 21.2058 
 21.9912 
 
 23.5620 
 25.1328 
 
 .9316 
 
 .9970 
 
 1.0646 
 
 1.1342 
 
 1.2064 
 1.2806 
 1.3570 
 1.4357 
 
 1.5165 
 1.6669 
 1.6849 
 1.7724 
 
 1.9541 
 2.1446 
 2.3441 
 2.5549 
 
 2.7719 
 2.9954 
 3.2303 
 3.4740 
 
 3.7265 
 
 3.9880 
 4.2582 
 4.5374 
 
 4.8254 
 5.1223 
 5.4280 
 5.7426 
 
 6.0662 
 6j6276 
 6.7397 
 7.0897 
 
 7.4496 
 7.8164 
 8.1930 
 8.5786 
 
 8.9729 
 9.3762 
 9.7883 
 10.2192 
 
 11.0877 
 11.9817 
 12.9211 
 13.8960 
 
 15.9520 
 18.1497 
 
 Area 
 Square 
 Inches. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Per 
 
 Inch. 
 
 3.2852 
 3.5166 
 3.7539 
 4.0000 
 
 4.2539 
 4.5166 
 4.7852 
 5.0625 
 
 5.34T7 
 5.6406 
 5,9414 
 6.2600 
 
 6.8906 
 7.6625 
 8.2656 
 9.0000 
 
 9.7656 
 10.5625 
 11.3906 
 12.2500 
 
 13.1407 
 14.0625 
 15.0166 
 16.0000 
 
 17.0166 
 18.0625 
 19.1406 
 20.2600 
 
 21.3906 
 22.5625 
 23.7656 
 25.0000 
 
 26.2656 
 27.6624 
 28.8906 
 30.2600 
 
 31.6406 
 83.0625 
 34.5166 
 36XJ0OO 
 
 39.0625 
 42.2600 
 45.5625 
 49.0000 
 
 56.2500 
 64.0000 
 
 .8635 
 .9220 
 .9825 
 
 1.0448 
 1.1091 
 1.1753 
 1.2434 
 
 1.3135 
 
 1.3854 
 1.4593 
 1.5351 
 
 1.6924 
 1.8674 
 2.0304 
 2.2105 
 
 '2.3986 
 2.5918 
 2.79T7 
 3.0083 
 
 3.2275 
 3.4539 
 8.6880 
 3.9298 
 
 4.1792 
 4.4364 
 4.7011 
 4.9736 
 
 5.2538 
 5 5416 
 5.8371 
 6.1403 
 
 6.4511 
 
 6.7697 
 7.0959 
 7.4298 
 
 7.T713 
 8.1214 
 
 8.4774 
 8.8420 
 
 9.5943 
 10.3673 
 11.1908 
 12.0351 
 
 13.8158 
 15.7192 
 
 Are4 
 Square 
 Inches. 
 
 2.8460 
 3.044S 
 3.250{) 
 3.4573 
 
 3.6840 
 3.9106 
 4.1440 
 4.3892 
 
 4.6312 
 4.8849 
 5.1464 
 5.4126 
 
 5.9674 
 6.6493 
 7.1590 
 7.7941 
 
 8.457.'l 
 
 9.1387 
 
 9 8646 
 
 10.6089 
 
 11.3798 
 12.1785 
 13.0035 
 13 8292 
 
 14.7359 
 15 6424 
 16.5761 
 17.5569 
 
 18.6249 
 19.5397 
 20.5816 
 21.6503 
 
 22.7456 
 23.8696 
 25-0198 
 26.1971 
 
 27.4013 
 28.6361 
 29.8913 
 31.1765 
 
 33.8291 
 36.5547 
 39.4584 
 42.4354 
 
 48.7142 
 55.3169 
 
 Multiply above weights by .993 for wrought iron, .918 
 for cast iron, 1.0331 for cast brass, 1.1209 for copper, and 
 1. 1748 for phos. bronze. 
 
214 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 WEIGHT OF IRON AND STEEL SHEETS. 
 
 Weights per Square Foot. — Kent. 
 
 
 Thickness by 
 
 
 Thickness by 
 
 American 
 
 Birmingham Gauge 
 
 
 (Brown and Sharpe's) Gauge. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Thickness 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Thickness 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 Gauge. 
 
 in Inches. 
 
 
 
 Gauge. 
 
 in Inches. 
 
 
 
 0000 
 
 .454 
 
 18.16 
 
 18.52 
 
 0000 
 
 .46 
 
 18.40 
 
 18.77 
 
 000 
 
 .425 
 
 17.00 
 
 17.34 
 
 000 
 
 .4096 
 
 16.38 
 
 16:71 
 
 00 
 
 .38 
 
 15o20 
 
 15.50 
 
 00 
 
 .3648 
 
 14.59 
 
 14.88 
 
 
 
 .34 
 
 13.60 
 
 13.87 
 
 
 
 .3249 
 
 13.00 
 
 13.26 
 
 1 
 
 .3 
 
 12.00 
 
 12.24 
 
 1 
 
 .2893 
 
 11.57 
 
 11.80 
 
 2 
 
 .284 
 
 11.36 
 
 11.59 
 
 2 
 
 .2576 
 
 10.30 
 
 10.51 
 
 3 
 
 .259 
 
 10.36 
 
 10.57 
 
 3 
 
 .2294 
 
 9.18 
 
 9.36 
 
 4 
 
 .238 
 
 9.52 
 
 9.71 
 
 4 
 
 .2043 
 
 8.17 
 
 8.34 
 
 5 
 
 .22 
 
 8.80 
 
 8.98 
 
 5 
 
 .1819 
 
 7.28 
 
 7.42 
 
 6 
 
 .203 
 
 8.12 
 
 8.28 
 
 6 
 
 .1620 
 
 6.48 
 
 6.61 
 
 7 
 
 .18 . 
 
 7.20 
 
 7.84 
 
 7 
 
 .1443 
 
 5.77 
 
 5.89 
 
 8 
 
 .165 
 
 6.60 
 
 6.73 
 
 8 
 
 .1285 
 
 5.14 
 
 5.24 
 
 9 
 
 .148 
 
 5.92 
 
 6.04 
 
 9 
 
 .1144 
 
 4.58 
 
 4.67 
 
 10 
 
 .134 
 
 5.36 
 
 5.47 
 
 10 
 
 .1019 
 
 4.08 
 
 4.16 
 
 11 
 
 .12 
 
 4.80 
 
 4.90 
 
 11 
 
 .0907 
 
 3.63 
 
 3.70 
 
 12 
 
 .109 
 
 4.36 
 
 4.45 
 
 12 
 
 .0808 
 
 3,23 
 
 3.30 
 
 13 
 
 .095 
 
 3.80 
 
 3.88 
 
 13 
 
 .0720 
 
 2.88 
 
 2.94 
 
 14 
 
 .083 
 
 3.32 
 
 3.39 
 
 14 
 
 .0641 
 
 2.56 
 
 2.62 
 
 15 
 
 .072 
 
 2.88 
 
 2.94 
 
 15 
 
 .0571 
 
 2.28 
 
 2.33 
 
 16 
 
 .065 
 
 2.60 
 
 2.65 
 
 16 
 
 .0508 
 
 2.03 
 
 2.<]i7 
 
 17 
 
 .058 
 
 2.32 
 
 2.37 
 
 17 
 
 .0453 
 
 1.81 
 
 1.85 
 
 18 
 
 .049 
 
 1.96 
 
 2.00 
 
 18 
 
 .0403 
 
 1.61 
 
 1.64 
 
 19 
 
 .042 
 
 1.68 
 
 1.71 
 
 19 
 
 .0359 
 
 1.44 
 
 1.46 
 
 20 
 
 .035 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.43 
 
 20 
 
 .0320 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.31 
 
 21 
 
 .032 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.31 
 
 21 
 
 .0285 
 
 1.14 
 
 1.16 
 
 22 
 
 .028 
 
 1.12 
 
 1.14 
 
 22 
 
 .0253 
 
 1.01 
 
 1.03 
 
 23 
 
 .025 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.02 
 
 23 
 
 .0226 
 
 .904 
 
 .922 
 
 24 
 
 .022 
 
 .88 
 
 .898 
 
 24 
 
 .0201 
 
 .804 
 
 .820 
 
 25 
 
 .02 
 
 .80 
 
 .816 
 
 25 
 
 .0179 
 
 .716 
 
 .730 
 
 26 
 
 .018 
 
 .72 
 
 -734 
 
 26 
 
 .0159 
 
 .636 
 
 .649 
 
 27 
 
 .016 
 
 .64 
 
 .653 
 
 27 
 
 .0142 
 
 .568 
 
 .579 
 
 28 
 
 .014 
 
 . .56 
 
 .571 
 
 28 
 
 .0126 
 
 .504 
 
 .514 
 
 29 
 
 .013 
 
 .52 
 
 .530 
 
 29 
 
 .0113 
 
 .452 
 
 .461 
 
 30 
 
 .012 
 
 .48 
 
 .490 
 
 30 
 
 .0100 
 
 .400 
 
 .408 
 
 31 
 
 .01 
 
 .40 
 
 .408 
 
 31 
 
 .0089 
 
 .356 
 
 .363 
 
 32 
 
 .009 
 
 .36 
 
 .367 
 
 32 
 
 .0080 
 
 .320 
 
 .326 
 
 33 
 
 .008 
 
 .32 
 
 .326 
 
 33 
 
 .0071 
 
 .284 
 
 .290 
 
 34 
 
 .007 
 
 .28 
 
 .286 
 
 34 
 
 .0063 
 
 .252 
 
 .257 
 
 35 
 
 .005 
 
 .20 
 
 .204 
 
 35 
 
 .0056 
 
 .224 
 
 .228 
 
 Iron. Steel 
 
 Specific gravity y.y 7-854 
 
 Weight per cubic foot 480. 489.6 
 
 Weight per cubic inch 2778 .2833 
 
 As there are many gauges in use differing from each 
 other, and even the thicknesses of a certain specified 
 gauge, as the Birmingham, are not assum.ed the same by 
 all manufacturers, orders for sheets and wires should al- 
 ways state the weights per square foot, or the thickness 
 in thousandths of an inch. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 
 
 215 
 
 WEIGHTS OF SQUARE AND ROUND EARS OF WROUGHT IRON IN 
 POUNDS PER LINEAL FOOT. — Kent. 
 
 Iron weighing 480 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 For steel add 2 per cent. 
 
 , Thickness 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Thickness 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Weight of 
 
 •or Diameter 
 
 Square Bar 
 
 Round Bar 
 
 or Diameter 
 
 Square Bar 
 
 Round Bgr 
 
 in 
 
 One Fpot 
 
 One Foot 
 
 in 
 
 One Foot 
 
 One Fottt 
 
 Inches 
 
 long. 
 
 Long. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Long. 
 
 Loo|. 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 11-16 
 
 24.08 
 
 18.91' 
 
 1 16 
 
 .013 
 
 .010 
 
 3-4 
 
 25.21 
 
 19.80 
 
 1-9 
 
 .052 
 
 .041 
 
 13:16 
 
 26.37 
 
 20.71 
 
 3 16' 
 
 .117 
 
 .092 
 
 7-8 
 
 27.55 
 
 -21.64 
 
 1-4 
 
 .208 
 
 .164 
 
 15-16 
 
 28.76 
 
 2^.5» 
 
 5-16 
 
 .326 
 
 .256 
 
 8 
 
 30.0a 
 
 23.56 
 
 3 8 
 
 .469 
 
 .368 
 
 1.16 
 
 31,26 
 
 24.55 
 
 7-16 
 
 .638 
 
 .501 
 
 1^ 
 
 32.55 
 
 25.5? 
 
 1-2 
 
 .833 
 
 .654 
 
 3-16 
 
 33.87 
 
 26.60 
 
 9-16 
 
 1.055 
 
 .828 
 
 14 
 
 35.21 
 
 27.65 
 
 5-8 
 
 1.302 
 
 1.023 
 
 5-16 
 
 36.58 
 
 28.78 
 
 1116 
 
 1.576 
 
 1.237 
 
 3-8 
 
 37.97 
 
 29.82. 
 
 3-4 
 
 1.875 
 
 1.473 
 
 7-16 
 
 89.39 
 
 80.94 
 
 13-16 
 
 2.201 
 
 1.728 
 
 1.2 
 
 40.83 
 
 32.07 
 
 7-8 
 
 2.552 
 
 2.004 
 
 9-16 
 
 42.30 
 
 33.23 
 
 15-16 
 
 2.930 
 
 2.301 
 
 6-8 
 
 43.80 
 
 34 40 
 
 1 
 
 8.333 
 
 2.618 
 
 11-16 
 
 45.33 
 
 35.60 
 
 1.16 
 
 3.763 
 
 2.955 
 
 3-4 
 
 46.88 
 
 36.8a 
 
 1-8 
 
 4.219 
 
 3.313 
 
 13-16 
 
 48.45 
 
 38.05 
 
 3-16 
 
 4.701 
 
 3.692 
 
 7-8 
 
 60.05 
 
 39.31 
 
 1-4 
 
 5.208 
 
 4.091 
 
 15-16 
 
 51.68 
 
 40.59 
 
 5-16 
 
 5.742 
 
 4.510 
 
 4 
 
 53.33 
 
 41.89 
 
 3-8 
 
 6.302 
 
 4.950 
 
 1-16 
 
 65.01 
 
 43.21 
 
 7-16 
 
 6.888 
 
 5.410 ' 
 
 1-8 
 
 56.72 
 
 44.55 
 
 12 
 
 7.600 
 
 6.890 
 
 3-16 
 
 68.45 
 
 45.91 
 
 9-16 
 
 8.138 
 
 6.392 
 
 8-16 
 
 60.21 
 
 47.29 
 
 5-8 
 
 8.802 
 
 6.913 
 
 61.99 
 
 48.69 
 
 11-16 
 
 9.492 
 
 7.455 
 
 3-8 
 
 63.80 
 
 50.11 
 
 3.4 
 
 10.21 
 
 8.018 
 
 7-16 
 
 65.64 
 
 51.55 
 
 13-16 
 
 10.95 
 
 8.601 
 
 1-2 
 
 67.6P 
 
 53.01 
 
 7-8 
 
 11.72 
 
 9.204 
 
 9-16 
 
 69.39 
 
 64.50 
 
 15-16 
 
 12.51 
 
 9.828 
 
 6-8 
 
 71.30 
 
 66.00 
 
 2 
 
 13.33 
 
 10.47 
 
 11-16 
 
 73.24 
 
 57.52 
 
 116 
 
 14.18 
 
 11.14 
 
 8-4 
 
 75.21 
 
 69.07 
 
 1-8 
 
 15.05 
 
 11.82 
 
 13-16 
 
 77.20 
 
 60.63 
 
 3-16 
 
 15.95 
 
 12.53 
 
 7.8 
 
 79.22 
 
 62.22 
 
 14 
 
 16.88 
 
 13.25 
 
 15.16 
 
 81.26 
 
 63.82 
 
 6-16 
 
 17.83 
 
 14.00 
 
 5 
 
 83.33 
 
 65.45 
 
 3-g 
 
 18.80 
 
 14.77 
 
 1.16 
 
 85.43 
 
 67.10 
 
 7 16 
 
 19.80 
 
 15.55 
 
 1.8 
 
 87.55 
 
 68.76 
 
 12 
 
 20.83 
 
 16.36 
 
 3-16 
 
 89.70 
 
 70.45 
 
 i»-16 
 
 21.89 
 
 17.19 
 
 14 
 
 91.88 
 
 72.16' 
 
 5-8 
 
 22.97 
 
 18.04 
 
 6-16 
 
 94.08 
 
 ^3.89 
 
2l6 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 WEIGHTS OF SQUARE AND ROUND BARS OF WROUGHT IRON IN 
 POUNDS PER LINEAL FOOT. — Kent. 
 
 Iron weighing 480 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 For steel add 2 per cent. 
 
 Thickness 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Weight Of 
 
 Thickness 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Weight of 
 
 ^r Diameter 
 in Inches. 
 
 Square Bar 
 
 Round Bar 
 
 or Diameter 
 in Inches. 
 
 Square Bar 
 
 Round Bar 
 
 One Foot 
 liOng. 
 
 One Foot 
 Long. 
 
 One Foot- 
 Long. 
 
 One Foot 
 Long. 
 
 6 3-8 
 
 96.30 
 
 75.64 
 
 7 1-2 
 
 187.5 
 
 147.3 
 
 7-16 
 
 98..'>5 
 
 77.40 
 
 5-8 
 
 193.8 
 
 152.2 
 
 1-2 
 
 100.8 
 
 79.19 
 
 3-4 
 
 200.2 
 
 157.2 
 
 9-16 
 
 103.1 
 
 81.00 
 
 7-8 
 
 206.7 
 
 162.4 
 
 5-8 
 
 105.5 
 
 82.83 
 
 8 
 
 213.3 
 
 167.6 
 
 11-16 
 
 107.8 
 
 84.69 
 
 1-4 
 
 226.9 
 
 178.2 
 
 3-4 
 
 110.2 
 
 86.56 
 
 1-2 
 
 240.8 
 
 189.2 
 
 13-16 
 
 112:6 
 
 88.45 
 
 3-4 
 
 - 255.2 
 
 200.4 
 
 7-8 
 
 115.1 
 
 90.36 
 
 9 
 
 270.0 
 
 212.1 
 
 . 15-16 
 
 117.5 
 
 92.29 
 
 1-4 
 
 585.2 
 
 224.0 
 
 6 
 
 120.0 
 
 94.25 
 
 1-2 
 
 300.8 
 
 236.3 
 
 1-8 
 
 125.1 
 
 98.22' 
 
 3-4 
 
 316.9 
 
 248.9 
 
 !4 
 
 180.2 
 
 102.3 
 
 10 
 
 333.3 
 
 261.8 
 
 3-8 
 
 135.5 
 
 106.4 
 
 1-4 
 
 350.2 
 
 275.1 
 
 1-2 
 
 140.8 
 
 110.6 
 
 1-2 
 
 367.5 
 
 288.6 
 
 5-8 
 
 146.3 
 
 114.9 
 
 3-4 
 
 385.2 
 
 302.5 
 
 3-4 
 
 151.9 
 
 119.3 
 
 11 
 
 403.3 
 
 316.8 
 
 7-8 
 
 157.6 
 
 123,7 
 
 1-4 
 
 421.9 
 
 331.3 
 
 7 
 
 163.3 
 
 i2&S 
 
 1-3 
 
 440.8 
 
 346.3 
 
 1-8 
 
 169.2 
 
 132.9 
 
 34 
 
 460.2 
 
 361.4 
 
 1-4 
 
 175.2 
 
 137.6 
 
 12 
 
 480. 
 
 377. 
 
 3-8 
 
 181.3 
 
 142.4 
 
 
 
 
 To compute the Weight of Sheet Steel : 
 Divide the thickness, expressed in thousandths, by 25; 
 the result is the weight, in pounds, per square foot. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 21/ 
 
 UNITED STATES WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 Measures of Length. 
 
 12 inches i foot. 
 
 3 feet I yard. 
 
 5J^ yards or i6^ feet i rod. 
 
 40 rods or 220 yards i furlong. 
 
 8 furlongs, or 1760 yds., or 5,280 ft. i mile. 
 
 Measures of Surface. 
 
 144 square inches i square foot. 
 
 9 square feet i square yard. 
 
 3034 sq. yds., or 272^ sq. ft..i square rod. 
 
 160 sq. rods, or 4840 sq. yards i acre. 
 
 640 acres i square mile. 
 
 Measures of Volume. 
 
 1728 cubic inches i cubic foot. 
 
 27 cubic feet i cubic yard. 
 
 128 cubic feet i cord wood. 
 
 Measures of Weight. 
 
 Commercial. 
 
 43754 grains (Troy) i ounce Avoirdupois. 
 
 16 ounces or 7000 grains .... i pound (lb.) Avoirdupois. 
 
 100 pounds I hundredweight (cwt.) 
 
 20 hundredweight or 2000 lbs i net ton. 
 2240 pounds I gross ton. 
 
2l8 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 TAP DRILLS FOR MACHINE SCREW TAPS. 
 
 These drills will give a thread full enough for all prac- 
 tical purposes, but not a full thread. 
 
 Sizes of 
 
 No. of 
 
 Sizes ot 
 
 Sizes of 
 
 No. oP 
 
 Sizes of 
 
 Taps 
 
 Threads ' 
 
 Drills 
 
 Taps 
 
 Threads 
 
 Drills 
 
 2 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 56 
 
 46 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 •7 
 
 i 
 
 64 
 
 45 
 
 13 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 48 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 56 
 
 45 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 32 
 
 45 
 
 '5 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 36 
 
 43 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 4 1 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 '5 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 5 1 
 
 30 
 
 41 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 32 
 
 ' 40 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 36 
 
 38 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 
 40 
 
 36 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 39 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 32 
 
 37 
 
 •7 
 
 i8 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 33 
 
 .18 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 7 
 
 30 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 18 
 
 J9 
 
 20 
 16 
 
 B 
 C 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 31 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 D 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 E 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 : 29 
 
 1 20 
 
 16 
 
 E 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 1 20 
 
 18 
 
 E 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 1 27 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 F 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 18 
 
 H 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 32 
 
 24 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 24 
 
 14 
 
 K 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 L 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 M 
 
 10 
 
 32 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 16 
 
 P 
 
 1 1 
 
 28 
 
 J9 
 
 28 
 
 14 
 
 R 
 
 II 
 
 30 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 16 
 
 S 
 T 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 30 
 
 '14 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 . ^ 
 
 SIZE OF DRILLS FOR STANDARD PIPE TAPS. 
 
 Nom'l 
 
 Threads 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Nom'l 
 
 Threads 
 
 Diam 
 
 Nom'l 
 
 Threads 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 per inch 
 
 of Drill 
 
 Diam. 
 
 per iach 
 
 of Drill 
 
 Diam. 
 3 
 
 per inch 
 
 8 
 
 of Urill 
 
 H 
 
 27 
 
 U 
 
 1 
 
 n^ 
 
 lA 
 
 3M 
 
 m 
 
 a 
 
 18 
 
 U 
 
 m 
 
 im 
 
 U§ 
 
 3>^ 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 M 
 
 l\4 
 
 im 
 
 115 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 m 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 iij^ 
 
 3th 
 
 4)^ 
 
 8 
 
 4M 
 
 H 
 
 14 
 
 H 
 
 3^ 
 
 8 
 
 'iVa 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 5A 
 
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 
 
 219 
 
 DIFFERENT STANDARDS FOR WIRE GAGE IN USE IN THE UNITED 
 STATES. 
 
 , Dimensions of Sizes in Decimal Parts of an Inch 
 
 , bo 
 
 p^ 
 
 
 «5H 
 
 0) 
 
 v 
 
 a to 
 
 tt-i to 
 
 io 
 
 . 3 
 is 
 
 IPs. 
 
 
 Mb 
 
 OS S *- 
 
 to 
 
 
 GQ U 
 
 ll 
 
 is 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 (5- ^ 
 
 ^°3 
 
 ?5^ 
 
 "^^ 
 
 CO 
 
 p'*" 
 
 ^^ 
 
 000000 
 
 
 
 .464 
 
 
 .46875 
 
 000000 
 
 00000 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 .432 
 
 
 A3l5 
 
 00000 
 
 0000 
 
 .46 
 
 .454 
 
 .3938 
 
 .400 
 
 .... 
 
 .40625 
 
 0000 
 
 000 
 
 .40964 
 
 .425 
 
 .3625 
 
 .372 
 
 
 .375 
 
 000 
 
 00 
 
 .3648 
 
 .38 
 
 .3310 
 
 .343 
 
 
 .34375 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 .32486 
 
 .34 
 
 .3065 
 
 .324 
 
 .... 
 
 .3125 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 .2893 
 
 .3 
 
 .2830 
 
 .300 
 
 .227 
 
 .28125 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 .25763 
 
 .284 
 
 .2625 
 
 .276 
 
 .219 
 
 .265625 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 .22942 
 
 .259 
 
 .2437 
 
 .252 
 
 .212 
 
 .25 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 .20431 
 
 .288 
 
 .2253 
 
 .232 
 
 .207 
 
 .234375 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 .18194 
 
 .82 
 
 .2070 
 
 .212 
 
 .204 
 
 .21875 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 16202 
 
 .203 
 
 .1920 
 
 .192 
 
 .201 
 
 .2031^ 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 .14428 
 
 .18 
 
 .1770 
 
 .176 
 
 .199 
 
 .1875 ■ 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 12849 
 
 .165 
 
 .1620 
 
 .160 
 
 .197 
 
 .171875 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 .11443 
 
 .148 
 
 .1483 
 
 .144 
 
 .194 
 
 .15625 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 .10189 
 
 .134 
 
 .1350 
 
 .128 
 
 .191 
 
 .140625 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 090742 
 
 .12 
 
 .1205 
 
 .116 
 
 .188 
 
 .125 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 '08O8O8 
 
 .109 
 
 .1055 
 
 104 
 
 .185 
 
 .109375 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 071961 
 
 .093 
 
 .0915 
 
 .092 
 
 ;182 
 
 .09375 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 .064084 
 
 .083 
 
 .0800 
 
 .080 
 
 .180 
 
 .078125 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 .057068 
 
 ,072 
 
 .0720 
 
 .072 
 
 .178 
 
 .0708125 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 05082 
 
 .065 
 
 .0625 
 
 .064 
 
 .175 
 
 .0625 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 .045257 
 
 .058 
 
 .0540 
 
 .056 
 
 .172 
 
 .05625 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 .040^3 
 
 .049 
 
 .0475 
 
 .048 
 
 .168 
 
 .05 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 .03589 
 
 .042 
 
 .0410 
 
 .OiO 
 
 .164 
 
 .04375 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 031961 
 
 .035 
 
 •0348 
 
 .036 
 
 .161 
 
 .0375 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 .028462 
 
 ,032 
 
 .03175 
 
 .032 
 
 .157 
 
 .034375 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 .025347 
 
 .028 
 
 .0286 
 
 .028 
 
 .155 
 
 .03125 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 022571 
 
 .025 
 
 .0258 
 
 .024 
 
 .153 
 
 028125 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 0201 
 
 .022 
 
 .0230 
 
 .022 
 
 .151 
 
 .025 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 0179 
 
 .02 
 
 .0204 
 
 .020 
 
 .148 
 
 .021875 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 .01594 
 
 .018 
 
 .0181 
 
 .018 
 
 .146 
 
 .01875 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 .014195 
 
 .016 
 
 .0173 
 
 .0164 
 
 .143 
 
 ,0171876 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 .012641 
 
 .014 
 
 .0162 
 
 .0149 
 
 .139 
 
 .015625 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 .011257 
 
 .013 
 
 .0160 
 
 .0136 
 
 .134 
 
 .0140625 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 .010025 
 
 .012 
 
 .0140 
 
 .0124 
 
 .127 
 
 .0125 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 .008928 
 
 .01 
 
 .0132 
 
 .0116 
 
 .120 
 
 .0109375 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 00795 
 
 .009 
 
 .0128 
 
 .0108 
 
 .115 
 
 .01015625 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 '00708 
 
 .008 
 
 .0118 
 
 .0100 
 
 .112 
 
 ,009375 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 .006304 
 
 .007 
 
 .0104 
 
 .0092 
 
 .110 
 
 .00859375 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 005614 
 
 .005 
 
 .0095 
 
 .0084 
 
 .108 
 
 .0078125 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 ;005 
 
 .004 
 
 .0090 
 
 .0076 
 
 .106 
 
 .00703125 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 .004453 
 
 
 .... 
 
 .0068 
 
 .103 
 
 .006640625 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 .003965 
 
 
 
 .0060 
 
 .101 
 
 .00625 
 
 38 
 
 89 
 
 .003531 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 .0052 
 
 .099 
 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 .003144 
 
 
 
 
 .0'>48 
 
 .097 
 
 
 40 
 
220 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 U. S. STANDARD SCREW THREADS. 
 
 Diameter 
 of Screw. 
 
 Threads to 
 Inch. 
 
 IJiameter at Root 
 of Thread. 
 
 Width of 
 Flat. 
 
 % 
 
 20 
 
 .185 
 
 .0063 
 
 A 
 
 18 
 
 .2403 
 
 .0069 
 
 Vz 
 
 16 
 
 .2936 
 
 .0078 
 
 ^ 
 
 14 
 
 .3447 
 
 .0089 
 
 Vz 
 
 13 
 
 .4001 
 
 .0096 
 
 tV 
 
 12 
 
 .4542 
 
 .0104 
 
 ^ 
 
 11 
 
 .5069 
 
 .0114 
 
 K 
 
 10 
 
 .6201 
 
 .0125 
 
 ^ 
 
 9 
 
 .7307 
 
 .013^ 
 
 
 8 
 
 .8376 
 
 .0156 
 
 1/8 
 
 7 
 
 .9394 
 
 .0179 
 
 1^ 
 
 7 
 
 1.0644 
 
 .0179 
 
 13/8 
 
 6 
 
 1 . 1585 
 
 .0208 
 
 1/ 
 
 6 
 
 1.2835 
 
 .0208 
 
 \% 
 
 hVz 
 
 1.3888 
 
 .0227 
 
 m 
 
 5 
 
 1.4902 
 
 .0250 
 
 1/8 
 
 5 
 
 1.6152 
 
 .0250 
 
 2 
 
 4>^ 
 
 1.7113 
 
 .0278 
 
 23^ 
 
 4/2 
 
 1.9613 
 
 .0278 
 
 2/2 
 
 4 
 
 2.1752 
 
 0313 
 
 234: 
 
 4 
 
 2.4252 
 
 .0313 
 
 3 
 
 3>^ 
 
 2.6288 
 
 .^357 
 
 3^ 
 
 3J4 
 
 2.8788 
 
 .0357 
 
 3>^ 
 
 3X 
 
 3a003 
 
 .0385 
 
 su 
 
 3 
 
 3.3170 
 
 .0417 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 .3.5670 
 
 .0417 
 
 4^ 
 
 2% 
 
 3.7982 
 
 .0435 
 
 4>^ 
 
 2^ 
 
 4.0276 
 
 .0455 
 
 434: 
 
 2>^ 
 
 4,2551 
 
 .0476 
 
 5 
 
 2>^ 
 
 4.4804 
 
 .0500 
 
 5X 
 
 2^ 
 
 4.7304 
 
 .0500 
 
 hVz 
 
 23/8 
 
 4.9530 
 
 .0526 
 
 5% 
 
 23/8 
 
 5.2030 
 
 .0526. 
 
 6 
 
 2^ 
 
 5.4226 
 
 .0556 
 
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 
 
 221 
 
 SHARP " V " THREAD. 
 
 Formula : 
 
 p = pitch = 
 
 1 
 
 No. threads per inch 
 d = depth r=p X.8660. 
 
 I^iameter H ^^ % t\ M x\ % H % H 
 
 No. Threads per inch . 20 18 16 14 12 13 11 11 10 10 
 
 Diameter y^ H 1 ^Vs i'4 Ws 1^ ^% IM 1% 
 
 No. Threads per inch. 998776655 4i^ 
 
 Diameter 2 2i^ 2i^ 2% 23^ 2% 2% 2%, 3 2,}^ 
 
 No. Threads per inch. 4>^ 4^ 4>^ 43^ 4 4 4 4 ^% 3}4 
 
 Diameter d}4 3% %% 3% 3% 3% 4 
 
 ISTo. Threads per inch . 3^4 3)4 3}i 3}i 3 3 3 
 
 UNITED STATES STANDARD THREAD. 
 
 Formula : j 
 
 p = pitch = 
 
 No threads per inch 
 
 d — depth —pX .6495. 
 
 /=flat = 
 
 P 
 
 Diameter . , . . 
 No. Threads per inch 
 Diameter .... 
 No. Threads per inch 
 Diameter .... 
 No. Threads per inch 
 Diameter . . . . 
 No. Threads per inch 
 
 1 1% lu 1% 1% \% \% i: 
 
 8 7 7 6 6 51^ 5 
 
 /4 1^ 78 TS 72 TS /& A: /8 
 
 20 18 16 14 13 12 11 10 9 
 
 2 
 
 5 4% 
 
 2% 2M 2% 2% 2% 2% 2;g 3 3^4 
 
 41^ 41^ 4 4 4 4 3}4 3% 3% 
 3^4 3% 3K ?>% 3X ^% 4 
 3K 31^ 3)^ 3M 3 3 3 
 
 Diameter .... 
 No. Threads per inch 
 Diameter .... 
 No. Threads per inch 
 Diameter .... 
 No. Threads per inch 
 Diameter .... 
 No. Threads per inch 
 
 /4 
 20 
 
 "WHITWORTH STANDARD THREAD. 
 
 Formula : ^ 
 
 p — pitch = 
 
 No. threads per inch 
 
 d = depth =_px. 64033. 
 
 r = radius —pX .1373. 
 
 36 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 /4 
 10 
 
 Vs A y2 A % 
 
 16 14 12 12 11 
 
 'A II 1 m 1^ iM 1)^ 1% th ^Ji 
 
 998776655 4)^ 
 
 2 21/ 2M 2% 2}i 2% 2% 2% 3 3}^ 
 
 4:}4 4'4 4 4 4 4 31^ 3K 31^33^ 
 
 314 3% 3K 3% 3% 3% 4 
 
 3% 31^ 334 3)i 3 3 3 
 
222 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 THE ACME STANDARD THREAD. 
 
 The Acme Standard Thread is an adaptation of the most 
 commonly used style of Worm Thread and is intended 
 to take the place of the square thread. 
 
 It is a little shallower than the Worm Thread, but the 
 same depth as the square thread and much stronger than 
 the latter. 
 
 The various parts of the Acme Standard Thread are 
 obtained as follows : 
 
 Width of Point of tool for Screw or Tap Thread 
 
 •3707 
 
 = .0052 
 
 No. of Thds. per in. 
 
 Width of Screw or Nut Thread^ 
 
 ■3707 
 
 No. of Thds. per in 
 Diameter of Tap = Diameter of Screw + .020. 
 Diameter of Tap or Screw at Root = 
 
 Diameter of Screw — | + .020 
 
 No. of Linear Thds. per in. 
 I 
 
 Depth of thread = 
 
 + .010 
 
 2 X No. of Thds. per in. 
 
 TABLE OF THREAD PARTS. 
 
 No. Of 
 
 Depth 
 
 "Width at 
 
 Width at 
 
 Space at 
 
 Thickness 
 
 Threads 
 
 of 
 
 Top of 
 
 Bottom of 
 
 Top of 
 
 at Root of 
 
 per inch. 
 
 Thread. 
 
 Thread. 
 
 Thread. 
 
 Thread. 
 
 Thread. 
 
 1 
 
 .5100 
 
 .3707 
 
 .3655 
 
 .6293 
 
 .6345 
 
 1^^ 
 
 .3850 
 
 .2780 
 
 .2728 
 
 .4720 
 
 .4772 
 
 2 
 
 .2600 
 
 .18o3 
 
 .1801 
 
 .3147 
 
 .3199 
 
 3 
 
 .1767 
 
 .1235 
 
 .1183 
 
 .2098 
 
 .2150 
 
 4 
 
 .1350 
 
 .0927 
 
 .0875 
 
 .15^3 
 
 .1625 
 
 5 
 
 .1100 
 
 .0741 
 
 .0689 
 
 .1259 
 
 .1311 
 
 6 
 
 .0933 
 
 .0618 
 
 .0566 
 
 .1049 
 
 .1101 
 
 7 
 
 .0814 
 
 .0529 
 
 .0478 
 
 .0899 
 
 .0951 
 
 8 
 
 .0725 
 
 .0463 
 
 .0411 
 
 .0787 
 
 .0839 
 
 9 
 
 .0655 
 
 .0413 
 
 .0361 
 
 .0699 
 
 .0751 
 
 10 
 
 .0600 
 
 .0371 
 
 .0319 
 
 .0629 
 
 .0681 
 
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS^ TABLES, ETC. 
 
 223 
 
 AVERAGE CUTTING SPEED FOR DRILLS. 
 
 The following table represents the most approved prac- 
 tice in rate of cutting speed for drills ranging from 1-16 
 inch to 3 inches in diameter. 
 
 Diam. of 
 
 Speed on 
 
 Speed on 
 
 Diam. of 
 
 Speed on 
 
 Speed on 
 
 Drills 
 
 C. Iron 
 
 Steel 
 
 Drills 
 
 C. Iron 
 
 Steel 
 
 1 
 
 2,289 
 
 1,704 
 
 h% 
 
 71 
 
 46 
 
 % 
 
 1,134 
 
 840 
 
 ^% 
 
 67 
 
 43 
 
 A 
 
 749 
 
 553 
 
 lii 
 
 64 
 
 41 
 
 J€ 
 
 556 
 
 409 
 
 1^ 
 
 61 
 
 39 
 
 h 
 
 441 
 
 322 
 
 m 
 
 58 
 
 37 
 
 % 
 
 363 
 
 265 
 
 m 
 
 56 
 
 35 
 
 7 
 
 T6 
 
 309 
 
 224 
 
 nt 
 
 53 
 
 33 
 
 H 
 
 267 
 
 193 
 
 2 
 
 51 
 
 31 
 
 9 
 
 235 
 
 169 
 
 2A 
 
 49 
 
 29 
 
 % 
 
 210 
 
 150 
 
 2^ 
 
 47 
 
 28 
 
 \\ 
 
 189 
 
 134 
 
 2A 
 
 45 
 
 26 
 
 % 
 
 171 
 
 121 
 
 2k 
 
 43 
 
 25 
 
 if 
 
 156 
 
 110 
 
 2A 
 
 41 
 
 24 
 
 % 
 
 144 
 
 100 
 
 2% 
 
 39 
 
 23 
 
 IS 
 
 133 
 
 93 
 
 2t^6- 
 
 38 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 123 
 
 85 
 
 2>^ 
 
 36 
 
 20 
 
 ItV 
 
 114 
 
 79 
 
 2A 
 
 35 
 
 19 
 
 m 
 
 107 
 
 73 
 
 2.5^ 
 
 34 
 
 18 
 
 i\ 
 
 100 
 
 P8 
 
 2U 
 
 32 
 
 17 
 
 IX 
 
 94 
 
 63 
 
 2^ 
 
 31 
 
 16 
 
 lA 
 
 89 
 
 59 
 
 2H 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 1% 
 
 83 
 
 56 
 
 2^ 
 
 29 
 
 15 
 
 1^ 
 
 79 
 
 52 
 
 91B 
 
 28 
 
 14 
 
 ^H 
 
 75 
 
 49 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 13 
 
i224 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 TABLE OF CUTTING SPEEDS. 
 
 Feet ^ 
 Minute. 
 
 5^ 
 
 10^ 
 
 15' 
 
 20^ 
 
 25^ 
 
 3O'' 
 
 35^ 
 
 40/ 
 
 45' 
 
 50/ 
 
 Di.-\m. 
 
 REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE. 
 
 
 38.2 
 
 76.4 
 
 114 6 
 
 152.9 
 
 191.1 
 
 229.3 
 
 267.5 
 
 305-7 
 
 344.0 
 
 382.2 
 
 30.6 
 
 61.2 
 
 91.8 
 
 122.5 
 
 153- 1 
 
 183.7 
 
 214.3 
 
 244.9 
 
 275.5 
 
 306.1 
 
 6 
 
 25-4 
 
 50.8 
 
 76.3 
 
 101.7 
 
 127.1 
 
 '52-5 
 
 178.0 
 
 203.4 
 
 228.8 
 
 254.2 
 
 % 
 
 21.8 
 
 43-6 
 
 65-5 
 
 87.3 
 
 109. 1 
 
 130.9 
 
 152.7 
 
 174.5 
 
 196.3 
 
 218.9 
 
 I 
 
 19.1 
 
 38.2 
 
 57-3 
 
 76.4 
 
 95- 5' 
 
 1 14.6 
 
 133.8 
 
 152.9 
 
 172.0- 
 
 191.1 
 
 
 17.Q 
 
 34- 
 
 51.0 
 
 68.0 
 
 85.6 
 
 102.0 
 
 119.0 
 
 136.0 
 
 153.0 
 
 170.0 
 
 >5-3 
 
 30.6 
 
 45.8 
 
 • 61.2 
 
 76.3 
 
 91.8 
 
 106.9 
 
 122.5 
 
 137.4 
 
 153.1 
 
 1% 
 
 13.9 
 
 27.8 
 
 41.7 
 
 55-6 
 
 69.5 
 
 83.3 
 
 97.2 
 
 III. I 
 
 125.0 
 
 138.9 
 
 12.7 
 
 25.4 
 
 38.2 
 
 50.8 
 
 63.7 
 
 76-3 
 
 89.2 . 
 
 101.7 
 
 114.6 
 
 127.1 
 
 ]¥ 
 
 11. 8 
 
 23-5 
 
 3S-0 
 
 47.0 
 
 58.8 
 
 70-5 
 
 82.2 
 
 93-9 
 
 105.7 
 
 117.4 
 
 v4, 
 
 IQ.9 
 
 21.8 
 
 32.7 
 
 43.6 
 
 54-5 
 
 65-5 
 
 76.4 
 
 ^3 
 
 98.2 
 
 Tog. t 
 
 10.2 
 
 20.4 
 
 3P-6 
 
 40.7 
 
 50.9 
 
 61.1 
 
 71.3 
 
 81.5 
 
 91.9 
 
 101.^ 
 
 2 
 
 9.6 
 
 19.1 
 
 as. 7 
 
 38.2 
 
 47.8 
 
 57-3 
 
 66.9 
 
 76.4 
 
 86.0 
 
 95.5 
 
 2'4 
 
 8.5 
 
 17,0 
 
 25-4 
 
 34-0 
 
 42.4 
 
 51.0 
 
 59-4 
 
 68.0 
 
 76.2 
 
 85.0 
 
 
 7.6 
 
 J5-3 
 
 22.9 
 
 30.6 
 
 38.2 
 
 45-8 
 
 53-5 
 
 61.2 
 
 68.8 
 
 76.3 
 
 6.9 
 
 13 9 
 
 20.8 
 
 27.8 
 
 34-7 
 
 41.7 
 
 48.6 
 
 55-6 
 
 62.5 
 
 69.5 
 
 3,, 
 
 6.4 
 
 12.7 
 
 iq. I 
 
 25.5 
 
 31.8 
 
 38.2 
 
 44.6 
 
 51.0 
 
 57-3 
 
 63.7 
 
 3^1^ 
 
 5-5 
 
 10.9 
 
 16.4 
 
 21.8 
 
 27.^ 
 
 327 
 
 38.2 
 
 43-6 
 
 49.1 
 
 54-5 
 
 4. 
 
 4.8 
 
 9.6 
 
 M-3 
 
 19. 1 
 
 23-9 
 
 28.7 
 
 33-4 
 
 38 2 
 
 43.0 
 
 47.8 
 
 4^ 
 
 4.2 
 
 8-5 
 
 12.7 
 
 16.9 
 
 21.2 
 
 25-4 
 
 29.6 
 
 34.0 
 
 38 I 
 
 42.4 
 
 5 
 
 3-8 
 
 7.6 
 
 II. 5 
 
 15-3 
 
 19. 1 
 
 22.9 
 
 26.7 
 
 30-6. 
 
 34-4 
 
 38.2 
 
 1^ 
 
 3-5 
 
 6.9 
 
 10.4 
 
 13.9 
 
 17.4 
 
 20.8 
 
 24-3 
 
 27^.8 
 
 31.3 
 
 34-7 
 
 ^ 
 
 3-2 
 
 6.4 
 
 9.6 
 
 12.7 
 
 15-9 
 
 19.1 
 
 22.3 
 
 25' 5 
 
 28.7 
 
 31.8 
 
 7 
 
 2.7 
 
 5-5 
 
 8.1 
 
 10.9 
 
 13-6 
 
 16.4 
 
 iq.i 
 
 21.8 
 
 24.6 
 
 27.3 
 
 8 
 
 2.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 7.2 
 
 9.6 
 
 II. 9 
 
 J 4- 3 
 
 16.7 
 
 19 I 
 
 21. 1 
 
 23.9 
 
 9 
 
 2-1 
 
 4.2 
 
 6.4 
 
 8.5 
 
 10.6 
 
 12.7 
 
 14.9 
 
 17.0 
 
 19.1 
 
 21.2 
 
 lO 
 
 1.9 
 
 3-8 
 
 5-7 
 
 7.6 
 
 9.6 
 
 H-5 
 
 13-4 
 
 15 3 
 
 17.2 
 
 19.1 
 
 11 
 
 1-7 
 
 3-5 
 
 5-2 
 
 6.9 
 
 8.7 
 
 10.4 
 
 12.2 
 
 13-9 
 
 15.6 
 
 17.4 
 
 12 
 
 1.6 
 
 3-2 
 
 4.8 
 
 6.4 
 
 8.0 
 
 9.6 
 
 11. 1 
 
 12.7 
 
 14.3 
 
 15.9 
 
 »3 
 
 1-5 
 
 2.9 
 
 4.4 
 
 5-9 
 
 7-3 
 
 8.8 
 
 10.3 
 
 11.8 
 
 13.2 
 
 14.7 
 
 14 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.7 
 
 4.1 
 
 5-5 
 
 6.8 
 
 8.1 
 
 9.6 
 
 10.9 
 
 12.3 
 
 13.6 
 
 15 
 
 1-3 
 
 2.5 
 
 3-8 
 
 5-1 
 
 6.4 
 
 7.6 
 
 8.9 
 
 10.2 
 
 ".5 
 
 12.7 
 
 i6 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.4 
 
 3-6 
 
 4.8 
 
 6.0 
 
 7.2 
 
 8.4 
 
 9.6 
 
 JO. 7 
 
 1 1.9 
 
 17 
 
 i.i 
 
 2,2 
 
 3-4 
 
 4-5 
 
 5-6 
 
 6.7 
 
 7.9 
 
 9.0 
 
 10. 1 
 
 11.2 
 
 i8 
 
 i.i 
 
 2.1 
 
 3-2 
 
 4-2 
 
 5-3 
 
 6.4 
 
 7.4 
 
 8.5 
 
 9.6 
 
 10.6 
 
 19 
 
 1.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 3-0 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 6.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 9.1 
 
 10. 1 
 
 20 
 
 I.O 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.9 
 
 3-8 
 
 4.8 
 
 5-7 
 
 6.7 
 
 7.6 
 
 8.6 
 
 9.6 
 
 21 
 
 •9 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.7 
 
 3-6 
 
 4-5 
 
 5-5 
 
 6.4 
 
 7.3 
 
 8.1 
 
 9.1 
 
 22 
 
 •9 
 
 1-7 
 
 2.6 
 
 3-5 
 
 4-3 
 
 5-2 
 
 6.1 
 
 6.9 
 
 7.8 
 
 8.7 
 
 23 
 
 .8 
 
 1-7 
 
 2-5 
 
 3-3 
 
 4.1 
 
 5-0 
 
 5-8 
 
 6.6 
 
 7.5. 
 
 8.3 
 
 24 
 
 .8 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.4 
 
 3-2 
 
 4.0 
 
 4.8 
 
 5.6 
 
 6.4 
 
 7.2 
 
 8.0 
 
 25 
 
 .8 
 
 1-5 
 
 2-3 
 
 3 I 
 
 3-8 
 
 4.6 
 
 5-3 
 
 6.1 
 
 6.9 
 
 7.6 
 
 26 
 
 •7 
 
 1-5 
 
 2.2 
 
 2.9 
 
 3-7 
 
 4.4 
 
 5- 1 
 
 5-9 
 
 6.6 
 
 7-3 
 
 27 
 
 •7 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.8 
 
 3-5 
 
 4.2 
 
 5-0 
 
 5-7 
 
 6.4 
 
 7.1 
 
 28 
 
 •7 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.7 
 
 3-4 
 
 4.1 
 
 4.8 
 
 5-5 
 
 6.1 
 
 6.^ 
 
 29 
 
 -7 
 
 1-3 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.6 
 
 3-3 
 
 4.0 
 
 4.6 
 
 5-3 
 
 5-9 
 
 6.6 
 
 30 
 
 .6 
 
 1-3 
 
 1.9 
 
 2-5 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-8 
 
 4-5 
 
 5-1 
 
 5.7 
 
 6.4 
 
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 225 
 
 The preceding table is a convenient one for finding the 
 number of revolutions per minute required to give a peri- 
 phery speed from 5 to 50 feet per minute of diameters 
 from J4 inch to 30 inches. 
 
 Examples — A mill 2 inches diam. to have a periphery 
 speed of 35 feet per minute, should make about 67 revo- 
 lutions, while a iJ/^-inch mill should make 120 revolu- 
 tions to have the same periphery speed. If a ^-incli 
 m-ill makes 250 revolutions per minute, the periphery speed 
 is about 50 feet. 
 
 Horse Power of Belts. — A good method of finding the 
 power of a belt, assuming 800 feet travel per minute of 
 I inch single belt per horse power. 
 
 Formula — .00033 D. R. B = Horse power. 
 
 D = Diameter of pulley in inches. 
 
 R = Revolutions of pulley per minute. 
 
 B ^= Width of belt in inches. 
 
 Example — 18-inch pulley, 3-inch belt, 150 revolutions 
 per minute, .00033 x l8 x 150 x 3 = 2.67 H. P. 
 
 If 1000 feet is assumed instead of 800 feet, use constant 
 .C0026 in place of .00033. 
 
 CUTTER LUBRICANT. 
 
 A good lubricant for cutters milling steel or wrought 
 iron, is i lb. tallow or i lb. hard or soft soap. Boil and 
 add water until about the consistency of cream. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 GRINDING THE ACCURATE AND RAPID GRINDING OF TOOLS AND 
 
 SMALL MACHINE PARTS EMERY WHEELS. 
 
 Cutter and Tool Grinding. 
 
 A subject germain to the treatment of steel is that of grinding, 
 as in most lines of steel working it occupies an important posi- 
 tion. In the following are shown illustrations of approved ma- 
 chines for the grmding of fine tool work and accurate small ma- 
 chine parts. Descriptions are also given of the correct methods 
 of grinding the different tools and parts. 
 
 The machine illustrated in Fig. 146 is of a type used ex- 
 tensively for general toolroom work and is one of a class of uni- 
 versal cutter and tool grinders which has been greatly improved 
 and developed during the last few years. It may be used to grind 
 accurately and rapidly work of the following kinds and sizes : 
 
 Milling machine cutters 12 inches in diameter when not more 
 than I inch wide. 
 
 Work 14 inches long held between centers when the diameter 
 of rotation is not more than 8 inches. These dimensions are given 
 as the limit for irregular pieces and not for heavy, solid cylin- 
 ders. 
 
 Work 14 inches long can be ground by using an emery wheel 
 on each side of the head. 
 
 Reamers and shell counterbores of large or small sizes. 
 
 Gear cutters and formed cutters of every description. 
 
 Flat surfaces, such as shear plates, dies and gages. 
 
 Hardened bushing and other pieces to be ground internallv. 
 
 Conical surfaces, such as taper bearings and mandrels, and 
 small cylindrical machine parts w'hich are to be finished with ex- 
 treme accuracy. 
 
 The foregoing list does not give the limit of the capacity of 
 machine, but rather indicates in a general way what is possible in 
 its use. 
 
 For a more particular presentation of the kinds of work which 
 can be and are actually ground on such machines, reference is 
 made to the following pages. 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 227 
 
 Prominent Features. 
 
 Those familiar with grinding the side teeth of side milling and 
 
 angular cutters are aware that the tooth rest must be set to the 
 
 exact height so as to bring the cutting edge of the tooth to be 
 
 ground in an exact parallel line with the slide. In some machines 
 
 FIG. 146. — CINCINNATI UNIVERSAL CUTTER AND TOOU GRINDER. 
 
 this adjustment of the tooth rest for this grinding is complicated. 
 The difficulty, however, is overcome in this machine, as no atten- 
 tion is required to adjust the tooth rest, since it is centrally fixed 
 for all diameters of cutters. The tooth rest travels with the cut- 
 ter, except in the grinding of spiral mills and large saws. 
 
228 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 H 
 
 y/'y 
 
 ^ 
 
 I WHIW k 
 
 W^"" 
 
 W/M\\ \ WMm 
 
 I 
 
 >t-V2-» 
 
 h^U^ 
 
 U 
 
 
 FIG. 147. — SHAPES AND SIZES OF EMERY WHEELS TO USE FOR TOOL 
 
 GRINDING. 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 229 
 
 ■^la. 148. — SAMPLES OP GROUND WORK DONB IN TJNnrERSAL CUTTER 
 AND TOOL GRINDER, FIG. 1 46. 
 
230 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 The side teeth of angular and side milling cutters are ground 
 off with practically a straight line clearance. This is done with a 
 cup-shape emery wheel 3 inches in diameter on the left side of 
 the machine. The advantages of grinding side teeth with a fair 
 size emery wheel, and at the same time grinding a straight line 
 clearance with an accompanying strong cutting edge, are known 
 to those who have heretofore been compelled to use a small wheel 
 grinding a hollow clearance and weak-cutting edge. (See Fig. 
 149.) 
 
 To prevent the drawing of the temper from cutting edges of 
 side mills and the side teeth of angular cutters, etc., which have a 
 
 mG. 149. — GRINDING SIDE TEETH. 
 
 broad surface, it is important that the heel of the tooth be stocked 
 out first at a sharp angle, and only a small portion left to be 
 ground at a different angle. The change from stocking out to 
 the grinding of the cutting edge is quickly made by moving the 
 knee a few degrees around the column. 
 
 This feature of revolving the knee around the column has also 
 the following advantages : 
 
 Work can be brought in contact with the emery wheels on 
 either side of the wheel without rechucking. Also the article to 
 be ground can be brought in contact with the emery wheel in the 
 most favorable position to either wheel for rapid grinding. For 
 an example, a side milling cutter may have the outer teeth ground 
 ofif on the straight face emery wheel on the right side of the ma- 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 231 
 
 chine, and the side teeth on the cup-shape wheel at the left side 
 of the machine, without taking the cutter off the arbor or disturb- 
 ing the tooth guide. 
 
 Cutters of small diameters and sharp angles can be ground 
 without the cutter, mandrel or centers striking the belt or emery 
 wheel head. Also in grinding the shoulders, on work revolved 
 between centers, the periphery instead of the side of a flat wheel 
 can be used. 
 
 Grinding a Spiral Mill. 
 
 Fig. 150 shows the long slide at the rear of the column and 
 nearly parallel to the emery wheel spindle, the two swivels set at 
 
 FIG. 150. — GRINDING A SPIRAL MILL. 
 
 zero, a flat wheel on the right of the emery wheel head and the 
 mill on the mandrel held between centers. 
 
 Fig. 151 shows a side elevation of the wheel, the centering 
 gage, the tooth rest No. 2 and the end of the mill. 
 
 Fig. 152 is an elevation showing the rim of the wheel, the 
 face of the mill and the tooth rest in the position required when 
 the mill is turned for grinding the next tooth. 
 
 Directions : Adjust the plane of centers below the plane of 
 the spindle the distance required for clearance. If the mill is 
 cylindrical, set the table at zero ; and if not, set it for the required 
 taper. Set the stops on the long slide so that, the mill having 
 passed, the cutter will still be held by the flexible part of the 
 tooth rest, which will then act as a spring pawl when turning the 
 mill to bring the next tooth into position for grinding. In setting 
 
232 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 the tooth rest the centering gage must come directly opposite to 
 part of the wheel which strikes the cutter. 
 
 Grinding Angular Cutters. 
 Fig. 153 illustrates the grinding when the cutter is left-hand. 
 
 The flat wheel is on the right-hand end of spindle, the long 
 slide is at the rear and right-hand, the cutter is held on work 
 spindle and the tooth rest No. 4 is on the horizontal swivel. 
 
 Directions: Set the plane of centers below plane of spindle 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 ^zz. 
 
 the distance required for clearance. Set the long slide at a con- 
 venient angle, and then adjust the horizontal swivel to the angle 
 required for the cutter. 
 
 Fig. 154 illustrates the grinding when the cutter is right-hand- 
 
 FIG. 153. — GRINDING A LEFT-HAND ANGULAR CUTTER. 
 
 FIG. 154. — GRINDING A RIGHT-HAND ANGULAR CUTTER. 
 
 The explanations and directions for Fig. 153. are sufficient for 
 Fig. 154- 
 
 Grinding Side Milling Cutters. 
 
 Fig- 155 shows the situation of the long slide at the back of 
 the column, the cutter held by work spindle alone, the fiat wheel 
 on the right of the emery wheel head, and the tooth rest No. 5 
 fastened to the horizontal swivel. 
 
234 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Directions : Set the plane of centers the distance below the 
 plane of the spindle required for clearance. 
 
 Fig. 156 shows the left-hand radial teeth in position for grind- 
 ing, the 3-inch cup wheel on the left of the emery wheel head, 
 
 the long slide on the left, the universal head on the end of the 
 table and tooth rest No. 3 on the horizontal swivel. 
 
 It will be observed in the cuts that the side of the cutter 
 opposite the one being ground is always closer to the emery wheel 
 head than the other ; that is, the index on the knee will point about 
 5 degrees beyond the 90 degree point. 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 235 
 
 Directions : Set the vertical swivel so as to depress the outer 
 end of the work spindle the number of degrees required for clear- 
 ance. This ranges from 5 degrees to 20 degrees, depending upon 
 the clearance required. 
 
 The manner in which shell counterbores may be ground is 
 
 shown clearly in Fig. 157, and but little description is necessary. 
 In grinding such tools, a stud, which fits the taper hole in the 
 work spindle and the hole in the counterbore, is required. 
 
236 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Grinding Milling Cutters or Metal Slitting Sazvs from 8 to 12 
 Inches in Diameter. 
 Fig. 159 is a plan showing the 3-inch emery wheel, the saw or 
 cutter, the horizontal swivel and the tooth rest No. 3 in position- 
 
 FIG. 157. — GRINDING SHKLIy COUNTERBORES. 
 
 b:/ Emeby 'Wheel 
 
 FIG. I5S. FIG. 159. 
 
 GRINDING MILLING CUTTERS OR METAL SAWS OF LARGE DIAMETERS. 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 ^Z7 
 
 for grinding, while Fig. 158 shows an elevation of Fig. 159, show- 
 ing the long slide at the rear of the column end parallel to the em- 
 ery wheel spindle, the universal head at the tail stock end of the 
 table, the saw held by work spindle alone, and the 3-inch emery 
 wheel on the left of the wheel head. The saw is clamped to the 
 work spindle by means of the long screw with nut and collar for 
 that purpose. 
 
 LJ 
 I- 
 
 XA 
 
 z 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 Q 
 
 _l 
 O 
 O 
 
238 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Directions : Set the plane of the centers below the spindle 
 plane the distance required for clearance. Set both swivels and 
 table at zero. 
 
 Large saws, up to 24 inches in diameter, such as are used in 
 cold saw cutting-off machines, are ground as shown in Fig. 160. 
 It will be noticed that the universal head is here reversed on the 
 table and the tooth rest placed on the emery wheel head. 
 
 Gear Cutter Grinding. 
 Figs. 161 and 162 represent an elevation and plan of the gear- 
 cutter grinding attachment. The platen which holds cutter is 
 fitted to the slot in the table and clamped to it by bolt and nut. 
 
 (0 's s| 
 FIG. 161. — ELEVATION OF GEAR CUTTER GRINDING ATTACHMENT. 
 
 The table should be set right angular to the slide and the slide 
 at a right angle to the axis of the emery wheel spindle (see dotted 
 lines), as this position brings only the edge of the emery wheel in 
 contact with the work, permitting a heavy cut to be taken without 
 danger of heating. 
 
 In adjusting the cutter for grinding, the centering gage be- 
 longing to the attachment is set over against the face of the tooth. 
 Then the pawl holder is clamped so as to bring the pawl tooth rest 
 against the heel of the tooth. After swinging the centering gage 
 out of the way, as shown in cut, the grinding may proceed. Thus, 
 with this arrangement, gear and formed cutters can be ground 
 correctly and in less time than by hand. Bushings for the various 
 sizes of holes in standard gear cutters and emery wheel No. 3 
 are required with this attachment. 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 239 
 
:240 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Grinding Formed Cutters. 
 
 Fig. 163 shows the table and long slide on the right of the col- 
 umn, the dish-shaped wheel on the right-hand end of the spindle, 
 the two arms by means of which the center of the cutter mav 
 be held below the top of the table and the tooth rest No. 5 which 
 engages with the heel of the tooth to be ground. 
 
 Directions : Set the axis of the long slide at right angle to 
 that of the spindle by means of dial on column. Set the lower line 
 
 I^IG. 163. — GRINDING A FORMED CUTTER. 
 
 •of centers so that it will intersect the vertical diameter at the 
 side of the wheel. This adjustment can be readily made by bring- 
 ing the point of the tail stock center nearly in line with the side of 
 a straight edge held vertically against the flat side of the wheel. 
 Put the cutter on a mandrel between centers and set the face of a 
 tooth against the side of the wheel, making an allowance for 
 amount to be ground off. To hold the face in this position, ad- 
 just tooth rest No. 5 to the heel of the tooth. Determine the 
 •depth of cut by short slide. 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 241 
 
 How to Grind a Worm Wheel Hob. 
 
 Fig. 164 shows the long slide on the left of the column, the 
 special attachment on the table for holding the mandrel, the disk- 
 shape wheel No. 3 on the left-hand end of the spindle and the 
 table in line with the long slide. 
 
 Directions: See those given for grinding formed cutters. 
 
 Grinding a Hand Reamer. 
 Fig. 165 shows the long slide on the left, the cup-shape wheel 
 
 FIG. 164. — GRINDING A WORM WHFKIv HOB. 
 
 on the left-hand end of spindle and the tooth rest No. i fastened 
 to the top of the table. 
 
 Directions: Set the tooth rest below plane of centers a suffi- 
 cient distance for clearance when grinding straight reamers. Set 
 the table to grind straight. To grind bevel on end of reamer set 
 table to angle required; or as shown in Fig. 166. 
 
 Grinding a Taper Reamer. 
 
 Fig. 167 shows the long slide at the rear right of emery wheel 
 head, the table set obliquely to' the side, the swivels at zero, the 
 reamer between dead centers, a flat wheel at the right-hand end 
 of the spindle and the tooth rest No. 3 fastened to the swivel. 
 
 Directions : Set the tooth rest in the plane of centers. Set 
 
242 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 PIG. 165. — GRINDING A HAND REAMER. 
 
 FIG. 166. — GRINDING BEVEI. ON END OP REAMER. 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 243 
 
 the plane of centers below the plane of spindle the distance re- 
 quired for clearance. Set the table at the angle required for 
 taper. 
 
 How to Grind a Har\dened Drilling Jig Bushing. 
 Fig. 168 shows the emery wheel spindle with flat wheel on the 
 right, the long slide on the right to the rear of the machine, the 
 table set at zero, the grooved pulley running loose on the work 
 spindle, which is locked by a knurled screw, the jig bushing on a 
 mandrel held between dead centers and turned by a dog engaging 
 with the grooved pulley. 
 
 FIG. 167. — GRINDING A TAPER REAMER. 
 
 Eine of Motion 
 
 PIG. 168. — GRINDING A HARDENED JIG BUSHING. 
 
244 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 How to Grind a Taper Spindle. 
 Fig. 169 shows the long sHde at the back of the column, the 
 wheel on the right of the spindle, the table set for the required 
 taper, and the grooved pulley running loose on the work spindle. 
 In circular grinding when the piece is held by the work spindle 
 alone the grooved pulley is locked to the spindle. 
 
 Emery wheel shape No. 3 is used for taking deep cuts ; shape 
 No. 5 for finishing the surface. 
 
 The centers in work that has to be ground must be very care- 
 fully made and held to proper shape. Hardened pieces must have 
 centers lapped as nearly round as possible in order to obtain good 
 results. 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 245 
 
 How to Grind a Slitting Knife with Beveled Edges. 
 Fig. 170 shows the wheel on the right of the emery wheel 
 head, the long slide and table at the back of the column, the hori- 
 zontal swivel set at the angle required by the face of the knife, 
 
 the grooved pulley locked to the work spindle which holds the 
 knife by bushing and long screw. 
 
 Internal Grinding. 
 Fig. 171 shows the long slide and table at the rear of the 
 column and parallel to the spindle of the emery wheel ; the piece 
 to be ground is fastened to the work spindle, the internal grinding 
 
246 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 FIG. 171.— INTERNAL GRINDING. 
 
 1^ 1 
 
 FIG. 172.— GRINDING A STRAIGHT EDGE). 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 247 
 
 attachment is fastened to the emery wheel head, with its pulley 
 belted to the pulley on the right of the column. 
 
 Grinding a Straight Edge. 
 Fig. 172 shows the long slide on the left and parallel to the 
 
 table, the straight edge clamped to its place, and a cup-shape 
 wheel on the left of the spindle. 
 
 Grinding a Shear Plate. 
 Fig. 173 is an elevation showing on the left parallel to the 
 table, the cup-shape wheel on the left and the shear plate clamped 
 to the table. 
 
248 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Hozv to Grind a Die Blank to the Required Angle. 
 
 Fig. 174 shows the long slide on the left, the table across the 
 slide, the vise in the place of the universal head, the cup-shape 
 
 
 1^- •;.;■:,-■■■••/--- l^j.yK&>iffi^^^ 
 
 wheel on the left, and the vise turned on its pivot to the required 
 angle. 
 
 Grinding a Formed Tool on Its Face. 
 
 Fig. 175 shows the long slide on the left, the table set at zero, 
 the cup-shape wheel on the left of the emery wheel head, the 
 vise set at 90 deg. for convenience in holding a screw machine 
 form tool when grinding its face. 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 249 
 
 FIG. 175. — GRINDING THE) FACE; OP A FORMED TOOL. 
 
 PIG. 176. — CUTTING OFF WITH THE EMERY WHEEL. 
 
250 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 The Emery Wheel Used as a Metal Saw. 
 The engraving, Fig. 176, shows the vise on the table in the 
 place of the universal head, the long slide at the right of the col- 
 umn, the table across the slide, and a wheel on the right of the 
 spindle 1-16 inch thick and 8 inches in diameter. Brass Lubing 
 and small steel bars can be readily and smoothly cut into pieces 
 by means described. 
 
 Grinding a Gage to a Given Dimension. 
 Fig. 177 is a plan view showing the long slide on the left, 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 251 
 
 the table across the sHde, the vise in place of the universal head, 
 the gage with one of its faces against the cup-shaped emery 
 wheel on the left. 
 
 • Attachment for Surface Grinding. 
 The attachment shown in Fig. 178 includes the vise shown, 
 with angle and emery wheel No. 4. 
 
 OIXXX) 
 
 FIG. 178. — SURFACE GRINDING ATTACHMENT. 
 
 The vise may be clamped to the table at any point in its 
 length. 
 
 Work held in its jaws can be presented at any angle whatever 
 in regard to the axis of the emery wheel head, by making suitable 
 adjustment of the swivel vise, the table and the long slide. 
 
 It has a graduated arc to measure the angle of elevation or 
 depression at which the work is presented to the side of the 
 emery wheel. 
 
252 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 How to Grind Milling Cutters and Metal-Slitting Saivis Straight 
 
 or Concave. 
 Fig. 179 shows the emery wheel head with a wheel on the 
 right, the long slide and table parallel to the emery wheel spindle. 
 
 the horizontal swivel set at 90, and the saw fastened to work- 
 spindle. 
 
 The round belt should be as loose as possible. 
 
 General Directions. 
 Hold the cutter to the tooth rest by hand. 
 In all cases when it is possible, limit the movement of the 
 
GRINDING. 253 
 
 long slide by the stops furnished for the purpose, for the follow- 
 ing reasons : 
 
 It prevents the wheel from striking the head stock or cutter 
 in concave grinding. 
 
 It prevents the wheel from running too deep into formed 
 cutters and side milling cutters when grinding radial teeth. 
 
 It prevents the cutter from passing off the tooth rest, besides 
 being convenient in quite a number of other instances occurring 
 in the use of the grinder. 
 
 It is convenient and sometimes necessary in grinding cutters 
 for clearance on the right-hand end of the emery wheel spindle, 
 to swing the knee on the column to the right at an angle of from 
 5 to 15. This applies especially in angle cutters and smali 
 cylindrical cutters, when the belt is liable to strike the cutter or 
 center. 
 
 After cutters have been reground once or twice the land be- 
 comes thick ; it is very convenient under these conditions to 
 swing the knee slightly around the column 2 or 3 degrees, and 
 grind with a heavy broad cut between the teeth so as to reduce 
 the amount of the land. 
 
 After the land is reduced to the proper width a slight move- 
 ment of the knee back about i degree will alter the angle of the 
 cut in such a way as to produce a narrow land with a keen cutting 
 edge without danger of drawing temper. 
 
 The life of a cutter by this means is very much prolonged. 
 
 In using the lever or screw feed handles, adjust them by 
 means of the clamp screws at bottom of long slide holder to the 
 most convenient position. 
 
 Use the centering gage for determining the relative height 
 of center of emery wheel spindle and tail stock center. 
 
 Diamond Tool Holder. 
 In order to obtain a good cutting edge and make a smooth 
 finish on work, the emery wheel on a universal cutter and tool 
 grinder must run true and have its cutting surface parallel with 
 the movement on the slide of the machine. The cut, Fig. 180, 
 shows a diamond tool and holder for truing emery wheels. This 
 tool is made to be used either by hand or clamped to the table 
 of the machine so that the diamond can be passed across the wheel 
 in line with the slide in any position. It is absolutely necessary 
 to have the wheel perfectly true on work ground between centers. 
 
254 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 The proper use of this device will greatly increase the effi- 
 ciency of any universal cutter and tool grinder, both as to quan- 
 tity and quality of work produced. 
 
 A Small Cut'tcr Grinder. 
 The small ''Garvin" cutter grinder shown in Figs. i8i to 183 
 
 FIG. I 
 
 DIAMOND TOOL HOLDER FOR WHKEL TRUING. 
 
 has ample capacity for all the ordinary sizes and varieties of mill- 
 ing cutters, while its compactness and small cost render it 
 practicable to have several distributed around in the vicinity of 
 
 FIG. 181. — GRINDING A HOLLOW MILL. 
 
 each group of milling machines, where they will prove a valuable 
 addition to the plant and soon pay for themselves in time saved. 
 
 The machine is well made throughout, and will grind straight 
 or spiral mills and shell reamers from five inches diameter and 
 four inches face down to the smallest side or face mills ; bevel or 
 angle-cutters from eight inches down ; hand, machine, rose and 
 
GRINDING. 255 
 
 taper reamers, as large as one and one-half inches diameter and 
 eight inches long ; butt mills, either straight or taper ; .cutters for 
 milling T-slots, and hollow mills, such as used on screw-ma- 
 chines ; saws, cutters for gear teeth, drills, and all such tools as 
 are generally ground by hand can also be handled. Both spindle 
 and arbor are of steel, hardened and ground, the latter to one 
 
 FIG. 182. — GRINDING A HAND REAMER. 
 
 inch standard size. All adjusting screws and nuts are case- 
 hardened and fit wrench attached to the machine. The machine 
 can be placed on the bench where most convenient -and driven 
 by straight or quarter-turned belt. 
 
 The spindle is provided with an eccentric adjustment for 
 feeding the wheel against the work. 
 
 EIG. 183. — GRINDING AN ANGULAR CUTTER. 
 
HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 FIG. 184. — ATTACHMENTS FOR " GARVIN " UNIVERSAL CUTTER 
 AND TOOI, GRINDER. 
 
 Fig. I. Reamer Centers, holding work three inches in diameter, and at any length iip to 
 eighteen inclies. Fig. 2. Three-quarter inch Cutter Arbor. Fig. 3. Three-quarter 
 inch Adjustable Collar, for three-quarter inch arbor. Fig. 4. Three-quarter inch 
 Cutter Sleeve, with adjustable stepped collar, for holding cutters of one, one and 
 one-eighth and one and one-quarter inch bore, of any length up to five inches. 
 Fig. 5. One-half inch Cutter Sleeve, -with adjustable stepped collar, for cutters of 
 five-eighth, three-quarter and seven-eighth inch bore, and up to three and one-half 
 inches long. Fig. 6. One-half inch Cutter Arbor. Fig. 7. One-half inch Adjustable 
 Collar, for one-half inch arbor. Fig. 8. Face Mill Stud, to be used on grinding table. 
 Fig. 9. Cutter Stud, for use in universal head. Fig. 10. Socket, for grinding small 
 end mills. Figs. 11 and 12. Special Finger Attachment, for grinding end mills. 
 Fig 13. Universal Finger and Holder, for general use. Figs. 14, 15 and 16. Three 
 Arbors, with three styles of emery wheels. Fig. 17. X,arge emery wheel, for rear 
 end of spindle. Fig. 18. Univer.'^al Cutter Head, ifor use onthe grinding table. Fig. 
 19. Arbor Socket. This socket is fitted with the Garvin and B. & S. taper. Fig. 20. 
 The only vvrench used on the jnachine. Fig. 21. Crank Wrench, for the grinding 
 table. 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 257 
 
 Illustrations Shozving Various Work Performed on a Different 
 Type of Universal Cutter and Tool Grinder. 
 
 In the following pages will be found a series of illustrations 
 showing some of the many kinds of work for which a Garvin 
 universal cutter and tool grinder is adapted, also showing how to 
 set the machine for doing this work. As a decided advantage 
 over some machines, one can grind all work (except small-end 
 mills) with the universal finger holder attached to and adjustable 
 with the extended spindle-bearing, thus avoiding the accurate 
 adjusting of the cutter-tooth with the line of feedj which is 
 essential where the finger, or tooth-rest, moves with the work. 
 This construction also permits of a very fine adjustment of the 
 finger, which is obtained by slightly loosening the clamp and 
 gradually swinging the entire finger-holder away from, or in 
 toward the wheel, thus obtaining a greater or less amount of 
 "backing-off to the teeth, as may be required. 
 
 In all cases the face of the finger should be placed parallel 
 with the tooth of the cutter and point against the direction of 
 the wheel, as the spindle is run in one direction only. 
 
 When using the finger the stops on the grinding-table should 
 be set so as not to allow the tooth to pass out of engagement with 
 the finger. At the beginning of the stroke the tooth should only 
 engage with the spring-pawl of the finger, which will allow the 
 cutter to be turned around. 
 
 Fig, 185. Grinding the sides of face or straddle mills. The 
 
 FIG. 185. — GRINDING SIDE OF A STRADDLE) MILIy. 
 
HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 cutter is held directly on the table and revolved on the face mill 
 stud (Fig. 8). 
 
 Fig. i86. Grinding the reverse side of the same face mill ; 
 
 PIG. I 
 
 GRINDING THE REVERSE) SIDE OE A STRADDLE MILL. 
 
 no change in adjustment has been made, only the sliding plat- 
 form has been moved on the knee. 
 
 Fig. 187. Grinding the face of a straddle mill, carried on a 
 ?tud in the universal cutter head (Figs. 9 and 18) ; the grinding 
 table being- locked. 
 
 FIG. 187. — GRINDING THE FACE OF A STRADDLE MILL. 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 =oy 
 
 Fig. i88. Grinding a spiral tooth-cutter, carried on one of 
 the sleeves (Figs. 4 or 5) which is made to slide on the arbor 
 between the head and the adjustable collar; the grinding table 
 locked by gib binder. 
 
 Fig. 189. Grinding a bevel cutter, placed on the cutter-stud 
 (Fig. 9) ; clamped at the proper angle in the universal cutter 
 xiead ; the table moved between stops. 
 
 mo. 188. — GRINDING A SPIRAI, TOOTH CUTTER. 
 
 FIG. 189. — GRINDING A BEVEII/ CUTTER. 
 
26o 
 
 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Fig. 190. Sharpening a tap held in the reamer centers, which 
 are carried in the universal cutter head. 
 
 Fig. 191. Grinding a taper reamer in a manner which pro- 
 cures a straisfht backing: off to the teeth. 
 
 FIG. 190. — SHARPENING A TAP ALONG ITS FLUTKS. 
 
 FIG. 191. — GRINDING A TAPER REAMER WITH A STRAIGHT 
 BACKING OFF. 
 
GRINDING, 
 
 261 
 
 Fig. 192. Grinding a taper reamer so as to produce a shear 
 form of cutting edge. 
 
 Fig. 193. Grinding the face of a small end mill, held in the 
 end mill fixture (Fig. 10) using the special finger-holder (Figs. 
 11 and 12). 
 
 FIG. 192. — GRINDING A TAPER REAMER WITH A SHEAR 
 BACKING OFF. 
 
 FIG. 193. — GRINDING THE FACE OF A SMALL END MILL. 
 
262 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Fig. 194. Grinding the sides of an end mill, using the same 
 fixtures. 
 
 Fig. 195. Grinding the face of a double end butt mill on its 
 arbor and placed in the arbor socket (Fig. 19). A light applica- 
 tion of oil will produce the proper tension in the socket. 
 
 FIG. 194. — GRINDING THE SIDES OP AN END MILL. 
 
 EIG. 195. — GRINDING THE FACE OF A DOUBLE END BUTT MILL. 
 
GRINDING. 263 
 
 Fig. 196. Grinding the bevel corner on a double end butt 
 mill. 
 
 Fig. 197. Grinding a gang of mills without removing them 
 from their arbor, which is placed in arbor socket (Fig. 19). 
 
 FIG. 196. — GRINDING THE BEVEL CORNER ON A DOUBLE END 
 BUTT MILL. 
 
 FIG. 197. — GRINDING A GANG OP MILLS ON THEIR OWN ARBOR. 
 
 Fig. 198. Grinding an inserted tooth mill. 
 Fig. 199. Grinding a die in its bolster bolted to grinding 
 table. 
 
264 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 FIG. 198. — GRINDING AN INSERTED TOOTH MII.I,. 
 
 FIG. 199. — GRINDING A DIE IN ITS BOLSTER. 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 265 
 
 Fig. 200. Grinding a snap-gage in a vise bolted to the grind- 
 ing table. All kinds of surface work, such as straight edges, snap 
 
 PIG. 200. — GRINDING A SNAP GAGEJ. 
 
 gages, punches, calipers, test blocks, etc., may be easily and quickly 
 ground in this fixture. 
 
 Emery Wheels — -Their Use. 
 
 The emery wheel consists of grains of emery and a com- 
 position called the texture which binds these grains together. 
 
 In regard to the size of the grains the wheel is said to be 
 fine or coarse in grade. In regard to its texture it is called hard 
 or soft. 
 
 To distinguish the grades, they are numbered from the di- 
 mension of the meshes through which the grains pass. 
 
 Thus grade 10 means that the distance between the wires of 
 the mesh is 10 to the inch. 
 
 Some of the substances used to hold the grains of emery 
 together are hard rubber, shellac, ordinary glue and a mixture of 
 linseed oil and litharge. 
 
 The relative hardness of the texture is indicated by letters. 
 Thus, A indicates a soft wheel ; B, a harder wheel ; M, medium 
 wheel, and so on. 
 
 The vitrified emery wheel is made with a cement which con- 
 tracts slightly while cooling, leaving small pores or cells through 
 which water introduced at the center is thrown to the surface bv 
 
266 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 centrifugal force. This flow of water operates to carry off the 
 cuttings and the detached emery. 
 
 The grade and texture of the wheel in certain kinds of work 
 is fairly within the following limits : 
 
 Wheels of coarse grain and hard texture are suitable for 
 rough grinding such as the smoothing down of protuberances 
 and in other rough work in which accuracy and finish are not 
 required. 
 
 Wheels having medium grains and hard texture are service- 
 able in grinding lathe tools, for gumming saws, etc. 
 
 Wheels with medium grains and soft texture are suitable for 
 free cutting on broad surfaces of iron, steel or brass. 
 
 Wheels with fine grain and soft texture are suitable for grind- 
 ing fine tools, such as milling machine cutters for which the 
 duty is light, but the demand for accuracy imperative. 
 
 One of the important conditions of accuracy is that the wheels 
 vary in the least possible degree in shape or diameter from start 
 to finish in a series of cuts. 
 
 The wheel with fine grain and hard texture is suitable for 
 smooth grinding on soft metals such as cast-iron or brass. 
 
 A wheel glazes or gums if its grains are held too long by its 
 texture. 
 
 The ideal duty of a wheel consists in having its grains dis- 
 placed as soon as they become unfit for further service. 
 
 As the wheel in use wears out of true, it can be trued by a 
 little black diamond point, and if very accurate grinding or a fine 
 finish is required, the diamond should be carried across the sur- 
 face of the wheel by the long slide. 
 
 If it is required to do heavy cutting, the emer\^ wheel should 
 be trued at a comparatively slow speed. 
 
 If the wheel becomes glazed, its surface may be improved by 
 a coarse file or a piece of pumice stone. 
 
 Emery wheels should be kept clean and free from oil, and 
 should not present more than 1-16 to ^ of an inch to the surface 
 of the work. This provision is particularly applicable to cup- 
 shape wheels. 
 
 If it is desired to put an exceedingly fine finish on such work 
 as arbors, spindles, standards, etc., after they have been ground 
 true, a wheel of 80 or 100 grade emery, with not more than 
 ys inch face, should be used for taking this finishing cut. 
 
 However, very finely finished surfaces can be obtained with a 
 
GRINDING. 
 
 267 
 
 wheel as coarse as 40 grade emery, if the work is passed very 
 slowly across the face of the wheel and the wheel allowed to cut 
 but slightly. 
 
 In regard to finish, it is to be observed that the harder the 
 substance to be ground the coarser must be the grade of the 
 wheel. 
 
 Thus the finishing of steel requires a coarser grade of wheel 
 than the finishing of copper. 
 
 If a wheel is too hard for the substance it is cutting, it may 
 heat or chatter ; this can be obviated somewhat b}' diminishing 
 the width of the cutting surface, but it is much better to use a 
 softer wheel and full width of cutting surface. 
 
 As a rule a soft wheel can be run more rapidly than a hard 
 
 3200 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3000 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 APPROXIMATE 
 
 SPEEDS FOR 
 
 EMERY & POLISHING WHEELS. 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 2800 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 2600 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2400 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 V 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 ¥■ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \v 
 
 
 %. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 K-. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <0 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \< 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 ?. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 pi 600 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■^*, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■>. 
 
 
 
 K. 
 
 
 
 S% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 Vo 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 s. 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 tir 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 K^ 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 
 1200 
 
 
 
 ve- 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 k<. 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 h 
 
 
 ^^. 
 
 
 
 
 
 'A, 
 
 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 1000 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 X^ 
 
 '/. 
 
 
 
 
 fe 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K^ 
 
 
 
 ^' 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^_ 
 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 p. 
 
 
 
 sli^V 
 
 'it 
 
 
 
 
 
 -~^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^v 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 'f^M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <-i^> 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
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 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 
 INCHES DIAMETER OF WHEEL 
 
 FIG. 201. — DIAGRAM FOR DETERMINING SPEEDS OP EMERY WHEELS. 
 
268 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 one without changing the temperature of the work. Accord- 
 ingly there is an advantage in two speeds for the emery wheel 
 spindle. 
 
 For internal grinding the wheel should be softer than for 
 external grinding, and the work should revolve so as to give the 
 wheel opportunity to do its work. 
 
 There can be no hard and fast rules for the speed of emery 
 and polishing wheels since there is so great a variety in the 
 nature of the work to be done, but a peripheral speed of about a 
 mile a minute for ordinary emery wheels is commonly regarded 
 as good practice. For water tool grinders the speed is usually 
 about two-thirds that of dry grinders while on the other hand, 
 polishing wheels are generally run at about one and one-half, 
 and bufif wheels at twice the speed of dry grinders. 
 
 The diagram, Fig. 201, affords a convenient means for deter- 
 mining the revolutions that will give the above speeds and will 
 be preferred by many to a table of figures. It is necessary only 
 to trace a vertical line from the figure representing the diameter 
 of the wheel to the proper curve and from the intersection point 
 to trace a horizontal line to the figure which will give the revolu- 
 tions per minute, 
 
TABLE OF ARTICLES MADE FROM CRUCIBLE STEEL, 
 
 GIVING ABOUT PERCENTAGE OF CARBON 
 
 THEY SHOULD CONTAIN. 
 
 A. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Arbor, saw • • ._ 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Auger, salt 0.70 to 0.80 
 
 Auger, wood 0.70 to 0.80 
 
 Axe 1.20 
 
 Axe, broad •• 1.15 
 
 Axe, overcoat 1.15 
 
 Axe, stone 0.80 to 0.85 
 
 B. 
 
 ^all bearing 1.20 
 
 Ball bearing plates 1.15 
 
 Back, butcher 0.80 to 0.90 
 
 Barrel, gun 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Bits, auger 0.50 to 0.65 
 
 Bits, axe . i.io to 1.15 
 
 Bits, channeling machine 1.15 
 
 Bits, j ointer . 1.20 
 
 Bits, mining 0.80 
 
 Bits, saw 0.80 
 
 Bits, scarf 1.22 
 
 Bits, tong . 1. 15 
 
 Bits, well, for stone drilling 0.80 to 0.84 
 
 "Bits, artesian well .0.80 to 0.84 
 
 Bites, plier i.oo to i.io 
 
 Blade, table > 0.70 
 
 Blade, knife • • 1.15 
 
 Blade, ' pocket 0.90 
 
 Blade, reamer 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 Blanks, milling cutter 1.15 
 
 Bolts, set 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Bushing, spring • 0.80 
 
 c. 
 
 Canes for hitting and missing devices on gas engines 0.80 
 
 Carriers, gun 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Carver i.oo to i.io 
 
270 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Centers, lathe 0.80 to o.go 
 
 Chisels for cutting files 1.20 
 
 Chisels, chipping . i.io 
 
 Chisels, clay 0.80 to o.go 
 
 Chisels for hot work . 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Chisels, railroad track 0.85 
 
 Chisels, blacksmiths' cold • • 0.85 
 
 Chisels, stone cutters' 0.80 to 0.85 
 
 Chisels, wood working 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 Chisels, brick 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Claw bars (pulling spikes) 0.65 to 0.75 
 
 Cone, bicycle 0.70 to 0.80 
 
 Creaser 1.20 to 1.25 
 
 Cruciform, drill 0.95 to i.io 
 
 Cups, boiler makers' 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Cutters, flue • • 1.20 to 1.25 
 
 Cutters, glass 1.20 to 1.25 
 
 Cutters, milling • • 1.20 to 1.25 
 
 Cutters, nail 1.20 to 1.25 
 
 Cutters, corn stalk 0.80 to i.oo 
 
 Cutters, pipe 1.20 to 1.20 
 
 Cutters, tong 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 D. 
 
 Dies, 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies- 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 Dies 
 
 bolt 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 blanking (bottom dies) 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 cartridge shell 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 lever link 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 cold heating 1.15 
 
 cutlery 0.80 to 0.85 
 
 envelope '. 1.15 
 
 drop forging 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 drop forging, for making table knives 0.68 to 0.78 
 
 hammer 0.67 to 0.78 
 
 horseshoe (cold punching) . 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 glove 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 nail 1. 15 
 
 paper cutting 1.15 
 
 pipe 1. 15 to 1.22 
 
 rivet 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 shoe 0.70 to 0.80 
 
 silver spoon 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 silversmiths' 1.15 
 
 tong I.IO to 1. 18 
 
 wire drawing 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 Dies for pointing machine 1.15 
 
 Dies for manufacture of files. 0.67 to 0.78 
 
TABLE OF ARTICLES MADE FROM CRUCIBLE STEEL. 2/1 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Digging bars 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Dog, cant • • . . .0.90 to i.oo 
 
 Drills for drilling tool steel shear knives 1.15 to 1.20 
 
 Drills for boring out shotgun barrels- i.io 
 
 Drills, star i.io 
 
 Drills, quarry • .1.10 to 1.18 
 
 Drills, twist 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 Driver, screw • • 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Edge, straight 1.05 to 1.12 
 
 Expander sections 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 Facing, anvil 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Feather 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 File, cabinet 1.20 to 1.25 
 
 File, cant saw 1.25 to 1.30 
 
 File, Great American cross cut 1.25 to 1.30 
 
 File, pillow 1.25 to 1.30 
 
 File, slim taper 1.25 to 1.30 
 
 Fork 0.90 to I.IO 
 
 Fork, carver 0.58 to 0.62 
 
 Furnace bars 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Flatters 0.60 to 0.70- 
 
 Glut 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Grab ....-• 0.70 to 0.90 
 
 Grips in tube works 0.85 to 0.9a 
 
 H. 
 
 Hammer, bush 1.25 to 1.3a 
 
 Hammer, blacksmiths' 0.67 to 0.78 
 
 Hammer, bush for granite 1.15 
 
 Hammer, machinists' 0.90 to i.oo 
 
 Hammer, nail machine 1.05 to i.io 
 
 Hammer, peen 1.15 
 
 Hammer, pneumatic • • 0.60 to 0.7a 
 
 Hammer, ball peen 0.80 to 0.85 
 
 Hardies 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Hatchet 1.15 to 1.22 
 
 Hoe 0.85 to o.yo 
 
2^2 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Holders, tool 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Hook, cant 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Hook, cant, for hammer dies . 0.68 to 0.78 
 
 Hook, grass 0.60 to 070 
 
 Hobs, for dies 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 J. 
 
 Jar 0.73 to 0.7S 
 
 Jaw, chuck 0.85 to o.QO 
 
 Jaw, gripping 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Jaw, vise 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Jaw for pipe machine 1.15 
 
 Jaw, wire puller. i.io to 1.18 
 
 K. 
 
 Key for hammer 0.75 to 0.80 
 
 Knife, belt 0.80 to 0.85 
 
 Knife, blade • i.oo 
 
 Knife, scarfing 0.90 to 0.95 
 
 Knife, corn 0.80 to i.uo 
 
 Knife, draw 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 Knife, envelope 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 Knife, hog 1.15 
 
 Knife, machine • 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 Knife, paper 1.15 
 
 Knife, pug mill 1.05 to i.io 
 
 Knife, shear 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Knife, whittler 1.15 
 
 Knife, wood working 1.15 to 1.20 
 
 Knife, carver i.oo 
 
 Knife, putty • 0.90 to i.oo 
 
 Knife, straw cutter 0.80 to 0.90 
 
 L. 
 
 Lining for brick dies 1.20 to 1.25 
 
 Links, valve 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 M. 
 
 Magnet for telephones i.io to 1.17 
 
 Magnet 1.23 to 1.25 
 
 Mandrel 1.05 to i.io 
 
 Mauls 0.65 to 0.75 
 
 Mauls, wood choppers' 0.70 to 0.75 
 
 Molds, carbon 0.87 to 0.95 
 
TABLE OF ARTICLES MADE FROM CRUCIBLE STEEL. 273 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Molds, brick 0.80 to 0.90 
 
 Machinery, crucible • • 0.55 to 0.65 
 
 Mattock 0.60 to 0.80 
 
 Mower, ' lawn i.oo 
 
 N. 
 Nut cracker and pick 0.70 to 0.73 
 
 P. 
 
 Pick 0.70 to o.So 
 
 ■ Pick, mill 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 Piercers for nail machine i.io 
 
 Pinch bars 0.75 to 0.85 
 
 Pin, crank. 0.55 to 0.65 
 
 Pin, eye 0.75 to 0.80 
 
 Pm, drift 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Pin, expander i.oo to i.io 
 
 Pin, lever i .05 to i . 10 
 
 Pitching tool 0.80 to 0.S5 
 
 Pivot 1.05 to I. :o 
 
 Planer, stone 0.70 to 0.80 
 
 Planer, wood. 1.15 
 
 Plates, guard 0.90 to i.oo 
 
 Plates for brick dies 0.85 to o.go 
 
 Plate, throat, for hog 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Plate, tool 0.90 to 0.95 
 
 Plow, crucible, for bicycle road scraper 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Plow, ice 0.80 to 0.85 
 
 Plug 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Plungers for bolt machine ■ -0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Plungers 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Pliers . 0.85 to 0.95 
 
 Point 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Point, clay pick .0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Point, piercing 1.40 to 1.50 
 
 Puller, nail . . .1.20 to i.;.^ 
 
 Punch, cartridge shell 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 Punch, hot work 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Punch, file blank i .20 to i .22 
 
 Punch, skate blade 0.85 to o.go 
 
 Punch, washer 0.80 to 0.8S 
 
 Punch, oil cloth • 0.85 to o.go 
 
 Punch, blacksmith 0.80 to 0.85 
 
 Punch, railroad track 0.85 
 
274 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 
 
 R. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Racer, ball 0.90 to 0.95 
 
 Rake 1.15 to 1.25 
 
 Reins, tong 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Ring 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Rods, bench 0.66 to 0.76 
 
 Rods, piston 0.70 to 0.80 
 
 Rolls, expander .1.05 to i.io 
 
 Rolls for hitting and missing device on gas engine .0.85' to o.po 
 
 Rolls, loom mill 0.55 to 0.65 
 
 Rolls for holding steel scrap on wooden shovel handles 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 S. 
 
 Saws, circular 0.80 to 0.90 
 
 Saws for sawing steel 1.60 
 
 Saws, cross cut 0.85 to i.oo 
 
 Saws, band , 0.68 to 0.75 
 
 Saws, drag 0.95 
 
 Saws, pit 0.85 to i.GO 
 
 Saws, mill 1.25 to 1.30 
 
 Saws, gang • • 0.90 to i.oo 
 
 Scarf • • 1.20 to 1.25 
 
 Scrapers, road 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Scrapers, tube • • 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 Screws on elevators 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Screws, set 0.65 to 0.75 
 
 Sets, rivet 0.65 to 0.75 
 
 Sets, button 0.65 to 0.75 
 
 Scythe edge 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 Shafts for skull cracker crane 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Shafts, quick running motor 0.55 to 0.65 
 
 Shear, , pruning 0.85 to 0.93 
 
 Shear, sheep 0.96 
 
 Shim 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Skate 1. 15 
 
 Sledge 0.65 to 0.75 
 
 Slides 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 Snaps 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Spindle 0.55 to 0.G5 
 
 Spring, common locking 1.20 to 1.25 
 
 Spring, knotter. 1.20 to 1.25 
 
 Spring, railroad 0.90 to i.io 
 
 Spring, locomotive 0.90 to i.io 
 
 Steel, carver i .40 
 
 Stretching bars. 1.27 
 
 Swages, saw 0.85 to 0.90 
 
TABLE OF ARTICLES MADE FROM CRUCIBLE STEEL. 2/5 
 
 T. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Taps 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 Taps, nut 1.15 
 
 Taps, spindle 1.20 to 1.22 
 
 Teeth, car wheel 0.85 to o.go 
 
 Teeth, dredge bucket 0.75 to 0.83 
 
 Teeth, shovel 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Teeth, saw 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Tip 0.70 
 
 Tongs 0.90 to 0.95 
 
 Tongs, ingot 0.85 to 0.95 
 
 Tongs, skidding 0.85 to 0.90 
 
 Tool for turning hard rubber 1.05 
 
 Tool for reaming inside of guns 1.05 to 1.12 
 
 Tools, bricklayers' 0.90 to 0.95 
 
 Tools, blacksmiths' • 0.60 to 0.7a 
 
 Tools, moulders' 1.25 to 1.30 
 
 Trowel • 0.40 to 0.45 
 
 V. 
 "Vises .0.90 to 0.95 
 
 W. 
 
 "Wedge, crucible 0.66 to 0.76 
 
 "Wedge, stone ' 0.65 to 0.70 
 
 Wedge for breaking frozen ore 0.60 to 0.70 
 
 Wreath, crucible 0.66 to 0.75 
 
 "Wrenches • • o.So to 0.90 
 
 Wrenches, track 0.80 to 0.^)0 
 
INDEX 
 
 i^vcommodate expansion 98 
 
 Accomplishing fine results with self- 
 hardening steel 27 
 
 Accurate sectional casehardening. . . 139 
 
 Acid, improved soldering 196 
 
 Acme standard thread 222 
 
 Actual pressure against tool 115 
 
 Adoption of nickel steel for forg- 
 
 ings 194 
 
 Advantage derived from the use of 
 
 gas as a fuel 53 
 
 Advantage in the use of the tools. . 116 
 
 Advantage of the method 14S 
 
 Advantage of nickel steel for forg- 
 
 ings 194 
 
 Advise the use of cutters of small 
 
 diameters 115 
 
 Agitating contents of the bath. . . . 103 
 
 Air hardening process 22 
 
 Air tempering furnace 61 
 
 Allowance desired in machining. . . . 188 
 
 Allowing die to cool to a black 168 
 
 Aluminium, lubricant for working. . 196 
 
 Aluminium, solder for 197 
 
 America, Crucible Steel Company of 34 
 America, high-grade steel forgings 
 
 in 176 
 
 America, steel produced in by the 
 
 crucible method 34 
 
 American drill rod 14 
 
 Angular cutters, grinding 232 
 
 ■Angular type of milling cutter .... 154 
 Animus referred to by Admiral 
 
 Evans 178 
 
 Annealed die and tool steel 21 
 
 Annealing ; . . . 38 
 
 Annealing a small quality of steel. 43 
 
 Annealing box for small parts 39 
 
 Annealing chilled cast iron dies for 
 
 drilling 43 
 
 Annealing, furnace-packing the cast- 
 ings 45 
 
 Annealing, how to heat for 37 
 
 Annealing iron castings 137 
 
 Annealing in the charcoal fire 38 
 
 Annealing low carbon steel bars. . . . 136 
 
 Annealing ovens, heating the 47 
 
 Annealing steel in the open Are. ... 43 
 Annealing, straightening and finish- 
 ing malleable castings 46 
 
 Annealing, the effects of water. ... 40 
 
 Annealing, the proper heat for 37 
 
 Annealing, water 39 
 
 Annealing white or silver iron 44 
 
 Anti-friction alloy for journal boxes 197 
 Apparatus used in the Taylor- 
 White process 116 
 
 Appearance of fractures of high- 
 grade steel of various hardness 15 
 Appreciate the advantages of steel 
 
 forgings 179 
 
 Approximate cutting speeds 27 
 
 Approximate speeds for emery and 
 
 polishing wheels 267 
 
 Area of a hexigon 207 
 
 Articles made from crucible cast 
 
 steel 34 
 
 Articles, hardening long thin 
 
 Articles, tempering thin 
 
 Art of forging with drop hammers. 
 
 Art of steel treatment, how to in- 
 struct in the 
 
 Arts, Society of .......■••■■■••• • 
 
 Arranged alphabetically, table oi 
 tempers 
 
 Asbestos washers ...........■••• 
 
 Ascertaining the size of pulleys for 
 given speeds • • • • 
 
 A-5Sorted stock of metal for drop 
 forgings .•••.•••■ 
 
 Attachment for surface grinding. . 
 
 Attainment of satisfactory results. 
 
 Attention to the proper selection of 
 steel in diemaking 
 
 At bottom of thread, decimal con- 
 stants for finding diameter 
 
 Authority on the subject .... 
 
 Average time required to machine 
 fourteen sheaves ■ • • 
 
 Average speeds for cutting drills. 
 
 Axial type of milling cutter 
 
 122 
 
 187 
 
 31 
 19T 
 
 125 
 112 
 
 195- 
 
 191 
 251 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 210 
 95 
 
 114 
 223 
 154 
 
 Babbiting .•.•■■••■..■ 
 
 Baking enamels and vulcanizing rub- 
 ber, table of suitable tempera- 
 tures for casehardening, core 
 ovens, drying kilns..... 127, 
 
 Barrel heating machine for harden- 
 ing and tempering balls, saw 
 teeth, screws, etc 
 
 Bath, the A' ' ■■ \: 
 
 Bearing rings, hardening five-inch 
 thrust 
 
 Belts, horse power of 
 
 Bench forge 
 
 Bessemer steel, casehardening 
 
 Bethlehem Steel Company 
 
 Bevel edges, how to grind a slit- 
 ting knife with 
 
 Binds the grains together 
 
 "Biting in" 
 
 Blanking die, hardening a 
 
 Blanking or cutting dies, harden- 
 ing large 
 
 Blazing off springs 
 
 Blind to the temper colors of steel. 
 
 Blistering, preventing it while heat- 
 
 ing 
 
 Blows water from the teeth 
 
 Blue, to draw small steel parts 
 
 to a • 
 
 Board with stripes of paint and 
 
 names of steels 
 
 Boiled water 
 
 Bone, charring the 
 
 Bone, to char the 
 
 Borax of commerce 
 
 Both die and punch should be 
 
 hard *. 
 
 Brands of steel in freneral use.... 
 Brands suitable for special classes 
 
 of sheet-metal working 
 
 Brass articles, lacquer for 
 
 Break like glass 
 
 196 
 
 128- 
 
 75 
 13& 
 
 131 
 225 
 65 
 133 
 113 
 
 245 
 265 
 204 
 166 
 
 173 
 161 
 176 
 
 142 
 154 
 
 161 
 
 14 
 
 96 
 
 134 
 
 134 
 
 175 
 
 174 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 206 
 
 157 
 
INDEX. 
 
 277 
 
 Breaking down point 113 
 
 Bringing slowly to tlie required 
 
 heat 143 
 
 Buggy springs, to weld 194 
 
 Bulky portion contracts away from 
 
 the frailer portions 168 
 
 Bunsen bu,rner 122 
 
 Bureau of Steam Engineering. . . . 194 
 
 Burning off not necessary 120 
 
 Bushing, how to grind a hardened 
 
 drilling jig : 243 
 
 C 
 
 Cake of soap, hardening in Ill 
 
 ■Calculations for determining speeds, 
 
 27, 195 
 
 Capable of withstanding wear.... 142 
 
 Capacity of steel to cut 30 
 
 Capital steel 18 
 
 Carbon and air-hardening steels 
 
 deteriorate, when 113 
 
 Careful in heating and quenching. . 95 
 
 Careless and unequal hammering. . 159 
 
 Carnegie Steel Company 140 
 
 Casehardening as it should be under- 
 stood 142 
 
 Casehardening, accurate sectional. 139 
 
 Casehardening tools 129 
 
 Casehardening cups and cones 198 
 
 "Casehardening furnaces 85 
 
 Casehardening mixture for iron. . . 141 
 
 Casehardening, Moxon's method for. 141 
 
 Casehardening, outfit for fine grain. 129 
 
 Casehardening polished parts 142 
 
 Casehardening paste 141 
 
 Casehardening the ends of steel 
 
 rails 140 
 
 Casehardening, very deep 140 
 
 ■ Casehardening with kerosene 197 
 
 Casehardening with cyanide of po- 
 tassium 137 
 
 Casting chain links , 48 
 
 Castings, annealing furnaces, pack- 
 ing the 45 
 
 Castings, annealing iron 137 
 
 Castings, annealing, straightening 
 
 and finishing 46 
 
 Cast iron, to harden 141 
 
 Cast iron, to weld 183 
 
 Cast steel, composition for welding. 183 
 
 Cause of cracks in dies 167 
 
 Causes of failure in using high- 
 grade steel 15 
 
 Causes the oil to come in contact 
 
 with the teeth 146 
 
 Chain, automatic heating machine 
 
 for hardening 85 
 
 Changes in the grain of the metal. 17 
 Changes of length produced by heat. 32 
 Characteristic appearance of frac- 
 tures „ 15 
 
 Charcoal 182 
 
 Charcoal, annealing in 38 
 
 Charcoal and bone 133- 
 
 Charcoal, bone and 133 
 
 Charcoal, casehardening cups and 
 
 cones in 198 
 
 Charcoal, flame, tempering in 122 
 
 Charcoal for heating 100 
 
 Charcoal made from charred 
 
 leather 109 
 
 Charcoal on the ton of the lead. . . 153 
 
 Charcoal, the best 1 82 
 
 Charcoal, to caseharden with 140 
 
 Charring the bone 134 
 
 Cheapest drop f orgings 192 
 
 Cheaply made cyanide hardening 
 
 pot 138 
 
 Checking the temper Ill 
 
 Chemical changes in clay 132 
 
 Chemical compounds, receipts for. 124 
 
 Chief of Ordnance, report of 108 
 
 Chucking drills 198 
 
 Circular annealing and hardening 
 
 furnace 81 
 
 Circular forming tools 203 
 
 Circulation of a stream of water 
 
 upward 162 
 
 Circumstances determine the amount 
 
 of shear to give 174 
 
 Citric acid crystals 96 
 
 Classified, milling cutters 154 
 
 Clay, heat effects on 32 
 
 Cleaning the work 135 
 
 Clearance on tools for brass 204 
 
 Closely controlling temperature. . . 116 
 
 Coaly animal matter 142 
 
 Coarse appearance of grain 23 
 
 Coarse crystalline section 182 
 
 Coating with tallow 43 
 
 Coke suitable for hardening 100 
 
 Collection of plain milling cutters. 144 
 Collecting the segregation and pip- 
 ing in the center 180 
 
 Collet spring chucks, hardening... 112 
 Colors from a light straw to a deep 
 
 blue 136 
 
 Colors of steel, table of tempers 
 
 for tools 125 
 
 Color on steel simply an indication. 
 
 of heat 117 
 
 Colors, table of temper 128 
 
 Colors, tempering by 117 
 
 Colt, Colonel Samuel 187 
 
 Combination gas furnace for gen- 
 eral machine shop work 54 
 
 Combined oil and water method. . 146 
 Composition called the texture. . . . 265 
 Composition for cast steel, welding. 183 
 
 Composition to toughen steel 184 
 
 Compounds for welding steel 183 
 
 Consumption of oil small 121 
 
 Concave or straight, how to grind 
 milling cutters and metal slit- 
 ting saws 252 
 
 Condition to be prized in steel. ... 17 
 Conditions of the different sections. 16 
 Confounding cracks with hardening. 167 
 Consequent contraction and expan- 
 sion 168 
 
 Consequent sudden chill 112 
 
 Construction and operation of barrel 
 
 heating machine 77 
 
 Constant reheating 99 
 
 Contraction during quenching .... 99 
 
 Contraction during cooling 180 
 
 Contracting excessively in the cen- 
 ter 1 72 
 
 Cooling '. 136 
 
 Cooling or quenching 100 
 
 Coppering polished steel surfaces. 196 
 
 Cooper-over surface nicely 196 
 
 Core of tool left comparatively 
 
 soft 149 
 
 Corliss, George H 177 
 
 Cost and endurance of forging 
 
 dies 100 
 
 Cost of good steel 13 
 
 Cost of gas as compared with other 
 
 fuel 53 
 
 Costly accidents 24 
 
 Coiinterbores. heating in lead 106 
 
 Counterbores. clearance for 204 
 
 Counterbores, internally lubricated 204 
 Counterbores for cast iron and steel 204 
 
 Counterboring 204 
 
 Covering with clay 43 
 
 Coyan, M. E 140 
 
 Cracks in dies, their cause 167 
 
 Crescent steel 18 
 
 Crucible Steel Company of America. 34 
 
278 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Crucible steel, table of articles 
 made from, giving percentage 
 
 of carbon they should contain. 269 
 
 Crucible cast steel 176 
 
 Crude and obsolete means for heat- 
 ing and cooling 50 
 
 Crude oil for rock drill tempering. 120 
 Crystallizes from shock or vibra- 
 tion in service 182 
 
 Cubic contents in inches of a bar 
 
 of iron 207 
 
 Cubic foot of water, weight and 
 
 capacity 105 
 
 Cutter and tool grinder 227 
 
 Cutter bits, hardening 159 
 
 Cutter blades 104 
 
 Cutter for milling teeth in spiral 
 
 mills 155 
 
 Cutter lubricant 225 
 
 Cutter lubricant for steel or iron . 225 
 
 Cutters to remain in oil until cold. 146 
 
 Cutters, milling, their use 154 
 
 Cutting and durability qualities of 
 
 steel 30 
 
 Cutting at high speeds Ill 
 
 Cutting speeds, table of 138 
 
 Cutting speeds for cast iron 27 
 
 Cutting speeds for malleable iron. 28 
 
 Cutting speeds for steel 30 
 
 Cutting speeds for brass 30 
 
 Cutting tools, speeds for 27 
 
 Cutting tools, self -hardening 27 
 
 Cutting tools, casehardening 130 
 
 Cutting thin stock 174 
 
 Cutting edges of twist drills 198 
 
 Cutlasses, tempering swords and. . 123 
 
 Cyanide hardening furnaces 95 
 
 Cyanide soap 206 
 
 Cylindrical casehardening furnace. 85 
 
 D 
 
 Day, Mr. Charles 113 
 
 Dead cold 157 
 
 Decarbonization 99 
 
 Decarbonized steel surfaces 24 
 
 Decarbonizes, when steel 52 
 
 Decimal equivalents of milli- 
 meters 208 
 
 Decimal equivalents of fractional 
 
 parts of inch 209 
 
 Deep blue, colors from a light 
 
 straw to a 136 
 
 Deep casehardening, very 140 
 
 Deep recesses, work with 95 
 
 Defects running through center of 
 
 bars 23 
 
 Defining the terms 36 
 
 Definite degree of elasticity, hard- 
 ening steel to 31 
 
 Degree to which the article ex- 
 pands 99 
 
 Degrees of softness down to a blue 
 
 tinged with green 117 
 
 Degrees of softness below that de- 
 noted by thermometer 117 
 
 Delicate pieces, dipping 131 
 
 Desirable condition in drop dies.... 164 
 
 Desirable tendency 158 
 
 Determining the correct hardening 
 
 process 15 
 
 Dpterioration due to heating 21 
 
 Device for hardening bushings, shell 
 
 reamers, etc Ill 
 
 Diamond tool holder 253 
 
 ■nie-blank, reannealing 170 
 
 Die steel 14 
 
 Die steel, hardening poor 172 
 
 Dies cracking while in the forge. . . 168 
 Dies, drop, hardening and temper- 
 ing 163 
 
 Dies from forgings of wrought iron 
 
 and steel 162: 
 
 Dies hardening fluids for 172 
 
 Dies hardening and tempering large 
 
 cutting US- 
 Dies spoiled through carelessness 
 
 and inexperience 167 
 
 Dies used for special drop forgings. 187 
 
 Dies for regular shaped blanks .... 12i> 
 Difference between hard steel and 
 
 tough steel 93 
 
 Diffei-ent methods of packing cast- 
 ings in pots 4& 
 
 Different quenching baths, their ef- 
 fects on steel 96- 
 
 DiflBculties encountered in introduc- 
 ing high-grade steel 181 
 
 Diminishing width of cutting face. 267 
 Dipping a long half-round reamer. . 105- 
 Dipping at an angle of about 20 de- 
 degrees 105- 
 
 Dipping fluted reamers when hard- 
 ening 157 
 
 Dipping half-round or "gun" ream- 
 ers when hardening 105- 
 
 Dipping in a strong solution of salt 
 
 and water 96 
 
 Dipping on a rising heat 1&^ 
 
 Dipping small tools when harden- 
 ing 156- 
 
 Dipping vertically 101 to 10ft- 
 
 Disagreeable possibility eliminatBd. 16t> 
 Discarding the color method of tem- 
 pering IID' 
 
 Distortion takes place, when 97 
 
 Distortion through uneven heating. 9T 
 Direct a stream of water onto the 
 
 face of the die 164 
 
 Directions for annealing with gran- 
 ulated raw bone 136- 
 
 Directions for setting up drop ham- 
 mers 192 
 
 Double face mill 146- 
 
 Doubtful steel, to anneal 4S 
 
 Drawbacks to the commercial use 
 
 of nickel steel 194r 
 
 Drawbacks to the use of aluminum. 197 
 Drawbridge disc and similar work, 
 
 hardening 131 
 
 Drawing and forming dies, chilled 
 
 iron 43^ 
 
 Drawing to a temper of 400 de- 
 grees 122- 
 
 Drilling a large hole in a spindle. . 198'- 
 Drilling, annealing cast iron dies 
 
 for 43 
 
 Drilling hard steel, lubricant for. 196- 
 Drilling or turning aluminum, lubri- 
 cant for 196 
 
 Drill entered through a bushing. . . 19ft- 
 
 Drill with one cutting edge 19ft 
 
 Drills for brass 198- 
 
 Drills for standard pipe taps, sizes 
 
 of 218^ 
 
 Drop dies, hardening and tempering. 163 
 
 Drop forged bracket 192: 
 
 Drop forged crank shafts 188 
 
 Drop forged wrenches 18ft 
 
 Drop forged gear blank 191 
 
 Drop forging plant 186- 
 
 Drop hammers, forging 185 
 
 Drop hammers, directions for set- 
 ting up forging 192; 
 
 K 
 
 Kach brand in separate rack 14 
 
 FJccentric ring, hardening an 98 
 
 Economical use of gas as a fuel.. 53 
 Economy in purchasing cheap tool 
 
 steel, no H* 
 
INDEX. 
 
 2/9 
 
 Economy in steel, how to obtain. .. 13 
 Economy in testing steel before us- 
 ing 24 
 
 Effects of heat on steel 97 
 
 Efficiency and judgment 95 
 
 Efforts of the sovernment to obtain 
 
 steel suitable for large guns. . 177 
 
 Elastic limit of nickel steel 194 
 
 Eliminating tendency to warp.... 112 
 Eliminating the possibility of warp- 
 ing 166 
 
 Emery wheels, their use 265 
 
 Empty crucible after using 107 
 
 English blue 161 
 
 English works duplicated 179 
 
 Entering the die edgeways Ill 
 
 Entirely eliminated, segregation and 
 
 piping 180 
 
 Equal sectional area 98 
 
 Equivalent measures, table of Eng- 
 lish or American (U. S.) . . . . 211 
 Establishments devoted exclusively 
 to the manufacturing of drop 
 
 forgings 191 
 
 Establishment where thousands of 
 
 dies are made every year 167 
 
 Evans, Admiral Robley D 178 
 
 Even grain and velvety appearance. 17 
 Even spacing instead of staggered. 199 
 
 Even temper 165 
 
 Expansion of different metals.... 341 
 Exact knowledge in the matter... 113 
 Exact degree of temper determined 
 
 by experiment 118 
 
 Expansion of gases 31 
 
 Expansion of wrought iron for each 
 
 degree Fahrenheit 38 
 
 Expansion uneaual 32 
 
 Expansion reamers 201 
 
 Expert in the art 95 
 
 Experience in working and using 
 
 the different brands 13 
 
 Experience, skill and sound judg- 
 ment 95, 
 
 Experience with different grades of 
 
 steel 13 
 
 Experience with crude oil 120 
 
 Experimental treatment 15 
 
 Exposing heated steel to a current 
 
 of air 20 
 
 Extensive experiments with various 
 
 metals 194 
 
 Extensive use to which drop forg- 
 
 gings have been put 188 
 
 Extra cost of annealed steel 14 
 
 Extra heavy work, hardening 131 
 
 F 
 
 Face milling large castings, steel 
 
 for 27 
 
 Facing 204 
 
 Features, prominent 227 
 
 Ferris wheel shaft 181 
 
 Figuring cost of tools 188 
 
 Figuring the surface speeds of emery 
 
 wheels and milling cutters. . . 207 
 
 Files, to temper old 160 
 
 Finding diameter of driven 195 
 
 Finding number of revolutions of 
 
 driver 195' 
 
 Finding the area of cylinder 206 
 
 Finding the capacity of a cylinder 
 
 in gallons 205 
 
 Pine grain, casehardening for.... 12^ 
 
 Fine grain, compact 129 
 
 Finest metal pattern work 49' 
 
 Finishing cold, hammering hard 
 
 and 18 
 
 Finishing without grinding or clean- 
 ing 198 
 
 Fire and heat, the hardening 99 
 
 Fire must be free from gas 136 
 
 Fire of small soft coal 100 
 
 First advisory board for rebuild- 
 ing navy 178 
 
 First annealing does not eliminate 
 
 the liability of cracking 168 
 
 Fixed general rules 18 
 
 Flange-ended tubes, clamping be- 
 tween 156 
 
 "Floating" reamer 201 
 
 Fluids for dies, hardening 172 
 
 Fluted cuts too shallow 199 
 
 Fluted reamers, when hardening. . 157 
 Flux, a good welding, for steel... 175 
 
 Flux, French welding 185 
 
 Flux, for soldering and welding... 187 
 
 Force contents into hole 154 
 
 Formed butt mill 147 
 
 Forge, bench 65 
 
 Forged, how hollow shafts are .... 179 
 Forged, steel for tools which re- 
 quire to be 176 
 
 Forging, drop 187 
 
 Forging, drop hammers, directions 
 
 for setting up 192 
 
 Forgings from steel of high car- 
 bon 191 
 
 Forgings for cutting dies 18 
 
 Forgings, government use of nickel 
 
 steel for 194 
 
 Forgings in America, high-grade. . 176 
 
 Forgings, steel die 14 
 
 Forging, heating steel for 18, 176 
 
 Forging plant, larger and superior 
 
 to any in the world 179 
 
 Forging to shape 18 
 
 Formed type milling cutter 155 
 
 Formed face mill 147 
 
 Formed cutters with steps 203 
 
 Formulas for sharp V thread. 
 United States standard thread, 
 Whitworth standard thread . . . 221 
 
 Frequent renewal by forging 99 
 
 From cast iron and steel, to make 
 
 edged tools 183 
 
 From steel, to remove scale 197 
 
 From 32 degs. F. to 212 degs. F., 
 
 table of expansion 34 
 
 Furnace, air tempering 61 
 
 Furnace, circular annealing and 
 
 hardening 80 
 
 Furnace, cylindrical casehardening. 81 
 
 Furnace, lead hardening 88 
 
 Furnaces, casehardening 85 
 
 Furnaces, cyanide hardening 91 
 
 Furnaces, muffle 93 
 
 Furnaces, oil tempering 81 
 
 G 
 
 Gages, hardening ring 156 
 
 Gaging the heat by thermometer. . 119 
 
 "Gall" and "nerve" 95 
 
 Gang of straight face milling cut- 
 ters 146 
 
 Gang of cutters for machining a 
 
 wide formed surface 147 
 
 Gang punch, hardening and temper- 
 ing a split' 173 
 
 Gas blast forges, their use 54 
 
 Gas consumption 53 
 
 Gasi flame, tempering in 158 
 
 Gas forge for knife and shear 
 
 blades 64 
 
 Gas forge for small work 59 
 
 Gear cutter grinding 238 
 
 General directions 252 
 
 General directions and rules for the 
 
 hardening of steel 97 
 
28o 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 General matter relative to malleable 
 
 iron machine parts 48 
 
 General smith work, hardening mix- 
 ture for 160 
 
 Generation of steam when harden- 
 ing 97 
 
 Getting rid of the center of a hol- 
 low forging 179 
 
 Glue to resist moisture .^. . 206 
 
 Good and uniform temper '. iQl 
 
 Good weld between parts, neces- 
 sary to have 162 
 
 Good welding flux for steel 175 
 
 Good steel for good tools 38 
 
 Good tools, good steel for 38 
 
 Government blue 161 
 
 Government use of nickel steel for 
 
 forgings I94 
 
 Grade and texture of the wheel. . . . 265 
 
 Grade of steel to use for dies 14 
 
 Gravers, to temper 160 
 
 Grain rendered coarse and brittle. 105 
 
 Granulated charcoal 130 
 
 Granulated raw bone, directions for 
 
 annealing with 136 
 
 Granulated raw bone, obtaining 
 
 colors with 136 
 
 Granulated raw bone, how to case- 
 harden, color and anneal with. 130 
 
 Graphite crucible 106 
 
 Great flexibility of steel 175 
 
 Great hardness, testing for 24 
 
 Great ordnance works of the Bethle- 
 hem Steel Company 177 
 
 Greatest uniformity and maximum 
 
 results 115 
 
 Green coal 100 
 
 Grinder, a small cutter 254 
 
 Grinder, Cincinnati universal cutter 
 
 and tool 227 
 
 Grinding angular cutters 232 
 
 Grinding, attachment for surface. . 251 
 
 Grinding a bevel cutter 259 
 
 Grinding a die blank to the re- 
 quired angle 248 
 
 Grinding a die in its bolster 264 
 
 Grinding a formed tool on its face. 248 
 
 Grinding a gang of mills 263 
 
 Grinding a gage to a given dimen- 
 sion 250 
 
 Grinding a hardened drilling jig 
 
 bushing 243 
 
 Grinding a hand reamer 241 
 
 Grinding a shear plate 247 
 
 Grinding a straight edge 246 
 
 Grinding a spiral mill 231 
 
 Grinding a spiral tooth cutter.... 259 
 Grinding a slitting knife with bev- 
 eled edges 245 
 
 Grinding a snap gage 265 
 
 Grinding a taper spindle 244 
 
 Grinding a taper reamer 241 
 
 Grinding a tap held in reamer cen- 
 ters 260 
 
 Grinding a taper reamer with 
 
 straight backed off edges 260 
 
 Grinding a taper reamer with shear I 
 
 cutting edges 261 
 
 Grinding a worm wheel hob 241 
 
 Grinding a twenty-four inch cold 
 
 saw 237 
 
 Grinding an inserted tooth mill. . 263 
 Grinding broad surfaces, wheels 
 
 suitable for 266 
 
 Grinding cutters of small diameters 
 
 and sharp angles 231 
 
 Grinding, cutter and tool 227 
 
 Grinding formed cutters 240 
 
 Grinding, general dii-ections for. . . . 252 
 
 Grinding gear cutters 238 
 
 Grinding, internal 246 
 
 Grinding lathe tools, wheels suit- 
 able for 266 
 
 Grinding milling cutters and metal 
 
 slitting saws, large 236 
 
 Grinding mil'ing cutters or saws 
 
 straight or concave 252 
 
 Grinding milling machine cutters, 
 
 wheels suitable for 266 
 
 Grinding soft metals, wheels suit- 
 able for 266 
 
 Grinding shell counterbores 236 
 
 Grinding side milling cutters with 
 
 a large wheel 230 
 
 Grinding, shapes and sizes of emery 
 
 wheels for tool 228 
 
 Grinding side milling cutters 233 
 
 Grinding twist drills 202 
 
 Grinding reamer blades convex. . . . 199 
 
 Grinding the bevel corner on a 
 
 double end butt mill 263 
 
 Grinding the face of a double end 
 
 butt mill 262 
 
 Grinding the face of a small end 
 
 mill 261 
 
 Grinding the sides of an end mill. 262 
 
 Grinding the face of a straddle mill. 258 
 
 Grinding the reverse side of a face 
 
 mill 258 
 
 Grinding the sides of a face or 
 
 straddle mill 257 
 
 Grinding, the wheels suitable for 
 
 internal 268 
 
 Grinding, the wheels suitable for 
 
 rough 266 
 
 Ground in special machines 174 
 
 Ground work, samples of 229 
 
 H 
 
 Hammer all sides alike 159 
 
 Hammer directly over spot rest- 
 ing on anvil 123 
 
 Hammering and rolling steel billets 179 
 Hard or soft punches and dies... 163 
 
 Hard or soft wheels 265 
 
 Hard steel, lubricant for drilling . . 196 
 Hard steel, tempering flat drills 
 
 for drilling 160 
 
 Hard stock, tempering flat drills 
 
 for 160 
 
 Harden in bath with teeth up ... . 154 
 Hardened machine steel parts, to 
 
 produce fine ^rain 139 
 
 Hardener will be blamed 175 
 
 Hardening and tempering spring 
 
 collet spring chucks 112 
 
 Hardening and tempering drop dies. 163 
 Hardening and tempering large "cut- 
 ting" or "blanking" dies .- 173 
 
 Hardening and tempering mill picks. 121 
 Hardening and tempering milling 
 
 cutters in water and oil 147 
 
 Hardening and tempering, proper 
 
 equipment for 52 
 
 Hardening and tempering small 
 
 taps, knives, springs, etc 160 
 
 Hardening and tempering split 
 
 gang punches 173 
 
 Hardening and tempering springs. 161 
 Hardening and tempering round 
 
 thread dies Ill 
 
 Hardening and tempering, special 
 
 instructions for 110 
 
 Hardening around a hole 156 
 
 Hardening at different tempera- 
 tures Ill 
 
 Hardening a blanking die 166 
 
 Hardening cutting bits 159 
 
 Hardening drawbridge disc and sim- 
 ilar work 131 
 
 Hardening extra heavy work 131 
 
INDEX. 
 
 281 
 
 Hardening equally all through 99 
 
 Hardening files 108 to 160 
 
 Hardening five-inch thrust bearing 
 
 rings 131 
 
 Hardening fluids for dies 172 
 
 Hardening, heating for 18 
 
 Hardening, heating in hot lead 
 
 for 106 
 
 Hardening hollow mills 153 
 
 Hardening in clear oil 173 
 
 Hardening in solutions 106 
 
 Hardening, judgment and careful- 
 ness in 95 
 
 Hardening large milling cutters. .. 143 
 
 Hardening large pieces 95 
 
 Hardening large dies 162 
 
 Hardening long taper reamers, 
 
 103 to 109 
 
 Hardening metal saws 15'.) 
 
 Hardening milling cutters in the 
 
 open fire 143 
 
 Hardening mixtures for general 
 
 smith work 160 
 
 Hardening of inexpensive cutting 
 
 tools 118 
 
 Hardening poor die steel 172 
 
 Hardening, (juenching for 100 
 
 Hardening ring gages 156 
 
 Hardening small parts and long 
 
 thin parts 104 
 
 Hardening small saws 159 
 
 Hardening successful 38 
 
 Hardening the walls of a round 
 
 die 169 
 
 Hardening steel by petroleum 197 
 
 Hardening thick round dies 172 
 
 Hardening very small punches.... 171 
 Hardening very thin tools so as to 
 
 prevent warping 158 
 
 Hardening V shaped milling cut- 
 ters 152 
 
 Hardening shell reamers, bushings, 
 
 hobSj etc Ill 
 
 Hardening, warping of punches in. . 171 
 
 Hardening, warping of tools in 109 
 
 Hastings, B 120 
 
 Heat distributed equally 119 
 
 Heat affects center equally with 
 
 outside 180 
 
 Heat effects on copper and bronze. 119 
 
 Heat effects on clay 32 
 
 Heat, first effect of 31 
 
 Heat, second effect of 34 
 
 Heat, the 135 
 
 Heat, the hardening fire and the . . 99 
 
 Heating 50 
 
 Heating according to shape 98 
 
 Heating and tempering, effects of 
 
 slow 97 
 
 Heating, distortion through uneven. 97 
 
 Heating for forging 18 
 
 Heating for hardening 18 
 
 Heating furnace, the location of the 52 
 
 Heating in the open fire 99 
 
 Heating in hot lead for hardening. 106 
 Heating machine for hardening the 
 
 edges of mover blades 69 
 
 Heating machine for hardening 
 
 cones and shells 70 
 
 Heating machine for small parts. . 73 
 Heating machine for tempering and 
 
 coloring steel 78 
 
 Heating machine with revolving 
 
 trays 71 
 
 Heating steel for forging 18 
 
 Heating slowly to a spring tem- 
 per 158 
 
 Heating steel, temperature tell-tales 
 
 for 159 
 
 Heating the annealing ovens 47 
 
 Heating the steel too quickly 99 
 
 Heating the die 168 
 
 Heating unequally 159 
 
 Heats, welding 175 
 
 Heavy work, hardening extra 131 
 
 Heavy oil 108 
 
 Heavy springs, hardening 120 
 
 Highest carbon steel, not desirable 
 
 to use 103 
 
 High-carbon steels, the treatment 
 
 of 15 
 
 High-grade steel forglngs in Amer- 
 ica 176 
 
 High-grade steel in the smith's fire. 160 
 Hinged plates for hardening saws. 108 
 History of the change from iron 
 forglngs to high-grade steel 
 
 forglngs in America 177 
 
 Hob, how to grind a wormwheel 
 
 hob 241 
 
 Hobs or master taps 102 
 
 Hobson's steel 18 
 
 Hollow forglngs, oil-tempered and 
 
 annealed 180 
 
 Hollow ingot 180 
 
 Hollow mills, how to temper .... 153 
 
 Hollow mills, hardening 153 
 
 Hot water, hardening in 117 
 
 Hot water, tempering springs in. . 120 
 
 Horse power of belts 225 
 
 Howe-Brown steel 18 
 
 How to casehardeuj color and an- 
 neal with granulated raw bone 130 
 How to caseharden malleable iron. 133 
 How to caseharden rolls, leaving 
 
 tenons soft for riveting 132 
 
 How to dump the work 135 
 
 How to grind a die blank to the 
 
 required angle 248 
 
 How to grind milling cutters and 
 metal slitting saws straight or 
 
 concave 252 
 
 How to grind a hardened drilling 
 
 jig bushing 243 
 
 How to grind a slitting knife with 
 
 bevel edges 245 
 
 How to grind a wormwheel hob. . . 241 
 
 How to grind a taper spindle 244 
 
 How to harden a long punch so as 
 
 to prevent warping 165 
 
 How to grind a large ring die.... 164 
 
 How to heat for annealing 37 
 
 How to restore overheated steel . . . 184 
 How to thoroughly anneal high- 
 grade tool steel parts 37 
 
 How to use old bone 133 
 
 How hollow shafts are forged 179 
 
 Hubbard's granulated raw bone . . . 130 
 
 I 
 
 Illustrations showing various work 
 performed on a different type 
 of universal cutter and tool 
 
 grinder 257 
 
 Imperfect preceding operations .... 167 
 Importance of having a good foun- 
 dation for drop 192 
 
 Impossible for the operator to be- 
 come skilled in the art 119 
 
 Improper means for grinding 168 
 
 Improved soldering and tinning 
 
 acid 19S 
 
 Improvements in the manufactur- 
 ing and forging of crucible 
 
 cast steel 176 
 
 Improving poor steel 184 
 
 Inception of the art 187 
 
 Increasing the size of the reamer 
 
 when worn 195 
 
 Individual testing by the toolmak- 
 
 ers 24 
 
282 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Information upon air-hardening 
 
 steels 113 
 
 Information of value to practical 
 
 men 31 
 
 Injurious effects of overheating. ... IS 
 
 Injuring the quality of the metal. . 175 
 
 Inserted type of milling cutters .... 198 
 
 Insure against warping 1.58 
 
 Interesting data 114 
 
 Internal anvil 180 
 
 Internal grinding 24(j 
 
 Internal strains, their cause 175 
 
 In America, high-grade steel forg- 
 
 ings 176/ 
 
 In crude oil, tempering rock drills. 120 
 In exr)ansion and contraction, 
 
 amount of force exerted 33 
 
 In hardening, straightening long 
 
 tools VFhich have warped 157 
 
 In hardening, the use of clay 110 
 
 In hardening steel, temperature 
 
 tell-tales for use 134, 159 
 
 In U. S. table of different stan- 
 dards for wire gage used 219 
 
 In welding, substitute for borax. . 187 
 
 Iron, a casehardening mixture for. . 141 
 Iron and steel sheets, table of 
 
 weights of 214 
 
 Iron and steel, welding power for. . 183 
 
 Iron castings, to anneal 137 
 
 Iron, silver or white, annealing. . . 44 
 
 Irregular pieces, heating 107 
 
 T 
 
 Jessop's steel 18 
 
 Joshua Rose. M.E 98 
 
 Journal of the Franklin Institute. 113 
 Journal of the United States Ar- 
 tillery 206 
 
 Judgment and carefulness in hard- 
 ening 95 
 
 Judgment, experience and percep- 
 tion in the working of steel . . 31 
 
 K 
 
 Kerosene, casehardening witn 197 
 
 Kinds of steel produced in Amer- 
 ica by the crucible and open 
 
 hearth process 34 
 
 Knives, tempering wood-planer. . . . 122 
 Knowledge and skill employed in 
 
 working steel 95 
 
 Labitte, M. 1 I'gB 
 
 Laboratory experiments 182 
 
 Lacquer for brass articles 206 
 
 Lacquer for silver 206 
 
 Large milling cutter, hardening... 143 
 Large power units used in electric 
 
 generating stations 176 
 
 Large ring dies, how to harden... 164 
 
 Large spiral fluted "hob" tap 19 
 
 Large tank indispensable 162 
 
 Large tank provided with perfor- 
 ated tray 167 
 
 Latent prejudice against hollow 
 
 forgings ISl 
 
 Laying out work 196 
 
 Lead hardening furnace SS 
 
 Leaving one of the dies soft T^"' 
 
 Length, measure of 211 
 
 Liability to crack 101 
 
 Liability to fracture 15 
 
 Lime, to clean tank with 20 
 
 Lineal foot, table of pounds per. . . 215 
 
 Link Belt Encineering Company.. T13 
 
 Lodge, Mr. William ". . . 199 
 
 Long delicate reamers 110 
 
 Long, flat or round objects, harden- 
 ing 105- 
 
 Long knives sure to warp 123 
 
 Long taper die-taps 103 
 
 Loose dirt, to clean in 121 
 
 Low carbon steel bars, to anneal. . 136 
 Lowered, modified, tempered, less- 
 ened 117 
 
 Lubricant for cutting 225 
 
 Lubricant for cutting steel or iron. 225 
 
 Lubricant for drilling hard steel. . 196 
 
 Lubricant for water cuts 196 
 
 Lubricant for working aluminum.. 196- 
 
 M 
 
 Machine, attacTiOients which are 
 
 used on the 256 
 
 Machine blacksmithing ISQ^ 
 
 Machine, construction and operation 
 
 of barrel heating 77 
 
 Machine parts, general matter rela- 
 tive to malleable iron 48- 
 
 Machine parts, the annealing of 
 malleable castings and the man- 
 ufacture of malleable iron. . . . 44 
 
 Machine reaming 201 
 
 Machine screw taps, table of tap 
 
 drills for 218 
 
 Machine steel casehardened tools. . 129' 
 Machines, processes and tools used 
 
 in the art 187 
 
 Machinery steel cutting tools 129' 
 
 Making a tap or reamer cut larger 
 
 than itself 195 
 
 Making welding heats, coke for. . . . 100 
 
 Malleable department 4ft 
 
 Malleable iron, how to caseharden . . 133 
 
 Manipulated in the fire 97 
 
 Marking each separate brand 14 
 
 Master Mechanics' and Master Car 
 
 Builders' Association 177 
 
 Material possessing a very high 
 
 elastic limit 181 
 
 Maximum efficiency 113, 116- 
 
 Measure of length 211 
 
 Measure of surface 21 1 
 
 Measure of volume and capacity. . . 211 
 
 Measui-e of weight 211 
 
 Measuring expansion and contrac- 
 tion 32 
 
 Medimum cuts and feeds and coarse 
 
 thread cutting 27 
 
 Melting points, table of 124 
 
 Melting pots 90- 
 
 Metal is improving by forging 191 
 
 Metal pattern shop of malleable de- 
 partment •. 49 
 
 Metal saws, to harden 108 
 
 Metal slitting saws 154 
 
 Metal to expand in cooling 206 
 
 Method, advantages of the 147 
 
 Metric and U. S. measures 211 
 
 Messrs. Taylor and White . 113 
 
 Middle softer than the outside .... 99 
 
 Mild steel chins and borax 16.3 
 
 Min picks, bath for hardening 121 
 
 Mill picks, hardening and tempering 121 
 Mill picks, temnering of cast steel ] 121 
 
 Mill picks, to teraner 121 
 
 Mill should be inverted . 153 
 
 Millimeters and fractions of milli- 
 meters, decimal enuivalents 20S- 
 
 Millimeters of, table 20R 
 
 Milling cutters, hardening V shaned 152 
 Milling wrought iron or steel, lubri- 
 cant for 204 
 
 Mining and Scientific Press..!!! ! 120 
 
 Mistakes and accidents ! 24 
 
 Miscellaneous 211 
 
INDEX. 
 
 283 
 
 Mixture composed of equal parts of 
 
 charred leather and charcoal . . ISO 
 
 Moderate cost, testing at a 24 
 
 Moisture in crucible 107 
 
 Molecules assume the most stable 
 
 position liy 
 
 Molecule motion 32 
 
 More steam than hole can contain. . Ia4 
 
 Most generally used bath 96 
 
 Most satisfactory results 119 
 
 Moving laterally when quenching. . 102 
 Mower blades, heating machine for 
 
 hardening the edges of 69 
 
 Moson's method of casehardening. . 141 
 
 Mr. Charles Day 113 
 
 Mr. F. A. Pratt 41 
 
 Mr. William Lodge 199 
 
 Mr. Robert Leith 48 
 
 Much depands on even heating.... 143 
 
 Muffle furnaces 93 
 
 Multiple or inserted cutter heads. . 204 
 
 Muffle regular sizes of 93 
 
 "Mushet" steel 115 
 
 Museum of Arts and Trades in 
 
 Paris 33 
 
 S 
 
 Necessary dies to produce special 
 
 drop forgings 188 
 
 Necessary precautions 109 
 
 'Nerve," "gall" and 95 
 
 Nicely coppered surface 196 
 
 Nickel steel forgings, government 
 
 use of 194 
 
 No nossibilitv of overdrawing 119 
 
 No provision made for water cool- 
 ing 168 
 
 Not necessary to brighten after the 
 
 operation 119 
 
 Not indicative of a uniform degree 
 
 of hardness 118 
 
 Number of revolutions a drill should 
 
 run 202 
 
 O 
 
 Object of Messrs. Taylor and White 113 
 Obtaining colors with granulated 
 
 raw bone 134 
 
 Of parts of an inch, table decimal 
 
 equivalents 209 
 
 Of solids, table of melting points. . 124 
 O. H. and Bessemer machine steel 42 
 
 Oil bath 96 
 
 Oil cools without cracking 123 
 
 Oil commencing to smoke a suffi- 
 cient indication 151 
 
 Oil serves as an indicator of desired 
 
 temper 151 
 
 Oil tempering furnaces 81 
 
 Oil, tempering in 117 
 
 Old bone, how to use 133 
 
 Old files, to temper 160 
 
 Old Point Comfort 178 
 
 One of the largest producers of 
 
 steel in the world 35 
 
 Only carbonized portions will 
 
 harden 132 
 
 Open and crystallized fracture.... 17 
 Open fire, annealing steel in the ... 43 
 
 Open fire and color test 119 
 
 Open fire, hardening milling cutters 
 
 in the 143 
 
 Operation of the process 116 
 
 Operator not familiar with nature 
 
 of the steel 167 
 
 Ordering steel for dies 14 
 
 Ordinary method for tempering mill- 
 ing cutters 147 
 
 Ordinary twist drill with female 
 
 center 199 
 
 Ordinary way of getting rid of the 
 
 center 179 
 
 Outfit for fine grain casehardening. 129 
 Output of malleable department... 4{i 
 
 Outside very hard 151 
 
 Overheated steel, to restore 184 
 
 Overheating when forging lH 
 
 Pack in good animal carbon 142 
 
 Packing and heating the work.... 129 
 Packing in iron box in powdered 
 
 charcoal 103- 
 
 Packing the work 14S 
 
 Pameacha raw bone 13ii 
 
 Parts produced by drop forging. . . . 187 
 Parts subject to pressure, wear or 
 
 concussion 139 
 
 Parts with thin sides or edges.... 97 
 
 Paste, casehardening 141 
 
 Perforated iron pan 159 
 
 Persistent exposure of fallacies .... 182 
 Phosphorus makes steel brittle.... 130 
 Pieces coming out free from cracks. 95 
 Pieces with holes running part way 
 
 through them 154 
 
 Piercing punches, hardening 104 
 
 Placing the die in an inclined posi- 
 tion 164 
 
 Plain or formed milling cutters .... 14a 
 
 Plain water 9& 
 
 Planer knife, tempering wood 122 
 
 Playing card dies 173 
 
 Plunging overheated steel into 
 
 water 95 
 
 Plunging into petroleum 19S 
 
 Pointer 184 
 
 Points to be remembered 52 
 
 Polished parts, casehardening 141 
 
 Polished steel surfaces, coppering 19& 
 
 Polishing for tempering 147 
 
 Poor material cannot be used 191 
 
 Porter, Mr. H. F. J 90 
 
 Potassium. casehardening with 
 
 cyanide of 137 
 
 Pots, different methods of packing 
 
 castings in 45 
 
 Pots, melting 90 
 
 Powdered charcoal and coke 104 
 
 Powdered cyanide 107 
 
 Power of burnt bones 142 
 
 Practical speeds at which tools can 
 
 be run 115 
 
 Practice of the best shops 31 
 
 Practice, reamer 199 
 
 Pratt & Whitney 41 
 
 Prejudice against steel generally. . 178 
 
 Preparation of the work 44 
 
 Press tools, use of machinery steel 
 
 for 129 
 
 Press tools, the use of machine 
 
 steel for 129 
 
 Prevent blowing when pouring in 
 
 damp boxes 196 
 
 Prevent carbonization of stock.... 132 
 
 Prevent cracking 157 
 
 Prevent warping, hardening so as 
 
 to 158 
 
 Prevent warping, hardening a long 
 
 punch so as to 165 
 
 Preventing unequal expansion 107 
 
 Process requires a good quality of 
 
 steel 19T 
 
 Process very much simplified 117 
 
 Process which does not reduce the 
 
 hardness of steel 117 
 
 Processes and conditions in con- 
 nection with each other 31 
 
284 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Processes, kind of steel produced in 
 America by tlie crucible and 
 
 open heartb 34 
 
 Processes which tend to reduce the 
 
 hardness of steel 117 
 
 Products of the drop forging indus- 
 try 187 
 
 Prof. E. Wilson 197 
 
 Prominent features 227 
 
 Proper equipment for steel work- 
 ing 52 
 
 Proper equipment for hardening 
 
 and tempering 52 
 
 Proper facilities for steel treat- 
 ment 50 
 
 Proper heat for plunging the steel. 121 
 
 Proportion of carbon 17 
 
 Proportion of soft core 158 
 
 Protecting exposed parts 98 
 
 Protecting teeth from decarboniza- 
 
 tion 109 
 
 Prussiate about to decompose and 
 
 dissipate 142 
 
 Pulverized charcoal 133 
 
 Pumping oil to annealing ovens. ... 47 
 Tuuch or die blank, re-annealing a . 170 
 Punch, tempering a combination 
 
 cutting and drawing 173 
 
 Punches and dies, soft or hard. . . . 163 
 Punches for perforating heavy stock 170 
 
 Punches, tempering small 173 
 
 Punching or shearing heavy metals 163 
 Putting the steel in the bath, man- 
 ner of 95 
 
 ft 
 
 ■Quenching bath 96 
 
 Quenching for hardening 100 
 
 Quenching in salt water 161 
 
 Quenching in a large tank of water 178 
 
 Quick methods for softening steel . . 43 
 
 Quoted reports of tests. . ., 113 
 
 R 
 
 Hadial type of milling cutter 154 
 
 "Railway Review" ■ 140 
 
 Rails, cas€ hardening the ends ot 
 
 steel 1'*'-' 
 
 Rake of forming tools 204 
 
 Rapid cooling of the forging 14 
 
 Rapid extraction heat lOi 
 
 Rapid method of annealing special 
 
 steel l-*-" 
 
 Rare for an oil-tempered drill to 
 
 break 1-^ 
 
 Raw linseed oil ^o 
 
 Raw potato, sticking in a lo» 
 
 Raw weld joint If 
 
 Real knowledge 93 
 
 Tleamer. babbitt 201 
 
 Reamer, evenly spaced will chatter. 199 
 
 Reamer, exnansion 201 
 
 Reamer, "floating" 201 
 
 Reamer for iron 201 
 
 Reamer for screw machine 202 
 
 Reamer for brass 200 
 
 Tf °amer for steel 201 
 
 Reamer, formed or curving 20- 
 
 Reamer, hand '^^') 
 
 Reamer, "home made" ''99 
 
 Reamer, large taper 20„ 
 
 Reamer, Rose -CJ- 
 
 Rpamer, speed for 20- 
 
 Reamer, square -91 
 
 Reamer, taper, with three blades. . 199 
 
 Reamer, too much clearance on ... . 200 
 Reamer, when worn, to increase 
 
 the size of 195 
 
 Reamers and reaming 200 
 
 Reaming a long straight hole 201 
 
 Reamers, hardening taper 109 
 
 Reamers, hardening long taper. . . . 109 
 
 Reaming, reamers and 200 
 
 Reannealing a punch, or a die 
 
 blank 170 
 
 Reannealing tap blanks 42 
 
 Regular sizes of muffle 93 
 
 Relation which the elastic limit 
 
 bears to the tensile strength. . 194 
 
 Red hot lead, heating in 106 
 
 Reduction of strength 98 
 
 Removing large amounts of stock.. 117 
 Removing technical objections to 
 
 the color test 117 
 
 Removing rust from polished steel 
 
 or iron 206 
 
 Responsibility for bad work in 
 
 hardening 159 
 
 Responsible for bad work 95 
 
 Results in steel when hardened at 
 
 a given temperature 18 
 
 Required angle, how to grind a die 
 
 blank to the -. . 248 
 
 Return to its elastic state 157 
 
 Ring gages, hardening 156 
 
 Riveting, how to caseharden, rolls 
 
 leaving tenons soft for 132 
 
 Robert Leith, Mr 48 
 
 Rock drills, tempering 120 
 
 Rogers, Admiral John 178 
 
 Rogers & Hubbard Company 130 
 
 Rough-down blanks for long tools. . 103 
 
 Rough test on cast iron 114 
 
 Round dies, hardening thick 172 
 
 Round dies, hardening the walls of. 169 
 Round thread dies, hardening and 
 
 tempering Ill 
 
 Rose, M. E.. Joshua 98 
 
 Rosin on the blacksmith's forge. . . 184 
 
 Rules for calculating speed.... 27, 195 
 
 Rust joints, cement 200" 
 
 S 
 
 Salt, heating in melted 96 
 
 Sal-soda and borax in water 106 
 
 Sanderson's steel 18 
 
 Sand bath, '^empering in the 117 
 
 Saving of 46 per cent 114 
 
 Schneider & Co., of Le Creusot, 
 
 France 179 
 
 Scientific American Supplement... 98 
 Screw and dowel holes plugged 
 
 with fire clay 166 
 
 Screw head slotting saws 159 
 
 Screw threads, U. S. S -220 
 
 Securing the best results from steel 23 
 
 Secretary of the Navy 178 
 
 Sectional casehardening. accurate. . 139 
 Sections and shapes of file steel, 16, IT 
 
 Segregation and piping 180 
 
 Selection and identification of steel 13 
 Selection of brands and grades of 
 
 steel 1"^ 
 
 Selection of steel of uniform qual- 
 ity 1^ 
 
 Self-hardening brands IS 
 
 Self-hardening steel cutting tools.. 27 
 Self-hnrdening steels, treatment of 
 
 hia-h-speed 20 
 
 Servicable slack tub 1-1 
 
 Set of hardened and tempered turn- 
 ing tools 22 
 
 Set of self-hardening steel cutting 
 
 tools 25 
 
 Setting the grain of steel finer. . . . 159 
 Setting the fine grain permanently 180 
 Severe usage in the nature of alter- 
 
 natinsr stresses 181 
 
INDEX. 
 
 285 
 
 Shear blades, gas forge for knife 
 
 and 64 
 
 Shell end mills 147 
 
 Shells, heating machine for temper- 
 ing and coloring 70 
 
 Shells, heating machines for hard- 
 ening, cones and 70 
 
 Shrinkage in soft steel 42 
 
 Skill, experience and judgment in 
 
 hardening 118 
 
 Soliciting orders tor hollow forg- 
 
 ings 181 
 
 Slowly cooling the inside 150 
 
 Slower the temper is drawn the 
 
 tougher the steel 119 
 
 Small articles of even thickness. . . 107 
 Small and medium size springs... 120 
 
 Small fagots of wrought iron 179 
 
 Small flat springs 161 
 
 Small iron parts, to caseharden. . . . 141 
 
 Small iron parts 141 
 
 Small parts, annealing box for.... 39 
 
 Small punches, steel for 14 
 
 Small punches for thin stock 166 
 
 Small punches, tempering 171 
 
 Small saws, hardening 108 
 
 Small spiral springs 161 
 
 Small taps, hobs, etc., how to tem- 
 per 160 
 
 Small work, gas forge for 59 
 
 Smallest sectional area 98 
 
 Smoke coming from all parts of the 
 
 steel 151 
 
 Soap or oil in water 20 
 
 Society of Arts 197 
 
 Soft machine steel almost worth- 
 less 42 
 
 Soft spots after hardening 104 
 
 Soft spots in dies after hardening. . 162 
 Softening steel, quick methods for.. 43 
 
 Solder for aluminum 197 
 
 Soldering 205 
 
 Solid core of Are brick 180 
 
 Solids, melting points of 125 
 
 Solution to protect steel from fire. . 106 
 Solution, % opera oil, % neat's 
 
 foot oil^ one ounce rosin 120 
 
 Solutions are used to some extent.. 143 
 
 Solutions, hardening in 106 
 
 Solutions, tempering 124 
 
 Source of annoyance often over- 
 looked ] 54 
 
 Spacing entirely too close 199 
 
 Special brands of steel are pro- 
 ducible 118 
 
 Special drop forgings 190 
 
 Special end mill 147 
 
 Special forming cutter ! 146 
 
 Special instructions 110 
 
 Special instructions for hardening 
 
 and tempering 110 
 
 Special methods, tempering by.... 117 
 
 Special milling cutter 147 
 
 Speeds for cutting tools 27 
 
 Soerm oil gg 
 
 Spiral springs, tempering small.!!! 120 
 
 Spoiling steel by overheating 41 
 
 Spring chucks, hardening and tem- 
 pering collet 112 
 
 Spring temper, heating slowly to a 158 
 
 Springs, to weld buggy 184 
 
 Spring threading die 96 
 
 Springs, blazing off ! ! ' " 120 
 
 Springs, bluing" !!!!!!! 161 
 
 Special hardening and tempering! ! 161 
 Square and hexagon steel, table of 
 
 weights and areas of round and 212 
 
 Stalwart chamoion of steel 178 
 
 Square reamer ! ' ' ' oqi 
 
 Standard brands of self-hardening 
 
 steel, experiments with 115 
 
 Standard pipe taps, table of sizes 
 
 of drills for 21S 
 
 Standards for wire gage in the 
 
 United States 21t> 
 
 Standard screw threads, table of , 
 
 United States 220^ 
 
 Standard thread formulas for sharp 
 V thread, United States stand- 
 ard Whitworth thread 221 
 
 Standard twist drill grinding gage . 20ii 
 
 Stay-bolt taps lOS 
 
 Steam can escape and water enter. 154 
 Steel, annealing a small quantity of 4a 
 
 Steel annealed die and tool 21 
 
 Steel bars, annealing low carbon. . 136 
 
 Steel, a good welding flux for 175 
 
 Steel, cutting and durability qual- 
 ities of 30 
 
 Steel, composition to toughen 184 
 
 Steel, compound for welding 183- 
 
 Steel cutting rings welded to 
 
 wrought iron plate 174 
 
 Steel, different quenching baths, 
 
 their effect on 9ft 
 
 Steel die forgings 14 
 
 Steel forgings intelligently pro- 
 duced 179- 
 
 Steel for small reamers, taps, small 
 
 punches, etc 14 
 
 Steel for different purposes 14 
 
 Steel for small punches 14 
 
 Steel for tools which require to be 
 
 forged 176 
 
 Steel, general directions and rules 
 
 for the hardening of 97 
 
 Steel, how to restore overheated. . . 184 
 
 Steel in its softened condition 36 
 
 Steel, .iudgment, experience and per- 
 ception in the working of ... . 31 
 
 Steel of special composition 115 
 
 Steel of a brand which experience 
 
 has taught to be uniform. . . . 118 
 Steel of different carbon percentage 118 
 Steel parts, how to thoroughly an- 
 neal high-grade tool 37 
 
 Steel rails, casehardening ends of. . 140 
 Steel, selection and idenfiflcation of 13 
 
 Steel, the grain of 23 
 
 Steel, the heating and cooling of . . . 50' 
 Steel, treatment of air-hardening. 21 
 Steel, treatment of annealed die and 
 
 tool 21 
 
 Steel unevenly heated 168 
 
 Steel worked at a low red heat. . . . 159' 
 Steel, to distinsruish wrought iron 
 
 and cast iron from 19T 
 
 Steel, to blue without heating 197 
 
 Steel, to remove scale from 206 
 
 Sticking, mixture to nrevent lead 
 
 from 108 
 
 Straight cvlindrical pieces 102 
 
 Straightening between lathe centers 157 
 Straightening hardened pieces that 
 
 have warped 157 
 
 Straightening long tools that have 
 
 warped in hardening 121 
 
 Straightening on anvil with ham- 
 mer i.s;? 
 
 Straightening on a block of wood. . ].'^7 
 
 Straierhtening while cold lO.*^ 
 
 Straightening while hot 103 
 
 Strain occasioned bv rauid cooling. . 180 
 
 Strains in manufactni-e ". . . 96 
 
 Stream of water strikins the work 95 
 
 Strength of hollow forgings 180 
 
 Stretching the chains . T. . T 79 
 
 Striping with different color naint. 14 
 Strong brine for the hardening 
 
 fluid ": 172 
 
 Stronar brine, ouenchine in 96 
 
 Strong close-grained backing 139' 
 
286 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Strong jet of water in quenching. . 20 
 
 Stubs steel 160 
 
 Styrian steel IS 
 
 Substances used to hold the grains. 266 
 Substances which open the grain. 129 
 Substitute for borax in welding. . . 187 
 
 Successful hardening 38 
 
 Successful metal working 20 
 
 Sudden heat and a cold blast of air 168 
 Suitable specimen for experimental 
 
 purposes 15 
 
 Suitable tempers for, table of 127 
 
 Sulphur, little as possible 106 
 
 Supervision of chemists, metal- 
 lurgists, physicists, and micro- 
 
 scopists 179 
 
 Surface, measure of 211 
 
 Surface of lead covered with 
 
 broken charcoal 107 
 
 Surface scale 96 
 
 Surfaces, coppering polished steel.. 196 
 
 Surfaces, decarbonized steel 24 
 
 Surplus metal thrown out between 
 
 the dies while working 190 
 
 Sword blades, straightening 157 
 
 T 
 
 Table of articles made from crucible 
 steel, giving about percentage 
 of carbon they should contain. 269 
 
 Table of average cutting speeds for 
 
 drills 223 
 
 Table of cutting speeds 224 
 
 Table of decimal equivalents of 
 millimeters and fractions of 
 millimeters 208 
 
 Table of decimal constants for find- 
 ing diameter at bottom of 
 thread 210 
 
 Table of different standard for wire 
 
 gage used in the U. S 219 
 
 Table of decimal equivalents of 
 
 parts of an inch 209 
 
 Table of expansion from 32 degrees 
 
 F. to 212 degrees F 35 
 
 Table of English or America (U. S.) 
 
 equivalent measures 211 
 
 Table of melting points of solids. . 211 
 
 Table of suitable temperatures of 
 annealing, working and harden- 
 ing 127 
 
 Table of suitable temperatures for 
 casehardening core, ovens, dry- 
 ing kilns, baking channels and 
 vulcanizing rubber 128 
 
 Table of sizes of drills for stand- 
 ard pine taps 218 
 
 Table of thread parts 122 
 
 Table of tempers to which tools 
 
 should be drawn 125 
 
 Table of temner colors of steel.... 128 
 
 Table of tap drills for machine 
 
 screw tans 218 
 
 Table of United States standard 
 
 screw threads 220 
 
 Table of weights and areas of 
 
 round, square and hexigon steel 212 
 
 Table of wei^rhts of iron and steel 
 
 sheets 214 
 
 Table of weiajhts of square and 
 round ba'-s of wrought iron in 
 Tiounds per lineal foot 215 
 
 Takiner from the water too soon. . . 101 
 
 Tan blanks, reannealing 42 
 
 Tap drills for machine screw 
 
 threads 21 s 
 
 Tap steel, the annealing of 41 
 
 Taner mill 147 
 
 Taper of twist drills for clearance. 108 
 
 Taper reamer with three blades. . . . 199 
 
 Taylor-White process for treating 
 
 steel 113 
 
 Tell-tale, using the 134 
 
 Temper colors proof of equality in 
 
 degree of heat only 118 
 
 Temper drawn at leisure 143 
 
 Temper when due to a second opera- 
 tion 118 
 
 Tempers to which steel should be 
 
 drawn, table of 125 
 
 Tempering 117 
 
 Tempering at special colors Ill 
 
 Tempering a combination cutting 
 
 and drawing punch 173 
 
 Tempering flat drills for hard 
 
 stock 160 
 
 Tempering in the charcoal fire. . . . 122 
 
 Tempering in oil 119 
 
 Tempering in the sand bath 119 
 
 Tempering process which will de- 
 termine accurately first heat. . 118 
 Tempering rock drills in crude oil. . 120 
 
 Tempering small punches 171 
 
 Tempering small spiral springs.... 120 
 Tempering swords and cutlasses. . . 123 
 
 Tempering special tools . . .■ lis 
 
 Tempering solutions 124 
 
 Tempering thin articles 122 
 
 Tempering wood planer knives 122 
 
 Temperatures at which solids melt 124 
 Temperatures tell-tales for use in 
 
 hardening steel 159 
 
 Tendency to crack . 97 
 
 Tendency to refine 103 
 
 Tendency of steel to crack around 
 
 the holes 166 
 
 Tenons soft for riveting to harden 
 
 rods leaving 132 
 
 Test made at the Government test- 
 ing bureau 182 
 
 Testing the chain to insure proper 
 
 length 49 
 
 Testing for hardness with a file... 24 
 
 Testing for hardness 24 
 
 Testing for heat 103 
 
 Testing for toughness 24 
 
 Testing for trueness 103 
 
 Testing steel, economy in before 
 
 using 25 
 
 Testing tool steel 23 
 
 Tests of steel wnder repeated 
 
 stresses 182 
 
 Texture restored by hammering or 
 
 rolling 175 
 
 That have warpea, straightened 
 
 hardened pieces 157 
 
 The annealing of tap steel 41 
 
 The annealins' of malleable cast-- 
 ings and the manufacture of 
 malleable iron machine parts. 44 
 
 The acme standard thread 222 
 
 The amount of force exerted in ex- 
 pansion and contraction 33 
 
 The best steel for tools 23 
 
 The bath 96 to 135 
 
 The castings, the foundry and prep- 
 aration of 44 
 
 The difference, tough steel and hard 
 
 steel 93 
 
 The effect of slow heating and tem- 
 pering 119 
 
 The effect of water annealing 40 
 
 The emery wheel used as a metal 
 
 slitting saw 249 
 
 The first effect of heat 31 
 
 The foundry and p^t•pa^ation of the 
 
 castings 44 
 
 The Hrrain of steel 23 
 
 The ha'-dening and tempering of 
 
 press tools ^ . . . 1 f)2 
 
 The hardening fire and the heat ... 99 
 
INDEX. 
 
 287 
 
 The hardening of long slender 
 
 tools 103 
 
 The heating and cooling of steel. . . 50 
 
 The location of the heating furnace 52 
 
 The proper heat for annealing. ... 37 
 
 The slender tools, hardening long. . 103 
 
 The second effect of heat 34 
 
 The terms defined 36 
 
 The treatment and working of well 
 
 known brands of tool steel. . . 18 
 The treatment of hign-carbon steels 15 
 The Taylor-White process for treat- 
 ing steel 113 
 
 The use of clay in hardening 110 
 
 The use of gas blast furnaces and 
 
 heating machine 53 
 
 The use of machints steel for press 
 
 tools . 129 
 
 The work, how to dump 135 
 
 Their cause, crack in dies IGV 
 
 Their use of emery wheels 26fc> 
 
 Their use, gas blast forges 54 
 
 Thick cast iron plates 159 
 
 Thick round dies, hardening 172 
 
 Thick scale results from high tem- 
 perature 22 
 
 Thin and delicate parts, hardening. 104 
 Thin edges and exposed parts, heat- 
 ing the 18 
 
 Thin parts, hardening small parts 
 
 and long 104 
 
 Thread dies, hardening and temper- 
 ing round Ill 
 
 Thread parts, table of 222 
 
 Thrust bearing rings, hardening 
 
 five-inch 131 
 
 Time required to machine a given 
 
 surface 30 
 
 Time saved 24 
 
 Tinning acid, improved soldering 
 
 and 196 
 
 Tires, fastening to wheels 33 
 
 To anneal doubtful steel 43 
 
 To a blue, to draw small steel parts 161 
 
 To blue steel without heating 179 
 
 To caseharden without colors 130 
 
 To caseharden small iron parts. . . . 141 
 
 To caseharden with charcoal 141 
 
 To caseharden cast iron 195 
 
 To distinguish wrought iron and 
 
 cast iron from steel 197 
 
 To draw small steel parts to a blue 161 
 
 To distinguish the grades 23 
 
 To heat and cool steel properly .... 50 
 To make edge tools from cast steel 
 
 and iron 183 
 
 To prodvice fine grain casehardened 
 
 machine steel parts 139 
 
 To prevent I'ust 3 96 
 
 To remove scale from steel 206 
 
 To temper gravers 160 
 
 To temoer old files 160 
 
 To weld cast iron 183 
 
 To weld buggy springs 184 
 
 Too high welding heat 14 
 
 Tool facilities not up-to-date 113 
 
 Tool holders and tools, their use. 28, 29 
 
 Tool holders and tools 25 
 
 Tool steel, testing 23 
 
 Tool steel, the treatment and work- 
 ing of well-known brands of . . IS 
 
 Tools carrying a cutting edge 18 
 
 Tools circular forming 203 
 
 Tools, or parts with fine projections 108 
 Tools used for bending and form- 
 ing 130 
 
 Tools, the best steel for 23 
 
 Tools, working steel for 159 
 
 Tools, tool holders and 25 
 
 Tough steel and hard steel, the dif- 
 ference 93 
 
 Tougher effect to steel than bone.. 130 
 
 Toughness, testing for 24 
 
 Tracy, Mr. B. F 178 
 
 Trays, heating machine with revolv- 
 ing 71 
 
 Treatment, air-hardening steel 21 
 
 Treatment, annealed die and tool 
 
 steel 21 
 
 Treatment of high-speed self-hard- 
 ening steels 20 
 
 Treating steel, Taylor- White pro- 
 cess for 113 
 
 Tremendous strains 177 
 
 Trimming dies 190 
 
 Tumbling instead of pickling drop 
 
 forgings 191 
 
 Turn the bulge out 103 
 
 Twirling around rapidly 146 
 
 Twist drills, grinding 202 
 
 Twisting of long tools in harden- 
 ing 158 
 
 Two cooling surfaces 180 
 
 Two ways of making a forging hol- 
 low 179 
 
 Types of milling centers 145 
 
 V 
 
 Understood, casehardening as it 
 
 should be 142 
 
 Unequal expansion 32 
 
 Uneven contraction provided for. . . 168 
 
 Uneven heating, distortion through 95 
 
 Uniform hardness and temper 106 
 
 Uniformity of results attained .... 114 
 
 United States Government 23 
 
 United States War Department. . . . 108 
 United States weights and measures 217 
 United States measures of lengths. 217 
 United States measures of surface. 217 
 United States measures of volume. 217 
 United States measures of weights. 217 
 Universal adoption of the ther- 
 mometer test 117 
 
 Unnecessary expense in testing 
 
 steel 24 
 
 Upward flow of water through 
 
 article 112 
 
 Use for which forging are intended 191 
 
 Use of milling cutters 154 
 
 Use of various kinds of baths 96 
 
 Using a punch and die which are 
 
 both hard 163 
 
 Using a small narrow broach 112 
 
 Using a soft punch and a hard die 163 
 Using, economy in testing steel be- 
 fore 24 
 
 Using scrap steel for malleable iron 48 
 
 Using the tell-tale 134 
 
 Usual methods of hardening air- 
 hardening steel 113 
 
 V 
 
 Vapors generated in the bath 154 
 
 Variation from a vertical position. . 109 
 
 Variation of carbon, effects of .... 114 
 
 Various defects in ingots 180 
 
 Very deep casehardening 140 
 
 Very little external heat required 
 
 to draw it 151 
 
 Vessels of proper wiath 123 
 
 Very small piercing punches, hard- 
 ening 171 
 
 Very small punches, hardening.... 171 
 
 Vitrified emery wheel 265 
 
 W 
 
 Walter A. Wood Mowing and Reap- 
 ing Machine Company 
 
 44 
 
288 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Warming the work up to a blue. . . 153 
 Warped, straightening pieces which 
 
 have 121 
 
 Warping, hardening a long punch 
 
 so as to prevent 165 
 
 Warping, hardening very thin tools 
 
 so as to prevent 158 
 
 Warping of long punches In harden- 
 ing 171 
 
 Warping, of long tools In harden- 
 ing 171 
 
 Warping, the weaker parts 101 
 
 Washington 178 
 
 Water and oil, hardening and tem- 
 pering milling cutters In 147 
 
 Water, annealing 39 
 
 Water, cuts, lubricant for 196 
 
 Water for cooling 101 
 
 Water, kept at a boiling point. . . . 168 
 Weights and areas of round, square 
 
 and hexagon steel 212, 213 
 
 Weights, measure of 211 
 
 Weight of cast Iron, wrought iron, 
 
 steel, copper and bronze 207 
 
 Weights of iron and steel sheets. . . 214 
 Weights of square and round bars 
 
 of wrought iron 215 
 
 Weights and measures. United 
 
 States 217 
 
 Weld which will not buckle or sepa- 
 rate in hardening 163 
 
 Welding composition for cast steel. . 183 
 
 Wielding cast iron 183 
 
 Welding, flux for soldering and. . . 187 
 
 Welding heats 175 
 
 Welding heat for steel should be 
 
 higher than that for iron. . . . 175 
 Welding powder for iron and steel. 183 
 Welding steel to steel or steel to 
 
 iron 175 
 
 Wetting the fracture 23 
 
 Wheels, approximate speeds for 
 
 emery and polishing 267 
 
 When a muflle is used 164 
 
 When hardening, dipping fluted 
 
 reamers 157 
 
 When hardening, dipping half 
 
 round or "gun" reamers 105 
 
 When hardening, dipping small 
 
 tools 156 
 
 When the proper heat has been 
 
 reached 153 
 
 When worn, inci'easing the size of 
 
 the reamer 195 
 
 Whltworth, Sir Joseph 178 
 
 Why special Instructions are given. Ill 
 
 Williams & Co., J. H 180 
 
 Wilson, Prof. E 197 
 
 Without colors, to caseharden 130 
 
 Without heating, to blue steel 197 
 
 "Woodworker" 122 
 
 Work, cleaning the 135 
 
 Work, combination gas furnace for 
 
 general machine shop 54 
 
 Work, hardening draw-bridge disc 
 
 and similar 131 
 
 Work, laying out 196 
 
 Work, packing and heating the. . . . 129 
 
 Work, preparation of the 134 
 
 Work, packing the 45 
 
 Work, to dump the 135 
 
 Work, to pack the 134 
 
 Work with deep recesses 93 
 
 Working and hardening, suitable 
 
 temperature of annealing, 
 
 table of 127 
 
 Working Capital steel 21 
 
 Working up and down rapidly.... 154 
 
 Working steel for tools 159 
 
 World's Fair, Chicago 181 
 
 Worry, vexation and poor work. . . . 176 
 
 Wrenches, drop forged 189 
 
 Wrong, to apply the term "temper," 
 
 when it is 117 
 
 Wrought iron for crossheads, and 
 
 crank pins 181 
 
 Zinc, solder for 187 
 
 Zinc, to color or coat 206 
 
Hardening and Annealing Oven. 
 
 Oil Tempering Purnace. 
 
 THE STANDARD llfATINd TOOLS 
 
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 MADE HY 
 
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 SEND FOR CATALOG17K 
 
If You're a Good Guesser 
 
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STARRETT'S 
 
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 TOOLS 
 
 A NECESSITY TO THE MECHANIC 
 A LUXURY TO THE AMATEUR 
 A DELIGHT TO BOTH 
 
 CATALOGUE FREE: 
 
 The L. S. STARRETT CO. 
 
 ATHOL. MASS.. U. S. A. 
 
 High Grade Crucible Steel 
 
 FOR LATHES, PLANERS, DIES, PUNCHES, ETC. 
 
 Jflkn's Special Cire Cuming Steel 
 
 FOR LOCOMOTIVE TIRES. 
 NOTHING KNOWN TO EQUAL IT. 
 
 Curner's Patent Iron fibred Steel 
 
 Best material known for stay bolts, crank pins and piston rods, etc. 
 
 Manufactured only by 
 
 EDGAR ALLEN & CO.. Ltd.. 
 
 Sheffield, England. 
 
 EDWIN R. KENT & CO., Agents, 
 
 Oeneral Office & Warehouse : 10 South Canal Street, Chicago, ill. 
 
SOLVED AT LAST 
 
 ^ LAULCAN ANNEALING BOX and PUTTY 
 1( J for Machinists, Tool and Die Makers 
 %K and Blacksmiths. A perfect process for 
 Annealing all grades of Steel, Mushet, Self- 
 hardening and CAST IRON. A Die will never 
 Water-crack, Chip or Spring in hardening by 
 our process. Send for FREE sample and full 
 particulars. 
 Agents wanted. Size of box, 18x 10x10 
 
 RAY AUTOMATIC MACHINE CO., 
 
 CLEVELAND. O, 
 
 The FraLivklin Model Shop. 
 
 PAR.SELL (^ WEED, 
 
 129-131 West 31st Street. ^ NEW YORK. 
 
 Fine Accurate Model and Experimental Work. 
 
 The Franklin Gas Engine Castings. 
 
 % HORSE POWER. 
 
 Can be built on an eight-inch lathe with plain slide rest except 
 turning the fly-wheels. These we keep in stock turned. 
 
 laiiBHimiaiiBimiBiiaiiBiii 
 
 The Franklin Dynamo. 
 
 50 Watts. Weight 5% lbs. 
 
 Will furnish current as a generator for 6-6 c. p. Lamps (lo-volt). 
 
 As a motor it will run one or two sewing machines, or a dental 
 engine. 
 
 Sold complete, partially finished or in the rough. Complete 
 instructions and blue prints. 
 
 IF INTERESTED WRITE FOR ♦• CIRCULAR H." 
 
Scientific and Practical Books 
 
 PUBI^JSHED BY 
 
 NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. 
 
 132 Nassau St., New York, U. S. A. 
 
 4®=" Any of these books will be sent prepaid on receipt of price to any address in the 
 
 -world. 
 
 /(®= We will send FREE to any address in the world our loo-page Catalogue of 
 Scientific and Practical Books. 
 
 Askinson. Perfumes and Tlieir Preparation. A Comprebensfve 
 Xreatise on Perfumery : 
 
 Containing complete directions for making Handkerchief Perfumes, 
 Smelling Salts, Sachets, Fumigating Pastils ; Preparations for the Care 
 of the Skin, the Mouth, the Hair ; Cosmetics, Hair Dyes, and other Toilet 
 Articles. 300 Pages. 32 illustrations. 8vo. Cloth $3.00 
 
 Barr. Catecliism on tlie Combustion of Coal and tlie Prevention of 
 Smoke: 
 
 A practical treatise for all interested in fuel economy and the sup- 
 pression of smoke from stationary steam boiler furnaces and from loco- 
 motives. 85 illustrations. 12mo. 349 Pages. Cloth $1.50 
 
 Blackall. Air-Brake Catechism: 
 
 This book is a complete study of the airbrake equipment, including 
 the latest devices and inventions used. All parts of the air brake, their 
 troubles and peculir.rities, and a practical way to And and remedy them, 
 are explained. This book contains over 1,000 questions with their an- 
 swers, and is completely illustrated by Engravings and Three Large 
 Folding Plates of the Westinghouse Quick-Action Automatic Brake, and 
 also the 9y2-Inch Improved Air Pump. 264 Pages. Handsomely bound 
 in Cloth. Fifteenth Edition $1 .50 
 
 Orimsbaw. Ssiw Filing and Management of Saws : 
 
 A practical handbook on filing, gumming, swaging, hammering and the 
 brazing of band saws, the speed, work and power to run circular saws, 
 etc., etc. Fully Illustrated. Cloth $1.00 
 
 Crrimsbaw. " Sliop Kinks " : 
 
 This book is entirely different from any other on machine-shop prac- 
 tice. It is not descriptive of universal or common shop usage, but shows 
 special ways of doing work better, more cheaply and more rapidly than 
 usual, as done in fifty or more leading shops in Europe and America. 
 Some of its over 500 items and 222 illustrations are contributed directly 
 for its pages by eminent constructors ; the rest have been gathered by 
 the author in his Thirty Years' Travel and Experience. Second Edition. 
 Nearly 400 Pages and 222 Illustrations. Cloth ^2.50 
 
 Crriiusha\ir. Engine Runner's Catechism : 
 
 Telling how to erect, adjust and run the principal steam engines Ln the 
 United States. Describing the principal features of various special and 
 well-known makes of engines. Fourth Edition. 336 Pages. Fully illus- 
 trated. Cloth $2.00 
 
 Crrlmshaw. Steam Engine Catechism; 
 
 A series of direct practical answers to direct practical questions, 
 mainly intended for young engineers and for examination questions. 
 Nearly 1,000 questions with their answers. Eleventh Edition. 413 
 Pages. Fully Illustrated. Cloth $7 
 
 €!rimsha\r. liocomotlve Catechism; 
 
 This is a veritable Encyclopaedia of the Locomotive, is entirely free 
 from mathematics, and thoroughly up to date. It contains 1,600 Ques- 
 tions with their Answers. Twenty-second Edition, greatly enlarged. 
 Nearly 450 Pages, over 200 Illustrations, and 12 Large Folding Plates. 
 Bound in Maroon Cloth $2.00 
 
 Jliscox. Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines: 
 
 Pull of general information about the new and popular motive power, 
 its economy and ease of management. Also chapters on Horseless Ve- 
 hicles, Electric Lighting, Marine Propulsion, etc. Special chapters on 
 Theory of the Gas and Gasoline Engine, Utilization of Heat and Efficiency 
 of Gas Engines, Retarded Combustion and Wall Cooling, Causes of Loss 
 and Inefficiency in Explosive Motors, Economy of the Gas Engine for 
 Electric Lighting, The Material of Power in Explosive Engines, Car- 
 bureters, Cylinder Capacity, Mufflers, Governors, Igniters and Ex- 
 
NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 ploders, Cylinder Lubricators, The Measurement of Power, The Indicator 
 and its Work, Heat Efhciencies, U. S. Patents on Gas, Gasoline and Oil 
 Engines and their adjuncts since 1875, etc. 412 Pages. Large Octavo, 
 illustrated with 312 Handsome Engravings. Tenth Edition, Revised and 
 Enlarged. Buckram $2.50 
 
 Hiscox. Compressed. Air in All Its Applications: 
 
 Giving the thermodynamics, compression, transmission, expansion, and 
 uses for power purposes in mining and engineering work ; pneumatic 
 motors, shop-tools, air-blasts for cleaning and painting, air-lifts, pump- 
 ing of water, acids and oils : aeration and purltication of water supply, 
 railway propulsion, pneumatic tvibe transmission, refrigeration and 
 numerous appliances in which compressed air is a most convenient and 
 economical vehicle for work — with tables of compression, expansion and 
 the physical properties of air. Large octavo. 800 Pages. 600 illus- 
 trations. Price $5.00 
 
 Hlscox. Horseless Vehicles, Automobiles and Motor Cycles, Oper- 
 ated by Steam, Hydro-Cai'bon, Electric and Pneumatic Motors: 
 
 The make-up and management of Automobile Vehicles of all kinds are 
 treated. It also contains a complete list of the Automobile and Motor 
 Manufacturers with their addresses as well as a list of patents issued 
 since 1856 on the Automobile industry. Nineteen Chapters. Large 8vo. 
 316 niustrations. 460 Pages. Cloth $3.00 
 
 Hiscox. Meclianical Movements, Powers, Devices and Appliances: 
 
 This is a new work on Illustrated Mechanics, Mechanical Movements, 
 Devices and Appliances, covering nearly the whole range of the practical 
 and inventive field, for the use of 'Mechanics, Inventors, Engineers, 
 Draughtsmen, and all others interested in any way in mechanics. Large 
 Svo. Over 400 Pages. 1649 Specially Made Illustrations, with Descrip- 
 tive Text. Third Edition $3.00 
 
 Inventors' Manual ; How to Make a Patent Pay : 
 
 This is a book designed as a guide to inventors in perfecting their in- 
 ventions, taking out their patents and disposing of them. 119 Pages. 
 New Edition. Cloth $1 .00 
 
 Krauss. Linear Perspective Self-Tauglit. 
 
 The underlying principle by which objects may be correctly repre- 
 sented in perspective is clearly set forth in this book, everything relating 
 to the subject is shown in suitable diagrams, accompanied by full 
 explanations in the text. Price $2.50 
 
 LeVan. Safety Valves; Their History, Invention and Calculation: 
 
 Illustrated by 69 Engravings. 151 Pages $1.50 
 
 Parstll & YVeed. Gas Engine Construction: 
 
 A practical treatise describing the theory and principles of the action 
 of gas engines of various types, and the design and construction of a 
 half-horse power Gas engine, with illustrations of the work in actual 
 progress, together with dimensioned working drawings, giving clearly 
 the sizes of the various details. Second Edition Revised and Enlarged. 
 25 Chapters. Large Svo. Handsomely Illustrated and Bound. 300 
 Pages $2 . 50 
 
 Reagan, Jr. Electrical Engineers' and Students' Chart and Hand 
 Book of the Brush Arc Iiiglit SystPiii : 
 
 Illustrated. Bound in Cloth, with Celluloid Chart in Pocket. Svo. 
 Cloth $1.00 
 
 Sloane. Electricity Simplified. 
 
 The object of "Electricity Simplified" is to make the subject as plain 
 as possible, and to show what the modern conception of electricity is. 
 15S Pages. Illustrated $1.00 
 
 Sloane. Hour to Become a Successful Electrician: 
 
 It is the ambition of thousands of young and old to become electrical 
 engineers. Not every one is prepared to spend several thousand dollars 
 upon a college course, even if the three or four years requisite are at 
 their disposal. It is possible to become an electrical engineer without 
 this sacrifice, and this work is designed to tell "How to Become a 
 Successful Electrician." without the outlay usually spent in acquiring 
 the profession. 189 Pages. Illustrated. Cloth $1.00 
 
 Sloane. Arithmetic of Electricity ; 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Electrical Calculations of all kinds, reduced 
 to a series of rules, all of the simplest forms, and involving only or- 
 dinary arithmetic ; each rule illustrated by one or more practical prob- 
 lerns with detailed solution of each one. Fourth Edition. Illustrated, 
 138 Pages. Cloth • $1 .00 
 
NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 Sloane. Electric Toy Making, Dyiiaiuo Building and Electric Motor 
 Construction : 
 
 This work treats of the making at home of Electrical Toys, Electrical 
 Apparatus, Motors, Dynamos and Instruments in general, and is de- 
 signed to bring within the reach of young and old the manufacture of 
 genuine and useful electrical appliances. Third Edition. Fully Illus- 
 trated. 140 Pages. Cloth $1.00 
 
 Sloane. Rubber Hand Stanipiii and the Manipulation of India Rubber: 
 
 A practical treatise on the manufacture of all kinds of Rubber ar- 
 ticles. 146 Pages. Second Edition. Cloth ?1 .00 
 
 Sloane. liiquid Air and tlie Liquefaction of Gases: 
 
 Containing the full theory of the subject, and giving the entire history 
 of liquefaction of gases, from the earliest times to the present. It 
 shows how liquid air like water is carried hundreds of miles and is 
 handled in open buckets. It tells what may be expected from it in the 
 near future. 365 Pages, with many Illustrations. Handsomely bound 
 in Buckram. Second Edition $2.50 
 
 Sloane. Standard Electrical Dictionary: 
 
 A practical handbook of reference, containing definitions of about 
 5,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. An entirely New Edition, 
 brought up to date and greatly enlarged. Complete, Concise. Con- 
 venient. 682 Pages, 393 Illustrations. Handsomely bound in Cloth. 
 
 8vo ?3.0© 
 
 CJsher. The Modern Machinist; 
 
 A practical treatise embracing the most approved methods of modern 
 machijieshop practice, and the applications of recent improved ap- 
 pliances, tools and devices for facilitating, duplicating and expediting 
 the construction of machines and tlieir parts. A new book from cover 
 to cover. Third Edition. 257 Engravings. 322 Pages. Cloth $2 50 
 
 "Van Dervoort. Modern Machine Shop Tools; Their Construction^ 
 Operation and Manipulation, Including Both Hand and Ma- 
 chine Tools: 
 
 A new work treating the subject in a concise and comprehensive man- 
 ner. A chapter on Gearing and Belting, covering the more important 
 cases, also the Transmission of Power by Shafting with formulas and 
 examples is included. This book is strictly up-to-date and is the most 
 complete, concise and useful work ever published on this subject. 
 Containing about 600 Pages and 600 Illustrations . ?4.00 
 
 Wood\irorth. Dies, Their Construction and Use for the Modern 
 Worlting of Sheet Metals : 
 
 A treatise upon the designing, constructing and use of tools, fix- 
 tures and devices, together with the manner in which they should be 
 used in the power press, for the cheap and rapid production of sheet 
 metal parts and articles. Comprising fundamental designs and prac- 
 tical points by which sheet metal parts may be produced at the mini- 
 mum of cost to the maximum of output, together with special refer- 
 ence to the hardening and tempering of press tools, and to the classes 
 of work which may be produced to the best advantage by the use of 
 dies in the power press. Containing 400 Pages. 500 Illustrations . . $3.00 
 
 "Woodwortli. Hardening, Tempering, Annealing and Forging of 
 Steel: 
 
 A new book containing special directions for the successful hardening 
 and tempering of all steel tools. Milling cutters, taps, thread dies, ream- 
 ers, both solid and shell, hollow mills, punches and dies and all kinds or 
 sheet-metal working tools, shear blades, saws, fine cutlery, and metal- 
 cutting tools of all descriptions, as well as for all implements ot steel, 
 both large and small, the simplest and most satisfactory hardening and 
 tempering processes are presented. The uses to which the leaaing brands 
 of steel may be ada'-ted arei concisely presented, and their treatment or 
 working' under different conditions explained, as are also the special 
 methods for the hardening and temper ng of special brands. Containing 
 about 320 Pages, about 250 Illustrations $-:.iw