LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. i|ap. &>p?og|t !f + Slielf._.LB-^0?,l. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/elementsofpedagoOOwood THE ELEMENTS PEDAGOGICS, / JOHN W. WOODY, A. M., LL. B. Professor of Hutory and Insirucior in Pedagogies, Guilford College, N. C. GEEENSBORO, N. C: C- Thomas Bros., Book and Job PrinteeSj 1391. .W? Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1891, by JOHN W. WOODY, In the Office of the Library at Washington. PREFACE. The following pages are a revision and enlargement of the small Hand-Book on Pedagogics recently prepared • nd pub- lished for the use of the normal classes in Guilford College. The dema^id for the Hand-Book and its hearty indorsement by many earnest teachers have encouraged the author to pre- pare the present work. Although there are a number of ex- celle .t books on the subject of Pedagogics, yet it is hoped that this small volume will find its destined place of useful- ness. The books that have been written on pedagogical subjects have been prepared mostly with refence to the demands of the graded-rchool w^ork. This work is especially designed for the help and encouragement of the large number of teachers who are engaged in the various duties of the common dis- trict school. The work is an outgrowth of twenty-five years of experience in teaching among different grades of pupils and under a great variety of circumstances. The subject- matter has been mostly prepared by the Author in connec- tion with his work in normal classes and teachers' institutes. It is an effort to answer, in systematic form, some of the many questions that almost daily confront the honest teacher, and to set forth the fundamental principles of teaching and school government that have been learned by years of sludy and ex- perience. The theory of the work is based on the idea that teaching IV. is both a science and an art, and that all means and methods, to be successful, must be in harmony with certain definite laws and principles which have their origin in the nature and growth of the mind. For many of the thoughts and suggestions contained in the book the Author wishes to acknowledge his obligations to Pres. Alfred Holbrook of the National Normal and Prof. Payne of Michigan University, now of the University of Nash- ville, also to the large number who have attended his nor- mal classes, ^nd to the many progressive workers with whom he has been permitted to mingle in teachers' institutes and associations. CONTENTS. I. Inteoduction — Teaching : Definition of teaching. The prime end of teaching. The teach- er's material. The teacher's work — teaching a science and an art. Methods of teaching, &c Page 9. II. Mental Development : Definition of. The end of. Nature of mind. Nature and order of the mind's development. Means or branches of study best adapted to the growth and training of the mind — Methods, &c, 14 Powers of Observations : Definition. Importance of. How cultivated. Principles stated 21 III. Moral Culture : Definition. The object or end of. The means and methods. Principles stated... 22 IV. Physical Culture: Definition. Importance of. The end of. Means and methods. Principles stated, &c 29 V. Correct Habits: Habit defined. Habits classified. How formed. Habits of obedience. Habits of accurate observations. Habits of indus- try. Habits of self-help. Habits of bodily movements. Prin- ciples stated, &c --SS VI. The Culture of the Memory : Definition. How improved. Habits of careful observation a basis. Systematic study. Attention. A tendency to trust the memory, &c 42 VII. Preliminary Work: Importance of. Before opening a term of school. Preparation of each day's work in term-time. Attention to school room. Eemarks on, &c 47 VIII. The Programme: Object and importance. Nature of. How determined. Prin- ciples to be regarded. Sample programme, &c 53 VI. iX. Thb Recitation : Object. Chief work of. Suggestions. Remarks, &c 58 X. The Work op Pupils Out of Class: The object or end. The work to be done. Assignment of work. Examination of work. Principles stated, &c , 64 XI. School Government: Introductory, Based on general principles. Both a science and an art 70 XII. School Govermment: A means to an end. The end. Kinds. Governing forces. Their relations, &c 72 School Government: — Collateral aids to government. Rules. Offences. Penalties 77 Statement of principles 82 XIII. School Management: Musts and Don'ts of 84 XIV. Teaching Reading : Importance of. The end to be attained. Special end of, in re- citation. Qualities of good reading. Work in recitation. Re- marks. Table of Elementary sounds 94 XV. Language Studies : Language defined. Object of language study. Methods of language study. Means work, &c 100 XVI. History. The value of historical study. Relations of History and Geop- raphy , ..109 XVII. The Parts of History to be Taught. First lessons. Outlines of United States History with Physical Geography. General History. U. S. History, &c 114 XVIII. Teaching History: The method topical. The order should be systematic. In- struction thorough and life-like. Historical classifications and essays. Assignment of lesson. Topical lessons. Historical chart..... 117 XIX. Geography: As an interesting study for children. Its value as a study Method of teaching Geography. Remarks and principles. ..132 XX. The Natural Sciences : Definition. As a means of culture. The end of scientific study. The method for teaching. Statement of principles 137 THE VOICE OF THE CHILDREN. Give us light amid our darkness ; Let us know the good from ill ; Hate us not for all our blindness ; Love us, lead us, show us kindness— You can make us what you will. We are willing— w^e are ready ; We would learn if you would teach ; We have hearts that yearn towards duty. We have minds alive to beauty, Souls that any heights can reach ! We shall be what you will make us — Make us wise and make us good ! Make us strong for time of trial ; Teach us temperance, self-denial, Patience, kindness, fortitude. — Mary Howitt. The individual who cannot corQe up to the appreciation of the above lines will succeed better in some other occupation than that of teacher. The true teacher must possess strong faith in the infinite possibilities that lie hid in the child. The teacher must not only know thoroughly and fundamentally ivhat he teaches, but must study well the laws which govern the exer- cises and develope the faculties of those whom he teaches ; he must know both the lesson and the scholar, and the means by which the two may be brought into fruitful contact-^-Karl RosenkranZ' CHAPTER INTRODUCTION. A definite and predetermined end is essential to suc- cessful work in the department of teaching. He who would construct a bridge or build a factory, must first have in his mind a clearly defined conception of the Ijridge to be con- structed or the factory to be erected. He must also have a knowl- edge of the properties of the different materials to. be used. So the teacher who would do a conscientious and successful work in the building of character, must first have a clear conception of the end to be accomplished. He must also have a knowledge of the materials out of which he is to build. He must have asked and answered for himself the ques- tions :— What is the nature of the material upon which the teacher is to Avork? What is the prime end in teaching? What is the thing to be done ? First. What is the nature of the material ? In each pupil there is a combination of matter and force. There are the bodily substances, the vital forces, mental faculties and moral tendencies held together in their wonderful conabination, and with such an inter-clependence that the complete develop- ment of either one can only be had through the harmonious develo23ment of the whole. These elements, as found in each individual, may be regarded as certain powers and divided into three general classes : — the mental, the moral and the physical. These powers or energies constitute the material upon which the teacher works — a material unlike the timber of the carpen- ter, the potter's clay, or the marble under the chisel of the 2 10 sculptor. These are so many dead bodies, to be shaped by influences outside of, and distinct from themselves. Not so with the material in the hands of the teacher. It is his part to deal with powers — living and self-acting powers — the development and tendencies of which are determined by forces acting from within as well as by influences from with- out. The potter gives shape to the clay by the outward force which he brings to bear upon it ; the teacher gives form and strength to the intellect by calling out and directing its inner energies. The material of the one, is dead matter to be shaped, that of the other, is lining energies to be called out and di- rected. With this idea of the material, we come to the second ques- tion: — What is the prime end of teaching? What is the teacher's part in connection with this m iterial, in order that the best results may be attained in preparing pupils for the la- bors and responsibilities of life ? The end of the teacher's work may be summed up as follows : First, the development of powers ; second, the for- mation of correct habits, and third, the impartation of knowl- edge. It is principally through these three channels that the prime end of teaching is to be reached — which end is the de- velopment of strong character. The development and training of powers and the formation of habits may be esteemed of more impor- tance than the acquisition of knowledge, yet each should be made auxiliary to the other two. A normal development of powers, through the impartation of useful knowledge, is ideal success in teaching. The tripod is selected by civil engineers as the instrument best adapted for standing steadily on even or uneven surfaces ; so the individual character, if it be able to stand upon the rough highways of life, must rest upon the mental faculties, moral forces and physical energies, matured in a harmonious development. To neglect either one is to bring weakness to the whole. 11 In brief outline we have endeavored to notice some of the prominent points relatino; to the end of teaching. We have also noticed the distinctive features that mark the nature of the material upon which the teacher is to work. The following chapters and classifications will deal, in most part, with the plans and methods by which the end may be best reached : — What is the food upon which the mind should be fed ; at what time and in what quantities this food should be given ; and what the methods of instruction and discipline to be employed, in order that the best results may be obtained. Different courses of study, and different methods of instruc- tion and government have been proposed and carried out with seemingly good results. The teacher must be natural in his methods of work. As a rule, great teachers have been great in their own methods. But teaching is a science as well as an art. There are certain principles that underlie all successful work in the department of education. These principles have their origin in the make-up and natural tendencies of the pupil. All questions, relating either to courses of study, meth- ods of instruction or disci|)line, should be considered and de- termined Avith reference to the natural growth and balanced culture of all the faculties and powers. 12 INTRODUCTION. Teaching. — Topical Analysis. ri. D€ I2. A f ("1. Definite and predetermined end essential. 1. Introductory. linowledge of the materials essential. o 3. The Prime f 1. The formation of character in the individual. End. 12. The improvement of society in the state. f fl. Powers of observation. 1 1. Mental J 2. Retentive powers. 3. The Teacher's) Powers. | 3. Reasoning. Material. [4. Judgment. 2. Moral powers. 3. Physical powers. 4 rpi rp 1 , f 1. The development and training of powers. 4. ilie ieachers l ^ t^^ formation of correct habits. (3. The impartation of knowledge. 5. A Science and an Art. {1. Must be scientific. 2. Must be based on the nature of mind and the order of its development. INTRODUCTION. ■ Principles Stated. 1. '' The end and aim of education is the emancipation of the youth. It strives to make him self-dependent, and as soon as he has become so, it wishes to retire and to be able to leave him to the sole responsibilty of his actions. 2. " The absolute limit of education is the time when the youth has apprehended the problem which he has to solve ; has learned to know the means at his disposal and has acquired a certain faculty in using them. 3. " The teacher must not only know thoroughly and funda- mentally what he teaches, but must study well the laws which, govern the exercises, and clevelope the faculties of those whom he teaches ; he must know both the lesson and the scholar and the means by which the two may be brought into fruitful contact. " — Karl Rosenkranz. 4. " No system or method can be efficient without the in- telligence and industry of the teacher, and without he is re- ligiously imbued with a high sense of the dignity and importance of his work." — Tate. 5. " The successful teacher must in his own person form a connecting link between the art and the science of education." — Craig. 6. " Education must recognize and fully comprehend the individuality of the pupil, neither allowing the arbitrary ex- ercise of his will or that of the teacher." — Helnroth. 7. A normal development of powers through the impartation of useful knowledge is ideal success in teaching. 8. They who love learning will have learning. 9. " The primary principle of education is the determination of the pupil to self-activity — the doing of nothing for him which he is able to do for himself." — Sir William Hamilton. CHAPTER II. Mental Development. In its general acceptation, development implies a gradual growth through a series of successive changes. It is in this sense that the term is applied to the unfolding and strengthening of the faculties and capacities of the mind. Then, what is the prime end in the cultivation of the mind ? What shall be our conception of a rightly developed mind ? What shall we expect it to be able to do ? Under proper influences of culture, each mind will be nat- ural and retain its distinctive individuality ; yet in all minds there are certain powers that may be developed through a systematic training, and to rightly develop these powers should be the chief end of mental discipline. 1. There is the ability of the mind to take in pictures or images of external objects through the five bodily senses. First in importance, and in the order of development, are the faculties of observation. It is through these faculties, and these alone, that the soul comes in contact with the ma- terial world. By means of the five bodily senses — the sight, the hearing, the smell, the touch and the taste — together with the faculties that use them, the mind takes in its first pictures or ideas of material objects. Ideas thus received into the mind form the primary basis of all knowledge. If the powers of observation are not properly developed, which is too often the case, the primary knowledge will be de- fective, both as to quality and quantity. Fewer objects will be recognized by the mind, while the ideas of these objects wil be lacking, both in points of clearness and distinctness. 15 With the primary knowledge thus defective, all secondary knowledge must be indefinite, and, in a measure, inaccurate. The retentive and reasoning faculties must build out of the material furnished by the powers of observation. The reliableness of the retentive faculties depends upon the perception. The mind retains longest those things of which it has a definite comprehension. Things are readily forgotten, because they are not accurately known. Not only so, but clearness and distinctness in primary knowledge, give courage in pro- cesses of reasoning and confidence in derived judgments. Hence, it may be readily seen, that to neglect the culture of the faculties of observation, is to make thorough scholarship impossible, whatever the attention that may afterward be given to the other faculties of the mind. 2. The ability to retain and reproduce these images at will. To be able to retain, without the ability to bring up or reproduce, shows a lack of system in the operations of the mind. It is like a merchant when his house is full of goods and he cannot readily find the article wanted. 3. The ability to elaborate, or take the material al- ready in the mind and, by a process, of comparison, selec- tion, re-arrangement or re-combination, produce that which is new and different. This power of elaboration, or the ability to take the material already in the mind, and out of it produce new and additional material is, in common, .called the power of thought. It is the power that invents, plans, and originates. It collects together the facts of discovery, and establishes the principles of science. It gives improvements to the arts and progress to civilization. 4. The ability to express thought in a way that it may be intelligibly received by others. It is not enough that the mind be able to take in and retain primary knowledge, and, through elaboration, produce additional or secondary knowledge, but it should be able to convey its knowledge to other minds. An individual who has a store of knowledge 16 and cannot express it to others, has been very aptly compared to a man with a box full of tools, but wanting the ability to use them. The above four powers are characteristic of a strong and balanced mind, and the culture of these powers comprehends, in most part, the prime end of mental training. Different minds possess these powers in different degrees of strength. In some the faculties of observation appear most prominent, while in others we see more the ability to repro- duce or elaborate, and still others excel in the use of language or the ability to express thought readily and clearly. But be the natural tendencies of the mind as they may, its powers to do, are very largely the result of the training which the mind has had. Then what system of training will be most efficient in the harmonious development of the mental powers ? What is the nature of mind ? What is the natural order in which the feculties of the mind develop ? What are the branches of study best adapted to the growth and training of these diff'erent faculties ? And what is the method of instruction to be employed in awakening in them a healthy energy at their various stages of growth ? The nature of mind. The mind is spiritual and self- acting. It is composed of distinct faculties which it uses for the accomplishment of distinct and definite ends. Through the doors of the senses it may be reached, imj^ressed and called into action by the use of material objects. The mental faculties mutually influence one another in the several processes of observation, retention, reasoning and judg- ing. Thus grouped, with reference to their relation in the differ- ent processes of mental action, the natural order of the mind's development may be stated as follows: 1. Ob- servation. 2. Retention. 3. Reasoning. 4. Judgment. 17 The laculties of retention and observation seem to be closely related in their processes and also in their time of develop- ment. The same may be said in reference to the faculties of reason and judgment ; but the process whidi is first, both in time and importance, is observation. The mind must first take in before it can retain, and the ability to retain depends upon the accuracy of the perception. Nothing that can be said, however, on this subject is so in- structive to those who will study it, as the child itself. Study its inquisitive nature as it begins to observe objects in the nursery, to reach after things near and far. See it turn its rattle over and over, throw it down and pick it up again with new interest ; observe as it listens at sounds, and tastes every- thing it can put its hands on. See it again, the little boy or girl of three or four summers, with a restless inc|uisitiveness that wants to look into every drawer and nook and corner in the house ; to see everything that passes along the road or street; asking more questions than even the good mother has the pa- tience to answer. Then comes the inclination to memorize and speak little verses, to hear and repeat stories, to remember names, places, &c. Following this natural transition, at length we have the boy and girl in their teens ; reflecting and reason- ing, and looking with some degree of distrust upon the coun- sel of their parents and friends, but hardly willing to rely upon their own conclusions. And still farther on in life the matur- ing judgment gives us the more stable character of manhood and womanhood. It is important to recognize this natural order of growth in determining both the means and the methods of teaching, in- asmuch as there is a particular kind of food and discipline suited to the exercise of each faculty, and upon the judicious use of these depends, in a large measure, success in education. The powers may be cultivated with the best effect at the pe- riod of their natural activity. The teacher, then, who is acquainted with the natural growth of the mind, as every teacher should be, knows l^etter how to 18 follow up mother Nature in her methods of education, by bringing to the attention of the pupils subjects suited to their several needs. The means or branches of study to be employed in the development and training of the mind must be determined by the nature of the mind itself and by its advancement in the order of growth. To require a pupil to study a subject that demands the special use of the reasoning faculties at the age when the faculties of observation or retention are rapidly de- veloping and chiefly active, is to work against the plans of mother Nature, and is apt to result in discouragement and failure. So it is if an attempt be made to cultivate the pow- ers of observation by requiring pupils to study branches which by their nature call mainly into use the memory or the powers of reasoning. It is important that the subjects taught be such as will awaken an interest in study. I\Iental activity sustained by in- terested work, is more fruitful in desirable results than that which is awakened and kept up by the efforts of the will. The effect of the one is to refresh and energize, while the effect of the other is to weary and enervate. It is also important that 23U- pils study subjects that will foster purity of thought. The mind that dwells on things impure is like the body that feeds, on the stale refuse of the city market. It will have its rickety deformities and its unhealthy tendencies. Vileness is ojDposed to all true inspirations. The method to be employed must be normal. It must be based on the nature of the mind itself. It must regard the natural order of the mind's development and observe the principles that govern its activities and determine its growth. It must induce self-activity in the minds of the pupils. It must incite mental effort and train the mental powers. It should seek to have thought in concord with emotion and awaken a healthy interest in study, the stimulus to mental ef- fort. It must inculcate methodical habits of study. o .Q Eh 19 MENTAL DEVELOPMENT. Topical Analysis. f rThe unfolding, strengthening and training of j 1. Definition, j the faculties, capacities and tendencies of the ( mind. f 1. Ability to take in pictures or images of exter- I nal objects. 2 TheF 1 ' "• Ability ^^ retain these images in the mind and '^^^ ' ] call them up at will. I 3. Ability to elaborate. [ 4. Ability to express thought readily and correctly. f 1. The mind is spiritual. S The Nature of I ^- ^^^ ™"'^ ^^ self-acting. thf Annrl -i 3- The mind is composed of distinct faculties, me iviinu. ^ ^ Through the doors of the senses the mind [ may be reached and influenced. fl. Power of observation. 4. The Natural Order of the Mind's J 2. Retentive powers. Development. | 3. Reasoning^ powers. [4. Judgment. f 1. They must be suited to the stages of 5 Means or Branch- I the mind's growth, il ^? C!?L £o.f 2. They must be adapted to the special de- 4 rl w.^ ?n ihl J velopment of the difl-erent faculties. A S n^.-SVoi!. I 3. They should be such as will incite ,v.!?rf !l!: iv^^i^ wholesome mental activity by awa- mgoftheMmd. | kening an interest in study. [4. They must foster purity of thought. fl. It must regard the natural order of the mind's development. . It must induce self-activity in the mind of the pupil. I 3. It must incite mental effort and train the The Method. -{ mental powers. I 4. It should seek to have thought in concord with emotion, and make a healthy inter- est in study, the stimulus to mental effort. I 5.' It must inculcate methodical habits of L study. 20 MENTAL DEVELOPMENT. PRINCIPLES STATED. 1. Unnatural discipline tends to distorted culture : all means and methods must be made conformable to nature's laws. 2. The power of thought is obtained by systematic think- m o o 2. Their Place in the Natural Order of the Mind's Develop- ment. fl. In the acquisition of knowledge. ! 2. As an aid to memory, 3. Their Importance. ^ 3. As a remedy against timidity. I 4. As related to the expression of thought. [ 5. As essential to accurate scholarship. f 1. By repeated and accurate observation. I 2. By the reproduction of images taken into the 4. HowCul-j mind by observation— the description of tivated. ' things seen. ! 3. By the natural method of instruction. [ 4. By studies in the natural sciences. f 1. "Before a child is capable of talking, its edu- cation should be commenced." , The five senses— the inlets of its earliest knowledge should receive the most careful attention, that habits of accurate observation may be early formed. The reliableness of the memory and the ac- curacy of the judgment are dependent upon '', the culture of the powers of observation. I 5. In childhood the eyes are sharp to see, the ears quick to hear, and the fingers ever busy and I ready to do. This activity is to be directed ; these senses are to be exercised, and_ the I mind must have facts to satisfy its cravings. I 6. The olDJect lesson imparts facts through the [ exercise of the senses. 5. Principles Stated. 22 CHAPTER III. Moral Culture. Moral law is the basis of civilization and all successful hu- man endeavor. " To the thinking observer," says Harris, " nothing can be more obvious than the fact that the whole fabric of society rests on the proper moral training of the youth." Says another writer : " There is a great law pervading the universe, which to know is wisdom, to love is piety, and to obey is holiness. It is the perpetual revelation of the Divine will, the ceaseless manifestations of the Deity to man. By it the heavens revolve, declaring as they pass, the glory oi God. By it all nature lives and moves in delightful harmony. It bids the busy ant provide her meat in the summer, and the bird of passage to fly from the winter storm." " That mankind may come into harmony with this law in its applications to the individual, to society, and to the state, comprehends in most part, the end of moral culture in the school. There are certain faculties or powers in each individual which tend to bring him into harmony with the Divine will, and hence upon their development depends his moral strength. As a basis for reliable character nine things are es- sentially important. 1. A clear and discriminating moral sense — an abihty and tendency to draw the hue between right and wrong with clearness and dispatch. Upon this power rests very largely the decision of character. With a highly cultivated sense of the right, there is not so much of a tendency to parley with the wrong, to yield to evil associations. 2. A love for the truth and the right, a desire to do what is right for right's sake. 23 3. A confidence in th6 tendencies and power of truth. It is natural for the youth to admire that which possesses the elements of strength and success. A conscious- ness of the power and final outcome of right principles creates a desire to seek results throuo;h obedience to the laws of truth. 4. A confidence in humanity and a tendency to look for good, instead of evil — "to recognize the good in all, and to receive good from all." The mind that feeds on the failings of others, gets little to nourish the hopes and pur- poses of a noble life. 5. A confidence in God as the author of all truth and of all law, and in Jesus Christ, the great Teacher and Redeem- er, the source of energy and the revealer of truth. 6. Pure motives and high purposes in the minds of the youth that they may be continually led into the pursuit of noble ends. " The soul that has no singleness of- aim is distracted and divided, and loses its power." — Clark. Says Horace Mann : " When a teacher stimulates a child to the performance of ac- tions, externally right, by appealing to motives intrinsically wrong, he sells that child into bondage to wrong motives. 7. Habits of moral obedience. As in the physical so in the moral actions the power of habit has a great in- fluence either for good or evil. Moral conduct stands on the obedience to law. The boy whose custom it is to obey is al- ways a more reliable one when put under temptation to go wrong. 8. An active conscience. — a feeling of oughtness that speaks out at every point of moral decision and follows up every wrong act with keen remorse. 9. Habits of industry coupled with a belief in the dignity of labor. In the moral world there is still no safe place for the idler; and labor continues to be drudgery to the one who regards it as the dependent necessity. Such then, may be regarded as the principle elements that constitute the end of moral training. The means by which 24 this end may be reached are various, depending upon the cir- cumstances and the dispositions of the pupils. " To teach morals," says Chas. Brooks, "is first to impart moral ideas into children's minds by words, and then, by ex- ercise and example to make those moral ideas become active principles embodied in the life." The principal means to be employed in moral culture are in the main as follows : I. The general bearing of the teacher. Children are among our best observers. They are not long in discov- ering the motives and principles behind the teacher's actions. His habits, his temper, his impartiality, and his justice, to- gether with the interest which he feels in the work of the school, are readily seen by the pupils, and have a great influ- ence in determining their dispositions and motives. It has been aptly said by Nimeyer : " What children see constantly done by those whom they respect and love, they soon come to think is what ought to be done." " The first work of a teach- er," says Reynolds, " is to honor by his own example the pre- cepts which he recommends." He should be true to his pupils, true to himself, and true to the profession which he has chosen. " O'er wayward children wouldst thou hold firm rule, And sun thee in the ligh?of happy faces? Love, hope and patience — these must be thy graces, And in thine ovm heart let them first keep school." II. Moral instruction. This may be either direct or indirect. There are many cases in which it is necessary to teach chil- dren directly what is right and what is wrong ; but the most lasting impressions, those which become blended into the in- dividual character, are mostly obtained by indirect instruc- tion — Instruction in which the moral food is mixed with the intellectual. The means to be employed in this instrQction are mainly as follows : 25 a. Discussions on moral questions by the teacher and the pupils. These subjects may be selected by the teacher, and introduced at such times as may seem best. There should be great freedom in the discufisions. The time, nature of the subject, and method of discussion must be left to the common sense and good judgment of the teacher. Such discussions will give more satisfactory results, as pupils are of a higher grade. b. Declamations and composition writing. Noble thoughts committed and recited in well selected declama- tions, or gathered up and embodied in essays, furnish a wholesome food for the moral faculties. In these exercises the pupils not only directly strengthen themselves, but they help and encourage one another. A moral principle, search- ed out and expressed by a pupil, is often more readily received than if it had been presented directly by the teacher. It is difficult to measure the moral influence that a well ar- ranged school exhibition may have on a community. The ennobling thoughts rehearsed by the children take root not only in their own minds, but also in the minds of the parents. c. Text books and literature. P]very book, maga- zine or newspaper read, has its intiuence either for or against moral culture. " Books, like teachers, must have morality in them or else they c.innot im])arG it." Especially is this true in regard to school readers. d. Stories and anecdotes selected from history and biography. "To hear al)out goo.l men," says Richter is equivalent to living among them." The boy who reads Dr. Livingstone's travels in Africa, the boyhood days of Frank- lin, or the life of William Wilberforce in his efforts for hu- man freedom, will iinlnbe principles and motives of action that will ever tend to inspire and direct him in a more noble life. The girl who follows Elizabeth Fry through her prison work in England, or Mary Lyon, struggling against great dif- ficulties to obtain an education, and afterwards in her success- 2 26 ful labors at Mount Holyoke Seminary, will have a nobler heart and a better appreciation of the opportunities and re- sponsibilities of her sex. Moral lessons are the more lasting, as they are blended with the common stock of knowledge which the pupil acquires. Pupils much prefer being instructed in knowledge to being lectured to on morality. 3. The exercise of the moral faculties. The secret of successful teaching is to excite and keep alive a spirit of wholesome activity among the pupils. As with the men- tal and 23hysical powers, so it is with the moral facidties. They strengthen by exercise, but weaken ]\y inaction. The tendency and power to do 'right comes by doing right. The inclination to think nobly is obtained by dealing with noble thoughts. Dunning has well said : " Character is formed by training rather than by teaching. A teacher cannot lecture a child into good manners, nor change habits of any kind l)y the longest speech. Habits are changed only by repetition of doing, and it is in these doings that training consists." 27 MORAL CULTURE. Topical Analysis. 1. Def. of the moral r 1. In gener powers, al. \ Har mony with the Divine will. 2. The end of moral c'lture fl- Si o A clear and discriminative moral sense A love for the truth and the right. A confidence in the tendencies and power of truth. A confidence inhumanity. A confidence in God as "the author of truth. Habits of moral obdience. An active conscience. Pure motives and noble aims. Habits of industry coupled with a belief in the dignity of labor. f 1. The general bearing of the teacher. I 2. As to [ particulars ] 2. The means and methods. 1. Direct. < Precepts. 5 ^1 Discussions on moral questions. Declamations and composition wri- ting. Text-books and literature. I d. Stories and anecdotes from history L and biography. (a. I b. I s I, III. Exercises of the mor- j ,' al faculties. 1 IV. Environments and associations. In doing right. In feeling right. In thinking nobly. f 1. Neatness and arrange- I ment of school rooms, i school ground, games, &c. I 2. Proper associates. I 3. Societies and associations I for the promotion of mor- I al and religious ends. V. The principles of Christianity studied and lived to. 28 MORAL CULTURE. PRINCIPLES STATP:D. 1. What children see constantly done b}^ those whom they respect and love they soon come to think ought to be done." — Nimeyer. 2. ''Nothing can influence character like character." 3. " Character is formed l)}^ training rather than by teach- ing." — Dunning. 4. A tendency to do right is acquired by right doing. A pure and noble mind results from thinking pure and noble thoughts. 5. '• Believing that a boy has some good in him and let- ting him know that you believe it is, one of the liest means of putting it there." — N. A. Calkins. (). " To hear about good men is equivalent to living among them." 7. Moral lessons are the more lasting as they are blended with the common stock of knowledge which the pupil ac- quires. Pupils much prefer being instructed in knowledge to being lectured to on morality. • 8. " Motives are better than actions. He that does good for good's sake, seeks neither 2:>riiise nor reward, though sure of both at last." 9. "The great ends of life are gained by him who, in all his conduct, is animated by the love of Christ." 10. " The soul that has no singleness of aim is distracted and divided, and loses its power." IL " To be trusted is to be saved." 12. " If we try to influence or elevate others we shall soon. see that success is in proportion to their belief of our belief in them." 29 CHAPTER IV. PHYSICAL CULTURE. Education in its chief end comprehends a complete culture of the entire person. The natural inter-dependence existing between the body and the mind is such, that to secure a complete development of either there must be a harmonious development of both. Physical culture, therefore, is a part of the teacher's work. In addition to the education of the moral and mental facul- ties, there must be that physical training necessary to secure the growth, health and right tendencies of the body. For evidences of the needs for phj^sical training, we have Init to refer to.tlie large numl)er of students continually coming out of our schools, ill of health, deformed in stature, ungraceful in their movements, eml)arassed with injurious and uncouth habits, and without sufficient energy to follow^ up the desires and purposes of an active mind. Teachers often meet with discouragement in the influences that surround the pupils in their home association. Perhaps there is no part of the teacher's work in which the discourage- ments are more conmion than in their efforts toward physical culture. Yet there is much that the conscientious teacher can do for the health and general bearing of the student. In order that the efforts put forth may be proper and rightly directed, it is necessary in this, as in mental and moral cul- ture, that there be a purpose and plan definitely defined in the teacher's mind. There should also be a knowledge of the organism of the human body, with the laws that govern its growth and activity. Presuming, then, an ac(iuaintance with the anatomy and hygiene of the body, it remains for us to in- quire into the best means and methods for its training. 30 The end of physical culture may be noticed under the fol- lowing four subdivisions. 1. Bodily strength and symmetry. These are but the outgrowth of natural develo})ment. Any weakness or de- formity, however slight, has its origin in the violation of one or more of the natural laws of growth. Tiie body becomes stouter and more capable of resisting disease as all the differ- ent parts are proportionally developed. And there is an influence in the dignity of bearing which is too lightly esteemed by many educators. The student who comes out of school with hollow cheeks, humped shoulders, or boorish habits, commences the race of life at a disadvan- tage. If he be not more subject to disease, his general ap- pearance is taken as an index of liis lack of energy and self-respect, "and is an inhuence against him. Some very strong and good men have liad their bodily iniirmaties, yet these defects cannot be taken as marks of greatness. Even nose-glasses, as worn l;)y our young collegiates, cannot be es- teemed more than prima facue evidence of scholarship. 2. The discipline of the physical powers. Develop- ment and discipline are very closely related, yet one is not necessarily the result of the other. Discipline fosters devel- opment, but development does not, of itself, secure discipline. Development signifies a growth of the different parts of the body ; discipline denotes a control of these parts by the will. That the body may serve the soul that lives in it, it must be disciplined into obedience to the will that dictates its move- ments. The limbs must be trained to move, the senses to perceive, and the voice to modulate. 3. Naturalness in the bodily appetites. The appe- tites are either natural or abnormal. They originate either in the bodily needs or they are created by outward influences. The gratification of the natural appetites supplies the needs of the body and maintains a healthy growth of its organism. The abnormal or unnatural ap})etites may be a craving for what 31 is poisonous to the vital energies, as tobacco, alcoholic drinks or morphine ; or it may be simply a cbsire to partake of what the system does not need (as in a case of over-eating). In either case the gratification of the desire is pernicious in its effects. 4. A wholesome energy. Man is not by nature a lazy animal. The healthy child is full of life and mdustry. If the grown up man or woman be sluggish and indolent it is not the fault of nature, but ratlier the result of disease and wrong tendencies acquired through l)ad training, or it may be no training. Then, to foster the life, and direct the spirit of industry found in childhood, should be one of the chief aims of education. The means and methods by which the above named ends may be best attained are somewhat difficult to classify and define. The means to be used, and the methods to be em- ployed are so blended together that the end seems to be ac- complished more by the method becoming the means, than through means in the hands of methods. (a). The nature and arrangement of the school rooms and school furniture have an influence in the physical as well as the moral and intellectual training of children. The shajje and size of the room, the location and arrangement of windows for the admission of light, the means of heating and -N'entilation, the kind, height and arrangement of desks and recitation seats, the j^osition of teacher's desk and black- boards, etc., with the cleanliness and attractiveness of the entire room, have a bearing upon the symmetry, health, in- dustry and cheerfulness of the school that must not be over- looked. Bring an uncouth, aimless boy for the first time into a com- fortable, well-ventilated and well-lighted school room. As he seats himself and looks around upon the tidy desks and the clean floor and the fresh-looking maps and pictures be- fore him on the wall, he l^egins to straighten himself up with a dignity of bearing and to feel impulses of courage and self-, respect and purpose never known to him l^efore. S2 b. The posture and movements of the pupils should have proper attention. The practice of allowing children to sit on seats too high or too low, or of permitting them to lounge in their seats, is productive of bad resuUs. If there should be no bodily deformities there will be formed awkward and unnatural hal:)its of sitting, to embarrass the student in after hfe. Children who are required to sit in an erect and natural attitude are not only more healthy and symmetrical in their growth, but they are more cheerful and energetic -be- cause of the more favorable condition of their vital organs. c. The personal habits and general appearance of the teacher have a telling influence on the conduct and bearing of the pupils. Extravagance in anything is an indi- cation of bad taste, but the teacher who would be a good disciplinarian must continually bear about in his own body the marks of good training. He must observe habits of neatness and punctuality, and show a natural gentihty in pos- ture and actions. d. Gymnastics and Calisthenics have been introduced into many schools ^Yitll good results. These systematic exer- cises, when under the direction of a competent instructor (as such exercises should be), may be made a means for securing^ what the term calisthenics implies — "beautiful strength" — wholesome energy, natural symmetry and graceful movement. Manual training, when properly introduced into our schools^ promises to have a salutary influence on physical culture. e. Pupils should be instructed in the principles of physiology and hygiene. This instruction may be given in part by means of text books and in part by oral teaching. By a system of oral lessons, a thing indispensably necessary in the lower-grade work, children may be interested and re- ceive information on many things pertaining to the science of health, which they should learn before they can be expected to take up Physiology as a regular study in school. Instruction given on the principles of health should be ac- companied with teachings on physical morality. The child 33 should learn, at a very early clay, not only how to grow and keep well, but he should be made to believe that it is his duty to preserve his health; that every time he violates a law of hygiene he commits a sin, and that any indulgence in this direction "will bring its penah^y bitter and sure," 34 PHYSICAL CULTURE. Topical Analysis, 1. Definition. J H O O l-H 1, The mental, moral and physical powers are inter-dependent in culture and en- 2. Importance of j g Th^chamcter of an individual is influ- I enced by the symmetry discipline and [ strength of the body. (1. Bodily strength and symmetry, o rpi J J 2. Discipline of the physical powers. ■ I 3. Naturalness in the bodily appetites. [ 4. A wholesome energy. '1. The nature and arrangement of the school room. 2. Posture and movements of the pupils. 3. Personal habits and general appearance of the teacher. 4. Instruction on the laws of health and growth. 5. Gymnastics, calisthenics, &c. 1 6. Manual training in the schools. 4. Means and methods. '1. All exercise should be normal. — It should be in harmony with the natural movements and attitudes of the body. 2. Exercise should be neither violent nor ex- I haustive. Princi Ip'^ ' ^' Lxercise should be taken in the pure air and stated^ ^ under favorable and pleasant circustances. 4. Desirable habits are acquired by careful train- ing. 5. Purity of body has much to do with purity of soul. 6. "A physical fact is as sacred as a moral prin- L cipleV' 35 CHAPTER V. CORRECT HABITS. There is an innate principle or force which leads us to do with ease and growing certainty what we do often. Upon the proper development and right tendency of this force largely rests substantial character. However good may be the inten- tions, and however strong may be the will power, without the support of well-fixed habits success is always uncertain. What then should he the relation of school discipline to the forma- tion of habits and what are some of the habits that need to have the interested care of the teacher? There are physical habits, mental habits and moral habits. That is to say, there are tendencies that very much influence the posture and move- ments of the body and largely determine its appetites, and there are tendencies that lead the mind in channels of thought and incline the will toward certain lines of conduct. Over all these the builder of character should have a watchful eye. However extensive l)e the book knowledge, and however high l)e the motives, the youth who starts out on the duties of life with wrong habits, is already on the road to certain faikire, and the only way to get out of this road is to correct his habits. Nothing is more certainly ordained to each boy and girl than that they are to be under the influence of habits of their own forming. The only choice left to them and the guardian of their training is whether these habits shall be good or bad — helpful or hurtful. The child is hardly out of its cradle before habits are be- ginning to form that will have to do with its future destiny. Into almost every school there come boys and girls to whom m the matter of arithmetic or English grammar is of far less im- portance than tliat of habit. But the skilful teacher soon learns that proper care extended to the habits by no means interferes with the instruction given in arithmetic and other branches or with the pupils capacity to learn, and the teacher Avho is careful to look after the habits of the pupil is doubly paid in the ganeral appearance and good order of the school. What then are some of the more important habits that properly come under the attention of school training, and should have the special care of the teacher. 1. Habits of Obedience. In both the natural and the spir* ittual world there are certain fixed laws, and whatever l)e the undertaking, full success depends upon obedience to some one or more of these laws: He who would be well and strong must obey the laws of health and physical grow^th, and he who desires vigor and exactness of thought must regard the laws of mind, Thus in all worthy effort, obedience to law^ is the price of success. Tlie exhortation, "My son, forget not my kuv, but let thine heart keep my commandment" is of no less importance to-day than in the time of the wise teacher. Through its reasonable and consistent rules, and its wise and therefore natural methods, the school should foster in its pu- pils a sentiment of loyalty and a high respect for law. 2. Habits of Accurate Observation. There are few things in which we differ more than in our habits of observa- tion. Two persons pass over t';ie same road ; one sees almost everything along the way, the other sees very little, or it may be that both see very much the same things, but while one has clear and definite ideas of the objects, the ideas of the other are much confused. The cause of the difierence is that the one has habits of accurate observation, while the other has not. As with these tivo passing over the road, so holds the lesson of experiment in the different walks and situations of life. The one who has acquired habits of accurate obser- vation is found to have more definite ideas and hence more reliable knowledge. 37 Students who carefully observe, not only acquire definite conceptions of external objects, but their ideas obtained by reading are more nearly correct. As a rule, the accurate ob- server is the more interested and reliable thinker. Among different individuals there are differences of faculties and capacities. Yet the tendencies and powers of observation are very largely the result of training. The accurate observer becomes such by careful and frequent observations, and cor- rect habits of observing, if formed at all, are generally, in large part, formed during the first years of student life. At this time of early childhood, the faculties of observation are naturally very active, and in this day of natural history and object teaching, the school will fail of its opportunity and be derelict of duty that does not adapt its studies and methods to the natural training of these faculties, and thus do its part in helping mother nature to develop in the children habits of careful observation. 3. Habits of Industry. — Activity is a law of nature, and, as such, is perhajjs nowhere more exemplified than in the busy make-up of the child. When this natural desire to do is taught to go in proper lines of systematic work, labor liecomes easy and the performance of duty a pleasure. It has been said, " Blessed is the man who has tound his work." It might be said, and with equal propriety ; blessed is the in_ dividual who. loves to work, wlio has retained the industrious habits of childliood. The work done is the true measure of success. It is not so much what one can do as it is what one will do. The former marks capacity, the latter measures the true worth, and depends upon the inclination to work. A chief end of education is the ability and inclination to do work, whether that work be mental or physical. The knowledge which is obtained at school is at best lim- ited, and very indefinite, but the pupil who has acquired the power and love of study is on the way to pleasant fields of research, and a more satisflictory scholarship. The great scholars of history were first industrious students, and the 38 eminently useful have ever been busy workers. That school should be deemed the best success that gets the best results in the willing work of its pupils. 4. Habits of Self-help. — Individualism is an essential element in reliable character. Without it there is but little independence of thought or conception of purpose. The man or woman without individualism is the flabby jelly-fish float- ing in the current of society. Now individualism is not the habit of self-help, but the two are very closely related. To cultivate the habit of self.help is to strengthen the principle of individualism. Karl Rosenkranz has well said that " the end and aim of education is the emancipation of the youth. It strives to make him self-dependent, and as soon as he has be- come so, it wishes to retire and to be able to leave him to the sole responsibility of his actions." A chief end of the teacher's work then, is to assist the pupils in finding themselves and in learning somewhat of their powers, etc., and to direct them in the proper development and training of these powers. To attain this end the boys and girls must be thrown back onto themselves, and taught to rely as much as possible on their own resources. The work assigned should always be adapted to the capacities of the pupils. Then instead of do- ing the work for them they are only to have such assistance as will encourage them to do it for themselves. Whenever assistance is carried beyond this point it fails of its end. It generally requires less tact, patience and effort on the part of the teacher to do the work than to sufficiently enlighten and encourage the pupil, and is it not at this point, fellow teachers, that we are apt to fail, and is it not largely because of our failures at this point that the habit of self-help is so little manifest in most of our schools ? 5. Habits relating to the movements and positions of the body. There is a certain inter-dependent relation be- tween the mental, moral and physical habits. A relation not likely to be over-estimated by the most careful educator. The boys and girls who regard the attitude and movements 39 of the body, and are carefully temperate in their appetites, will not only excel in health and general appearance, but, other things equal, they will be more systematic and accurate in thought, and in all things more reliable. Unfortunate is the child whose teacher has a dull appre- ciation of bodily training, and unhappy should be the teacher whose school is filled with lounging boys and girls, whose gawky movements show little care, and whose illy-cultured tastes seek solace in the tobacco quid, the cigarette or the chewing-gum. The nature and arrangement of the school room furniture, the seating of the pupils, the plan for calling and dismissing classes, the posture of pupils in the recitation and the every day example of the teacher may all be made potent influences in bodily training. 40 CORRECT HABITS. Topical Analysis. 1. Definition. A habit is a tendency to perform certain actions which is acquired by their frequent repeti- tion. l-H pq - < 2. As common to all ■i: 3. Class s. \ 2. I 4. How formed 5. Correct Habits. All are more or less under the influ- ence of habit. Habit may be either good or bad. Physical. Mental. Moral. f 1. By repeated efforts. 2. By not trying to form too many new hab- I its at the same time. I 3. By working in harmony with nature's 1 laws. I 4. Bad habits are formed with but little ef- I fort, and are more generally the result t of foreign influences. f 1. They are normal. I 2. They tend to health, strength and -j activity. I 3. They improve the appearance and I influence of the individual. f 1, As a prime / Being essential to sub- end. \ stantial character. As an aid in the management of the school. f 1. Habits of obedience. I 2. Habits of accurate observa- I tion. \ 3. Habits of industry. I 4. Habits of self-help. I 5. Habits in the movements and L postures of the body. The nature and arrangement of the furniture in the school room. The plan for calling and dis- missing classes. The seating of the pupils. The posture of the pupils at desks and in class. The every day example of the L teacher. Character i sties of 2. Value of -I I 3. Those of spe- cial interest or import- ance. Aids in the formation of. fl. 41 CORRECT HABITS. PRINCIPLES STATED. 1. The ability and tendencies of an individual are largely determined by the habits formed. 2. The formation of correct habits tends to bring youth into harmony with the principles and laws of truth, and this is freedom. 3. "Habits render labor easy and the performance of duty a pleasure." — Tate. 4. " Habits fortify us against bad example and shield us from the force of sudden temptation." 5. " Intellectual habits are not less essential to man than those habits that have relation to conduct." 6. The habit of working out results from first principles and not by rules exercises a most salutary influence in the development of the faculties of children. 7. The habit of relying on one's own efforts in stead of de- pending on help from others, has a healthful influence in the formation of reliable character. 8. In its natural condition the body is symmetrical in form and graceful in posture and movement. The young man who comes out of school with protrusive chin, humped shoulders and unseemly habits, commences the race of life at a disadvantage. He may possess a disciplined mind, stored with knowledge ; yet his appearance is taken as an index of his character, and is, an influence against him., 42 CHAPTER VI, THE CULTURE OF THE MEMORY. In the efforts to find a system of primary teaching adapted to the right training of the faculties of perception and reason- ing, there has grown up a tendency to neglect the culture of the memory. The introduction of object teaching, so very helpful to the interest and life of a school and highly adapted to the cul- tivation of other faculties, has not had a wholesome influence on the memory. Memory studies have given place to observation studies and thought studies, and thus the faculty of memory has suffered loss. Whatever may be said of the old blue-backed spelling-book those who thoroughly studied it make fewer mistakes in their orthography than some who learned to spell by the modern method and make more pretentions to scholarship. The writer has no inclination to call back the old spelling- book. Neither has he any disposition to call a h ilt to the efforts that are being made by the introductton of Nature's own methods for the cultivation of the faculties of observation and reasoning, but rather to encourage us that we may ex- tend the effort in the line of normal methods to the better training of the memory also — to the balanced culture of all the powers. The two principal elements of the memory are retention and recollection. 1. Retention is the power by which the mind retains knowledge. It is the ability of the mind to hold fast to what it has acquired, either as pictures or images of external objects taken in through the five senses, or as secon- 43 dary concepts or ideas formed in the mind. 2. Recollection is the power by which the mind recalls knowledge. It is the ability of the mind to reach back into its storehouse and bring out the thing desired. These two principal elements taken together constitute the memory, which xnay be defined as the ability of the mind to retain and i-ecall knowledge. As thus understood and defined, the importance of the development of the memory is self-evi- dent. The memory is preliminary and auxiliary to all pro- cesses of thinking. How, then, may the memory be improved ? What are some of the means to be employed and the methods to be pursued in the cultivation of the memory? 1. Cultivate habits of careful observation as a basis. Things are easily forgotten because they are not accurately known. The memory clings longest to those objects that are thoroughly understood. When in old age the memory seems to have let go of much of its former possessions, the familiar scenes of childhood — those pictures that were so definitely en- graved on the mind by the frequent opportunities of an active perception — remain clear and distinct. To understand a subject is to know it in all its relations, to see it from different standpoints. It is by the habit of definite observation — by a tendency to carefully view objects from their different sides that images are permanently impressed on the tablets of the memory. 2. See that the mind is not encumbered with things frivolous. It is but natural for one to exercise a loo^e care over those things which are deemed of little value. There will be considerable difference in the care extended, whether the pocket contains a copper cent or a five dollar gold piece ; so with the contents of the memory. The individual who comes under the influence of such reading or associations as to fill the mind with worthless thought will hold his mental possessions with a disinterested looseness, and the memory will grow weak from lack of effort to retain. 3. Cultivate a habit of systematic study. The mer- 44 chant puts up his goods in the storehouse with an idea of tak- ing them down when called for. He measures off his room with reference to different departments and arranges his shelves and drawers in accordance with a definite system based on a definite purpose. The articles of merchandise are put into their places classified. When a clerk wishes an article he knows where it is. As with the merchandise, so it may be, in large measure, with the items of knowledge taken into the mind. In every branch of study there may be found certain leading principles or parts around which all minor principles and facts may be clustered and held together by the ties of relation and associa- tion. With the systematic student, the storehouse of knowl- edge has its apartments, and its contents are classified and arranged for the ready convenience of the mental errand-boy — the recollection. Extensive reading, after the manner of reading "book after book, with but little definite purpose in view, has an influence to weaken rather than strengthen the memory. The reader gets into the habit of reading for entertainment rather than with the idea of storing the memory. The mind gathers with neither the idea of retaining or reproducing. Facts collected without purpose or system make thought indefinite, while the power of the memory weakens from la^k of proper use. 4. Cultivate attention. Attention gives clearness of con- ception, upon whicii ti;e power of memory largely depends. That of which the mind has a clear and distinct idea — that which it has carefully separated from other things and dis- tinctly considered in its differents parts and properties, it takes firm hold of and retains with a fixed grasp. Continuous at- tention fixes the idea by giving permanence to that impres- sion. It is the die that stamps the image on the tablet of the memory. 5. Cultivate a tendency to trust the memory. Noth- ing will tend more to develop a faculty or power tlian a con- fident reliance upon it as capable and trustworthy. Out of 45 an inclination to trust the memory will grow the habit of re- lying upon it and of using it. 6. Cultivate the habit of associating things easily re- membered with those recalled with greater difficulty. The memory may thus take advantage of the law of associa- tion, and bring into i^rofitable co-operation its spontaneous and volitional 230wers. The above are suggested as some of the means by which the memory may be improved. Nothing can give more satisfac- tory evidence of the proj^riety of the statement than an indi- vidual experiment. 46 CULTURE OF THE MEMORY. Topical Analisis. J. n ... j Memory is the faculty for retaining and recol- uennmon. | lecting images or ideas in the mind. t , ,, 1 • J f Spontaneous. As to the kind.|/^^.^.^^^^_^^^^^i^^^i^^_ As to place in the natural order of the mind's development. 1. As preliminary and auxiliary to all pro- cesses of thinking. 2. As a source of pleasure. f 1. Cultivate habits of careful observation I as a basis. I 2, Disencumber the mind of things friv- olous. j 3. Cultivate the habit of systematic study by instruction given on a regular and As to import- ance. 5. How aided in development. connected plan. 4. Cultivate attention. 5. Cultivate a tendency to trust the mem- ory. 6. Cultivate the habit of associating things easily remembered with those recall- [ ed with greater difficulty. ( i. Do everything with attention. 2. Things are easily forgotton because they are not accurately known. 3. Similar objects of thought recall one another. n , j 4. The remembrance of the cause suggests the Remarks, i ^^^^^^ 5. Dissimilar objects of thought tend to recall one another. 6. Things associated in time and place suggest [ one another. 47 CHAPTER VIL PRELIMINARY WORK. There is hardly a business or calling in which the element of foresight is more needed than in the every day work of school teaching. The ability to look ahead and see duty before the hour of duty, together with a precaution that provides for emergencies before the time of emergency, carries many a teacher over difficult places and often makes the way seem smooth and pleasant which would otherwise be hard and full of trouble. The individual who takes the place of care-taker and in- structor of the miscellaneous company of children usually brought together in the ordinary district school becomes at once the center of a busy little world with duties and respon- sibilities coming in from every side. Apart from the regular routine of school w^ork there will be the thousand and one unlooked-for duties and incidents to claim attention. To meet these responsibilities, perform these duties and give the proper turn to these incidents requires the closest economy of time and the best system of work. Under the head of what may be called preliminary work much may be done to enhance the good standing and lighten the daily burdens of the teacher. Then what is this preliminary work of the teacher? AVhen does it begin and when does it end? First. There is a class of work which comes in between the time of engagement and the morning on which the school is to commence. Notwithstanding the importance ol these duties, and op- 48 portunities, they are too often neglected and left to be looked after when the teacher is over-crowded with other duties. Through this neglect the teacher makes a bad start which is apt unfavorably to influence the work of the entire term. 1. There should be a definite understanding between the teacher and employers. The conditions of the contract should be definitely understood by all parties and expressed in writing. It is the only safeguard against misunderstanding and trouble. 2. A comfortable and proper boarding place should be se- cured, and this means much towards the success of the school. The teacher cannot afford even to seem to be a neigh- borhood partisan. All teachers must also be students. While they should be sociable and in the true sense enter into the life of the community in which they labor, they must have a place for retirement, relaxation and study, a little private home of their own to which they can retire for reenforcement. The teacher should be amply supplied with good well prepared food. If any one should be favored with tasteful and wholesome nourishments it is the hard-working teacher of the common school who is heavily taxed in body brain and heart. 3. The earnest teacher with a good store of precaution and common sense goes into the field of labor two or three days before the commencement of his school, carefully selects a boarding place, visits the school house, sees that it is cleaned and the furniture properly arranged, and if likely to be needed, prepares the fuel for starting a fire ; brushes the dust off of the maps and charts and hangs them up on the wall, also hangs up two or three additional maps or charts that he had bought to use in some other school-house where there were no maps; then taking a place at the teacher's desk looks the situation over, and goes back to his boarding place' to think over a plan for organizing the school which is already becoming to him an interesting reality. Some of the boys or 49 girls of the district who are passing by the school-house stop and look m through a window, see marks of the new teachers interest and skill, speak of it to others, and, before the day is passed, it is generally known that the teacher has come and the impression prevails that the school is to be a success. On Monday .morning the teacher goes to a clean and well arranged school-house with a definite plan of organization in his mind. Under these favorable circumstances he meets the pupils as they collect on the first morning of the school, talks with them about their studies, records their names, assists them in the selection of their seats etc. When the time has arrived for the formal opening the school is partly organized and the pupils and teacher are beginning to feel acquainted and are already becoming interested in the work before them. Second. Under the head of preliminary work is the prepa- ration for each day's work during the session. Each day brings its own tasks and each task requires its preparation. Hence the close of each day's school finds the teacher con- fronted with the work of making preparation for the duties of to-morrow. 1. The school room is to be swept and well dusted. In some places this work is delegated to another yet it will gen- erally fall to the teacher's lot to see that it is done and it should be done on the evening after the close of school. 2. The lessons are to be prepared for to-morrow's recitations. No teacher is likely to get beyond the necessity of definite preparation. He may be well acquainted with the subject to be taught, yet each recitation has its peculiar circumstances. The abilities and needs of the class, the subject-matter of the lesson most important to be taught, what shall be assigned for the next lesson, &c., should all be so definitely determined in the teacher's mind that he can conduct the recitation with- out having to rely on the text. To come up to this standard requires the special prepara- ration of each lesson ; yet there are but few investments that give^better returns. Freed frora a dependance on the text- 60 book the teacher is at liberty to give more attention to the free discussion of the subject-matter of the lesson and in every way have a better command over the school. 3. Any miscellaneous work likely to require attention du- ring the coming day should be considered. The precautious teacher is apt to foresee many of the irregular and contingent duties and incidents, and determine beforehand on the meth- ods for meeting them. 4. Any unfinished work of the day now closing is to be attended to^ such as the examination of written work brought up by a elass, which it was not convenient to examine during the recitation. With the above tasks complete, eight hours refreshing sleep in a quiet and well aired chamber will renew the body and rest the mind. 5. In the morning the house is to be opened and made ready for the reception of the pupils. This, as in the case of sweeping and dusting, may be delegated to another ; yet it is the teacher's place to be on the grounds early and see that the house is ready. This affords an excellent opportunity for mani- festing an interest in the pupils and of setting an example of promptitude and kindness. At the intervals for recess, during the day, much vexation may be avoided and advantage gain- ed by spending a little time in ventilating the room, looking after its temperature, or adjusting misplaced furniture, &c. Under the subject of preliminary work much has been said that every teacher of common sense already knows, but I have thus given much space to little things because it is the little things that we are apt to disregard, and it is in the ne- glect of the little things that the teacher often makes the greatest mistakes and fails of success. 51 PRELIMINARY WORK. Topical Analysis. O hJ 2. Ph Before opening a ^ term of school IS m order. 1^^ Preparation for each day's work - in term time. 1. There should be a definite understand- ing between teacher and employers. 2. A comfortable boarding place should be secured. 3. Teacher should see that the school room Clean. Furniture and fixtures pro- perly arranged. 4. Teacher should have a definite plan of organization. 5. The seating and partial classification of pupils before the formal opening of the school. To see that the school room is put in order. The preparation of each lesson likely to come up during the day. The consideration of any miscellaneous work likelv to come up during the day. The examination of such work, brought up by pupils, as it was not convenient to ex- amine during the recitations. 5. The opening of the house in the morning. 3. Attention to the school room at f 1. Warming, &c. the intervals during the day. 1 2. Ventilation, &c. 52 PRELIMINARY WORK. REMARKS. 1. The teacher who comes to a clean and well-arranged school room on the first mornmg of school, with a definite plan of organization and work, will be apt to have a pleasant day for hmiself, and be likely to make a favorable im- pression upon his pupils that will last through the term. 2. It is important that the preliminary work of each day be done, in most part, the day before that the teacher may be- gin the day's work rested and refreshed. 3. The exercise of a proper precaution in looking after the arrangement, temperature, ventilation and cleanliness of the school room before the commencement of the clay's work, and before the conmiencement of work after each recitation, will yield a rich reward in the order and progress of the pupils and in the ease and satisfaction of the teacher. •I. The teacher who goes into school with the lessons of the day all thoroughly prepared will have but little need of refer- ence to the text during the recitations. Thus freed from a dependence on the text-book, the teacher is at liberty to give the more attention to the subject matter of the lesson and to the general wants of the school. 5. In preliminary work the teacher often meets with that which is called by some school-rocmi drudgery. Such is not the most pleasant part of school work, but it is essential, and if not done by some one else it should be done by the teacher. A love for the work and an abiding interest for those for whom we have undertaken to labor is the best panacea for all such iUs. 53 CHAPTER VIIL THE PROGRAMME. There is no place in which a systematic arrangement of work gives better returns than in the school-room. With so many different things to do within a given limited time, the questions what and when arejoften pressing if not perplexing. Nothing less than a careful economy of time will carry the ordinary teacher successfully through the day's work. To secure this economy by allowing to each class its proper at- tention at a time best suited to the general needs of the differ- ent pupils, and to the needs of the school, is the chief end of the programme. It would be impracticable to attempt a programme suited to the varied needs of the different schools ; yet, whatever be the character of the schools, there are always certain general points to be considered and principles to be regarded in the formation of the programme. 1. The nature of the programme should, be determined by the age and advancement of the pupils. Those who are older and more advanced require the longer time for recitation, while the younger scholars, who require a shorter time for recitation, should recite more frequently. The older students will study longer without intermission or a change of exercise. The smaller children require less time to prepare their lessons. 2. The Nature of the subject studied should be con- sidered in the arrangement of the programme. In almos every school there are certain branches that are studied wdth more interest than others. In the ordinary district school arithmetic is generally considered more important, and studied with more interest than geography or language. In some 54 schools the reverse is found to be true. As a rule pupils study better in the fore part of the day, and the inclination is very strong to study a branch just before recitation. Hence, by having the less interesting subjects come up for recitation in the early part of the day the pupils will be more inclined to study in the afternoon. The boy who likes arithmetic, but does not think much of "grammar," will study arithmetic with interest in the afternoon, in case the recitation of his class comes late in the day. In the morning he is more inclined to study, and can be induced to study grammar with some degree of interest if the recitation be arranged to come at a proper time during the forenoon. If he recites his arithmetic and other subjects in which he is interested in the fore part of the day, he will not be apt to study these branches with much interest in the afternoon. He thinks little of his grammar and will, therefore, not work very much at grammar. The chances are very much in favor of idleness. 3. The programme should also be made with regard to the size of the classes. Pupils are more easily controlled in the recitation than at their desks. When they are restless and careless and tired of study, they may be awakened and interested by a lively and pointed reci- tation. In the morning and following the recesses, when the school is in a good condition for study, let the smaller and more ad- vanced classes recite. In the latter part of the day, and at other times when the pupils are tired and restless and need a change of exercise, call out the large classes and enliven them by interesting recitations. By this method the students may not recite so well in these particular classes as they would if the recitations were to come at a different time, and it may be harder for the teacher to secure an interested attention, yet the recitation is a means to an end, and one of the chief ends of the recitation is to create a permanent interest in study, not 55' simply an interest in one or two subjects, but in all branches studied. At what time should children be aroused and di- rected in their thoughts if it be not when they are dull and restless? When all are interested in study the recitation is not so much needed. By arranging for the larger classes to recite at times when the pupils have but little disposition to study, two points at least may be gained: 1. A greater amount of work may be accomplished. 2. Better order may be secured. 4. More time should be given to the work of the forenoon than the afternoon, and also more before the short recesses (there being one in the forenoon and one in the after- noon) than after them. In the morning the scholars are .well rested and lively, and will be interested in their work for a considerable length of time without recreation. The same may be said with reference to the time after the noon interval. 56 PROGRAMME. Topical Analysis. o Ph 1. Prime end. 2. How determined. When to be arranged. Principles -{ stated. ' 1. Economy of time. 2. Aid in the government of the school. 3. Interested work among the pupils. I 4. Justice to each class. [ 5. Good habits of study. f 1. By the nature of studies. I 2. By the age and advancement of the \ pupils. I 3. By the size of the classes. [4. By the number of classes. As soon as the wants of the school are suffi- ciently known. If possible, as early as the second morning of the term. 1. Arrange for the less interesting studies when pupils are most inclined to study. 2. The best time to have a student recite is when he feels least inclined to study. 3. The largest classes should recite when pupils are most restless. 4. The younger the pupils the shorter and the more frequent the recitations. 5. The mind should occupy itself with different departments of study in a philosophical or- der. 6. They have the most time who oest use the time which they have. 57 A PROGRAMME. TIME. STUDIES AND EXERCISES. 8:30 8-40 Opening exercises. *First reader class 8-50 . Grammar class 9-?0 ^Primary geography and history. 9-45 10- Second reader class lO-^O Third reader. 10-45 Recess. 11- 11 Place work on l)oard to l3e copied by class in numbers. Geography and history — class A 11:25 1 1 -45 Language lessons. Class in numbers. Noon. 1 Place work on board, to be copied by class In first reader 1-80 Arithmetic— class A. ?• First reader class. ?-15 ?-40 Penmanship 8-05 Recess. 8-?0 Oral lessons 3:30 Second reader class 8-45 Fourth reader. 4-05 First reader class 4:15 4:30 ...'. Orthography or phonics. Closing. *First reader class includes the chart class. §Geography and history are taught conjointly. II This maybe done during recess or at close of recess before recitations. The subject matter of a programme cannot be fully arrang- ed till the wants of the school are known. The above is given as suggestive of what may be the programme of an ordinary district school, 58 CHAPTER IX. THE RECITATION. In the routine of school work the recitation holds the chief place. It is here that the teacher comes into closest contact with the pupils. It is here that their abilities are measured, their work tested, and new work assigned. And it is in the recitation more than anywhere else, that the pupils receive their best inspirations and acquire their love for study. To fail here is to fail everywhere, while the teacher who succeeds in the recitations generally succeeds in other parts of the work. Then how shall the recitation Icf^ made a success? What is its prime end ? What is the work to be done in the recitation? And how shall this work be properly and satisfactorily ac- complished ? The object, or chief end, of the recitation may be said to comprise : 1. Discipline in the definite and accurate expression of thought. In the properly conducted recitation the pupils are drilled both in thinking and in talking — in the recollection of ideas and the elaboration of thought, and also in the ex- pression of these ideas, or thoughts, to others. 2. The increase of the pupils' knowledge of the sub- ject matter. In the discussion of the lesson the minds of the scholars may be so kindled and directed as not only to have more definite ideas of knowledge already gained, but also to make valuable additions to present acquirements. It is not the intention of the writer to indorse the notion that the chief work of the teacher is to impart instruction, but rather that he is to be an inspiration to effort, and, as such, so to wake up and 59 direct the minds of the class that they may gathet new thoughts, as well as obtain a more definite conception of the ideas acquired in the preparation of the lesson. 3. To awaken an interest in study. The recitation falls below the correct standard whenever it fails to kindle in the different members of the class higher notions of and a greater interest in the subject-matter of the lesson. Knowledge is de- sirable, yet the best results are secured only when an increase in knowledge is accompanied with an increased interest in the subject of study. 4. To teach pupils how to study. What is generally regarded as incapacity, or indifference, often disappears when the pupil has learned how to study. There are but few teachers of experience who do not remember some boy or girl who for sever c o hJ o o W o r ]. As to class. fl. Influence actin< I from without. j 2. Principles acting from within. 1. Moral force in teacher. 2. Brute force. 1. Intelligence. 2. Moral strength. 3. Interest in study. r 2. As to relation. - Interest in Study. 77 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. RULES, OFFENSES, AND PENALTIES. The rules of a school, like the laws of a state, are useful so far as they are properly enforced. A teacher soon learns that it is much easier to make a good rule than to enforce it, and that even a good rule unwisely enforced is often productive of bad results. Then what are the rules that may be employed to ad- vantage in the regulation of a school? When should these rules be introduced, and by whom adopted? There are three questions that should confront the teacher at the opening of a term — First, what riiles or requisitions, if enforced, would conduce to the good order and advancement of the pupils? Second, which of these rules can be properly enforced under the circumstances ? Third, how can they be introduced so that their enforcement will meet with the least opposition and secure the best results? The answers to these questions will in large measure determine the rules to be introduced and the manner of their adoption. Experience soon con- vinces one of the impracticability of endeavoring to make rules to meet all cases likely to arise in connection with the school. The best results are, therefore, generally obtained when there are but few rules, and these more in the nature of requests. Say to Young America, ''You shall," and the response is, " I won't." Change the demand into the form of a solicitation, and he readily yields to the request. ^A^hen shall the rules be introduced ? — Not necessarily at the opening of the term, but rather at intervals, from time to time, as occasion requires. Probably the best plan is never to introduce a rule till it is needed. 78 By whom shall the rules be adopted? Shall it be by the arbitrary action of the teacher alone, or shall it be by the teacher and pupils acting conjointly ? As a natural result growing out of circumstances always present, the teacher or some officer in the school will de- termine the nature of the rule, and be the instrument of its introduction. And by either method it will always be a very easy matter to secure the adoption of good rules and plenty of them. Hence the question is, which of the two methods will be likely to secure the better enforcement of the rules adopted ? The experience of the writer has been in favor of the latter. By showing the pupils the necessity and reasonableness o the rules, and thus obtaining co-operation in their adoj^tion, a confidence and support is secured that will be a valuable auxiliary in their enforcement. A teacher receives no greater encouragement than to feel that his work and methods have the confidence and appreciation of the pupils. And nothing is more likely to secure this confidence than a like confidence and ax^preciation felt and manifested on the part of the teacher. Offenses. — As to the intent ot the individual, there are offenses which are criminal and those which are not crim- inal. Two pupils may do the same deed of offense, and in one case the act will be criminal and in the other not criminal, it depending wholly upon the motive of the individual. There are two boys whom we will call James and Freddie. James is sitting at his desk waiting his opportunity to dodge the eye of the teacher and do something to create disorder, he hardly knows what. He sees a boy coming from recitation, puts out his foot, trips him to the floor, and disturbs the school. At another time, Freddie has been studying very hard, has just finished by his OAvn efforts the last hard problem in his lesson, and is now elated by feelings of satisfaction that follow suc- cess. Just then the same little boy is passing his desk . Without thinking of rules, whether the teacher sees him, or not, he puts out his foot and throws the httle fellow on 79 the floor. In both cases the deed was in substance the same, but in one case it was criminal while in the other it was not- In the former case the act was prompted by a bad motive and in a measure premeditated, while in the latter it was impulsive not springing from any bad intentions. Freddie is known as an orderly and industrious boy, and has respect for his teacher, the pupils, and the rules of the school, and while his offense cannot be justified, it should not be classed with that of the other boy. As to the circumstances under which they are committed there are also two kinds of offenses, public and private. 1. There is the offense which is known to both the te.icher and the scholars, not only so, but the scholars know that the teacher is aware of the offense. This is the public offense. 2. There is the offense known to no one but the teacher and the one committing it, or it may also be known to the school, but the members of the school do not know that the teacher has a knowledge of it. In either case it is classed as a private offense. How should these different offenses be treated? In dealing wiih transgressors the chief ends are the good of the pupil and the future order and progress of the school. To secure these ends the treatment must be based on the motive of the offender as well as upon the nature of the offense. In the illustration of the two boys, while from appearances the deeds done were the same, they w^ere prompted by very differ- ent motives, and it would be both unwise and unjust to dispose of the two cases in the same way. Again, a public offense requires a different treatment from a private offense. As a rule, a public offense requires public treatment, while a private offense can generally be disposed of more satisfactorily in a private way. Even in the case of a public offense it is often better to deal with the pupil privately, but as the offense was public it should be known that the case has care. In all cases let the offender be so dealt with as to feel that the teacher is his friend and working for his good- 80 Penalties.— What penalties shall be inflicted for the offenses committed? What shall be their nature, and where and when shall they be inflicted? As in the matter of rules and offenses, we shall only attempt to offer some general principles and suggestions ui3on the subject, leaving them to be supple- mented by the good judgement and skill of the teacher. As it is impracticable to attempt to make rules to cover all cases of disorder likely to occur, so it is impossible to determine beforehand what penalties should be inflicted. It is not gen- erally best to state to the school wdiat the penalty for a certain offense will be. There is great power in mystery when a teacher knows how to use it. It is often well to keep the offender for a time in suspense as to what the nature of the penalty will be. In tlie State the laws are published together with their penalties, but on this point the government of the school should differ from that of the State. To the teacher must be delegated more discretionary power than is given to the courts. - To him it must be left to judge in each individual case of the motives of the pupil, the nature of the offense, the circumstances under \vhich it was commit- ted, and the penalty suited to the occasion. "Where and when a punishment should be inflicted de- pend upon the circumstances and nature of the offense and upon the disposition and temper of the parties. It should not, as a rule, be in the presence of the other pupils. It is hardly possible for a teacher to punish a pupil in the presence of the school without creating undue j^rejudice either toward himself or toward tne pupil. Though the punishment may be slight and in no way objectionable, if inflicted in the presence of the school it furnishes a good op- portunity for exaggerated statements of a kind to do hartn. If a teacher should be so unfortunate as to use the rod, he should never do it in the presence of the other children. As much as possible let the matter of the punishment be known only to the scholar and his te;icher, and let it never be inflicted when the teacher is excited or in any way in- fluenced by a spirit of anger or revenge. 81 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. Topical Analysis. ^ , o o o o w o r 1. A good classification of the school. 2. A clean and well arranged school room. 3. A wholesome industry among the pupils. 5. Collateral | . ^ ^ . f Temperature of school room, aids to gov- \ ^' -f^^^^}^ j Ventilation of school room, ernment. | ^^ pupus-^ g^^^^g^ Posture, <&c. 1. Rules. 5. A systematic plan for calling and dismiss- I ing classes. 1 6. Well conducted recitations. !^ Number. 2. When made. 3. By whom made. As to / Criminal, intent 1 Not criminal. fl. Kind.-{ Offenses. \ I 3. Penalties. I 2. As to circumstances. / ^P^^- [ I Secret. 3. How r From a knowledge of the motive treated \ From the nature of the offense. {Should not be stated to the school. There is great power in mystery. Depends on the nature of the offense. Depends on the disposition 2. Where j and temper of the pupil, inflicted. 1 Depends on the temper of the teacher and his power to control it. Not, as a rule, in the presence [ of the school. o whpn ( I^epends on the nature of the • AT f J i individual and the circum- innictea. ( stances of the oflenses. 82 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. PRINCIPLES STATED. 1. "The aim of your discijDline should be to produce a self- governing being, not to produce a being to be governed by others." — H. Spencer. 2. "We might as well expect children to be ten feet high as to expect them to have judgement in their tenth year." — Ros- seau. 3. "A teacher who furnishes that regular and constant oc- cupation which commands the attention of all the pupils dur- ing the several exercises of the day, thereby gives the best as- surance of ability to manage a school successfully. Indeed the secret of maintaining good discipline chiefly lies in this." — Henry Kiddle. 4. Activity is a law of childhood. Success as a teacher de- pends upon the proper guiding of this activity. 5. "The best order does not consist in maintaining any fixed posture, nor in absolute quietness, but rather in that interested attention to the lessons which so occupies the minds of the pupils as to leave no inclination for disorder." — N. A. Calkins. 6. "The secret of successful discipline lies almost wholly in the ability of the teacher to give every pupil something to do just suited to his capacity." — Lind. 7. Kindness is power ; love and not fear is the greater rul- ing principle — fable of the wind and the sun. 8. Rewards and punishments are but necessary evils. They appeal to the lower feelings and may be appealed to when higher motives fail. 6. Bad acts repressed are not good habits formed. 10. The end of government is fully attained only when 83 order is maintained through the development of substantial character. 11. Ability to govern well implies the ability to instruct well. 12. "The spirit of a gentleman depends on nothing so much as upon the sentiment of self-respect. It is a higher principle than the love of applause. It looks to the actual at- tainment while the latter looks to what may be thought to be. It makes one control his appetites, his passions and his speech. Without it' a person can neither win nor retain the respect of others ; with it he cannot fail to be respectable and respected." 84 CHAPTER XIII. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. Musts and Don'ts. There are certain important requisites connected with the management of a school that may be briefly expressed under the two heads of Musts and Don'ts. First — Musts. 1. The teacher must so instruct as to awaken an in- terest in study. There may be a successful teacher who is not a very suc- cessful governor of children, but one cannot be a successful governor who is not at the same time a skillful teacher. Activity is a law of childhood, and the teacher who fails to direct the busy energies of his pupils in the proper lioies of work will fail in their government. 2. The teacher must exercise common sense. There are certain good ideas of propriety which are com- mon to most people, and anything in the general de^Dortment or bearing of an individual contrary to these ideas seems awkward or pedantic. No one has a keener perception of these apparent oddities than the active, wide-a-wake boys and girls in school, and none are more inclined to apprehend them in ridiculous construction. In district No. 5 the teacher had the habit of wearing his slippers in the school room and his boots or shoes on the play ground, &c. Now there was nothing wrong in the custom, as such, and it would have been entirely in place in a boarding school or college, but it seemed odd to the children 85 of a common country school, and they would persist in putting water, bits of jelly, &c., into the unoccupied shoes or slippers, which ever it chanced to be. 3. The teacher must respect his personal appearance and cultivate good habits. Well-combed hair, white teeth, clean nails and a healthy skin never appear odd or pedantic; neither do well-fitted clothing and an erect and natural bearing, but on the other hand they are pleasing and always command respect. And further, an individual whose habits are natural, whose body is clean and wisely and neatly attired, and whose bearing and deportment are good, is clearer in conscience and stronger in force of character. The clothing of the teacher should also bear the marks of cheerfulness and economy. 4. The teacher must have broad views^must be un- selfish and tolerant. Few things will tend more to make a teacher unpopular with the pupils than to be narrow and selfish in his ideas and wishes. It is a mark of hmited and one-sided scholarship and of a contracted soul, without public spirit or love of children. Such a character is illy fitted either to win the confidence and respect of pupils or to guide them in the path to broad culture. 5. The teacher must be pie cautious. The successful management of children depends not so much on being able to correct errors and apply penalties for disorder, as upon the ability to avoid mistakes and prevent acts of misconduct. The power to apprehend causes and foresee their probable effects as related to the conduct of children, is a necessary element in the individual who shall succeed in their control and education. 6. A teacher must have confidence in humanity. He must believe in the good intentions and good tendencies of men. He must have faith in the infinite possibilities that lie hid in the child. The teacher who believes in the good intentions and possi- 86 bilities of children will be inclined to trust them. The pupils seeing that they have the confidence of the teacher will have confidence in themselves and also in the plans and requisi- tions of the teacher. Without this faith in the better elements of humanity, teachers are apt to grow into the habit of sus- pecting the motives of their pupils and thus have a great deal of trouble over imaginary cases of disorder. Suspicion begets accusation and accusation destroys confidence, until a general spirit of distrust pervades the school. 7. The teacher, in order to be in the highest degree suc- cessful in the execution of his plans and methods, must believe in God as the author ot system and in Christ as the greatest teacher, the author of the natural method and the great friend of children. 8. The teacher must exercise patience and self-con- trol. However efficient a teacher may be in other things if he fails to exercise a proper control over his own conduct he can hardly hope to maintain the respect and control of his pupils. A rash act performed or a harsh word spoken, and more is lost in one moment than can be regained in days or weeks of the most carefully guarded efforts of kindness and courtesy. It is necessary to be prompt and firm in the discipline of chil- dren ; yet promptness in attention to a matter does not always mean promptness in action. The wise teacher, with patience and self-control, will take the case of a careless girl, study her motives, look into the causes of her wayward conduct and seek their removal. He finds out her better elements and by the exercise of these finally brings her into a spirit of satis- factory obedience and under the control of her own better motives. Wise and patient effort has saved the girl to a life of usefulness ; rash and hasty action would have driven her out of school. 9. A teacher must be natural. Much may be learned by studying the work and methods of others, but each teacher must have plans of his own and these plans must be based on 87 natural laws that have their origin in the common make-up of children. He must carry out these plans in a way that harmonizes with his own peculiar nature and the nature of the surround- ings. It is this naturalness in plan and purpose that secures to the teacher the power of adaptability that enables him to do his work satisfactoril}^ and without embarrassment or con- fusion. Second — Don'ts. 1. Don't say too much about order. Students are not orderly so much because they are thinking of rules and regu- lations as because they are interested in their studies. A set of regulations may secure a degree of order until the puj)ils become engaged in their studies (if the teacher is not too slow in thus directing their attentions), but the chief principle and end of government consists in keeping the scholars at their legitimate work. Let the energies of the teacher be put forth to arouse and direct a spirit of earnest work in the school, and less attention will be required for the enforcement of rules. 2. Don't make threats. To the average American boy or girl a threat is a dare or challenge, and the temptation to accept it is hard to resist. Say to a school, "If there is any more throwing of paper balls I will punish the one that does it." Some boy who is fond of amusement, or desires to be leader among his fellows, at once begins his plans for throwing balls without being dis- covered, or, what he would perhaps enjoy more, he begins to work on some little short-chinned satellite to induce him to take the dare that he may see him bear the punishment. Again the making of threats is likely to place the teacher under embarrassing circumstances. A teacher having grown impatient with the whispering that seemed hard to check, said to her school, "The first one that I see whispering shall come and stand on the floor on one foot, holding the other m the right hand." It was not long before one of the most respectable young women in the school was seen whispering by the teacher and by the school. The teacher was in a dilemma and the incident is an illustration in point. 3. Don't get out of order yourself, by loud talking, heavy walking, thumping on desks, &c. In school A, the teacher talks softly and in a low tone, moves over the room very carefully, seldom if ever pounds on the desk or floor or in any way makes an unpleasant noise in the presence of the school. The teacher's 23leasant and cour- teous bearing and respect for order is imjjarted to the pupils and the school is quiet. 4. Don't look for acts of disobedience — look for the best. Teachers should cultivate pleasant and hopeful dispositions. They should feel pleasantly towards their pupils and be hope- ful of them ; first for their own good and second for the good of the pupils ; that they may have pleasant feelings towards their teachers and be hopeful of themselves. The way to cultivate this pleasant and hopeful relation is by thinking on the best elements of character. There are but few students who do not have many commendable qualities, and it is by becoming interested in these that we become interested in our pupils in away to be most helpful to them. 5. Don't treat your pupils as though you are afraid to trust them. Believe that a boy can be trusted and let him know that you believe it and you have begun the develop- ment of the element of integrity in him. Treat him with suspicion and you begin at once to undermine his force ot character. The axiom, " confidence begets confidence," holds with pe- culiar force when applied to the relations between teacher and scholars. The live teacher who has faith in the motives and abilities of his pupils is an inspiration in their presejice — a kind of magnetic force that imparts a spirit of activity and 89 hopefulness to the pupils which can only result in good feel- ing and honest work well done. 6. Don't be perplexed by the noise and pranks of children. As a rule the noise of children is innocent. It is prompted by no bad motive. It is the result of a natural restlessness — the expenditure of potential energy. See the little bundle of enthusiasm studying with all his might, thumping the bench legs with his swinging feet and saying the lesson to himself in a regular buzz, or putting it on his slate with a continuous clatter, then look over the room and you are apt to find that the noise that you wish was not so loud is only the hum of busy work. You may tone it down but it must be carefully done lest you mar the interest and put some of the little folks off on a wrong tanget. When noise is not innocent the common motive is to annoy the teacher. If you allow yourself to be disturl^ed and show a little passion the pupil attains his end and has his fun at your expense. The pranks of pupils are often innocent and should, as a rule, be dealt with as such. When not innocent they are gotten up to have some sport at another's expense and the teacher is apt to be the victim of the joke. An unwise indulgence ol the scholars in their noise and praiiks could but work the ruin of the school, but to be harsh and hasty in the treatment of these offences would be to apply ' a remedy as bad as the disease. It is often very difficult to say just how a prank should be dealt with — but certainly not by becoming annoyed and showing anger. In a school where there was a large number of students at- tending lectures the boys had a habit of adjusting the lecture stand (the top of which was regulated by the pressure of a screw on an upright support) so that when leaned upon the top would slide down to the floor. When Prof. A. was lec- turing and the top would slide down the Professor would be- come very much disturbed and scold at the class with harsh 90 and abusive words, and the boys enjoyed their fun and thought how they would have the scene repeated on another day. One day when Prof. B. was lecturing the top slid down as in the case of Prof. A. The Professor with marks of pleas- antry on his face reached down and readjusted the stand while with a twinkle in his soft blue eyes he looked us over. The boys cheered the professor and hissed the boys that played the prank. 7. Don't scold. Scolding is usually resorted to as a penalty for offences committed — a sort of rod of correction — and it is about as effectual in its results as the administration of the real woody fiber. A moderate and wise administration of scolding, like "a moderate and wise use of the rod," might sometimes be allowable when all other resources of discipline are exhaust- ed, but the difficulty is that the use of scolding or of the rod is seldom either moderate or wise. Scolding is Boreas blowing against the traveler's cloak. The warm sunshine of kindness and love is the teacher's most effectual instrument for cor- rection and control. 8. Don't speak disparagingly of the work of another teacher. It will not make your Avork any better. It will do good to no one. It will probably do harm to many. It will certainly weaken your own character and lessen your influence for good. All teachers have their friends who believe in them and their work. If there is any class of workers that should be closely bound together by the ties of common interest and common sympathy it is the teachers of the public schools. They are engaged in a common work and against a common foe. Their labors are arduous and their responsibilities great. Each one has enough to contend with without thrusting his lance into the ranks of his comrades. Do your own work well and "lend a hand." 9. Don't antagonize the opinions of your patrons. 91 In almost every district there are those who have their notions in regard to how the school should be managed. These are generally persons of influence in the community and you will need their support. Your opinions on school work may be very superior to theirs, yet there are but few teachers who may not receive some profitable ideas from their patrons, and it works better to receive any voluntary sugges- tions that they may make, with courtesy and due considera- tion. By this means you win their confidence and they will come to feel a kind of partnership in your work and be the" more likely to give you their support. Any modification of your plans that due courtesy to their suggestions would require will not overbalance the united support of your leading patrons. 10. Don't deal with a disobedient pupil when angry. The chief objects in dealing witli pupils are first, that you may help them to be better, and second, that you may Win their confidence in order that you may be more helpful to them. Neither of these objects can be very well accomplished under the influence of an angry passion. An- ger begets anger, and the fruits of anger are strifes and dis- sensions. Anger is a species of slavery that overcomes manly independence and is contrary to deliberate and wise action. 11. Don't speak of the faults of your pupils. There is hardly a char..cter without its weak points. There is no life without mistakes, and no individual without pecu- liarities. The person who chooses to feed on the weaknesses and failures of others can always find a ready supply ; but this food is in the worst way unwholesome and can only produce littleness of disposition and leanness of soul. Our inclination to speak of the faults of our pupils may spring from different sources. It may come from the force of a pernicious habit of talking about people generally, or it may come from a consciousness that we have failed in our efforts to secure the confidence of the pupils and awaken an interest ' in study — probably from both these sources. 92 The habit of talking of the fkults of pupils can certainl}' do no good while it will do harm in a number of ways. First, it will tend to destroy our attachment for the children, which is so very essential to the general good feeling of a school. Second, it will diminish our confidence in their integrity and abilities and hence our interest in them, so that we will be less inclined to trust them and feel less encouragement to work for them. Third, it will tend to destroy our patience with the pupils and make us less courteous and considerate in our treatment of them. The more we think of their faults the more we are apt to see their mistakes and the less we are likely to think of our oivn faults and see our oum mistakes. Again, the pupils are always anxious to learn what their teachers think and say of them. Fortunate it is for the children and fortunate for the teacher if the words that are spoken concerning the pupils be of a character to encourage them. The habit of speaking of the good qualities of indi- viduals always reaps its sure reward in rich returns. 93 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. Musts and Don'ts. 1 ! 1. 2. 3. m H 4. >; !B o 1^ 5. Q 6. ^ .e selection he is reading, that he may read from his thoughts and not simply pronounce words from a book. The artificial and unna- tural style in which many young people read is largely due to the fact that they do not have a clear conception of the ideas and sentiments expressed by the writer. First: The children should understand the meaning of the words ; not simply be able to give the definitions as found in a dictionary, but be able to apprehend their meaning in the sentences read. Second: They should understand the relations of these words so far as is necessary to apprehend the thoughts of the writer. 2. The ability to convey thought to the minds of others. 95 Vocal reading, is having something in the mind and telling it. The mere pronunciation of words in a sentence is not reading in the true sense of the word. Not only is it necessary for the reader to have a clear comprehension of the thoughts of the writer, but he must be able to convey these thoughts in definite form to the minds of others. The pronunciation must be correct, the enunciation clear, and the expression natural. Naturalness in posture and expression are necessary marks of a good reader. Natural reading is very nearly akin to natural talking. The little girl answered wisely who, when asked "What is reading?" replied "It is talking out of a book." In talking, the thoughts precede the expression ; so it should be in reading. Natural talking has also the element of appreciation ; hence, to be a natural reader there must be an appreciation of the thoughts expressed. The subject-matter for reading classes should be within the comprehension of the pupils and of good and proper sentiment. 3. Culture in Language. Language is the medium for transmitting thought. Read- ing is the use of this medium. It is the gathering of thought from language and the expression of thought through the medium of language. Reading enlarges one vocabulary's of words and give? a better understanding of the meaning and use of terms. It is very largely by the use of good language that the student's language is improved. In addition to the regular reading lessons the pupils should be required to memorize choice selections in literature and recite them in the presence of the class. The language thus receives culture in the elegant expression of the best thought. 4. The cultivation of a good literary taste. Nothing will more determine what shall be the literary taste of an in- dividual than the kind of thoughts indulged in — than the food which the mind feeds on. The characteristics of a per- son may be known by the nature of his associates; his literary preferences by the books he reads. 96 By a careful selection of reading material and a proper method of instruction in reading much may be done to awaken an interest in good literature. In teaching reading two special ends of the recitation are the culture of the voice and the culture of the eye. To be an accurate reader, is to be able to control the voice in ready and natural enunciation. To be a fluent reader the eye must be trained in keen and ready perception. The work of the recitation in reading should consist mainly in drill exercises. a. A general drill on the elementary sounds and the pro- nunciation of words. Distinct articulation, clear enunciation and correct pronunciation form the basis of good reading and can be acquired only by continued careful drill. h. A short discussion of the subject of the lesson that the class may have some apprehension of the thoughts and senti- ments of the author. c. The reading exercises, which should be conducted with a view to getting the greatest amount of work out of each member of the class. In this exercise the chief object of the reader should be to give the thoughts of the author in clear and natural expression. This should be the test standard of good reading. It is a good method to have the entire class read a paragraph, (or what is often better a sentence) until the thoughts are well understood, and the most difficult words readily pronounced, then to have the different members read it singly. In all cases the teacher will be ex- pected to furnish the model. d- Spelling and examination of work done out of class. Spelling and reading are closely related and should be taught conjointly. In classes somewhat advanced, the plan works well of first pronouncing a number of words from the reading lesson to be spelled on slips of paper by all members of the class. The misspelled words are marked to be taken as a les- son to be studied. Thus the time of study is given to words the pupils are likely to misspell. 97 t. The assigning of a new lesson, a part of which the teacher should generally read, calling attention to some of the more difficult words and also to some of the leading thoughts. Pupils should study their reading lesson as other lessons, yet their knowledge of the meaning of words and their com- prehension and appreciation of the thoughts contained in the lesson will depend very much on the work of the recita- tion. Let the teacher read the sentences to the class and call at- tention to the more difficult words, and then have the pupils pronounce these words and use them in sentences of their own. Let him also speak of the subject-matter of the lesson, and ask the pupils what the author says in a certain paragraph ; then the pupils should give the thoughts in their own lan- guage and then in the words of the author. In classes where pupils are thus trained till the words are quickly recognized and understood, and the thoughts of the writer readily gather- ed, comprehended and appreciated, natural reading becomes as easy as natural talking. 98 TEACHING READING. Topical Analysis. < O o H f 1. Ability to gather the ideas expressed by the writer. Prime ! 2. Ability to convey these ideas to the minds of others, end. 1 3. Culture in language. 4. Cultivation of a literary taste. 2. Special end in recitation. \ o' Culture of the voice. Culture of the eye. 3. Qualities of good reading. f 1. Correct pronunciation of words. 2. Firmness and distinct articulation in the enunciation of words. I 3. Natural emphasis. L4. Natural expression. Work in recitation. 1. A general drill on sounds and enunciations. 2. A short discussion of the subject of the lesson. 3. Reading — collectively and individually. 4. Spelling and examination of work done out of class. 5. Assigning lesson — read lesson alone or with t class. All reading should be natural. Selections read should not be beyond the pupils' I comprehension. I 3. Selections read should be good literature and I should contain pure and proper sentiments. 5. Remarks. -j 4. Pupil^should be required to memorize choice selections for drill exercises. 5, Natural reading is much like natural talking. 6. In first, second and third readers all, or a por- tion, of each lesson should be printed on paper or slate, or what is better, written in script. 99 A TABLE OF ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. Tonics — Subtonics — A tonics. By the law of association the sounds of the letters may be learned more readily when arranged in sentences.* Below is given a classified list of the principal elementary sounds, with an arranoement of sentences, which may suggest matter and method for class drill. TONICS. A tonic is an unobstructed vocal tone, which is capable of indefinite prolongation. a as in da3'S e as in see i as in sit a " that e " her u " up a " are e " yet a " all , ^ f u as in use a " fair o as in roll ^^Jou " our "^Days that are all fair. o " on 00 " good p2 j i " fine ^ 1 oi " oil 00 moon SUBTONICS. A subtonic has vocality ; but it is interrupted in its pas- sage and is not capable of prolongation. b as in boys y as in yon d " do z V " vainly z g " go th 1 " like w ni " men ng n '' not r " right azure zones then will ring ATONICS. An atonic is literally a sound without tone — an expulsion of whispered breath. f as in fine j as in joyfully p " people sh " she t " talk s " sees k " kindly wh " while qu " quietlv h '' he ' th " thinks 100 CHAPTER XV. LANGUAGE STUDY. Speech, or the expression of thought by means of elemen- tary sounds, is the one distinctive characteristic of man. Every word is the record of some fact or idea and is at the same time the means by which such a fact or idea may be conveyed from one mind to another. First ideas were formed in the mind, then words were in- vented to represent these ideas. Ideas were grouped into the form and relationship of thoughts, then sentences were formed for the expression of these thoughts. Thus, words and sen- tences become the receptacles of ideas and thoughts and are therefore a sort of treasure-house for the intellectual resources of the ages. The history of the introduction of words and the develop- ment of sentences is therefore the history of thought and, in a sense, a history of the conquests of civilization. To be ac- quainted with words in their full meaning and relations is to know much about things and the thoughts they represent. They who increase their vocabularies enlarge the scope of their mental visions. Not only does language serve as a medium for the trans- mission of thought but it is also an instrument of thought. Without the use of words accurate and extensive thought is well nigh impossible. That the mind may retain, compare and generalize ideas it is necessary that these ideas be repre- sented by some visible word or sign. The relation is so close between concepts and terms and between thoughts and their sentences that definite thinkers are apt to express themselves 101 in clear and accurate language, and that those who cultivate precise and definite forms of expression generally have a clear and distinct comprehension of subjects. Because of this very close relation between language and thought, between knowledge and the treasure-house of knowl- edge, language has long held an important place in the course of study. Notwithstandhig the importance generally attached to lan- guage study, yet as regards the means and methods to be em- ployed in teaching language, educators have perhaps less unity of opinion than in the other branches. Then what should be the prime end in teaching language. What are the parts of language that should be taught to pu- pils in the primary and intermediate grades and what are some of the j^rinciples that shall guide us in our method for teaching language ? The object of language study should be to accomplish the following results : 1. The ability to express thought clearly, distinctly and readily. To set forth ideas or thoughts with their definite character- istic marks so that they may be clearly apprehended by others, requires a full understanding of the meaning of words, a nice sense of discrimination or precision that will select the right word, a knowledge of the true relation of words in the formation of sentences and the power of correct pronuncia- tion. Distinctness of expression, or the setting forth of ideas in a clear discrimination of their parts or attributes requires a se- lected vocabulary and a clear apprehension of the full mean- ing of words, and to express thought readily there must be a habit of associating with ideas and thoughts their proper words and forms of expression — a habit that can only be had by careful training. 2. Closely related to the use of language in the transmis- sion of ideas and thoughts is the ability to apprehend ex- 102 pressed thought, whether heard in oral speech or seen on the written or printed page. To readily gather in the thoughts expressed by others there must be, on the part of the recipient, not only a knowledge of the meaning and use of words but there must be a keen per- ception for the recognition of terms, and powers of ready anal- ysis to classify the different parts of sentences and see the relations and uses of their clauses, phrases and words. A normal discipline of the intellect in receiving and expressing thought should be regarded as most important among the objects to be attained by instruction aad drill in language. 3. A taste for good literature. This subject has been referred to under the head of reading which is only a depart- ment of language study. The likes and dislikes of the different kinds of literature are early formed. A child has no sooner begun to think and speak than it begins to show a tendency to copy after certain peculiar phases of expression and manifest a preference for certain kinds and qualities of thought. It belongs to the de- partment of language study to rightly direct these tendencies and properly cultivate these preferences. 4. A knowledge of language, in its structure, its nature and its history. In addition to the power of using language in the reception and expression of thought, the student of language goes further and seeks to know it in its nature and history, and in its relations to other departments of knowl- edge. Then what shall be the means and what the methods by which we can best reach the ends of language study. There are really but two methods of teaching language : the imitative method and the scientific method. Language may be studied as an instrument to be used or as a subject to be understood. It may be studied as an art or a science. The imitative method deals with language as an art. It 103 seeks to know the language in its best usage and to cultivate the power and the habit of accurate and elegant expression. The scientific method regards language more as a subject for investigation. Its object is to study the structure of sen- tences, learn the relations of words, phrases and clauses, and discover the principles or laws which govern their use^. In its apphcation, the imitative method should precede the scientific method. It is th emethod which is adapted to primary and intermediate instruction. It is mother nature's own method for teaching language. Oral instruction in its varied apphcations is the means chiefly to be employed in the imitative method, yet there are some text books on language study that can be used to good advantage. In the use of text books there is always more or less a tendency on the part of the pupils (and sometimes on the part of the teacher) simply to study the book instead of the subject of which the book is only a treatise. In language study this tendency is probably greater than in any other branch of learning. Oral instruction has an influence to direct the minds of the students definitely to the subject. It also admits of a greater variety of exercises than is given in the text books. Among the first exercises in the language lessons the child may be required to copy sentences on paper or slate. It is well to vary the work from slate to paper or the blackboard. The work should be neatly and accurately done— careful attention being paid to the use of capitals, punctuation and spelling. The pupils should also memorize the sentences, so that they can copy them from memory. Closely connected with and sometimes preceding the exercise in copying, is that of making sentences or the expression of thought in sentences. By some object being introduced before a class, thought is awakened. By a free conversational discussion of the object the pupils may be led to express these thoughts in sentences — to say something about the object. On slates or tablets with which the class is provided the pupils may 104 write down these thoughts, or they ma}^ be correctly and neatly written on a clean blackboard, which should always be in view of the class. In the place of a real object, pictures calculated to awaken thought in children may be introduced and discussed in a free conversational manner, which will lead the pupils to a natural expression of their thoughts. A care should be ex- ercised that the expression be natural, elegant and accurate, and that the sentences be well written, with due attention given to capitals, punctuation and spelling. As an exercise providing -work for pupils out of class let them write a certain number of sentences expressing their further thoughts sug- gested by the object or the picture; or it may often be better to furnish the class with a new object or picture. Such exer- cises never fail to stimulate thought, while they continually put into practice the knowledge and principles daily ac- quired. As the pupils become more advanced the work of sentence building will give place to essay writing, which, by requiring less time will allow the pupils to give their attention more to the classification and relation of words. Essay writing is an important element in the work of lan- guage study and should have special attention through the entire course. It is simply an advanced step in sentence building — the awakening of thought through the examina- tion of a subject and the cultivation of the powers of expres- sion through the formation of sentences. The subject for essays should be selected with great care by the teacher, and given to the class something after the manner of presenting an object in the work of sentence forming. At least it should be sufficiently discussed to awaken an interest among the pupils and give them some leading thoughts or suggestions that will' direct them into the proper lines of investigation and lead them to available sources of information. The less the advancement of the pupil the more necessary the discus- sion and suggestions from the teacher. 105 Pupils do not like to write essays for the reason, they do not know how. Awaken an interest in the subject and show them by a simple topical analysis how it may be treated, and by definite references where they can obtain information, and you will make essay writing a pleasant exercise and give encouragement to a most valuable means for stimlating original thought and cultivating accurate and fluent lan- guage. A third class of exercises is that of having the children memorize and recite selections from choice literature. When skilfully managed this may be made one of the most profitable drill exercises employed by the imitative method. It enlarges the pupils vocabulary of well chosen words, and cultivates habits of polished expression. Such exercises will also have an influence to awaken an interest in good literature. In place of requiring pupils to commit to memory and recite the selections it is a good plan to vary the exercises by having them read a number of sentences or paragraphs and then express the thoughts of the author in their own language. either orally or in writing— in writing is preferable. This exercise, as well as that of memorizing and reciting, can be adjusted to all grades of language study, but it is especially suited to primary and intermediate work. At this stage the pupils are generally more subject to the laws of association. They learn more by observation and contact and not so much by thoughtful reasoning. They learn language more by the use of language than by an analytical study of the structure of language. By the time the higher grade work is taken up students will generally have reached the age at which the reasoning facul- ties are better developed and there is more of an inclination to analize, compare and discover the relations of things. At this period language should be studied more as a science. Technical Grammar and philology should now take an important place among the studies of this department. It is hardly advisable to give much space to the subject of 106 teaching technical grammar except it be to state a few general principles, by the observance of which the author has been much aided. 1. The study of language as a science is based on the clasi- fication and definition of words. 2. The unit of grammatical study is the sentence. 3. Words are classified with reference to their uses in the sentence. 4. In the English sentence the words, phases and clauses represent certain ideas or thoughts and their constructions are determined by the relations of the ideas or thoughts repre- sented. 5. The natural method ot grammatical study is to begin with the most simple sentence and proceed by definite steps to develop and study the sentence in its various forms and complexities. One step at a time, and that well understood, is proceeding from the known to the unknown. 107 LANGUAGE STUDY. Topical Analysis. f r Language is a medium for transmitting thought, 1. Defined. < the means by which we have access to accumu- (. lated knowledge. f 1. Ability to express thought clearly, distinctly, and readilv / ^^ ^'^^^®- readily. | gy writing. . Ability to gather thought from oral expression or Prime J from the printed or written page. End. " 8. A taste for good literature. 4. A formal discipline of the intellect in receiving and expressing thought. 5. A knowledge of f Its history, language. \ Its nature and structure. Methods. | ^^ Imitative. Scientific- -Grammar proper. The first four of above ends may be at- tained. f 1. By copying sentences on slate or paper. By expressing thought f Written, in sentences. \ Spoken. —Language Lessons. By sentence building when leading words are given or when thoughts are suggested ■< by objects or pictures. By memorizing and speaking choice se- lections in literature. By reading choice literature and express- ing the thoughts of the writer in one's own language. [ 6. By writing essays, &c. b. A knowledge of a language may be obtained by a systematic study of its words and structure, — grammar proper and the history of language. 108 LANGUAGE STUDY. REMARKS. 1. Language may be studied either as an instrument to be used or a subject-matter to be investigated and understood. It may be studied as an art or a science. 2. It is the province of language lessons to teach language simply as an art — to teach pupils the correct use of language both in speaking and writing. 3. Grammar proper is the study of a language as a science. In studying language as a science it is the purpose to discover the laws that regulate its use. 4. Language lessons should precede formal grammar. 5. Special attention should be given to written language. 6. If children can write a language correctly they will be apt to speak it correctly. 7. The correction of current errors in speech should have daily attention. 8. To be able to use language well is more desirable than a knowledge of its structure. 9. A definition enumerates the uses a word must have in a sentence in order that it belong to a certain class. 10. The idea of a class should precede its definition. 11. Words should be first classed simply as nouns, verbs adjectives, &c., and afterwards distributed under their sub- classes. 12. In the study and analysis of the English sentence, pro- ceed upon the theory that every word, phrase and clause has a use or uses, and that their relations and constructions are based on their uses. 13. Letter writing, or essay writing should accompany the study of language. 14. They who would understand a language must know its history. 109 CHAPTER XVI HISTORY. Definition, Tre Value of Historical Study, Relations OF History to Geography. 1. Definition. The term history does not mean simply an accumulation of facts and dates arranged in a chronologi- cal order. Every event in history is the effect of a cause or of causes. King John of England signed the Magna Charta. This was an event; the growing power of the united barons being the cause. The Civil War in our country was an event ; slavery was a cause. The rapid settlement of Cali- fornia was an event ; the gold found in her sands was a cause. There are certain influences or principles to which the motives, impulses, and doings of man may be traced. Out of the period of barbarism that followed the overthrow of the Roman Empire in the West sprang the feudal system. An explanation of this is found in the spirit of individuahsm so marked in the invading Teuton, who settled in Southwestern Europe. The religious persecutions of Massachusetts were but a natural product of the idea of the connection between Church and State brought over by the founders of the Mas- sachusetts Bay Colony. The colonists of Pennsylvania lived in friendly relations with the savage Indians, a result of the principles of peace taught by the founder of the Quaker colony. The study of history, then implies the study of these events and these causes in their relations to one another and to these no influences and principles as first or indirect causes. History thus defined may justly claim a prominent place in the cur- riculum of study. 2. The value of historical study. While history has its value with other branches of study as a means of general culture, it also has specific value of a practical character. a. It has value as a collateral aid to the study of other subjects. The understanding of a subject is very much im- proved by a knowledge of its history (and there are few sub- jects of study but have more or less of a history). By the study of English grammar we may learn much about the correct use and meaning of our language; but to thoroughly understand its nature, etymology, and structure one must know its history. Give the student of natural philosophy access to a steam-engine; let him examine it in whole and by paHs; and let him watch and study its move- ments. In this way he may obtain a general idea of its parts and structure. Now let him study the history of the discov- eries and inventions by which part after part was added to Newcomen's rude contrivance, making the complete engine of to- day, and his» comprehension and appreciation of it are very much improved. In studying a system of national gov- ernment, the student finds material aid in the history of the different elements and principles as the}^ came together and adjusted themselves into a system of organic law. Through the study of the sacred text (which is largely historical) one may obtain a fair knowledge of the principles of Christianity ; but if he would know the civilizing influence of these vital principles upon mm in his social and national institutions, he must study the history of civilization in those nations where Christianity has been accepted. Thus it is with the sciences of astronomy, chemistry, sociology, and most sub- jects of study. They are better understood when their his- tory is known. b. History furnishes a great store of valuable experi- ence. It is said that each generation starts off of the shoulders Ill of the one that precedes it. This is no less true in point of experience than in other respects. The counsels of the aged are held in regard because ot the experience upon which they are based. To the careful student history brings in its coun- sels the accumulated experiences of ages. Take away this experience (or neglect to have a knowledge of it) and society is adrift upon. a sea without a chart. Man would thus be left mainly to the momentary impressions made upon him by ex- ternal objects — left to repeat the mistakes of the past, and be controlled by wrong notions of society and untried systems of government. All wise action is more or less influenced by the lessons of history. c. The study of history has an influence upon character. One has said, "To find moral truth we must study man in action." Study the history of a nation, mark its different stages of civilization, note the different agencies in their in- fluences upon the ideas and customs of society and institu- tions of government, and it is a very unthinking student who will not gather some valuable lessons and have a better ap- preciation of the moral forces as agencies of Ireedom and humanity. Study the comparative stabilities of nations ex- isting under different states of morals, ideas of religion, and standards of intelligence. Compare France, at the execution of Louis XVI, with England at the beheading of Charles I, and one cannot fail to see the force of sound moral discipline, and the influence of intelligent notions of Christianity, coupled with a spirit of obedience to law. The department of history most fruitful in its influences upon character is biography. Here the student is brought more into the associaton of the individuals, where he may know something of the impulses and motives of the actor, and study to better advantage the elements of true character. Studying the lives of the good and great is like living among them. Study the life of George Fox, John Wesley, or John Knox, and learn what were their early tendencies, what the nature of their education and early associations, the kind and 112 extent of their labors, the opposition with which they had to contend and their success in overcoming it. Learn also their leading motives, characteristics, and the secret of their power ; and the student will not only acquire better notions of the elements of strength and success, but he will learn to value the character of the man and have desires to imitate it. Let a boy read the history of Peter the Great, and to him labor becomes more honorable ; the life of John Howard, and the work done for the unfortunate becomes more noble ; the politi- cal career of William of Orange, Charles Sumner or Richard Cobden, and "right becomes might ; " the mercantile life of A. T. Stewart, and " honesty is the best policy; " the lives of the reformers, and Christianity becomes to him the basis of true courage. d. Prevision. In so far as history is a science we may claim for it the common scientific test — 2:>re vision. Other sciences may have less of the element of uncertainty than history, yet there are historical causes, and historical events the results of these causes. Looking into the relations of these causes and effects, the student discovers certain general, though fixed, principles which bear a very close relation to them. Not only so, but he may learn the nature and tenden- cies of these principles. Aristocracy and democracy are two principles adverse in their natures. Who can trace the origin and growth of the English House of Commons and not fore- see the ultimate triumph of the people's rule ? The historical student of the seventeenth century read lessons prophetic, as he saw the principles of freedom shaping the sentiments of the American colonists. It was a knowledge of these les- sons that gave hope and courage to the colonists as they struggled with disease, unprincipled agents, .savage Indians, and finally with the armed forces of Great Britain. It was- this prevision obtained through a knowledge of history, to- gether with a love for freedom, that nerved the arm of Adams, Washington, and Jefferson. It was these that emboldened 113 Patrick Henry to say, " We are not weak." — " There is a just God that rules over the destinies of nations." 3. What are the relations of history and geography, and to what extent should these relations be regarded in deciding both upon the subject-matter of history to be taught and the method of teaching? As the mental and moral powers are very largely influenced by the physical powers, so the characteristics and industries of a people are determined in a large degree by the physical features of the country in which they live. Let us study a good physical map of the United States, noticing the mountains, plains, lakes, rivers, soil, and the mineral and lumber re- sources; also noticing the coast-line and variety of climate. Now we may understand why American slavery was pe- culiarly a Southern institution, why New England was a manufacturing country, why our chief railroad lines run east and west instead of north and south; why New York, Chicago, St. Louis, and New Orleans are great commercial centres. Long before the days of Washington and Jefferson the history of the nation was in part written in the physical features of the continent. The relations of geography and history are such that they should be taught in a certain measure conjointly — especially is this of advantage in the primary lessons. An acquaintance with the geography of a place makes the history of the events more interesting and more easily retained in the mind of the student. Also a knowledge of the history of a section of country adds interest to the study of its geography. 114 CHAPTER XVII WHAT ARE THE PARTS OF HISTORY TO BE TAUGHT ? Since the answer to this question must be determined in a .measure by the opportunities and special needs of the pupils, what is said here wdll be said mainly with reference to the subject-matter which belonss to the lower-grade work. 1. The First Lessons in History. These first lessons in history should consist of such narratives of travel, dis- coveries, and exploration as will be calculated to train the imagination and develop a historical taste, and at the same time give the pupils a general knowledge of some leading characters and events. These narratives need not necessarily be taken up in chronological order. Their relations and order of connection will be considered further on in the study. Yet it is desirable that they constitute parts of the first connected history likely to be studied by the class. Let us suppose a class of pupils to be familiar with the history of Columbus in his first voyage to the New World, De Soto in his explorations through some of the Southern States, John Smith in his exploits with the Indians and in his explorations along the shores of the Chesapeake, the Pilgrim Fathers in their first years at Plymouth Rock, Roger Williams in the country of the Narragansetts, William Penn making his treaty with the Indians, the early lives of Washington and Franklin, with other like interesting subjects. Here we have a basis for the more systematic sturl}^ of the United States historv. 2. The Outline History of the United States in connection with Physical Geography. It should be the object at this stage of the course to acquire a knowledge of the 115 leading historical events in their connected order, in their relations to one another, and in their relations to the physical features of the country. 3. Leading Characters and Events of the World's His- tory, accompanied with some instruction in Geography. An objection offered to the study of general history is, that pupils are required to pass over subjects in such rapid succes- sion that their ideas of them must necessarily be very limited and indefinite. The remedy here suggested is that fewer subjects be studied — selecting only such as have a definite influence upon civiliza.tion and hence a definite place in organic history. By this method the students acquire reliable knowledge of the subjects studied and an increased interest in historical studies, while their general ideas of the thread of events will be quite as definite as that obtained by the ordinary method. 4. The History of the United States, supplement- ed With such parts of General History as have special connection with United States History. The pupils are now prepared for a systematic and philosophical study of our colonial and governmental history. The history of the United States, and especially the colonial history, is so related to the history of some of the other nations, that a philoso- phical studj^ of it requires a knowledge of some subjects of general history. These subjects may havebeen studied in the course in the World's history, yet it will generally be found necessary to review them in connection with a thorough study of the United States history. To make an intelligent comparison between the Plymouth and Jamestown colonies, the student must have a knowledge of the English Church and understand its attitude tow^ard the Separatists, of which the Pilgrim fathers were a branch. To appreciate the struggles of the early settlers of the Caro- linas in their opposition to the oppressive rule of unprincipled governors and agents appointed over them, one should be acquainted with the notions and characteristics of the Scotch 116 Presbyterians, the French Huguenots, the Baptists, and the Quakers, together with the political followers of Oliver Crom- well, who came to this territory that they might have homes in a free land. To understand the spirit of opposition that existed between Virginia and New England it is necessary to know something of the democratic and artistocratic parties as seen in the history of England. The political relations of these two parties to the non-partisan and peace-loving Quakers in England, made the Quaker Commonwealth in America a favorable territory upon which the extending settlements of the two adverse parties might meet, and the staid city of Philadelphia a possible place where the ideas and sentiments of the thirteen colonies might be brought together and ad- justed into a national constitution. The next subject of history which the American student can take up to the best advantage is the history of England. Whatever be the history studied, let the attention be given to such parts of it as have a philosophical connection wi^h other parts of history. 117 CHAPTER XVIII. Teaching History. The teacher must be natural in his methods, and each suc- cessful teacher is likely to have a method more or less peculiar to himself. Yet teaching is a science as well as an art, and all methods must be based upon certain general principles. 1. The Method of Teaching History should be Topical. Why should it be topical? What are some of the advanta- ges offered by the topical method? (a.) The topical method is the natural method. It is the method most in harmony with the faculties and tenden- cies of the human mind. It takes up leading events as cen- tres of thought and studies them as they were studied at the time of their occurrence — studies them as living scenes. Du- ring the Commonwealth of Great Britain Oliver Cromwell was the central figure of thought and discussion. Almost every institution and enterprise in England felt his influence. The topical method would study the Commonwealth through Cromwell as the central topic, taking up, as minor and rela- tive topics, characters, institutions and events likely to have been influenced by his rule. Throughout the history of the United States certain leading characters and events have formed the central figures of thought and discussion for our people. The plan of the topical method is to reproduce these scenes in their natural order. (6.) It makes prominent the most important events and characters of history. By simply studying and re- citing the lessons given in our text-books, the ideas obtained 118 by the pupils are likely to be very indefinite. Their histori- cal knowledge is but little more than a conglomeration of dates, personages and events, with very little ideas of classes or relations. ' (c.) By the topical method the efforts of the students are more concentrated upon the subject instead of being spent on the contents of the text. In place of studying the book, which is simply a treatise on the subject, the pupils study the subject, using books as helps. They are thus led into the habit of consulting different authors. They learn to gather information from various sourjces, and putting this together, to form an opinion which is somewhat their own. Under the influence of this method, pupils become more independent in thought and research, and as a result are led to take more interest in historical study. 2. The Subjects of History should be studied in a Sys- tematic Order. In this way the pupils are better able to trace the relations of cause and effect, to see the philosophy of history. In this scientific method of study, in which the natural relations of different subjects are regarded, the knowledge acquired forms a basis for knowledge to be obtained. Not only so, but scientific study stimulates investigation by creating a desire to know, and facilitates the acquisition and retention of his- torical knowledge by pursuing it in a connected thread of natural inquiry and classifying it in its relations to fixed principles. 3. The Instruction should be Thorough and Life-like. The lack of interest in historical studies (especially on the part of children) may be traced in large measure to two causes: (a) A lack of thoroughness; (-6) The instruction is not life-like. The term thorough as here used does not mean simpl}^ a good knowledge of the text, but a knowledge of the subject in its details. There are many that can readily 119 recite the lines of the text who have but little idea of the subject. The number and nature of the subjects studied must be determined by the capacity of the pupil and the time allotted to the study. In this way proper instruction may secure a reasonable thoroughness. Guizot, in speaking of the historian Prescott, says : "His pictures are never wanting in truth, but they are sometimes wanting in life." Referring to his History of Philip II, the same author says of him: "Faithfully, therefore, as these, events and these personages are described by him, he leaves them where he finds them — in their tombs." So may it be said of much of our historical teaching. It is not lacking in the element of truth, but in the life. A very good description is given of the personages and the events, yet to the child it is like a ramble through a graveyard. If De Soto, with his company and outfits, in his explorations could pass through one of our cities to-day, what child would not be on the street, and what front window would not be crowded with heads? Can we suppose that there were no boys and girls standing on the banks of the Hudson watch- ing the first steamboat as it moved up the stream on its way from New York to Albany ? There is nothing in which chil- dren take a greater interest than in the real appearances and doings of human beings. 4. Historical Classifications and Essays are helpful exercises in tile study of hitotory. The classification of subjects is^ a natui'al accompani- ment of the topical method of iuslruction. In assigning subjects lor study it io quue natural for the teacher to resort to some plan of classification by which the students may be guided in their investigations. It then becomes natural for the pupils to fill out and complete these classifications as they proceed in the study of the subjects. The classifications may be made more or less complete by the teacher in accordance with the capacity and knowledge of the pupils. At first it 120 may be required of the pupils only to fill out the subject- matter of the classification by adding uuder their proper headings such dates, events, leading characters, etc, as may be gathered Irom the researches necessary in the preparation of the lesson. At length the teacher may only find it neces- sary to assign the subject to be classified, or at most the sub- ject heading with some general divisions, leaving the principal part of the classification to be made out by the pupils. These classifications may be discussed in the class or collected and examined by the teacher out of class. It is generally ad- visable to do both. In addition to classifications, let the work of the student be supplemented by a series of es- says written upon prominent historical subjects. The selec- tion of these subjcf.'ts must be left to the judgment of the teacher, who should be governed by the age and advancement of the pupil. The discipline received in preparing classifi- cations will aid the pupil in selecting and arranging material for essays. But what is to be gained by requiring students of history to prepare classifications and write essays upon historical subjects? In answer to this question it may be claimed : (a). By classifications the ideas are made clearer and more distinct in the pupil's mind. The student who forms the habit of systemizing his knowledge by collecting it under certain natural headings will, as a rule, have more reliable ideas than the one who pursues his studies without definite scheme. With the subject matter of the lessons divided, and the several parts arranged under their respective headings, the student can the more readily see the relations of events as causes and effects. By thus making knowledge more accurate and giving the pupil the advantage of the law of association, the parts of history are more easily remembered, and the study of it is made more scientific. (6). The influence of essay writing is to make knowledge more complete as well as more definite. This is especially true in historical study. Let the teacher 121 assign a topic for an essay, making for the class the necessary analysis. The same rule will apply in preparing the analysis for an essay as that suggested in the matter of headings for classifications. The pupils in the selection of the material for the essay will make more extensive research than in the preparation of the ordinary lesson. They will also be more accurate in their statements, and exercise a better choice in the use of language. Thus their knowledge of the subject is made more extensive and more reliable. The topics for historical essays should be selected in most part from those subjects which have a marked importance in the chain of events. In this way the more important subjects will receive the more extensive research. By assigning these central subjects as topics for essays, the investigations required to obtain material for the essays will assist the pupils in the preparation of their daily lessons, while the daily lessons will in turn furnish items and suggestions for the essays. These essays should be corrected by the teacher and then read in the class by the pupils. When pupils are suf- ficiently advanced it is often advisable to have the essays exchanged and criticised by the different members of the class before the examination by the teacher. (c). The preparation of classifications and essays provides a definite work to be done by the pupils out of class. The order and discipline of the student, together with his interest and advancement in study, depend quite as much upon the arrangement of work to be done out of class as upon the instruction given in the recitation. This work to be done out of class is sufficiently arranged for when the pupils have something definite to do that they can do and that will occupy their time. Too little attention is generally given to the assignment of the lesson. The too common hasty statement at close of recitation — "Take the next lesson," "Take Ihe next four pages," etc., does not properly arrange for work to be done 122 by the pupils. Not only should due attention be given to the assignment of work, but there should be a provision by which the work may be reported in definite form and exam- ined by the teacher. In the study of history this provision can be amply secured by exercising the pupils in the preparation of classifications and essays. Assignment of First Lesson. — L. S. History.^ We are to study the History of the United States. What can be said of this country of ours, class? What is its stand- ing: — its influence among the n^itions ? " It is a great nation." In what ways is this country a great nation? who will tell us ? Hands up ! ■ James may tell us. " This is a great country because ii has an extensive ter- ritory and a large population." Yes; and in what other way is it a great country ? Mary please tell us. " It has a rich soil and a good climate." Very good. What else, Frank? " The United States has a good government." Correct. No nation has a better government than the * It is presumed tliat tlie pupils have studied a course of topical lessons in Gen- eral History and that they are now prepared to persue the subject of United States History by a more systematic and philosophical method. They are now ready to give more attention to the relatw^is ot events as causes and ejfects,_ and to thf spiritual and physical agencies that operate in the development of a civili- zation and determine the nature of its government and institutions. The philosophical method of historical study is the natural method The skill and ingenuity of the teacher will give inspiration to the class and direct it in its proper lines of research. Next to a good library the means and opportunities at the hands of the teacher are the analysis of the subject, the assignment ot the lesson and the discussion of the subject-matter in the recitation. Of these tlie assignment of the lesson must not be deemed of secondary importance. Each teacher should be an em- bodiment of his own method. The model here given can be only suggestive The end to be sought is, 1st that the pupils shall become interested in the subject of the lesson and have a desire to know more about it 2d. That they have a deflnite idea of what they are to do in the preparation of the lesson, and 3d. that they have sufficient understanding as to the sources of information, m United States. Who will tell us something else that makes the United States a great nation ? What does Anna say? " It is a great nation because it has a good class of people in it." That is correct. No country has a better class of people in it than the United States. No people have a higher standard of civilization than ours. Is this an old or a new country, class ? " It is a new country." Correct. Our government is only about one hundred years old. It is the youngest of the principal nations of the earth ; yet in all best things it is equal to the greatest of them. Why is this the case? Is it because our country has a superior ter- ritory or the more favorable situation, or is it because it has been more fortunate in the circumstances of its settlement and growth ? We shall not hope to answer these questions at this time, but must look to the history of the country for the story of its development and the causes of its greatness. To learn this story, then, and to find answers to these and other like questions is the purpose for which this class has been formed. You say the United States is a great nation because it has a large and rich territory. How many of the class think that the territory and climate of a country have an influence upon the institutions and industries of the people who live in it? Hands up ! You who have your hands up are right. On our broad prairies the country is level, the soil rich and the climate mostly temperate ; what may we expect to find as the chief industries of the people who live there? " Farming and raising stock. '^ Very well. In the New England States the land is hilly and rough, the soil poor, and the creeks and rivers run rapidly over their rocky beds. What may we expect to find the people doing in New England, Henry ? " Manufacturing." 124 Very good. What else, Waldo ? " They will be farmmg too." Very well. What does Lucy say ? '' Some will be fishing also." Why may we expect to find fishing ? " Because there are many good fish in some of the waters belonging to the New England States." In Mexico and South America the climate is warm and the people do not have to work very hard to get food, and do not require much clothing or very substantial houses to keep them comfortable. What kind of people shall we find in Mexico or South America ? " Indolent people." \ ' Very well. " Lazy people." Yes, that is much the same as indolent. "Black people." Why dark colored people, Lizzie ? " Because a warm climate makes the skin dark." What do you say now, class; do the natural conditions of a country have anything to do with the industries and charac- teristics of the people ? "They do." Then we will take for our first lesson something of the Phys- ical Geography of the United States. Where is the United States situated, class? " It is situated in North America." Can we understand the physical features of the United States without some knowledge of North America? ''We cannot." We will then have our lesson extend over North America, and I will write on the black-board, as the subject of our first lesson : North America. What do we wish to learn of North America, class? Do the shape and position of a country bear any relation to the character and history of its people ? "They do." 125 Then as the first topic to be considered under the subject ol North America, I will write : Shape and position. After shape and position, what shall we next write as a topic for study ? " Its surface." " The coast-line." What does the coas-tline have to do with the history of a country, Alice? " By a knowledge of the coast-line we can tell where the best harbors are, and good harbors have towns located on them." Yes, and in the settlement of a country the first colonies are generally founded in the vicinity of good harbors. For a second topic I will write : Physical features, as a more general topic, and under the head of physical features I will write : 1. Coast-line ; 2. Surface, with its sub-divisions of mountains, low- lands, &c.; 3. Waters, and 4. Climate. What shall be another general topic, Lucy? " What the country produces." Very good. As a third topic we will write : Products and natural resources, and fourth^ as closely related to the third topic, we will study the leading industries of the coun- try. As a fifth topic under the subject North America, we will write : Political divisions. I shall want you to tell us : 1. What is meant by a political division and wherein it differs from a natural division ; 2. Give the names of the principal political divisions and tell their relative positions; and 3. Give some of the causes that lead to the political divisions of a country. As a sixth and last topic in the lesson, I will ask you to name the four largest cities in the United States, and give : 1. The location of these different cities, and 2. Some of the influences or causes that determined their location and favored their growth. ^ ^^ ^ ^ 126 LESSON I. f 1. Shape and position. 2. Physical features. fl. Coast-line. il. Mountain systems. 2. Plains. 3. Lowlands. 3. Waters. 4. Climate. 3. Products and natural resources. 4. Leading industries. 5. Political divisions. fl. i I 3. I The four largest cities in the United States. Definition — How different from a na- tural division. Causes leading to. Name the different political divisions and give their relative positions. f 1 . Name and location. I 2. Causes that determined their loca- ( tion and favored their growth. Gray. National Atlas, 11-13. Barnes. Complete Geography, 30-32. G.uyot. Physical Geography, 120-121. 7. Eeferences. -{ Maury. Manual of Geography, 20-22. I American 'Cyclopaedia. I Maury. Physical Geography, 205-208. t Appleton's Physical Geography, 22-24. * The subject-matter as given in the different lessons may be varied and suited to the advanceement of the class and the sources of information to which the pupils have access. In some cases it may he found advisable to divide the topics of the analysis and provide for two lessons on the subject instead of one. In history as in other branches of study a common error is to assign too much for a lesson. Until the pupils become somewhat acquainted with the different books of refer- ence and learn how to use them the references should be made explicit by giving volume, page, &c. It is generally more satisfactory to begin with a few references. As the class advances the scope of reference should be widened and a more exhaustive research encouraged. In the following lessons the matter of the references has been left mainly with the teacher who can judge best of the capacity of the class and the opportunities for research. 127 LESSON II. m W < Eh rjl P P 1. Shape and position. f ri. Mountains. 1. Surface. \ 2. Plains. J is. Lowlands, 2. Physical features. \ 2. Coast-lines and harbors. 3. Waters. { \ ^^^H ^^^ "^^^" 'y^^^^^^' ^4. Climate. Political divisions. Products, natural resources, &c. Industries. 6. Inhabitants, I 2. 13. Number. Classes or nationalities. Marks of distinction between the different nationalities. Whv so many different nationalities in the United States? 7. Kind of Government. f Barnes's Complete Geography. 33-36. I Maury's Physical Geography, 121, 124, 125. I Steimvehr & Brinton. Intermediate Geography, I 21-23. 8. References. \ The Peerless Atlas of the World, 70-72. I Johnson's New Family Atlas, 40 — I Gray's National Attas, 15 — I Lippincott's Pronouncing Gazetteer of the [ World. 128 LESSON iir. ' 1. Why called Indians. 2. Their leading characteristics. 3. Their industries, occupations, &c. 4. Their religion, system of worship, &c. 5. Their education, language and literature. 6. Their systems of government. fl. The home. ^ ^^ , I 2. The position and influence of woman. 7. Manners and o t\t • j • i j.- customs ' '^' ^-'^^rriage and marriage relations. I 4. Funerals, &c. [ 5. Amusements — games, &c. 8. Their origin and history. 9. Their relations to the United States government. ' Bancroft. History of the U. S., Vol. I, 80- Taylor. Mo lei School History, 19— Ridpath. History>f U. S., 11-14. Quackenbos. History of U. S., 31-42. 10. References.-! Lossing. Outline History ofU. S., 15-18. Scott. School History of U. S., 8-13. Edward Eggleston. History of United States and its people, 71-78. ^W -^^"^^Z McMaster. A History of the people of^ the United States, Vol. I, 5-8— 129 ESSAY I.* fi. p o o Si W 4. O 5. ^ 6 P5 The time in which he lived Hia ancestry. ^ ^ to The condi- tion of the world dur- ing his time 5. The state of indi- vidual liberty. 6. The state intelligence. of (?• Parentage. Nationality. 1. The partl^nown to civilization. 2. The leading nations. 8. The kinds of government. (a. Intelligence of the clergy. 4. The condition of the , ^- The nature of their Christian Church. ^ ^^ /f.^^'^ings, c. Relations of the church to the [ ^ state. Political. Religious. General education. Notions of the earth's shape, motions, <%c. 7. Occupations of the people. His education and early associations. His religion, notions of astronomy, &c. His struggles against opposition. His voyages - especially the first. His leading motives and characteristics. Prescott. Ferdinand and Isabella, Vol. II, 114- 166,460; Vol. Ill, 253. Lossing. Cyclopedia of United States History. Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, Vol. II, 7-13. Myers. Mediaeval and Modern History, 320- 321, 351-352. C. Geikie. The English Reformation, 66. Fainter. A History of Education, 93-118. D^Aubigne. History of the Reformation, Vol. I, 50-68. Abbott. The Romance of Spanish History, 190 « 202, 253-271. 9. References. - * In the department of United States History the series of essays is de- signed to serve a two-fold purpose : First, to bring before the class the most im- portant parts of collateral history, and second to secure a more extensive and thorough study of the central subjects of United States History than is likely to be obtained through ordinary study and recitation. Therefore to omit or neglect the essays would be to leave out essentiallinks in the chain. ^ *tt^ CD "O 5 ^nrf O O O fd o g 2^S -^£ 0)+^ 0) d o g ^^ B 0? o 1 1^ > "S a :« d fa o o o S o S d rf i ^ -^ conv le ace and; •^ bd . OJ .5 ci ■M> ^S 87. Sect] give] ove plan. feet by two fee ics recorded, 2. The general nea 8 sg f,- t^ r s& >. §b si A +^ d '^"Tt ^ m liif.' 'o S o .2 OO'S="0 c =«=^S'S^ 1 si lass prepare Lce given to ihey liave s he number ( ubject-matt a; 1 T— 1 "^1 ^o^s-^a ^5^-d O m — t-H SSd cs-^^ each m d accori those s a be me matter *^ 1^ t>3':2'o 03 -r; ^ d oj 1— ( '-' ^ d o-cJ Ilii kin re t may the ch irt wo: hthe : g§di3.2 tM^ CU o '^ Oa_, >H " CS art- ze o uld rade port As ap The si dents sho The g] by the im] •[Bopitoj •snoi§t|a^ •"^ly Pti^ 9,:^^?j8;iT[ ^ pu^ I'Bioog PUI? '{BlOf^ 9oueiog uoTiBanpg; 131 HISTORY. Topical Analysis. O 1. Iti^ relation to \ Geography f 1. The characteristics of a people are influ- enced by the ])hy8ical features of the I country in which they live. ! 2. The industries of a country are determin- ed by its natural resources. 3. An acquaintance with the place makes the remembrance of an event more lasting. f 1. As a means of culture. Its value J o as a study j V I s! 16. As a collateral aid in the study of other sub- jects. As a source of valuable experience. As an influence upon the moral nature. As a basis of political and social prescience. As a means of broad culture. The topical method is the nat- ural method. It makes prominent the most important characters and events of history. It should J 3. It concentrates the investiga- be topical.' tions of the student upon these important subjects in- stead of upon the contents of the text. It encourages independent [ thought and research. The subjects should be studied in a system- atic order. Classes should be exercised in recitations, classifications and historical essays. ft. The principle of cause and effect should be I the basis of historical study. 4. Remarks. \ 2. The student of history is brought into the I companionship of the good and great. [3. History is a reflection of human nature. Method of \ study. "] "Nothing in the past is dead to the man who would learji how th? present came to be what it is," 132 CHAPTER XIX, GEOGRAPHY. Much has been written on the subject of Geography. Its importance as a means of primary culture has been well shown, and some good methods for teaching geography have been suggested and have been employed with excellent suc- cess, yet we often hear the subject of geography spoken of as a branch of study in which pupils are not likely to take a very lively interest. Now children are naturally interested in the study of such topics as sea-coasts and lakes, rivers and water-mills, steambOating and fishing,cities, their people and industries, the different countries and their .animals, the mountains and, their mining enterprises, broad plains with their farming and grazing interests, and other subjects properly coming under the study of geography. Hence by the skillful application of proper means and methods geography ought to be one of the most interesting branches connected with the work of culture, and there are but few studies that promise more to the earnest pupil. The study of geography broadens the intellectual vision, enlarges the moral sympathies, develops a tolerant spirit, cultivates a tendency to observe the relations of causes and effects, creates a thirst for knowledge— especiahy a knowledge of history and the natural sciences — gives an idea of the form and surface of the earth, with a knowledge of its climate, soil and chiel products, teaches of the different nations their political and commercial relations, their civilization and re- sources, cultivates the powers of careful observation, quick- ens the imagination and helps to form a basis for reliable memory. These, and more the study of Geography promises to the diligent pupils who are under the normal direction of a skillful teacher. Then what shall be the method for Geo- 133 graphical study, or rather what are some of the leading principles to he regarded in order that the science of geogra- phy may be satisfactorily taught and that it may be to the students all that it promises to be. 1. In the study of geograghy the pupils should be re- quired to proceed from the known to the unknown. They should commence b}^ studying the school grounds or some other convenient plot and thus study by observation before studying by map. By studying in this way the child ac- quires the habit ol viewing the surface of the country as an object with its rivers and creeks, valleys, hills and moyntains, trees, &c., instead of thinking of it as a map-picture with its black lines, brindled extensions and differently-colored spaces. Study is thus made natural and life-like instead of arti- ficial and mechanical — concrete instead of abstract. 2. The method of study should be topical. One thing at a time and that well understood is at all times a key to successful study and is especidly such in the study oj geography. The indifference often seen among members o- the geography class, may be largely attributed to the hetero' geneity of the lessons assigned. In order to dispose of the multiplicity of the gross subject- matter contained in most of our text-books on geographyf provision is made for the study of a number of topics in a lesson and these often having but little natural relation — as for example the principal rivers or cities of a country or the number and names of the counties of a state. The topical method would take as a lesson a single town, a river or a county and study it thoroughly, obtaining informa- tion from all available resources. By this method the pupils aro led to study the subjects instead of books — to think about real objects instead of dots, lines and colored spaces 3. The study ot geography should be systematic, tliat is to say, the topics should be taken up in their natural order, th'it one lesson or part of a lesson may be hooked on to other lessons or parts that have been studied. As an illustration — m when the nature of a country is known we are better able to understand about its animals and resources and the cause leading to the location of the cities, &c., and when the loca- tion of a city has been discussed the pupils are better pre- pared to take up the subject of its industries. 4. Those parts of geography should be studied which bear relation to the history and leading industries of the countries. Of the multiplicity of subjects coming under the head of geography the pupil can hope to acquire a knowledge of only a very small part. Historic places and locations in which important industries flourish are apt to be studied with a more lively interest, while at the same time they are the natural links in the chain of systematic geography. 5. Map-drawing should accompany the study of geog- raphy. (a.) Map-drawing gives a more definite idea of the coun- try than can be obtained by the ordinary method of study and recitation ; (6) it developes the powers of the pupils, and (c) it furnishes work for pupils out of class. Different systems of map-drawing have been introduced and employed with satisfactory results. However good a system may be, it will often require to be modified and adjusted to the circumstances and immediate needs of the class. The work of map-making should proceed by a definite plan and in natural order. It should proceed with the study of the subjects, and the maps when made should suggest as much as practicable the physical features of the country. 6. The study of- geography should be accompanied with instruction on the incidents of history. The Mississippi river becomes much more interesting as a subject of study for children when associated with the his- tory of its discovery by De Soto, its explorations by Mar- quette or its boating scenes of pioneer life. A lesson on the city of Philadelphia is at once more natural and life-like when studied as the early settlement of Penn and his followers, the scene of the Declaration of Independ- ence, the home of Charles Thompson and the Continental Congress, and the birth-place of the Federal Constitution. As the dividing line between Maryland and Pennsylvania is more interesting and impressive when associated with the story of the Mason and Dixon line. The rule is that the geography of a country is more interesting when studied with its history. The following scheme may serve to suggest the matter and method for a course of topical lessons in the study of ge- ography : 1. Geographical position, source, length, direction of its flow, &c. 2. Its size, nature of its bed, banks, waters, &c. 3. Nature of the country through which it flows, natural pro- ducts of the country, &c. 4. Principal cities located on its banks. 5. Commercial advantages. 6. Nature of the traffic on the river. 7. Industries to be seen on passing down the river from Min- neapoUs to New Orleans. iyj ] 8. Historic incidents connected with its discovery and explora- tions. f Lossing's Cyclopsedia of U. S. History. Vol. I 11. 899. I American Cyclopsedia. 9 References \ Bancroft's History of U. S. Vol. 11. 329-333. J. ±teierences. i ^yrsike. The making of the Great West. Vol. I 1. 16-18, 85-89. I Barnes' Complete Geography, 31. [ Guyzot's Physical Geography, 53. f 1. Location. Circumstances and influences favoring the founding and growth of a city at this place. 3. Chief advantages of the location. 4. The leading industries. 5. Size of city, population, &c. ^ -{ 6. Diff"erent nationalities represented — why go many. 7. Historic incidents connected with its founding and growth. 8. Its rival cities in the United States, and why. f Lossing's Cyclopaedia of U. S. History. Vol. 11. 9. References. ^ Eggleston. History of the U. S. and its peo- L pie, 45. 136 GEOGRAPHY. Topical Analysis. W O O 1. Its relations to history and the natural sciences. 1. It broadens the intellectual vision. 2. It enlarges the moral sympathies. 3. It tends to develop a tolerant spirit. 4. It cultivates a tendency to observe the re- lations of causes and effects. 5. It creates a thirst for knowledge— especially a knowledge for history and natural sci- ences. Its value as J 6. It gives an idea of the form and surface of a study. ' the earth, with a knowledge of its climate, soil, animals, chief products, &c. 7. It teaches of the different nations, their po- litical and commercial relations, their civ- ilization, resources, &c. 8. It cultivates the powers of observation. 9. It trains the imagination. 10. It helps to form a basis for reliable mem- l ory. f 1. Proceed from the known to the unknown. 2. Commence by studying the school grounds, or I some other convenient plot, and thus study by observation before studying by map. I 3. The method of study should be topical. 4. The method of study should be systematic. I 5. Those parts of geography should be studied { which bear relation to the history and lead- I ing industries of the country. I 6. Map-drawing and essay-writing should occom- pany the study of geography. I 7. The study of geography should be accompa- I nied with instruction on the incidents of I history. L 8. One thing at a time and that well. The geographical interest of a place increases as one be- comes acquainted with its history. There is a very close relation between the physical fe'Btures of a country and the industries of its people. The natural method requires that the teacher often lead the class on imaginary journeys along the lakes and rivers, through valleys, over mountains, or follow with the pupils the ships in their voyages across the ocean, and thus make the recitation as natural and life-like as possible. The writing of short essays on geographical subjects from analyses given by the teacher proves an interesting and profitable exercise in connection with the study of geography. Method of teaching. ri. I I CHAPTER XX. THE NATURAL SCIENCES. Science is defined as knowledge classified with respect to principles. The natural sciences treat of the facts and phenomena of the material world and the laws and principles relating to them. Early in the childhood of the races, the stars were studied with great interest. Their relative sizes and positions were observed, their different movements and appearances were noted and studied, their causes enquired after, till at length discovery was made that a:ll siderial phenomena are related to certain natural influences and that all the heavenly bodies move in obedience to fixed laws, and the study of Astrology became the science of Astronomy. Early scholars gave attention to the study of the plants. They observed the facts and phenomena of their parts and growth and discovered the relation of plant phenomena to the laws of cell growth and the principles of vegetable life and Botany was added to the catalogue of science. Thus through 'the observation and study of the natural phenomena of the material world we have the sciences of Astronomy, Botany, Chemistr}^, Zoology, Geology, Natural Philosophy, &c. What is the place of these sciences in the work of gen- eral culture and by what method shall they be taught in or- der that the study of science may be interesting to children and at the same time have a proper influence in the normal development of their faculties and tendencies. In the study of the sciences three important ends are to 138 be attained, mental discipline, moral and aesthetic culture, and an acquaintance with natural laws and their relations to natural phenomena. 1. The discipline of the mental powers. Few sub- jects are more general in their influences of culture than the sciences, yet they are especially adapted to the training of the powers of observation, generalization, and inductive reasoning. In scientific study almost every lesson is an object lesson and the attainments of the pupils depends upon the efficiency of perception. First by the careful observation of individual objects images are formed in the mind and retained by the memory. These images are compared, grouped and classified according to cer- tain distinctive marks ^^or definite principles. Thus the pupils receive a continuous and practical drill in mental training. 2. The study of the natural science has a healthful influ- ence upon the moral and aesthetic nature of the student. Through the stady of natural phenomena and the laws and principles by which all matter exists, all growth is supported and all development is directed and shaped according to fixed patterns, the student acquires habits of careful discrimination, a respect for law, a love of harmony and an appreciation of the true and beautiful. What are some of the principles that shall guide us in the study of the natural sciences? What shall be the method of teaching and what the means employed? 1. In the study of the sciences the order of proceedure should be from the individual to the class and from the known to the unknown. If the subject of study be Zoology commence with som^ animal with which the pupils are familiar. First study this ; observing and noting its promi- nent points, then study other animals that have like attrib- utes and thus lead the pupils on to the discovery of their class and its distinctive marks. If the subject be Botany or Geology begin with the single 13§ plant or rock or fossil and proceed to discover the properties or class. By thus beginning with the individual and studying by ob- servation before using the text-book the attention of the pu- pils is called to the real object and the study is made natural and life-like. By this method of study pupils are lead to form habits of careful observation and become more original in their methods of investigation. They are also more likely to acquire the habit of depending on themselves than when required to obtain information mostly from books. The Author is by no means disposed to overlook the idea that it is necessary for children to learn the use of books neither would he discourage the use of books altogether in the classes. Text-books may be made very useful even in primary instruction, when used simply as helps, but when they are given so prominent a place in the education of chil- dren that the chief task, in the preparation of the lesson con- sists in learning the language of the text they become obsta- cles in the way of natural research and barriers to original thought. 2. In the study of science the recitation should be con- ducted in a way to encourage originality of thought and stim- ulate a spirit of inquiry. Methods of study are largely determined by the methods of recitation. The following from Bert's Introductory Steps in Science contains practical suggestions on methods for teaching chil- dren : Come, John what is the difference between a fly and a horse? You laugh, but that's no answer; try to tell me. "A horse, sir, is a very large animal, and a fly is very small." Yes, but here is a picture in which the fly has been en- larged and the horse made very small. Of course you would never niistake one for the other, in spite of the size; but do you see nothing else ? 140 ''Oh, yes, sir ; a fly has wmgs, and a horse has none." Ah ! that is very well ; but suppose I were to pull off the fly's wings? There must be something else. What do you say Paul ? "A horse, sir, is covered with hair and a fly has no hair". Are you quite sure about that? Catch a fly, and let us look at it through my little magnifying-glass. See, it is all covered with hairs! They are very small, it is true, but they are there. James have you anything to say? "Sir, a horse has four legs, and a fly has six." Ah ! th.'it's a good observation, and we shall make use of it. But suppose we take two legs away from the fly, what then? Do you see no other diff'erence? No? And, yet, there are many, and great ones at that. Can we crush a fly. "Oh, yes, very easily, and nothing would be left but the outer parts — the skin, the legs, and wings." But, could we crush a horse? "I know very well that we have not enough strength in our- selves to do so." But, if a house were to fall on it, would it crush the horse and reduce it to a pulp, as would have been the case with the fly? "No." Why not? "Because the horse has inside its body hard parts — bones — that cannot be crushed, ivhile not even the smallest hones are to he found in the fly. The horse, then, is an animal that has bones, or, as is also said, that has a skeleton, as the whole bony frame is called; and the fly is an animal that has no bones." >!< >!<>!< >!< If the study be Natural Philosophy and it be persued by the experimental method (as it should be) the following reci- tation on the subject of the atmosphere may serve as an il- lustration: Class. — Can my right hand and my left hand be in the same place at the same time. 141 ''They cannot" Why not James. "The hands are matter and matter occupies space" Yes we learned in our last lesson that matter occupies space, and what else did we learn about matter Mary? "We also learned that matter has weight" That is correct. In endeavoring to find answer to our question in yesterday's lesson we learned that matter has weight and that it occupies space and we agreed to call every thing matter that occupies space and has weight. Our subject to-day is the atmosphere and the first question that presents itself for us to answer is, — How do we know that there is an atmosphere? John may answer. "When the wind blows we can feel the air" Very good. Who will name some other evidence of the existence of the atmos]3here; Hands up! I see a number of hands, Dora may tell us. "When you run fast the air pushes against you" Very well. You may also name an eveidence. "If you swing around you a board, flat side foremost, the air jDUshes against it." Correct. We see that there are many evidences that there is an atmosphere. The next question for us to answer is this. Is air matter? How many of the class are ready to say that air is matter? Hands up! I see that most of you have your hands up. What have we agreed to call matter, Henry? "Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight," Correct. In order to prove that air is matter we must show first that it occupies space and second that — 'it has weight.' " Class. I hold this jar so that 3^ou can all see it. What is in the jar. "It is air." Yes the jar is filled with air. We will put it, mouth down into this bason of water and what do you observe, Jane- "I see that the water does not rise up in the jar," 142 And what does this prove class? "It proves that air occupies space." Now let us change the nature of the experiment. We will fill the jar with water and raise it up slowly out of the water with mouth down and what is to be observed, Henry? "The water in the jar rises above the surface of the water on the outside of the jar." Correct. Who can tell us the cause of this? Ellen may tell us. "It is caused by the air pressing down on the surface of the water on the outside of the jar" How many of the class think that the answer is correct? Hands up; I see that most of the hands are up. The answer is correct and what does this experiment prove class ? "It proves that air has weight." Very good. We have been able to show that air occupies space and that it has weight and so we conclude that air is matter. * * ^ ^i: By recitations somewhat after the foregoing methods much may be accomplished to awaken an interest in the sub- ject, arouse a spirit of origional enquiry and train the pupils in correct habits of study. 3. Subjects of science should be studied in theirnatural and systematic order. In each branch of science the sub- ject-matter consists of certain divisions and parts connected together by ties of natural relationship. When the order of this relationship is observed the study and discussion of one subject, awakens an interest of enquiring in the subject that follows, and a knowledge of one topic aids in the investiga- tion and understanding of the next. 4. Students in sciences should be encouraged to make collections of specimens. The interest which one takes in a subject depends very much on the amount of time and atten- tion given to it. In the departments of Botany, Zoology, Geology and Mineralogy there is generally a good supply of specimens within the reach of the class. 143 The pupil who collects flowers and plants and bestows the time and labor necessary to classify and arrange them neatly and systematically in an herbarium is very apt to become in- terested in Botany. So in the collection and classification of animals, fossils and rocks or minerals, one is likely to become interested in the study of Zoology, Geology or Mineralogy. In addition to the advantiges to be derived in the way of an increased interest in the subject (which generally implies an increased knowledge) the selection and grouping of speci- mens give valuable returns in the training of the perceptive faculties, and in the formation of systematic habits. The gathering of specimens also furnishes work for the pu- pils out of class and helps to keep them profitably employed. 5. Pupils should be required to express the results of their observations and study in classifications and essays. When science is studied by the natural method, preparing classifications is much the same as recording the results of re- search. By this systematic method of recording results the subject is brought definitely before the mind of the student, his ideas of the divisions and parts of the subject-matter are made clearer and their relations more distinct. Classifications also furnish a convenient means by which pupils may prepare their written work on the lessons. The writing of essays furnishes a profitable language ex- ercise for the pupils, while at the same time it does much to awaken an interest in subjects of science and broaden the scop«^ of research on the more central points of scientiiic truth. THE NATURAL SCIENCES. Topical Analysis. o o fin observation. In generalization, , In inductive reasoning. f 1. By leading the mind into pure channels Moral dis- 1 of thought, cipline. ] 2. By awakening an appreciation of law as [ the basis of harmony. Jj]sthetic /By the observation and study of the beautiful culture. 1 in nature. An acquaintance with nat- f 1. As a source of pleasure, ural laws in their rela- J 2. As valuable in the appli- tions to natural phenom- \ cation of science to the ena. L arts. r 1. Proceed from the knowii to the unknown ; from the in- dividual to the class. Commence by studying objects and phenomena that are common, and thus study by observation before study- ing by use of the text. Study by subjects or natural objects, using books simply as helps. Recitation should be largely discursive— students observ- ing and expressing their ideas of observation. 5. Subjects should be studied in a systematic order. 6. Pupils should be encouraged to collect specimens. 7. Pupils should express the results of their observations and research in written classifications or essays. 1. "Read nature; nature is a friend to truth. Nature is Christian, preaches to mankind and bids dead matter aid us in our creed." "The beautiful is a manifestation of the secret laws of na- ture, which but for this appearance had been forever concealed from us." ^ "Every truth is connected with every other truth in the \_*^ {_ universe of God." O o pi " Through nature up to natures God^ 145 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE IDEAL TEACHER, Or Attribules and Tendencies vjhich Teachers should ever strrte to Cultivate. 1. A cheerful and hopeful disposition. 2. A frank and trustful nature. 3. Self-reliance and firmness. 4. Agreeableness. 5. Neatness. 6. Dignity of bearing. 7. Punctuality. 8. A non-partisan spirit. 9. Self-mastery. 10. Sympathy. 11. Originality. 12. Naturalness. 13. Selfless-ness. 14. Kindness. 15. Prevision. 16. An appreciation of true character. 17. An interest in children. 18. Strong faith in the possibilities that lie hidden in the child. 19. A love of the work. 20. Consecration to the work. 21. Broad and thorough scholarship — mastery of subjects to be taught. 22. Aptness to teach — teaching power. 23. Faith in humanity. 24. Faith in God. 146 A LIST OF BOOKS RECOMMENDED FOR THE TEACHERS' LIBRARY^ Pedagogical. How to Teach — Hpnry Kiddle. Van AntAverp, Bragg & Co., N. York. Laurie's Primary Instruction. Quick's Educational Reformers. Robert Clark & Co., Cincinnati, O. The Cyclopaedia of Education. — Henry Kiddle and A. J. Schem. Stei- ger & Co., New York. [The Dictionary of Education laased on the alDove is a lower priced work.] Primary Object Lessons. — N. A. Calhns. Harper Bros., New York. Education. — Herbert Spencer. D. Appleton & Co., New York. Normal Methods of Teaching. — A. Holhrook. Lectures on Teaching. — /. G. Fitch. MacMillan & Co., New York. Methods of Teaching. — John Sweet. Methods of Teaching and Studying History. — Hall, Adams and other.o. Heath & Co., Boston. Froebel's Education of Man. A Lovell & Co., New York. Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching. A. S. Barnes & Co.,N. Y. Normal Method of Teaching. — Edward Brooks. Normal Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa. The History of Pedagogy. — Gabriel .Compayre — (Payne's Translation.) D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass. History of Education — Painter. D. Appleton & Cp. Teaching and Teachers. — H. C. Trumbull. John D. Wattles, Phila- delphia, Pa. Psychological. Outline Study of Man. — Mark Hopkins. Chas. Scribner's Sons, N. Y. The LaAV of Love, and Love as a Law. — 3Iark Hopkins. Mental Science and Methods of Mental Culture. — Edivard Brooks. Normal Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa. *A tliorough study of a few choice hool^s on Pedagogics is to he preferred to an attempt to read largely, even of the works of standard writers on the f uhject. The most practical suggestions and the most lasting inspirations ai e obtained by saturating one's self with the thoughts and spirits of a few masters. It is with these thoughts in view that the ahove selection is made. insTiDEix:. Activity a law of childhood. 82 Arrangement of school rooms 48, 50 Assignment of Lessons 60, 65, 66, 122, 125 Aim of all discipline 82 Appearance 82 Attention 44 Anecdotes 25 Awaken an interest 59 Boarding place 48 Bearing and personal appearance of teacher 32, 85 Broad views 85 Bodily strength 30 Best order 82 Bad acts repressed * 82 Biography Ill Common sense of teacher 84 Confidence in humanity 85 Conscience 23 Calisthenics 32 Classifications 12 Clean room 75 Comfort of pupils.... 75 Disobedient pupils 91 Don'ts of school management ...87, 92, 98 Dignity of labor 28 Declamations 25 Discipline 10, 30 Discussion of lesson 60 Disorder 68 End of teaching 10 Elementary sounds 99 Expression of thought 101 Essay writing 105, 119 'Energy 31 Exercise of moral faculties 36 148 Elevate others Error > ••• 63 Experience HO Faults of pupils 91, 92 Foundation of unreliable scholarship 3 Foresight. 47 Frivolous things.. '. 43 Gymnastics '. 32 G-radin g work : 68 Government of schools (see school government) 71 Geography 132 study of adapted to children 132 What the study promises..... 132 Methods of study, &c 133, 186 The parts of Geography to be studied 134 Should be accompanied with the study of history 134, 135 Topical lessons 135 Remarks on Geographical study 136 Habits 35 definition of 35 Habits of obedience 36 Habits of accurate observation 36 Habits of industry. 37 Habits of self-help 88 Habits of bodily movement 88 History 109 definition of 109 The value of Historical study 110, 112 History as related to Geography 113 The parts of History to be taught ....114 Methods of teaching History 117 Historical classifications and essay | 119, 120 Assignment of lesson in History 122, 125 Topical Analysis of lesson 126 Chronological chart... 130 Remarks on Historical study 131 How to study..... How to keep pupils busy Intelligence of teacher 13 Industry of teacher 13 Inattention 63 Kindness is power 82 149 Language culture 95 Literary taste 95^ 102 Lounging 39 Lazy 31 Language study 100-108 importance of 100, 101 Langviage a medium and an instrument of thought 100 Objects to be accomplished by language study 101, 102 means and methods of 102, 103-4 remarks on 108 Moral Culture ., 22 definition of. 22 elements of .....22, 23 means and methods of 24, 25, 26 principles of 28 Memory 42 definition of 42 principal elements of 42 Means andmethods of memory culture 43, 44 Statement of principles....... ., 45 Movements of body 38 Motives 23 Moral instruction 24 Moral sense 22 Methods of teaching , 9 Material for teachers 9 Mental Development 14 chief ends of 14, 15 Nature of mind ., 16 Natural Order of the minds development 16, 17 means and methods of 18 Principles stated 20 Musts of school management 84-87, 93 Normal Development of powers..... 13 Noise of pupils — how to treat it 89 Naturalness in teaching 11, 86 Natural methods 117 Observation — powers of 14, 21 importance 15 place of in the order of the mind's development 16 means and methods of their culture 18 150 Offences, 78 kinds of 78, 79 How treat the different offences.. 79, 81 Opening school house and receiving pnpils 50 Opinions of patrons 90 Order of Development 16 One difficulty .• 63 Out of order 88 Preparation of lessons, &c 49 Patience 86 Pranks of children — how to treat them, &c 89 Penalties 80, 81 kinds of, nature, &c 80 when and where inflicted 80, 81 principles stated 82, 83 Preliminary work of teacher 47 importance of 47 kinds of 47, 49 Boarding place 48 Arrangement of school room ...48, 50 Preparation of lesson 49 Miscellaneous work to be considered 50 Eemarks on preliminary work 52 Programme 53 importance and end of 53 determined by the age and advancement of pupils 53 determined by the nature of the subject studied 53 should be made with regard to the size of the class 54 More time given to work of forenoon 55 Physical morality 32 Preparation 49 Physiology 32 Principles stated 56 Prevision 112 Programme 57 Power of thought 20 Primary knowledge acquired 20 Physical Culture 29 interdependence between body and mind End of physical culture 30, 31 means and method of 31, 32 principles of 34 151 Rules : 77 Easier to make than to enforce 77 When shall rules be introduced 77 By whom should rules be adopted 78 Recitation 58 holds a chief place in school work 58 chief ends of 58, 59 How the ends of the recitations may be attained 59 Work of the recitation 60 Mode and process of recitations 61 Suggestions on methods 62 Remarks on the recitation 63 Reading 94^99 Importance of teaching reading 94 Marks of a good reader 94, 95 The work of the recitation 96 Chief end of the reader 96 Assigning of new lesson, &c 97 Method of teaching reading 97 Remarks 98 Reviews 60 Rewards 82 School Government 70 prevalent idea of 70 School government both a science and an art 71 Method of government must not be empirical 71 End of school government 72 Power of self-control essential 72 Motive the end rather than the conduct 78 Methods of government 73 Governing principles or forces 74, 76 Collateral aids to government 75, 81 Statement of principles ,, 82, 83 Spirit of work 64 Spelling 96 Self-control..... 72, 88 Scolding 90 Subject-matter for a lesson 65 Successful teacher 13 Stories 25 " Symmetry 30 152 Sciences 137 definition of 137 The place of the natural sciences in the work of culture 137 Ends of scientific study 137 Methods of study , 138 Model recitations in science 139, 140 Principles stated 144 Self-help 38 Technical Grammar 105, 106 Teachers' work 10 chief end of 10 Training of powers 10 Teaching 9, 10, 11 a science 11 prime end of. 10 Method of , 11 principles of 13 Text Books 25 Threats 87 Trust pupils 88 Unnatural discipline 20 Words— meaning of,&c 94, 100 Work of Pupils out of Class 64 importance of 64 should be definite, &c 65 should be properly assigned 66 The common error is to assign too much 6() One central subject at a time 67 Examination and grading of work 67, 68 How to grade the work of pupils 68 Principles stated .'.... 69 Work of another teacher — how to treat it 90 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS om mm 5