Class _Q.J^A_ Book .C 56 Goipght^^ COPYRIGHT DEPOBVC # % ^-^^ THE CENTENNIAL Universal History. A CLEAR AND CONCISE HISTORY OF ALL NATIONS, WITH A PULL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES TO THE CLOSE OF THE FIRST 100 YEARS OF OUR NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE. BY ISRAEL SMITH CLARE. Illustrated with Portraits and full-page Engravings. r'oF 00^7^"^% P. W. ZIEGLER & CO., Publishers, PHILADELPHIA, PA., AND CHICAGO, ILL. 1876. • ess Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by ISRAEL SMITH CLARE, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. Printed and Stereotyped BY THE INQUIRER P. 4 P. CO., Lancaster, Pa. PREFAC-E. nr^HE author of this work, having, in common with others, felt the want of a book which could truly be called a treatise on universal history, has un- dertaken the task of supplying such want; and, as the result of a great expense of time and labor, this volume is presented to the public. For convenience, though somewhat arbitrarily, the work is divided into three parts, each containing the record of an important era in the history of the world. Book First contains an historical account of the ancient world, embracing the period from the Creation of Man to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, A. D. 476. Book Second embraces the history of the Middle Ages, comprising the time from the Fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Discovery of America, inclusive. Book Third comprises a record of the modern period, describing the epoch from the Discovery of Ammca to the present time. Great historical events have been arranged logically rather than chronologically, and great care has been taken to detail facts in proportion to their relative impor- tance. The author has also taken great pains to omit what is irrelevant, and he has selected from the great mass of historical matter those events which have exerted a controlling influence upon the destinies of the world. The greatest prominence is given to the annals of those nations of ancient and modern times which have acted a leading part on the stage of the world's history; and, with this view, Greece and Rome are made.to stand out with their due prom- inence among the nations of antiquity, while Germany, France, England, and America are exhibited as the leading actors in the modern drama. To enable the reader or student to easily acquire and retain a knowledge of the facts related, and to observe their relation, the subject-matter of this work is arranged in many divisions and subdivisions; and each subject is minutely analyzed, and the outlines of the various subjects furnish appropriate headings for the different paragraphs. In addition to a full account of the annals of the nations of the Old World, a complete history of the United States, up to the present time, is given ; also a gen- eral history of the Spanish American Republics, — subjects which are not treated of to the same extent in other works of this kind. iv . PREFACE. The history of the United States is made to embrace the period of the first cen- tury of our existence as an independent nation; and a separate title-page is given to it. The history of our country is divided into three periods: — ist. The period of the American Revolution; 2d. The period of national development, extending from the time of the adoption of our National Constitution in 1789 to the close of the war with Mexico; 3d. The period of the slavery agitation and the civil war, and recent events. All the leading events of each Administration are narrated, according to their relative importance, or their bearing upon the destinies of our country. The Table of Contents embraces a general outline of the book, and is analyti- cal. In the Chronological Index, the great events in the history of the human race are arranged in chronological order, and reference is made to the pages on which the events named, are found. In the Alphabetical Index, all the proper names found in the book are arranged alphabetically, with their pronunciation, and reference is also made to the pages on which they occur. The book, as arranged, is well adapted for general reading, for reference, and for private study. With these few introductory remarks, the author submits the volume to the public, with the hope that it may prove of valuable service to the student of history and to the general reader. I. S. C. Lancaster, Pa., "jfanuary 26th, 1876. b^, ^. *^iir !^f -^ i-> " til- • "^H?^-!! ■ . « f^» Ij.-V-'- -• . • •-'H^a. MAIN M AC H IN] CENTEN N lAl i'N • -r?^ ;^ ,'^^' Jit - ^ j^ g -^^^ t/!^^ MMi^ sE^- I 1 LD 1 N G, ,^^^^^ ^TiTTT^FiTT'nTr^TT^r* 'I t. --fii^L.'' i' ^' '1] ft"-) EKwi?'-',^^7^T"';^fl'^Trfr» "-: :, < » H A i_ L , EXHIBITION HORTICULTURAL HALL AGRICULTURAL HALL r s.ncca CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. CONTENTS. BOOK FIRST-ANCIENT HISTORY. THE EARLIEST AGES. 1. Antediluvian History, 2. The Dispersion of Mankind, ORIENTAL NATIONS. 1. China, 2. India, 3. Assyria and Babylonia, 4. Egypt, 5. Phcenicia, 6. The Hebrews or Israelites, 1. The Patriarchs, . 2. The Hebrews in Egypt, 3. The Exodus of the Israelites, 4. The Period of the Judges, 5. The Reign of Saul, 6. The Reign of David, 7. The Reign of Solomon, . 8. The Kingdom of Israel, 9. The Kingdom of fudah, 7. Media and Persia, HISTORY OF GREECE. 1. Geography of Ancient Greece, 2. Grecian Mythology, ..... 3. Legendary Period of Greece, 1 . Early Settlements in G)-eece, 2. The Heroic Age, ..... 3. The Amphictyonic Council and the Olympic Festival, 4. Greek Colonies, ..... 4. The Period of the Lawgivers, 1. Lycurgus, the Spartan Lawgiver, 2. The Messenian Wars, .... (v) PAGE. 21 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 27 28 28 29 30 30 31 31 32 33 35 Z^ 37 37 37 39 40 40 40 42 CONTENTS. 3. Draco and Solon, the Lawgivers of Athens, 4. The Tyrants of Athens, .... 5. The Seven Wise Men of Greeee, The Flourishing Period of Greece, 1. The Persian War, ..... 2. Affairs of Athens and Sparta, 3. The Peloponnesian War, .... 4. Retreat of the Ten Thousand and Peace of Antalcidas, 5. The Olynthian and The ban Wars, . The Macedonian Period, .... 1. Philip of Macedon, ..... 2. Alexander the Great, .... 3. Antipater and Alexander'' s Successors, 4. 7>42, \%bl, and iZdi,, . . 39$ Russian Serf Emancipation, ..... 395 The Schleswig-Holstein War of iS6^, .... 396 The Seven Weeks' War, . . . . . •2,91 English Reforms, ...... 399 The Spanish Revolution of 1868, ..... 400 The Franco- German War^ ..... ^Ol The Italian Revolution of 1870, ..... 412 The French Civil War of l^T I, .... 414 The Spanish Revolution of i?>T2t • • • • .421 Recent Affairs of European Nations, . . , . 430 Spanish American Republics, ..... 433 The Spanish American War of Independence, . . . 433 1. Causes of the Spanish American Revolution, . . . 433 2. The Revolution in Mexico, . . . . • 434 3. The Revolution in Colombia, ..... 435 4. The Revolution in La Plata, .... 438 5. The Revolution in Bolivia, ..... 438 6. The Revolution in Chili, ..... 439 7. The Revolution in Peru, ..... 439 South America since the Revolution, .... 440 The Republic of the United States of Mexico, . . '441 1. The Administration of General Victoria, . . . 441 2. Administrations of Guerrera, Bustamente, and Pedraza, . 442 3. First Presidency and Dictatorship of Santa Anna — The Texan Revolution, ...... 443 4. Bustamente's Second Administration, .... 444 5. Santa Anna's Second Presidency and Dictatorship, . . 445 6. Administrations of Herrera, Paredes, and Santa Anna — The War with the United States, ..... 446 7. Administrations of Herrera, Arista, Santa Anna, Alvarez, Com- onfort, and Zuloaga, ..... 447 8. The Administration of Benito Juarez — The French Invasion and the Emperor Maximilian, ..... 448 HISTORY OF THE FIRST ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. I. The American Revolution, 1. Causes of the Revolution, . , 2. The War of American Independence, 1. Events of 1775, 2. Events of 1776, 455 455 460 460 462 CO/VTENTS. 3. 5vents of 1777, . 4. Events of 1778,^ 5. Events of 1779, 6. Events of 1780, 7. Events of 1781, 8. Events of 17S2 and 1783, 3. The Constitution of the United States, 1. Formation of the Constitution, 2. The Constitution, 3. Adoption of the Constitution, The Growing American Union, 1. Washington's AJministi-ation, 2. "John Adams's Administration, 3. yeffersoti's Administration, 4. Aladison's Administration, 1. The War with Great Britain — Events of i Si 2, 2. Events of 1 813, 3. Events of 1814 and 1S15, 5. Monroe's Administration, 6. yohn Quincy Adams's Administration, 7. yackson's Administration, 8. Van Buren's Administration, 9. Harrison' s and Tyler's Administration?,, ID. Polk' s Administration, I. The War with Mexico, . Slavery Agitation and the Civil War 1. Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations, 2. Pierce's Administration, 3. Buchanan' s Administration, 4. Lincoln's Administration, 1. The Civil War — Events of 1861, 2. Events of 1862, 3. Events of 1863, 4. Events of 1864, 5. Events of 1865, 5. yohnson's Administration, 6. Grant's Administration, The New States, ..... A Historical Retrospect, The Centennial Exhibition, Chronological Index, .... Alphabetical Index and Pronouncing Dictionary, xvii PAGEJ • 465 468 • 469 471 . 472 475 . 475 . 475 • 476 477 . 478 478 . 480 481 ■• 483 484 . 485 488 . 491 493 • 493 495 . 496 497 . 498 500 • 500 501 . 502 505 . 505 508 • 513 516 . 520 522 . 524 529 • 532 538 • 544 569 BOOK I. ANCIENT HISTORY. ARMS OF THE NATIONS UNITED STATES VENEZUELA URUGUAY mmi ^x^l Sfj l"l K k ^ LA PLATA AU STRALIA ECUADOR NEW GRANADA JAMAICA GR . BR ITAI N AU3TRI A BELGIUM Sinclair JtSon Ijth Phiia. ARMS OF THE NATIONS \] 'in '€KK m BREM EKI HAMBURG TUSCANY. DEN MARK HOllANi O IONIAN ISLES. FLAGS OF THE NATIONS. UNITED STATES SWIT2.EPLAND. SPAIN, MERCH PERU. MERCH PARAGUAY, MERCH SAM OOMINIGO MERCH HAWAIIAN ISL. MERCH. MEXICO MERCH ITALr, HOY PORTUGAL, ROY II (JAPAN , I MP HAYTI U RUOUAY MOROCCO. TRIP0U.TUNI6 TURKEY. MAN ofWAR U.S. OF COLOMBIA. VEWEZUELA. MERCH. 7 /^^ J^-- - ,'■''. 1 SI <> hBk -,'' J n-LbS' ^JS-:i3«-3seriod of the settlement of the Hindoos in India is not known. That portion of India north of the Vindyha mountains was called Hindoostan, while that part of the country south of those mountains was named Deccan. The Brahmins. — It is supposed that the first form of government that existed in India was that of a powerful priesthood, and that the first code of laws was compiled by priests or Brahmins, who were celebrated for their learning, and who were held in great reverence by all classes of Hindoos. Their laws were drawn from the Vedas or sacred writings. Hindoo Castes. — According to the Brahminical code, the Hindoos, or Indians, were divided into four distinct classes or castes. The members of each caste were not allowed to intermarry or associate with those of another caste. This rule has been strictly adhered to by the Hindoos up to the present time. The first caste was that of the priests or Brahmins, who possessed the chief power in political as well as religious affairs, and who were held in greater respect and veneration than the princes. The second caste was the warrior class, to which the princes belonged. The third caste was composed of the tillers of the soil, merchants, tradesmen, and mechanics. The fourth caste was that of the servants and laborers. Every man was obliged to pursue the occupation of his father, and it was considered worse than death to violate any of the rules of caste. Hindoo Religion — Brahma and Buddha. — The Hindoos worshiped one supreme deity known as Brahma, whom they regarded as Creator. The two gods, Siva, the Preserver, and Vishnu, the Destroyer, were reverenced as forms of the chief deity. The Hindoos also made the sun, moon, and stars objects of adoration. The Brahmins taught the doctrine of metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls. The Brahminical religion was reformed by Buddha, who appeared in India about five centuries before Christ. Buddha labored with great zeal to lessen the power of the priesthood, and to abolish the distinctions of caste. Hindoo Literature and Art — Productions and Trade. — The Hindoos made great advancement in literature, and many of their works, all of which are written in the sacred and now obsolete Sanscrit language, are about 3,000 years old. The ruins of stately temples and grottoes bear witness to the degree of artistic skill posessed by the Hindoos. The great abundance of the natural and artificial productions of India has always kept that country the grand centre and emporium of the maritime and caravan trade, and has also made it a constant prey to foreign invasion and conquest. 24 ORIENTAL NATIONS. ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA. Assyria and Babylonia or Chaldea — Founding of Nineveh. — Among the most ancient, the most civiUzed, and the most powerful nations of the ancient world, were Assyria and Babylonia or Chaldea. Ashur, one of the sons of Shem, is regarded by many as the founder of the Assyrian empire, and also of its capital, the famed city of Nineveh. This great and magnificent city, which is supposed to have been situated on the east bank of the river Tigris, was surrounded by a wall ICO feet high, flanked with I,5CX) towers, each 200 feet high. Nineveh is believed to have had, at one time, a population of about 800,000 souls. Founding of Babylon by Nimrod. — The great city of Babylon, which stood on both sides of the river Euphrates, was the capital of the Babylonian Empire, and it far surpassed Nineveh in size, power, and magnificence. The walls of Babylon were 350 feet high and 87 feet thick, flanked with high towers, and pierced with 100 gates of brass. Babylon was founded by Nimrod, "the mighty hunter before the Lord," a grandson of Ham. There are some who also regard Nimrod as the founder of Nineveh. After his death, Nimrod was deified for his great actions, and worshiped as "Belus," or "Baal." Reign of Ninus. — Some consider Ninus as the son and successor of Nimrod, Assyria and Babylonia forming one great empire ; while others regard Ninus as an Assyrian king, who conquered Chaldea and united it with Assyria more than four centuries after the time of Nimrod. Conquests of Queen Semiramis. — Queen Semiramis, the wife and successor of Ninus, is said to have greatly extended the Assyrian empire by conquest, carrying her victorious arms as far as the borders of India on the east, and to the deserts of Central Africa on the west. This famous queen adorned Babylon with magnificent works, such as the hanging gardens, and she devoted some attention to the internal improvement of her extensive dominions. Decline and Fall of the First Assyrian Empire. — The Assyrian empire rapidly declined under the weak successors of Semiramis; and in the year 888 B. C, the governor of the Medes rebelled against the Assyrian king, Sardanapalus. Being besieged in Nineveh by his rebellious subject, and unable to defend his capital with success, Sardanapalus set fire to his palace and perished with it in the flames. Thus fell the first Assyrian empire. (B. C. 888.) The Second Assyrian Empire — Destruction of Nineveh. — More than a century after the fall of the first Assyrian emj^re, Assyria again became a powerful and extensive empire under such warlike kings as Shalmanezar and Sennacherib, who are celebrated for their wars against the Israelites. The second Assyrian empire, like the first, was of short duration. Its overthrow took place in the year 606 B. C, when the united armies of the Medes and the Chaldeans took and destroyed the great city of Nineveh. Rise of the Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar. — The Baby'on- ian empire, which was erected on the ruins of the great AssjTian monarchy, acquired great power under the warlike Nebuchadnezzar, who conquered Jerusalem and carried the Jews into the sevent)' years' Babylonian captivity, and who also subjected the Phoenician kingdom of Tyre to the Babylonian dominion. ASSYRIAN WAR CHARIOT. EGYPTIAN WAR CHARIOT. ORIENTAL NATIONS. 25 Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus the Great of Persia. — The Babylonian empire was overthrown Ijy the conquering Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, who, in the year 538 B. C, look Babylon and caused the last Persian king, Belshazzar, who was at the time feasting with his nol;Ies, to be put to death. The Babylonians were then subjected to the sway of the Persians. (B. C. 538.) EGYPT. Divisions of Ancient Egypt — Misraim or Menes. — The ruins and monu- ments of ancient civilization found in Egypt render that country one of the most interesting on the globe. The country is kept fertile by the annual inundations of the Nile, occasioned by the heavy rains in the highlands of Abyssinia. Egypt was anciently divided into three great divisions; — namely: Upper Egypt, Middle Egypt, and Lower Egypt. Misraim, or Menes, a son of Ham, is regarded by many as the founder of the ancient Egyptian nation, and to have been its first king; while others believe Menes and Misraim to have been different characters, and that Menes flourished about two centuries after the time of Misraim. The Great Cities of Memphis and Thebes. — The capital of Middle Egypt, or Heptanomis, was Memphis, the City of the Pharaohs, the founding of which is ascribed to the first Egyptian king, Menes. This great city was located on the west bank of the Nile, in the region containing the most splendid of the pyramids, which extend for a distance of seventy miles on the west side of the Nile. Among the ruins of Memphis are those of the Labyrinth, a building consisting of a number of intricate passages communicating with each other. The capital of Upper Egypt, or the Thebais, was the magnificent city of Thebes, the founding of which is also attributed to Menes by some writers, while others think that Thebes was built many centuries later. Thebes is said to have extended over 23 miles, and to have had 100 gates. Its immense size and great splendor are still attested by the ruins of magnificent temples, splendid palaces, colossal statues, obelisks, sphinxes, the tombs of kings hewn in the solid rock, and the subterranean catacombs. The ruins of Thebes extend for seven miles along both Ijanks of the Nile. Egyptian Castes, Religion, Manufactures, Commerce, and Arts. — The ancient Egyptians were a brown race, and were divided into seven distinct classes or castes. The most respected of these castes were the priests and the warriors; next the tillers of the soil, merchants, tradesmen, and sailors; while the shepherds, who composed the lowest caste, were greatly despised. The Egyptian religion was a horrible superstition, the lower classes of people worshiping different kinds of animals and idols. The Egyptians showed much skill and dexterity in the practice of the useful arts, their principal branches of manufacture being the weav- ing of cotton and linen cloth, und working in copper and brass. Agriculture also received much attention. An extensive commerce wo-s carried on with other coun- tries; gold, ivory, ebony, skins, and slaves being brought from Ethiopia, incen.se from Arabia, and spices from India; and in exchange for these articles, grain and cloth were exported; but as the Egyptians had not attained much skill in the art of ship-building, their trade was carried on principally by the Greek and Persian merchants. The Egyptians also made a great degree of progress in tlie fine arts, such as music, painting, sculpture, and architecture. The ruins of magnificent 86 ANCIENT HISTORY. columns and grand edifices fully testify to the degree of skill attained by this great people in architecture. Conquests of King Sesostris. — The most renowned king of Eg)'pt was Sesos- tris, who made extensive conquests in Asia and Africa. In the countries which lie subdued, Sesostris caused monuments to be erected bearing the inscription, "Sesos- tris, King of Kings, and Lord of Lords, has conquered this territory by the power of his arms." It is not known with certainty at what period this great king lived. Mceris and Cheops. — The most famous of Eg)'ptian kings after Sesostris were Mceris and Cheops. Mceris caused an immense lake to be constructed to regulate the inundations of the Nile. Cheops is noted as the builder of the largest of the pyramids, which covers eleven acres of ground and is 480 feet high, and on which 100,000 men are said to have been employed for foriy years. Psammeticus and the Migration to Ethiopia. — Psammeticus, who reigned over Egypt about seven centuries before Christ, invited Greek soldiers and settlers into his kingdom for the purpose of weakening the power of the priesthood and strengthening the authority of the monarch, in consequence of which measure 240,000 Eg}'ptians left their country and settled in Ethiopia, now Nubia. Necho and Psammenitus — Conquest of Egypt by the Persians. — Necho, who was king of Egypt about 600 years before Christ, is noted as the founder of the Egyptian naval and maritime power. The last of the Pharaohs, or native kings of Egypt, was Psammenitus, who was defeated in the bloody battle of Pelusium by the victorious Cambyses, king of Persia, who treated the Egj'ptians with great cruelty and put their unfortunate monarch to a violent death. (B. C. 525.) The battle of Pelusium was the death-blow to Egyptian indejjendence; and the land of the Pharaohs became a province of the great Persian empire, and so remained until it was subdued by the famous Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great. Since the loss of its ancient independence, Egypt has been successively subject to the sway of the Persians, the Macedonians, the Romans, the Saracens, the Mamelukes, and the Turks, the last of whom still hold the country tributary. PHCENICIA. Position and Character of the t'hcenician Territory. — Phoenicia was the name applied to a narrow strip of territory bordered on the east by the mountains of Lebanon, and on the west by the Mediterranean sea. The surface of the country was sandy and hilly, and not adapted to agriculture; but the coasts abounded with good harbors, and the cedars of Lebanon supplied material in great abundance for ship-building. The Phoenicians therefore devoted their whole attention to manufac- tures and commerce ; and at a verj' early period they became the greatest manufac- turing, commercial, and maritime people of antiquity. Phoenician States and Colonies. — The Phoenician people were not united under one government, but each Phoenician city, with the territory adjacent to it, constituted a small independent state with an hereditaiy sovereign at its head, the political power being shared with the priests and the nobles. The Phoenician worship of Moloch was attended with homble human sacrifices, and that of Baal with disgraceful ceremonies. Phoenician colonies were established on the Medi- ORIENTAL NATIONS. 27 terranean islands of Cyprus, Crete, Sicily, and Sardinia, on the southern shores of Spain, and on the northern coast of Africa. The most celebrated of the Phoenician colonial establishments were Gades, now Cadiz, in Southern Spain, the oldest city in Europe; and Carthage, in Northern Africa, a commercial city which was founded in the year 880 B. C, by the Tyrians, under the conduct of Queen Dido, and the fame of which soon eclipsed that of the mother country. Phoenician Manufactures, Navigation and Commerce. — The Phcenicians made some important discoveries, such as glass, the art of dyeing purple, and writing by means of letters: they were universally noted for their skill in casting metals, weaving, and architecture; and their manufactures of glass and linen, articles of gold, silver, ivory, and bronze, perfumes and purple dye were sources of great national wealth. Phoenician vessels not only navigated the Mediterranean sea for the purpose of trafficking in their own productions and in those of the remote East, namely spices, frankincense, oil, wine, com, and slaves; — ^but they even passed beyond the Pillars of Hercules and procured tin from the mines of Cornwall, in Britain, and traded with the people on the shores of the Baltic sea. The Phoeni- cians also had commercial intercourse with the Arabs and the Hindoos, and it is said that under the auspices of Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, a Phoenician fleet, in a voyage of three years, doubled the Cape of Good Hope. Tyre and Sidon — Decline and Fall of the Phoenician States. — The leading Phoenician cities were Tyre and Sidon. These two kingdoms for a long time defended themselves successfully against the attempts of other nations to subdue them ; but in the eighth century before Christ, Shalmanezer, king of Assyria, conquered Sidon, and Tyre also after a long siege, and compelled the Phoenicians to pay tribute. In the year 587 B. C, the famous Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar, besieged and took Tyre and subdued Phoenicia. When, in the year 538 B. C, Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, extended his .sway over Western Asia, both Tyre and Sidon fell into his power, and Phoenicia became a Persian province. About the year 350 B. C, Sidon, heading a rebellion of the Phoenician states, attempted to throw off the yoke of Persian supremacy; and when in consequence of this revolt, the king of Persia ordered the most prominent of the inhabitants of Sidon to be put to death, the Sidonians set fire to their city, and perished with it in the flames. Sidon was afterwards rebuilt. In the year 332 B. C, Tyre was taken and destroyed after a seven months' siege by the illustrious Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great. With the fall of Tyre and the founding of the great com- mercial city of Alexandria, in Eg}'pt, Phoenician commerce and maritime gloiy passed away forever. THE HEBREWS OR ISRAELITES. THE PATRIARCHS. Abraham. — Abraham, a Chaldean shepherd, who remained faithful to the Tord while nearly the whole of mankind were sunk in idolatry, is regarded as the founder of that chosen race of God, the Hebrews or Israelites. At the command of Jehovah, Abraham left his pasture lands on the Euphrates, and, taking with him his herds, settled with his servants and with his son-in-law, Lot, in the "jDromised 28 ORIENTAL NATIONS. land" of Canaan (afterwards called Palestine), where they continued their pastoral life, and where they received from the native inhabitants the name " Hebrews," meaning, " strangers from the other side." Isaac. — Isaac, the son of Abraham and Sarah, continued the chosen race, while Ishmael, Abraham's son with Hagar, became the progenitor of the Arabs. Isaac took for his wife Rebecca, with whom he had two sons, Esau and Jacob. Jacob. — Jacob, the younger son of Isaac, pursuaded his brother Esau to sell his birthright for a mess of pottage. Jacob also obtained a blessing which his father had intended to bestow on Esau, and was declared the chief of the Hebrew race. Jacob had twelve sons, the descendants of each of which formed a distinct tribe mong the Israelites, as the Hebrews were afterwards called, from Jacob's surname, Israel. THE HEBREWS IN EGYPT. Joseph sold into Egypt— Settlement of Jacob in Egypt. — As Jacob bestowed his chief favor on Joseph, his son with Rachael, his other sons, moved with envy, sold their brother as a bond-slave to some merchants who took him to Egypt. Joseph remained faithful to God and was finally rewarded for his integrity. He at length obtained the favor of Pharaoh, as the king of Egypt was called, was made ruler over Egypt, and for his instrumentality in saving the land from famine, he was permitted by Pharaoh to invite his father and his brethren into Egyj^t. Jacob and his family then settled in the " Land of Goshen," as that part of Egypt on the east side of the Lower Nile was called. The Israelites Oppressed in Egypt — Moses. — After the death of Joseph, other Egpytian kings "who knew not Joseph," treated the Children of Israel with cruelty and oppression, and held them in bondage for two centuries. At length the king of Egypt gave orders that all the Hebrew male children should be thrown into the Nile the instant that they were bom ; but one of them was saved by the mercy of the king's daughter, who found the child in an ark of bulrushes by the side of the river, and who named him Moses, because she drew him out of the water, and brought him up as her own son. At the age of forty years, Moses was obliged to flee for his life to the deserts of Arabia, for slaying an Egyptian whom he had seen ill-treating a Hebrew. THE EXODUS OF THE ISRAELITES. The Ten Plagues — Destruction of Pharaoh's Host in the Red Sea. — At length Moses was inspired with the high purpose of delivering his people from the Egyptian bondage. But Pharaoh did not agree to permit the Israelites to depart from Egypt until struck with fear and terror after the Ten Plagues had been inflicted upon the land. After the Hebrews, led by Moses and his brother Aaron, had left the shores of Egypt, Pharaoh endeavored to bring them back by force ; but the pursuing hosts of the Egyptian king were destroyed in the Red Sea. The Wandering in the Wilderness — The Ten Commandments. — For forty years, the discontented Israelites, led by Moses and Aaron, wandered in the Wilderness in the northwestern part of Arabia. During this time the Ten Commandments were delivered to Moses on Mount Sinai. These and other laws ORIENTAL NATIONS. 29 were preserved in the Ark of the Covenant. According to the arrangement of Moses, Jehovah was king, and in His name the elders of the tribes conducted the government. The affairs of religion were watched over by the High Priest and the Levites. The sacrifices and feasts of the Passover, Pentecost, and the Taber- nacles constituted the bond between the Lord and His chosen people. Instead of the nomadic life, Moses determined upon agriculture as the chief occupation of the Hebrews. Death of Moses — ^Joshua and the Settlement in the Promised Land. — Moses did not live to lead his people into the Promised Land. After appointing Joshua as his successor, the great Hebrew lawgiver gazed from Mount Nebo upon the magnificent country watered by the River Jordan, and then disappeared from among the living. The Children of Israel were faithful to Jehovah all the days of Joshua, under whose leadership they at last reached the Promised Land of Canaan. After subduing the Amorites and other tribes, a distribution by lot took place, by which the conquered territory was divided among the Twelve Tribes of the Hebrew nation. THE PERIOD OF THE JUDGES. The Rule of the Judges — Idolatry of the Israelites. — During the period from the death of Joshua to the accession of Saul as the first king over Israel, the Hebrew nation was ruled by Judges. During this period the Children of Israel frequently plunged into idolatry, for which apostasy they suffered heavy punishments by being delivered into power of their enemies; but when they again turned to the God who by His servant Moses had brought them safely out of Egypt, they were delivered from the oppressive yoke of foreign domination by heroic leaders whom the Lord had appointed for the purpose. Deliverance of the Israelites by Othniel, Ehud, Deborah and Barak. — First the Israelites were conquered by the king of Mesopotamia, from whose yoke they were delivered by Othniel, whom the Lord had chosen as their leader. After- wards they were oppressed by the king of Moab, but were at length liberated by the valor of Ehud. Again the Children of Israel offended the Lord by their sin- fulness and idolatry and were given into the power of Jabin, king of Canaan, whose tyrannical yoke they had borne for twenty years when the Lord chose the prophetess Deborah and Barak, her general, to liberate them. The Canaanites were routed with heavy loss and their general Sisera was killed by Jael, to whose tent he had fled for safety. Overthrow of the Midianites by Gideon. — The Israelites again abandoned the worship of Jehovah, and were in consequence duly punished by being subdued and oppressed by the Midianites; but the prophet Gideon, whom the Lord had appointed to liberate His people, taking with him a band of three hundred men, made a night attack on the immense host of the Midianites, who, stnick with terror and consternation, turned their weapons against each other, and left 120,000 of their number dead on the field, only 15,000 escaping. Liberation of the Israelites by Jephthah and Samson. — The Children of Israel again fell into idolatry, for which the Lord delivered them to the Philistines and Ammonites, from whose supremacy they were liberated by the heroism of 30 ANCIENT HISTORY. Ji'l)htli:\li. AfliM\v;ir(l, llio Israelites sufTeied forty years from oppression by the I'lulislines, ami were delivered from their yoke by the valor of Samson, who was celebrated for his wonderful strength. Administrations of Eli and Samuel— Saul Anointed King over Israel. — On the death of Samson, Eli beeame Judge over Israel. 'I'lie wiekedne>s of the sons of Eli offended the Lord; and 30,000 Israelites perished in battle against the Philistines. After Eli's death, the ]>rophet Samuel judged Israel. Samuel ruled with wisdom and justice; but the tyratmy of his sons, with whom he shared his power, caused the Hebrew people to demand a king, who should reign over them like the kings of other nations. After vainly endeavoring to dissuade the people from their desire for kingly rule, the good Samuel anointed Saul, of the tribe of Benjamin, king over Israel. (B. C 1095.) REIGN OF SAUL. Defeat of the Ammonites — Divine Displeasure with Saul. — Soon after his accession to the throne of Israel, Saul defeated the Ammonites with great slaughter. Afterwards, while engaged in a war with the Philistines, Saul took upon himself a duty which belonged to the High Priest alone, — that of offering the solemn sacrifice. The Divine displeasure at this action was revealed to Saul by the prophet Samuel ; and the peiiple of Israel became disheartened, and the army of Saul was reduced to 600 men ; but the army of the Philistines was at length overthrown by Saul's son, Jonathan. Saul's Violation of the Divine Command — David Anointed King. — After Jonathan's victory over the Philistines, Saul conducteil successful wars against other nations; and made a prisoner of Agag, king of the Amelekiles, and, contrary to the Divine command, spared the life of his captive. Because of Saul's disobedience, the Lord resolved to transfer the royal power to another family, and the shepherd boy, David, of the tribe of Judah, was secretly anointed king by Samuel. (B. C. 1055.) David Slays Goliath — Saul's Jealousy of David — Saul's Death. — Soon after David had been anointed king over Israel, a new war broke out between the Israelites and the Philistines, in which David slew the Giant Goliath of Gath, the champion of the Philistines. Moved by jealousy and resentment, Saul made several attempts to take the life of David; and, to seek refuge from the anger of Saul, David w;\s obliged to live much of his time in exile in a Philistine city and in the dens and caves of the mountains of Palestine. At length the Philistines invaded the Hebrew territories, and the Israelites were defeated and several of Saul's sons were slain in battle on Mount Gilboa; and, to avoid falling into the hands of the Philistines, Saul killed himself by falling on his own sword. REIGN OF DAVID. Civil War Between the Houses of David and Saul. — Even after Saul's death, David did not obtain undisputed jwssession of the throne of Israel, for some of the Hebrew tribes adhered to Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, and for a long time the Hebrew nation was rent by a civil war between the Houses of David and Saul, until nt length Ishbosheth was slain by his own guards, whereupon David was acknowledged at Hebron as king bv all the tribes of Israel. ORIENTAL NATIONS. 31 David's Conquests — Damascus and Jerusalem. — After David had been acknowledged king of Israel by all the llel^rcw tribes, lie extended his kingdom in every direction by conquests. lie conquered the Syrian city of Damascus, and humbled the Philistines. He subdued Jebus, or Jerusalem, the strong city of the Jebusites, on Mount Zion, and made it the capital of his kingdom. After the conquest of Jerusalem, David waged successful wars against many of the surround- ing nations, which he compelled to pay tribute. During the siege of Kabbah, the Ammonite capital, David took to himself the wife of Uriah, caused her husband to be put to death, and by so doing offended the Lord. David was a great poet, as well as a successful warrior, as is is fully attested by the Psahns, or religious songs, which he composed. Rebellion and Death of Absalom— Death of David. — In the latter part of the reign of David, his son Absalom rebelled against his father, and was put to death by Joab, David's general. Two others of David's sons, Ammon and Adoni- jah, also died violent deaths. David died after a glorious reign of forty years, and was succeeded on the throne of Israel by his son Solomon. (B. C. 1015.) REIGN OF SOLOMON. Visit of the Queen of Sheba. — Solomon reigned over a mighty and extensive kingdom, and his alliance and friendship were sought by many of the most powerful princes. His fame spread into distant lands; and the Queen of Sheba, who had heard of his wisdom, came to visit him from a far country. The closest friendship existed between Solomon and Hiram, king of Tyre. Building of the Temple — Commercial Relations. — For seven and a half years Solomon was occupied in building at Jerusalem a magnificent Temple to the Lord. He also erected a splendid palace for himself. Solomon obtained much wealth from commerce, to which he gave great encour.igement. His vessels sailed to 0]jhir, a rich country in Southern Asia; and by means of caravans a trade was carried on with the people of Central Asia. Solomon's Idolatry — Rebellion of Jeroboam. — Solomon took to himself wives from foreign nations, permitted them the exercise of their idolatrous worship, and even became an idolater himself. Enemies then arose against him on all sides. The oppressive taxes which were necessary to support his luxury, magnificence, and extravagance, produced a rebellion headed by Jeroboam. The rebellion was, how- ever, suppressed, and the Hebrew kingdom was preserved from dismemberment until the following reign. THE KINGDOM OF ISRAEL. Accession of Rehoboam— "Revolt of the Ten Tribes" — The Two Kingdoms. — On the death of Solomon, his son Rehoboam succeeded to the throne of the Hebrew kingdom, when, in accordance with the prophecy of Ahijah, ten of the Twelve Tribes of the Children of Israel revolted, and chose Jeroboam, of the tribe of Ephraim, as their king, thus forming the kingdom of Israel or Ephraim, the capitals of which were the cities of Shechem and Samaria. The two tribes of Judah and Benjamin, which remained faithful to Rehoboam, constituted the king- dom of Judah, of which Jerusalem was the seat of government. This dismember- 32 AA'CIENT HISTORY. meat of the Ilcltrcw k'ms^doni took place 975 years before Christ, and is known as "'Iho Revolt i)f tl>c Ten 'I'ribes." Idolatry of Jeroboam and his Successors — The Assyrian Captivity. — The wicked Jeroboam, the fii-st king of Israel, introduced the worship of idols into his kingdom. All his successors were sinful and idolatrous, and brought upon their people in consequence the heavy punishments of God. The prophets Elijah, Elisha, Hosea, Amos, and Jonah vainly warned them of the consequences of their idolatry. At length, Shalmanezar, king of Assyria, invaded the kingdom of Israel, took S.iniaria, its capital, after a siege of three years, and carried Iloshea, the last king of Israel, and the greater portions of his subjects captive to Assyria. (B. C. 721.) With the "Assyrian Captivity," the history of the Ten Tribes ends. The kingdom of Judah lasted 130 years longer than that of Israel. THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH. Idolatry of Rehoboam — Capture of Jerusalem by Shishak of Egypt. — After the Revolt of the Ten Trilies, Rehoboam, who reigned at Jerusalem as king of Judah, and his subjects abandoned the worshrp of Jehovah and fell into idolatry, for which sin they suffered a heavy punishment by an inva-sion of their country by Shishak, king of Egypt, who took Jerusalem and earrieil away the treasures of the Temple and the palace. Reign of Hezekiah — Miraculous Destruction of the Assyrian Host. — At length after the reignS of many wicked kings, the pious Hezekiah was king of Judah. Sennacherib, king of Assyria, the son of Shalmanezar, resolved to subdue the kingdom of Judah, because Hezekiah, to escape paying tribute to the Assyrian king, had entered into an alliance with the king of Egypt, with whom the Assyrian monarch was then at war. Sennacherib led a mighty army against Jerusalem and laid siege to the city, but the Assyrian host was almost entirely destroyed in a single night by the miraculous interposition of the Lord, and Sennacherib fled from the land in dismay. Idolatry of Judah — Capture of Jerusalem by Pharaoh Necho. — Again the worship of Jehovah was ca-st aside, and the people of Judah corrupted with idolatry, when, as was always the case when they forsook the Lord, they were con- quered by their enemies. At one time, Pharaoh Kecho, king of Egypt, invaded the kingdom of Judah, and carried the wicked king, Jeho.ahaz, captive to Egypt» where he died. Capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar — The Babylonian Captivity. — At length the famous Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, invaded the kingdom of Judah, took Jerusalem, plundered the Temple, carried the king, Jechoniah, and many of his subjects into his own dominions, and oppressed those that remained. Among the captives was the prophet Daniel. Zedekiah, the last king of Judah, resolved to liberate his people from the Babylonian yoke, whereupon Nebuchadnezzar led a mighty aniiy against Jerusalem, which he finally carried by storm at midnight, after a siege of eighteen months, during which the inhabitants of the city suffered all the horrors of famine. Many of the wretched inhabitants were slaughtered by the victorious Babylonians. The city and the Temple of Jerusalem were burned to the groimd. The sons of Zedekiah were killed before their father's eyes; and ORIENTA L NA TIONS. zz after Zcdckiah had been deprived of his eyes, he and the greater portion of his subjects were carried into the seventy years' "Babylonian Captivity." (B. C. 588.) Edict of Cyrus and Return of the Jews to their own Country. — After Cyrus tlie Great, king of Persia, had conquered Babylon, he issued an edict per- miltini^ the Jews to return to their own country and to rebuild the city and Temple of Jerusalem. Only a small number, under Zerubbabel, returned at first, and com- menced rebuilding the Temple, but the work was not completed until the year 515 B. C. About the year 406 B. C. Ezra and Nehemiah and a large number of their countrymen returned to Palestine, rebuilt the Holy City, and reestablished the laws of Moses. The king of Persia appointed Nehemiah governor of Judea, which was then a province of the Persian Empire. Judea was afterwards joined to the Persian satrapy of Syria. The Jews had been taught that misfortunes and calamities were the consequences of idolatry; and from the time of the Babylonian Captivity, they were careful to shun idolatry and to avoid intercourse with idolatrous nations. MEDIA AND PERSIA. The Median Empire — Dejoces, Phraortes, Cyaxares, and Astyages. — The Medcs, coming from the East, settled in the region south of the Caspian .Sea, and were at first under the Assyrian dominion ; but about the year 708 B. C. they established their independence, chose Dejoces as their king, and made Ecbatana the capital of their kingdom. Phraortes, the son and successor of Dejoces, conquered the Persians, a people similar to the Medes in race, language, manners, institutions, and religion. Under Cyaxares, the third king of Media, the Median Empire acquired great power and territorial extent. His successor, Astyages, was the last of the Median kings. Founding of the Persian Empire by Cyrus the Great. — Cyrus, whose mother was a daughter of Astyages, but whose father was a Persian, aroused the Persians against the ruling Medes, led an army into Media, deposed Astyages, established the independence of the Persians, and in turn subjected the Medes to their sway.' Cyrus, surnamed "the Great," thus laid the foundations of the great Persian Empire, which for more than two centuries was the dominant power in Asia. Overthrow of CrceBUS, King of Lydia, by Cyrus. — After Cyrus the Great had founded the Persian kingdom, he became involved in a war with the wealthy Croesus, king of Lydia, a country in the western part of Asia Minor. Cyrus defeated the Lydians in the battle of ThymVjra, took and burned Sardis, the capital of Lydia, and made Croesus his prisoner. (B. C. 546.) After the conquest of the kingdom of Lydia, the Greek cities of Asia Minor were reduced under the dominion of Persia. Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus. — After his conquests in Asia Minor, Cyrus the Great led an army against the proud city of Babylon, which he besieged and finally took by entering the city by the channel of the Euphrates, the waters of which he had turned off through a new channel which he had caused to be dug. This was the end of the Babylonian Empire. The last Babylonian king, Belshazzar, who was feasting with his subjects and defiling the sacred vessels of the Jews when the victorious Persians entered the city, was put to death. The fall of Babylon 3 34 ANCIENT HISTORY. placed Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia under Persian authority; and Cyrus issued an edict permitting the captive Jews to return to their own country and to rebuild the city and the Temple of Jerusalem. Invasion of Scythia by Cyrus — His Defeat and Death. — After the con- quest of Baljylon, the triumj)hant Cyrus invaded the Scythian territories east of the Caspian Sea. Cynis was at first successful, defeating the Scythians in battle; but he was subsequently defeated and taken prisoner. The Scythian queen, Thomyris, in revenge for the death of her son, who had fallen in battle, caused the great Cyrus to be put to death in a most cruel manner, and his severed head to be thrown into a vessel filled with the blood of Persian soldiers. (B. C. 530.) Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses — His Losses in Africa. — The mighty Cyrus was succeeded on the Persian throne by his son, the cruel and tyrannical Cambyses. After his accession to the throne of Persia, Cambyses invaded Kgypt and defeated the Egj'ptian king, Psammenitus, in the great battle of Pelusium; and the land of the Pharaohs was reduced under Persian sway. The hard-hearted Cambyses treated the conquered Egyptians with the most barbarous cruelty and tyranny, and put the unfortunat? Psammenitus to a violent death. Cambyses next subdued some of the African tribes, and laid the Greek colony of Cyrenaica under tribute; but an army which he had sent to conquer the little oasis of Siwah, in which the famous temple of Jupiter Ammon was the centre of a small independent priestly state, perished in a simoom in the desert; and another army which he had sent against Ethiopia nearly perished from hunger. After a reign of nine yeai-s, Camby- ses died from the effects of a wound which he had accidentally inflicted upon himself with his own sword. (B. C. 521.) Accession of Darius Hystaspes — Revolt of Babylon. — On the death of Cambyses, Darius Hystaspes was raised to the throne of Persia. Soon after the accession of Darius Hystaspes, Babylon revolted against Persian rule; but, after a siege of twenty months, Darius reduced the city, and, in consequence of the rebel- lion, he caused 3,000 of the inhabitants to be put to death, and the 100 gates of the city to be torn down and the walls to be demolished. Invasion of Scythia by Darius Hystaspes — His Pisgraceful Retreat. — After the suppression of the Babylonian revolt, Darius Hystaspes invaded Scythia, a countiy northeast of the Euxine or Black Sea. The Scythians retreated before Dai-ius'and his anny, and laid waste the country, that the invaders might find no subsistence from it. The consequence of this desb'uctive method of warfare was that the Persians were obliged to abandon their scheme of conquest and to make a disgraceful retreat to avoid perishing from hunger. War with Greece — Great Extent of the Persian Empire. — After his unsuccessful expedition into Scythia, Darius Hystaspes returned to Persia and carried his conquering arms in the East to the borders of India. A revolt of the Greek cities of Asia Minor was next suppressed by Darius. A memorable war with Greece then broke out. This war, which through its whole course was inglorious for Persia, continued through a period of more than forty years, and tenuinated during the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus, the second successor of DariiB Hystaspes. Under Darius Hystaspes and his successors the Persian Empire extended from Greece to India, and from the deserts of Africa to Central Asia. It included portions of Thrace and Macedon in Europe, Egypt and other portions HISTORY OF GREECE. 35 of Africa, and all that part of Asia embraced by modern Turkey, Persia, Beloochis- tan, Afghanistan, and Turi. C, Pelops, a son of a king ol Phrygia, a countiy in Asia Minor, landed in the peninsula of Southern Greece, which was named in his honor Peloponnesus, or Island of Pelops. THE HEROIC AGE. Hercules. — A fabulous personage of the period known as the Heroic Age was Hercules, who was celebrated for his wonderful feats of strength. WTiile yet an infant he is said to have crushed to death two huge serpents which the goddess Jano had sent to destroy him. He is said to have cleansed the stables of the king of Elis, which had remained uncleansed for thirty years, by turning into them a river which flowed close by. Another of his feats was the killing of the Numean Lion by putting his arms around its neck. Another of his fabled labors was the destruction of the Hydra of Lerna, a nine-headed serpent. At first the heads of this monstrous serpent would grow on again as soon as they had been cut off; but finally, by searing the neck of the serpent with a hot iron, Hercules was enabled to destroy the gigantic reptile. It is also said that Hercules traveled to Spain, where he killed the tyrant Geryon, king of Gades, now Cadiz, who had three heads, six legs, and six arms. It is also related that Hercules separated Spain from Africa, and connected the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean by heaping up a mountain on each side. These mountains were named the Pillars of Hercules. Many other labors and adventures are said to have been performed by Hercules. Theseus. — To Theseus, who is said to have been king of Athens, arc ascribed many feats of strengm similar to those of Hercules. He ruleiAinnnY f^l A K p A Q J J Q Y ALEXANDER THE GREAT. HISTORY OF GREECE. 55 of high rank. Alexander's reckless daring would have proven fatal had not Clitus, one of his ablest officers, struck off the arm of one of the Persian satraps, as his scimiter was about to fall on the head of the youthful warrior-king. The battle of the Granicus ended in a splendid triumph of the Macedonian king over the superior force of the Persians. The loss of the victors was scarcely 200 men. The con- sequence of the battle was the death-blow to Persian authority in Asia Minor, of which Alexander was now virtual master. (B. C. 334.) Alexander's Progress in Asia Minor — Cutting of the Gordian Knot. — The important cities of Ephesus and Sardis welcomed the young hero-king. Mile- tus and Halicarnassus, however, presented closed gates ; ' but both were taken after being vigorously besieged. By his generous treatment of the inhabitants of the conquered provinces, and by his wise regard for established customs and institutions, Alexander secured their attachment to his cause. Onward Alexander proceeded, securing the submission of province after province. In the citadel of Gordium there was a very ancient chariot with a knot twisted in the most complicated manner, regarding which an oracle had declared that whoever should loosen this knot should win the empire of Asia. Being unable to unfasten the knot, Alexander, it is asserted by some, cut it with his sword, considering that sufficient to make him lord of Asia. The first campaign of Alexander the Great in Asia closed with the complete con- quest and pacification of all Asia Minor. (B. C. 334.) Battle of the Issus. — By the death of Memnon of Rhodes, the King of Persia lost the ablest of his generals. In the spring of the year t^h B. C., after his recov- ery from a severe illness at Tarsus, a city in Cilicia, Alexander advanced into Syria, where he learned, to his surprise and pleasure, that the Persian king, Darius Codo- mannus, with an army of 700,cxxd men, was already on the plain of Issus. Notwith- standing the overwhelming numerical superiority of the Persians, the Macedonians advanced to the river Pinarus, on the opposite side of which Darius had drawn up his army. No sooner had Alexander crossed the river than the barbarian forces which composed the right and left wings of the Persian army fled in confusion, but the Greek mercenaries of the King of Persia for a while gallantly held their ground. After an obstinate contest, the Persians gave way on all sides ; and the battle of the Issus ended in another splendid victory for Alexander the Great. The Persians left 1 10,000 men dead on the field, while the total loss of the Macedonians did not ex- ceed 500 men. King Darius Codomannus fled from the field in the beginning of the battle ; and his wife, daughters, and infant son fell into the hands of Alexander, who, contrary to the ancient custom, treated them with the greatest kindness. The wife of Darius, who was considered the most beautiful woman in Asia, died soon after her capture, and received a most magnificent burial from the King of Macedon. On hearing of this, Darius is said to have exclaimed, " If it be the will of Heaven that I am no longer king of Asia, may Alexander be my successor ! " Siege and Capture of Tyre. — Alexander's victory of the Issus made him master of the greater part of Syria and Phoenicia. At Damascus a vast amount of treasure, belonging to the King of Persia, fell into his hands. The famous Phoeni- ■ cian sea- port of Sidon and other cities submitted to the conqueror; but Tyre, tlie greatest of them all, relying on the strength of its insular situation, defiantly rejected the summons to surrender, and gallantly withstood a siege of seven months. In order to open a passage for his army to the city, Alexander caused a mole with 56 ANCIENT HISTORY. towers to be constructed from the main-land to the island on which the city was built. During the construction of this mole the Macedonians were severely galled by the Tyrians, who retarded the operations of their enemies by ignited darts, vari- ous kinds of projectiles, and fire-ships. The advance of the mole was slow; and one night a Tyrian hulk filled with combustibles set fire to the mole, and thus suc- ceeded in destroying the result of much labor. Convinced, by this misfortune, of the necessity of having the aid of vessels in his assault upon the city, Alexander pro- cured from Sidon and other Asiatic maritime cities, numerous war-galleys in addition to the squadrons of Cyprus and Rhodes. With these valuable auxiliaries, the King of Macedon recommenced operations with increased vigor by both land and sea. The mole was reconstructed, breaches were made in the city walls by the battering- rams and other engines of. the besiegers, and finally Tyre was carried by storm. During the assault, which lasted two days, the Tyrians defended their city with the courage of despair, pouring boiling tar and burning sand on the assailants. The Tyrians suffered a heavy punishment for their obstinate defense of their city, 8,000 of them being slain and 30,000 sold into slavery. (B. C. 332.) Siege and Capture of Gaza. — After having taken Tyre and obtained the sub- mission of Jerusalem, Alexander directed his course southward and besieged and took the Philistine city of Gaza, which had refused to recognize his sway. The conqueror inflicted a heavy punishment on the captured city, destroying the entire garrison of 1,000 men, and causing Batis, the governor, to be dragged around the city behind his chariot, in barbarous imitation of Achilles, who dragged Hector around the walls of Troy. The fall of Gaza completed the conquest of Palestine by Alexander the Great. (B. C. 332.) Alexander in Egypt — Founding of Alexandria . — After the reduction of Gaza, Alexander advanced into Egypt for the purpose of bringing that country under his authority. The Macedonian conqueror was joyfully received by the peo- ple of Egypt, who were tired of Persian oppression, and they gladly submitted to his sway. Alexander won the respect and favor of the Egyptians by participating, at Memphis, in the worship of their bull-deity. Apis. While in Egypt, Alexander founded the celebrated city which was named in his honor — Alexandria. For many succeeding ages, Alexandria continued to be the centre of commerce and civilization. After the founding of Alexandria, the Macedonian king passed over to the little oasis, of Siwah, on which was situated the renowned temple of Jupiter Ammon, with the view of consulting the oracle of that deity. After receiving a most favorable reply from the oracle, Alexander returned to Memphis. Alexander's Return to Asia — Battle of Arbela and Gaugamela. — In the year 331 B. C, after arranging the government of Egj'pt, Alexander the Great, declaring that " the world no more admitted of two masters than of two suns," and directing his course toward the very heart of the Persian Empire, crossed the Eu- phrates and the Tigris, and advanced against Darius Codomannus, who had in the' meantime assembled a new army in Assyria, consisting of more than a million of men, gathered from the Eastern provinces of his empire. With only 47,000 men, Alexander met the immense hosts of the Persian king near the town of Arbela, on the plain of Gaugamela, east of the Tigris, where was fought the great battle that decided the fate of Asia. The Persians began the battle by a charge of the Scythian . cavalry and the war-chariots on the right wing of the Macedonian amiy, but after a HISTORY OF GREECE. 57 desperate contest they were forced back, and Darius ordered his hnes to advance. Alexander broke the lines of the enemy by suddenly pushing his columns in between the left wing and the centre of the Persian army. This movement threw the Per- sians into disorder, and in a great measure decided the battle in favor of Alexander. The Parthian and Indian horse were routed by the Thassalian cavalry, and the battle terminated in the utter defeat of the Persians. The loss of the Persians was 40,000 men, while that of the Macedonians was only 500. Such was the famous battle of Arbela and Gaugamela, which placed the Persian Empire in the hands of Alexander the Great of Macedon, (B. C. 331.) Alexander at Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis. — After the battle of Arbela and Gaugamela, Alexander devoted some time to the consolidation of his power in the subjugated provinces. In the opulent city of Babylon the accumulated wealth of the Persian monarchy fell into his hands. At Susa, the capital of Susiana, and like Babylon, one of the capitals of the Persian Empire, Alexander secured a still greater accession to his treasury; but at Persepolis, the capital of Persia proper, where Alexander spent several months, still further accessions of wealth came into his possession. During his stay at Persepolis, Alexander, on one occasion, while under the influence of wine, caused the destruction, by fire, of the old palace of the Persian monarchs — an act which afterwards caused him much regret. Assassination of King Darius Codomannus. — After the battle of Arbela and Gaugamela, King Darius Codomannus fled to Ecbatana, the capital of Media, and one of the capitals of the Persian Empire. After arranging the governments of the conquered provinces, Alexander left Persepolis for Ecbatana, with the view of obtaining possession of the person of the Persian king. On the approach of the Macedonian conqueror, Darius fled to the mountainous region of Bactriana, whither he was hastily pursued by Alexander. But Darius was murdered in his flight by several of the attendants of the treacherous Bessus, the Persian satrap of Bactriana. Alexander in his pursuit found the dead body of Darius. The generous Macedo- nian king honored the remains of his unfortunate rival with a magnificent burial, and treated the family of Darius with all due respect. The murderers of the Per- sian king afterwards fell into the hands of Alexander, who, with a spirit of the keenest resentment, and in imitation of the customs of the East, punished them with a most cruel death. Alexander in Scj^hia. — The provinces of Bactriana, Ariana, and Sogdiana, comprising an important part of the vast region of Central Asia, anciently known as Scythia, but now called Tartary and Turkestan, were subdued by Alexander the Great only after great exertions and sacrifices on his part. The gallant Macedonian warriors, who had defied sword and lance on many a sanguinary field, narrowly escaped perishing from hunger and fatigue. Before the close of his Scythian cam- paign, Alexander married Roxana, the " Pearl of the East," a Bactrian princess, whom he had taken prisoner at the capture of a Scythian fortress. Alexander's love of conquest did not deter him from devoting some attention to the civilization and durable welfare of the countries which he had subjugated. Four new towns, named Alexandria, in his honor, became the centre of the caravan trade, and diffused the Grecian civilization among the people of Central Asia. On one occasion, in Bac- triana, while heated with wine, Alexander killed, with his own sword, his old companion, Clitus, who had saved his life in the battle of the Granicus, for some 58 ANCIENT HISTORY. sarcastic remark as they were drinking — a crime which caused him much bitter repentance. Alexander's Invasion of India — Porus, the Indian King. — Ambitious of further conquests, Alexander the Great, in the year 327 B. C, invaded India with a powerful army composed of European and Asiatic soldiers. Alexander's progress was vigorously opposed by the warlike tribes inhabiting the region drained by the Indus and its tributaries ; nevertheless Alexander pushed forward to the Hydaspes, one of the tributaries of the Indus, on the opposite side of which a powerful Indian prince, Porus, King of the Punjab, had assembled a considerable army. Alexander succeeded in crossing the Hydaspes, and in a fierce engagement defeated Porus and took him prisoner. When brought into the presence of Alexander, and asked by him how he should like to be treated, Porus replied, " Like a king;" and the con- queror, pleased with the loftiness and majesty of person of his royal captive, and with the good sense displayed by him, not only gave Porus his liberty, but restored to him his dominions, and made him viceroy of all the Macedonian conquests in India. Alexander's Return to Persia. — After having founded two cities on the Hy- da.spes, Nicsea and Bucephala, the former meaning " city of victory," and the latter named in honor of Alexander's celebrated war-horse, Bucephalus, which died near the spot, the conqueror marched eastward to the Hyphasis, and was preparing to add the fertile region watered by the Ganges to his empire, when his soldiers, see- ing no end to their toils and hardships, positively refused to follow him any further, and Alexander was obliged, with great reluctance, to abandon his career of conquest and to return to Persia. After marching back to the Hydaspes, Alexander resolved upon returning by a new route, along the coasts of the Arabian sea and the Persian gulf, and with this end in view he procured a considerable number of vessels to convey his army down the Indus. The passage of the army down the river occu- pied several months, on account of the opposition from the barbarians on the banks of the stream. Upon reaching the ocean, Alexander is said to have sat upon a rock near the shore, gazing at the wide expanse of waters, and to have wept bitterly that there were no more worlds to conquer. Disembarking his land troops, Alexander marched along the sea-coast with his main force, leaving his admiral, Nearchus, to pursue his way to the Euphrates by sea. The toils and hardships of this march were extremely severe. Three-fourths of the army perished in the deserts of Ged- rosia from hunger, thirst, fatigue, and from the miseries of the climate. Alexander cheered his troops in their march by magnanimously sharing in all their privations. Upon reaching the shores of the Persian gulf the army of Alexander was rejoined by the fleet under Nearchus. The march of Alexander and his army through the fertile district of Carmania, a province of Persia, resembled a triumphal procession; and the soldiers, once more in a friendly country, believed their hardships over and abandoned themselves to enjoyment. The Last Actions and Measures of Alexander the Great. — After his re- turn to Persia, Alexander the Great devoted his attention to the organization of a permanent government for the extensive empire which he had established. He aimed at uniting the Persians and the Macedonians into one great nation possessed of the institutions and the civilization of Greece; and after his return to Persepolis, the Macedonian customs permitting polygamy, Alexander married Statira, daughter of the murdered Darius Codomannus, and thousands of his officers and soldiers married HISTORY OF GREECE. 59 Persian and Median women. Alexander's mild and generous treatment of the con- quered people made him as much respected and beloved by the Persian nobility and people as if he had been their native, legitimate prince. During the last years of his life, Alexander's mind was occupied with schemes, which, to his credit, were directed to the durable improvement of the countries which he had subdued : he opened the navigation of the Euphrates, founded many towns, and marked out com- mercial depots to connect the trade of the Nile, the Euphrates, the Tigris, and the Indus. Illness and Death of Alexander the Great. — While planning schemes for fresh conquests, Alexander the Great met with a premature death from the effects of his dissolute and intemperate habits. After visiting Susa and Ecbatana, and projecting important improvements in those cities, Alexander proceeded toward Babylon, which citj' he intended to make the capital of his vast empire. He was reluctant to enter Babylon, on account of various prophecies announcing that spot as destined to prove fatal to him ; but grief for the death of Hephasstion, the inti- mate friend of his youth, at Babylon, determined him to visit that cit)'. Upon reaching Babylon, the conqueror was attacked with a sudden illness, caused by his excessive indulgence in strong drink, which carried him to his grave, at the early age of thirty-two years, and after having reigned over Macedon and Greece twelve years. (B. C. 324.) WTien asked, just before his death, to whom he left his vast empire, Alexander replied, "To the most worthy." The remains of Alexander were conveyed to Alexandria, in Egj'pt, where they were interred. ANTIPATER AND ALEXANDER'S SUCCESSORS Lacedaemonian Revolt. — ^^'hile Alexander the Great was pursuing his con- quering career in Asia, some of the Peloponnesian states, with Lacedasmon at their head, attempted to shake off the hated yoke of ^Macedonian supremacy ; but, by the defeat and death of the Spartan king Agis II. in battle against Antipater, the Mace- donian viceroy of Greece put an end to the revolt. The Lamian War. — As soon as intelligence of the death of Alexander the Great reached Greece, several of the Grecian states, with Athens at their head, at- tempted to regain their independence of Macedonian supremacy. The Athenian General Leosthenes, marching into Thessaly, at first defeated Antipater and be- sieged the Macedonians in the town of Lamia; but the Macedonian viceroy, after being reinforced, defeated the Athenians and compelled them to accept a humiliat- ing peace. Athens was required to abolish her democratic form of government; Macedonian garrisons were to be placed in her fortresses; and her leading orators were to be given up. This struggle, the seat of which was the town of Lamia, in Thessaly, is known as the "Lamian War." Demosthenes and Phocion. — The great Athenian orator Demosthenes, a \ao- lent opponent of Macedonian rule, rather than surrender himself to Antipater, poisoned himself. Some time afterward the democratic party in Athens gained the ascendency, and compelled Phocion, the leader of the aristocratic party, one of the ablest and most virtuous of men, as well as one of the greatest of orators, to diink the cup of poison. Perdiccas, Regent of the Macedonian Empire — Regency of Antipater. 6o ANCIENT HISTORY. — As Alexander the Great had appointed no successor, the mighty empire which he had founded soon fell to pieces. After many lierce and sanj^uinary wars among his generals, in which Alexander's whole family and all his relatives perished, the empire was divided into four kingdoms. At first I'erdiccas, to whom Alexander had left his signet ring, obtained the regency of the Macedonian Empire, but when he aimed at the undivided sovereignty of all the Alexandrian dominions, the other leading Macedonian generals, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Craterus, and Antipater, formed a league against him. In the war against his rivals Perdiccas was assasinated, whereupon Antipater, the vifllrcjy of Macedon and Greece, was made regent, and the st)vcrcignly of the empire was again divided. Polysperchon and Cassander — Demetrius Phalereus. — ^Antii)ater, at his death, appointed Polysperchon, the oldest of Alexander's surviving generals, to the government of Macedon and Greece. This appointment produced a civil war between Polysperchon and Cassander, Antipater's son, who wished to occupy his father's place. After defeating Polysperchon in the battle of Megalopolis, Cassan- der usurped the government of Macedon and Greece. In order to further secure his j)ower, Cassander caused all the surviving members of the family of Alexander the Great, including his mother Olympias, his wife Roxana, and her son Alexander, to be put to death. Cassander entrusted the government of Athens to Demetrius Phalereus, whose administration of ten years was so popular that the Athenians raised 360 brazen statues to his honor; but at length, having lost all his popularity by his dissipated habits, Demetrius was compelled to retire into ligypt, all his statues but one being thrown down. Coalition against Antigonus — Battle of Ipsus— Dismemberment of the Empire. — In Ihc nicanlinic, Ihc regency of the vast Alexandrian empire had been conferred upon Antigonus, who had already overrun all Syria and the greater part of Asia Minor, and who aspired to the undivided sovereignty of the Macedonian empire. Hereupon four of the leading Macedonian generals, Cassander, governor of Macedon and Greece, I.ysimachus of Thrace and Bithynia, Seleucus of Syria, and Ptolemy of Eg)'pt, entered into a coalition against him. In the year 301 B. C. was fought the battle of Ipsus, in Asia Minor, in which Antigonus was defeated and killed. The extensive empire founded by Alexander the Great was then divided into the four following kingdoms: Macedon and Greece; Thrace and Bithynia; The Syrian Empire of the SeleucidiE; and Egypt under the Ptolemies. Demetrius Poliorcetes, Pyrrhus, Lysimachus, Seleucus, and Ptolemy Ceraunus. — After the battle of Ipsus, Demetrius Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, proceeded to Greece, l)ut the Athenians refused to receive him. After entering into an alliance with Seleucus, King of Syria, Demetrius appeared before Athens, which after a long siege he captured; but instead of punishing the Athenians for their obstinate resistance, he treated them with unexpected magnanimity, supplied their wants, and did all in his power to relieve them from the miseries which the long siege had occasioned. After the death of Cassander, Demetrius siezed the throne of Macedon and Greece; but seven years afterward, I'yrrhus, King of Epirus, and Lysimachus, King of Thrace, successively possessed themselves of the kingdom of Macedon, and Demetrius died in captivity. (B. C. 283.) After Lysimachus had reigned over Macedon six years, a war broke out between him and Seleucus, King of Syria; and Lysimachus was defeated and slain in battle near Sard is. Soon HISTORY OF GREECE. 6l afterward, Seleucus was assassinated in Tlirace l^y Ptolemy Ccrannus, son of Ptolemy, King of Egypt. (B. C. 280.) Invasion of Macedon and Greece by the Gauls. — ^Tn the year 280 B. C, Macedonia was invaded by an immense horde of barbarians, called Gauls, under their chief, Brennus; and Ptolemy Ceraunus, who had usurped the throne of Macedon, was defeated and slain in battle against them. After frightfully ravaging Macedonia, the Gauls under the leadership of Brennus invaded Greece the next year (B. C. 279), and marched into Phocis for the purpose of plundering the temple to Apollo at Delphi. The Grecians met and defeated the barbarians at the pass of Thermopylas, where their ancestors under the brave Leonidas two centuries before had made so heroic a defense against the immense Persian hosts of Xerxes; but the Gauls, like the Persians, marched by a secret path over the mountains, revealed to them by a traitor from the Grecian army; and the Greeks were finally obliged to retreat. Finding their way unobstructed, the barbarians then pushed forward to Delphi; but the Phocians soon arose against them and harassed their flank and rear, and at Delphi a very violent storm and earthquake so terrified the superstitious Gauls, and caused such a panic in their ranks, that they fought against each other, and were at last so weakened by mutual slaughter that they retired from Greece, many being slaughtered by the exasperated Greeks without mercy. The Gallic leader, Brennus, who had been severely wounded before Delphi, killefl himself in despair. The shattered remnants of the Gauls then passed over into Asia Minor, and settled in the country named after them, Galatia. Antigonus I., King of Macedon, and Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. — After the death of Ptolemy Ceraunus, Antigonus I., son of Demetrius Polioreetcs, seized the throne of Macedon and Greece; but he found a powerful rival competitor in the ambitious Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. After having failed in an expedition into Italy against the Romans, Pyrrhus aimed at reducing the whole of Greece and Macedonia under his own dominion, and with this end in view he invaded Mace- donia; but he was soon obliged to retire into the Peloponnesus, and after being repulsed in an attack on Lacedaemon, he entered Argos, where a terrible conflict ensued, in which Pyrrhus was killed by a huge tile hurled upon him from a house- top by an Argive woman, who was enraged at seeing that he was about to slay her son. (B. C. 272.) The death of Pyrrhus put an end to the long struggle for power among Alexander's successors in the West. THE ACHAIAN LEAGUE AND THE FALL OF GREECE. Rise of the Achaian League under Aratus of Sicyon. — A new power now arose in Greece which soon became a formidai;ie adversary to Macedonian supre- macy in Greece, and which at one time promised fair to revive the former glory and influence of the Hellenic race. This power was the celebrated Achamn League, which at first consisted only of twelve towns of Achaia associated together for common defense and forming a little confederated republic, all the towns being equally represented in the federal government, which was entrusted with all mat- ters concerning the general welfare, while each town retained the right of managing its own domestic affairs. The Achaian League did not possess much political in- fluence until about the middle of the third century before Christ, when Aratus, an 62 ANCIENT HISTORY. exile from Sicyon, with a few followers, took the city by surprise in the night, and without the cost of a single life, liberated it from the sway of the tyrants who had long oppressed it with their despotic rule. (B. C. 25 1 . ) Dreading the hostility of the King of Macedon, Aratus induced Sicyon to join the Achaian League. Aratus soon became the idol of the Achaians, and soon after the accession of Sicyon to the League, he was placed at the head of the Achaian armies. Corinth, which had been seized by a stratagem of King Antigonus I. of Macedon, and whose citadel was occupied by a Macedonian garrison, was delivered by a gallant enterprise of Aratus of Sicyon, and was also induced to join the Achaian League. Other cities afterward acceded to the confederacy; but Argos and Corinth, influenced by the Spartans, at length seceded from the League. In wars with the Macedonians, the Achaians triumphed. The iEtoHan League and the Spartans — Agis IIL and Cleomenes. — Besides the King of Macedon, the enemies of the Achaian League were the I?Xo- lian League and the Spartans. The vEtolian League, which was a confederation of the rudest of the Grecian tribes, had by degrees extended its supremacy over Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, and other Grecian states. The valiant Spartan kings, Agis IIL and Cleomenes, endeavored to restore the ancient glory and greatness of Lace- dcemoa by reviving the long-neglected laws of Lycurgus, the foundation of Sparta's former glory. They met with considerable opposition from the wealthy and aristo- cratic citizens of Lacedaemon, and Agis III. was cruelly murdered in prison; but Cleomenes succeeded in his endeavors by causing the opponents to his schemes to be removed by assassination. The ambitious Cleomenes aimed at the elevation of Sparta to the rank of the first power in Greece ; and as the Achaian League was the chief obstacle in the way of his cherished designs, all his energies were directed to efforts for the dissolution of that formidable confederacy. Achaian and Macedonian Alliance — Capture of Sparta — Death of Aratus. — Seeing that the liberties of Greece were in greater danger from Spartan than from Macedonian ambition, Aratus of Sicyon, the Achaian chieftain, entered into an alliance with King Antigonus II. of Macedon, the old enemy of the Acha- ian League. Cleomenes was defeated and Lacedsemon captured by the King of Macedon. (B. C. 221.) Afterwards, in a war against the yEtolian League, Aratus formed an alliance with Philip II., the successor of Antigonus II. on the throne of Macedon; but when Aratus displeased Philip by advising him not to enter into an alliance with the Carthaginians in their war against the Romans, the Macedonian king caused the valiant leader of the Achaian League to be poisoned. (B. C. 213.) Subjugation of Sparta by Philopcemen, the Successor of Aratus. — The successor of Aratus of Sicyon in the administration of the affairs of the Achaian League was the talented and virtuous Philopcemen, who subdued the Spartans, and compelled them to abolish the laws of I>ycurgus and to join the Achaian League. In a general assembly of the Greeks, Philopcemen was hailed as the restorer of Grecian liberty. Philip II. of Macedon at war with the Romans— Battle of Cynosceph- alae. — During the second war between Rome and Carthage, King Philip II. of Macedon entered into an alliance with the Carthaginians against the Romans. To give Philip sufhcient employment in Greece, the Romans induced the ^tolians and the Spartans to wage war against the King of Macedon. After the conclusion of HISTORY OF GREECE. 63 peace between Rome and Carthage, the Roman general Flaminius, who had been sent into Greece with a large army, defeated King Philip II. in a decisive battle fought in Thessaly, near a range of low hills, called from their peculiar shape, Cjtios- cephals, or dogs' heads. (B. C. 197.) Philip II. was obliged to accept peace and to acknowledge the independence of Greece. At the Isthmian Games, the Roman general, to gratify the vanity of the Greeks, proclaimed the liberation of Greece from Macedonian oppression; but the Romans were now as intent on extending their supremacy over Greece as the King of Macedon had been in maintaining his sway there. Subjugation of the ^tolians by the Romans. — Several years after the de- feat of Philip II. of Macedon, the ^tolians took up arms against the Romans, and formed an alliance with Antiochus the Great, King of Syria, the enemy of Rome. The ^tolians were completely defeated and deprived of their independence by the Romans; and their ally, the Syrian king, having suffered a disastrous defeat by the Romans in the great battle of Magnesia, in Asia Minor, was compelled to accept a disadvantageous peace. (B. C. 193. j Messenian Revolt and Death of Philopoemen. — The Messenians attempt- ing to secede from the Achaian League, Philopcemen was sent to reduce them to submission ; but being taken prisoner, the valiant Achaian leader was compelled to drink the cup of poison. (B. C. 183.J The Achaians, however, coi«uered Messene the following year, and put the murderers of Philop'pt, the famous Antiochus the Great annexed the Jewish territories to the Syrian Empire. Antiochus Epiphanes, the second successor of Antiochus the Great on the throne of Syria, plundered the sacred Temple of Jerusalem of its trea- sures, and attempted to thrust aside the worship of Jehovah by introducing the Greek idolatry into Judea ; and when the Jews resolutely opposed this project they were violently persecuted. At length, when the tyranny of the Syrian king became intol- erable, the Jews, under the leadership of the heroic family of the Maccabees, or Asmonians, revolted, and made a vigorous resistance. Judas Maccabeus, the eldest of these leadei-s, after gaining many victories over the Syrians, entered Jerusalem in triumph and restored the Jewish worship. But the war still continued, and the valiant Judas was slain in battle after many Syrians had fallen beneath his pow- erful ann. His brother, Jonathan Maccabeus, then becinie sovereign and high- priest; but he was at last treacherously murdered by the King of Syria. Simon Maccabeus, another brother, succeeded to the Jewish throne and high-priesthood, and the Jewish nation greatly prospered under his administration; but he was at last assassinated by his son-in-law Ptolemy. Simon's son's and successors freed Judea from the Syrian yoke, but the Jewish state was for a long time very much distracted by domestic dissensions and weakened by civil war. About the middle of the first century before Christ Judea became tributary to Rome, and in the first part of the first century of the Christian eia the countiy was erected into a Roman province. HISTORY OF ROME. HISTORY OF ROME. (>s ANCIENT ITALY. Divisions of Ancient Italy. — Ancient Italy was divided into three sections: Cisalpine Gaul, or Gaul this side of the Alps, in the northern part; Italy proper in the centre; and Magna Grsecia, or Great Greece, in the south. Cisalpine Gaul. — Cisalpine Gaul was divided by the river Padus (now Po) into two divisions; the one on the north side of that stream being called Gallia Trans- padana, and the one on the south side being named Gallia Cispadana. Venetia was in the northeastern part of Cisalpine Gaul, and Liguria in the southwestern part. Italy Proper.^The states of Italy proper, or Central Italy, were Etruria, Latium, Umbria, Picemum, Campania, Samnium, and the Sabine territory. Etruria was early noted for its civilization and progress in the arts and sciences. The Etruscans or iqhabitants of Etruria, formed a confederacy of twelve towns, each of which was independent in regard to its own domestic affairs. Magna Graecia. — Magna Gracia, or Great Greece, embraced the states of Apulia, Calabria, Lucania, and Brutium. The chief city of Magna Grjecia was Tarentum, the people of which were famous for their luxury and wealth. Magna Graecia was early settled by the Greeks, who brought with them the arts and institutions of their native country. Ancient Inhabitants of Italy— The Pelasgians and the Greeks.— The abor- igines, or earliest known inhaljitants of Italy, were, like those of Greece, called Pelas- gians. The Pelasgians of Italy resembled those of Greece in character and man- ners. They were divided into many independent tribes. Their chief occupation was agriculture. They built towns with cyclopean walls of unhammered stone. The chief tribes of the Italian Pelasgians were the Etruscans, the Sabines, the Latins, the Siculi, the OEnotrians, and the Tyrrhenians. It was about l,ooo years before Christ when the Greeks founded in Southern Italy the colonies which were collectively called Magna Graecia, or Great Greece. In Sicily the Greeks founded Messana, Syracuse, Agrigentum, Naxus, Catana, and other towns. Grecian colonies were also settled in Corsica and Sardinia. ROME UNDER THE KINGS ^B. C. 753-510). ROMULUS. Legend of /Eneas. — According to the Roman legend, /Eneas, a famous Tro- jan warrior, left his native country immediately atter the fall of Troy, and made his way to the western shores of Italy, where he founded the city of Lavinium. After slaying in battle Latinus, King of Latium, ^neas united the Latins with his own followers; and thereafter the united people were called Latins. Thirty years after- wards, the Latins removed to the Alban Mount, where they built the city of Alba. 5 66 ANCIENT HISTORY. Legend of Romulus and Remus. — Several centuries after the events just relalcil, llii-rc rcignetl at Alba a king named I'rocas, who had two sons, Numitor and Amulius. When Procas died, Numilor was to succeed to the throne of Alba; but Amulius seized the throne and made himself king, and afterwards caused the son of Numitor to be slain, and made his daughter Sylvia become a Vestal Virgin. Sylvia married Mars, the god of war, with whom she had twin sons, Romulus and Kouius. Amulius ordered the two infants to be drowned in the Tiber, but the i)asket which contained them floated to the foot of the I'alatine Mill, where they were found by a she-wolf, which carried them to her den and nursed them as her own ofi'siiring. Some time afterward the two children were taken to the house of a shepherd on the Palatine Hill, where they were brought up. At length Remus was taken to Alba and brought before Amulius. Romulus and liis friends went to Alba and rescued Remus, killed Amulius, and placed Numilor on the throne of Alba. Founding of Rome by Romulus. — Romulus and Remus preixucd to ntuni to the Palatine Hill, where they resolved to build a city, and they incpiircd of the gods l)y divinatit)n which should give his name to the city. They watched the heavens for one day and one night; and at sunrise Remus saw six vultures, and soon after- ward Romulus saw twelve. It was decided that the favor of the gods was on the side of Romulus, who accordingly began to build a city on the Palatine Hill. When Remus, who was mortified and angry, saw the low wall and llie ditch which inclosed the space for the new city, he scornfully leaped over and exclaimed, " W^ill this keep out an enemy?" Upon this insulting conduct, Remus was slain, cither by Romulus or by one of his followers. The city, which was named Rome, in honor of Romulus, is thought to have been founded 753 years before Christ. Rome at first contained a thousand dwellings; and its population was rapidly increased by exiles, criminals, fugitives from justice, and desperate characters of all sorts, who fled to the new city for refuge. Romulus, First King of Rome — Seizure of the Sabine Women. — Rom- ulus was chosen the fn-st King of Rome, and a Senate of one hun'pt, a formidable rebellion, headed by Lucius, the brother, and Fulvia, the wife of Antony, broke out in Italy against Octavius. But it was not until the rebellion had been suppressed and quiet restored that An- tony resolved to return to Italy. On his way, at Athens, he met his wife Fulvia, whom he blamed for having caused the recent disturbances in Italy, and treated her with great contempt. Leaving her on her death-bed, Antony hastened to Italy, and met the army of Octavius at Brundusium. It was expected that there would be a bloody struggle ; but a friendly treaty was effected, and, to cement the union, Antony married Octavia, the sister of Octavius. A new division of the Roman world fol- lowed : to Octavius was assigned the West; to Antony, the East; to Lepidus, Africa ; and Sextus Pompey, who was also admitted into the partnership, was allowed to hold the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, together with the Peloponnesus. CIVIL WAR OF OCTAVIUS AND ANTONY. Octavius and Antony. — The peace of the Roman world was soon again broken. Octavius quarreled with Sextus Pompey and also with Lepidus, and deprived both of them of their provinces. Pompey fled to the East, where he was slain by one JULIUS C/£SAR. C/tSAR AUGUSTUS. HISTORY OF ROME. 93 of Antony's lieutenants. Antony was now the only obstacle in the way of the ambition of Octavius, who was anxious to make himself sole master of the Roman world. Antony had in the meantime led an unsuccessful expedition against the Parthians ; after which he returned to Egypt, where he again plunged into luxury and dissipation, and allowed himself to be enslaved by the charms of Cleopatra, on whom he bestowed several Roman provinces ifi Asia. When Antony's wife, Octa- via, went to meet her husband, he ordered her to return to Rome, and shortly after- wards he resolved to marry Cleopatra. Quarrel of Octavius and Antony — Battle of Actium— Flight of Antony. — Antony's foolish and disgraceful conduct rendered a quarrel between him and Octavius unavoidable. Civil war ensued. The fleets and armies of the two rivals met on opposite shores of the Gulf of Ambracia, near the city of Actium, iTi Epirus. A battle ensued between the two fleets. The two armies, which were ranged on opposite sides of the gulf, were spectators of the conflict, and encouraged the fleets, by their shouts, to engage. Before the victory was decided, Cleopatra, with her Egyptian squadron, fled from the engagement. Antony, leaving his fleet and army to take care of themselves, immediately followed after the Egyptian queen. The fleet of Octavius obtained the victory, and the land-forces of Antony soon afterward united themselves with the army of Octavius. Suicide of Antony and Cleopatra — Egypt a Roman Province. — After first going to Italy and restoring quiet there, the triumphant Octavius pursued Antony and Cleopatra to Egypt. Antony, finding all his attempts to check the progress of the conqueror useless, and being overcome with ungovernable rage and fury, blamed Cleopatra as the cause of his misfortunes; and being determined never to become a prisoner to his victorious rival, killed himself with his own sword. Cleopatra, who had shut herself up in her palace, finding that Octavius intended to take her to Rome to grace his triumph, put an entl to her own life by applying a poisonous reptile to her arm. Egypt immediately submitted to Octavius, and became a Roman province. (B. C. 30.) THE ROMAN EMPIRE. (B. C. 30-A. D. 476.) THE REIGNS OF THE C^SARS. THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS (B. C. SO— A. D. 14). Octavius Sole Master, with the Title of Augustus. — The battle of Actium made Octavius sole master of the Roman world. (B. C. 30.) Roman liberty was now gone forever; and the Roman people, who had lost all the virtues and republican spirit of their ancestors, made no attempt to restore the republican constitution. The most illustrious citizens besought Octavius to take the govern- ment into his own hands; and the people, tired of the oppression of the aristocracy, gladly placed themselves under the sway of a single master. The Senate con- ferred upon Octavius all the powers of sovereignty, with the title of Augustus, or "The Divine," and of Imperator, or chief governor, for ten years; and gave his name to the sixth (now eighth) month, as the name of Julius Caesar had been given to the fifth (now seventh) month. He was afterwards made Perpetual Tribune of the People, which rendered his person sacred. A force of 9,000 men, 94 ANCIENT HISTOR V. called the Praetorian Guards, was stationed in Rome for the protection of the Emperor's person. Augustus, however, used his power moderately, and ruled with mildness and clemency. He restored the authority of the Senate. The cruel and tyrannical Octavius became the mild and merciful Augustus. General Peace — Great Extent of the Roman Empire — Birth of the Saviour. — After additional conquests by the Romans, and the annexation of Aquitania, Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Illyria to the Roman dominions, a general peace prevailed throughout the Roman Empire, which now extended from the Atlantic ocean to the Euphrates, and from the Rhine and the Danube to the African deserts and the falls of the Nile, i It was at this time that Jesus Christ, the Saviour of mankind, was born in the little village of Bethlehem, in Judea. J Rebellion of the Germans — Defeat of Varus — Death of Augustus. — A few years after the birth of the Saviour, the Germans, who had been subjected to Roman rule, vigorously attempted to recover their independence. The Roman gen- eral. Varus, was enticed into the German forests, where his whole army was cut to pieces. (A. D. 9.) Varus, in despair at this defeat, committed suicide. The loss of this army was a terrible blow to the Emperor Augustus, who, in paroxysms of grief, exclaimed, "Varus! Varus! restore me my legions!" The danger of an incursion of the barbarians into Italy was prevented by Tiberius, the son-in-law of the emperor, who was sent with an army to guard the passes of the Rhine. After a remarkably quiet and prosperous reign of forty-four years, Augustus died in the year 14 after Christ. REIGN OF TIBERIUS (A. D. 14-37). Cruelty and Tyranny of Tiberius — Crucifixion of the Saviour. — On the death of Augustus, his son-in-law Tiberius succeeded to the throne of the Roman Empire. Tiberius commenced his reign with an appearance of moderation and clemency, but he soon gave way to his cruel, jealous and despotic nature. In the early part of his reign, the noble and virtuous Germanicus, his nqihew, gained brilliant victories over the Germans; but the fame of Germanicus excited the jeal- ousy of the unworthy Emperor, who appointed him governor of the Eastern Roman provinces, and afterwards procured his death by poison. It was during the reign of Tiberius that Jesus Christ, the Redeemer of the human race, was crucified on Mount Calvary, under the prretorship of Pontius Pilate, the Roman Governor of Judea. Crimes of Tiberius and Sejanus — Assassination of Tiberius. — The cruelty of Tiberius increased every day. Many of the nobles died by his orders. His depravity and cruelty were equaled by that of his minister and favorite, Sejanus, who himself secretly aspired to the throne, and who artfully contrived to have the Emperor removed from Rome to the island of Capreae, near Naples, for the pur- pose of freeing him from the cares of government. The emperor soon abandoned himself to every sort of vice and debauchery, while Sejanus was ruling with the utmost cruelty and despotism in Rome, where he caused numbers to be put to death. At length, becoming acquainted with the .ambitious designs of Sejanus, Tiberius had him arrested for treason, and put to death. The friends and relatives of Sejanus met with the same fate. At last Tiberius himself was smothered in his bed by one of his own officers, at the instigation of the unworthy Caligula, son of the worthy Gennanicus. (A. D. 37.) HISTORY OF ROME. REIGN OF CALIGULA (A. D. 37-41). 95 Crimes and Follies of Caligula — Assassination of Caligula. — Caligula became the successor of Tiberius. His accession was welcomed by the Roman people. Caligula, like his predecessor, commenced his reign with prudence and mildness, but the people soon found him to be a detestable tyrant and a wicked monster. He ordered all the prisoners in Rome and hundreds of old and infirm citizens to be thrown to wild beasts, for the mere pleasure of seeing them tortured and torn to pieces. He at length claimed divine honors, erected a temple to him- self, and instituted a college of priests to superintend the worship of his person. He often invited his favorite horse, Incitatus, to dine at the imperial table, fed him with gilded oats, built him a stable of marble, and his death only prevented him from raising the animal to the dignity of Consul. The foolish emperor often em- ployed inventions to imitate thunder for the purpose of defying Jupiter; and he pretended to converse in whispers with the statue of that divinity, and sometimes pretended to be angry with its answers, and threatened to send it back to Greece. Wlien the Senate appeared reluctant in adulation, he threatened to massacre the whole body. On one occasion, being angry with the citizens, Caligula wished that the whole Roman people had but one head, that he might cut it off at one blow. The emperor's prodigality and tyranny increased every day. At last a conspiracy was formed against the tyrant, and he was murdered by his own guards. (A. D. 41.) REIGN OF CLAUDIUS (A. D. 4-1-84). Roman Successes in Britain — Assassination of Claudius. — Claudius, brother of Germanicus and uncle of Caligula, was next proclaimed Emperor by the Prcetorian Guards, and this choice was confirmed by the Senate. Claudius, who was a perfect idiot, was a mere instrument in the hands of his wife and favorites. The Romans now determined to obtain full possession of Britain, and Claudius sent his general, Aulus Plautius, to conquer the Britons. The Emperor Claudius him- self afterwards undertook an expedition to Britain. The Britons were finally defeated, and their chief, Caractacus, was carried a prisoner to Rome. As Caractacus was walking through the streets of Rome, loaded with chains, he exclaimed, "Alas ! is it possible that a people possessed of such magnificence at home should envy my humble cottage in Britain !" At length Claudius put to death his wife Messalina, whose crimes and cruelties had become intolerable. The emperor then maiTied his niece Agrippina. After having induced Claudius to appoint her son Nero his suc- cessor, Agrippina caused the emperor to be jxiisoned. (A. D. 54.) REIGN OF NERO (A. D. 54-68). Crimes of Nero. — Agrippina having secured the commander of the Prcetorian Guards to her interest, Nero was proclaimed Emperor by the army, and this choice was confirmed by the Senate. Nero had been nurtured in the midst of crimes, and the people justly dreaded his accession to the throne. He, however, ruled with mildness during the first five years of his reign, while under the influence of his in- structors, Seneca the philosopher, and Burrhus. At length his mother, Agrippina, seeing herself neglected, designed to bestow the crown on Britannicus, the son of Claudius. Becoming aware of this, Nero caused both Agrippina and Britannicus to be put to death. From this time, Nero abandoned himself to cruelty and blood- g6 ANCIENT HISTOR V. shed. Biirrhus, his minister, Seneca the philosopher, and Lucan the poet, and many of the most eminent nobles, were put to death by order of the hard-hearted emperor. Nero's first wife, Octavia, was divorced and murdered, and his second wife, Poppsea, was killed by a kick from her husband. The virtuous Corbulo, who had defeated the Parthians, was rewarded for his victories, by the cruel emperor, with death. During the reign of Nero, the Jews began that rebellion against the Roman power which finally resulted in the destruction of that people as a nation. The Emperor Nero often appeared on the stage as an actor, musician, and gladia- tor. He also visited Greece, and often came forth victor in the Olympic games. Burning of Rome and Persecution of the Christians. — In the year 64 A. D., a frightful conflagration of nine days destroyed the greater part of the city of Rome; and it was generally believed that the fire was kindled by the secret orders of Nero. It is said that the emperor stood upon a high tower while the fire was raging, enjoy- ing the scene, and singing to the music of his harp the Destruction of Troy. In order to withdraw the blame of the cause of this calamity from himself, Nero charged it upon the Christians of Rome, thousands of whom were consequently most cruelly tortured and put to death. Many were covered with the skins of wild beasts and devoured by dogs, some were crucified, and others were burned alive. Victories of Suetonius Paulinus in Britain. — In Britain, the Romans under Suetonius Paulinus gained brilliant victories over the savage tribes of that island. At length the Iceni, under their heroic queen, Boadicea, rose against the Roman power, burned London, and put 70,000 Romans to death. But the Roman general avenged the death of his countrymen in a terrible battle, in which he defeated Boadicea, and in which 80,000 Britons were killed. In despair at this defeat, Boadicea committed suicide. Overthrow and Death of Nero. — Nero's prodigality knew no restraint. The Roman provinces were pillaged to support the emperor's luxurious manner of living. He was popular with the lower classes, to whom he made monthly distributions of com and frequent supplies of wine, and whom he delighted with magnificent shows. At length, Julius Vindex, the Roman governor of Gaul, unfurled the standard of rebellion ; and soon afterward, Galba headed an insurrection in Spain. Vindex was killed in the contest. Galba secured Otho, the commander of the Praetorian Guards, and the Senate to his interest ; and Nero, abandoning all hope, caused him- self to be mortally wounded by one of his own freedmen; (A. D. 68.) Nero was the last emperor of the Julian' line of the Ca:sars. REIGN OF GALBA (A. D. 68-69). Overthrow and Death of Galba. — Upon the death of Nero, the virtuous Galba obtained the imperial purple, which, however, he did not wear very long. He allowed himself to be ruled by unworthy favorites; and when Otho, who had been one of his principal atlherents, found that the emperor did not name him as his suc- cessor, he induced the Pra:torian Guards to revolt. Galba was killed in the streets of Rome during a short struggle, after a reign of seven months. (A. D. 69.) REIGN OF OTHO (A. D. 69). Overthrow and Death of Otho. — The dissolute and unworthy Otho, who was next invested with the purple, was a mere instrument in the hands of the licentious HISTORY OF ROME. 97 soldiers. He was soon disturbed in the possession of the throne by a revolt of the Roman legions on the German frontier, which proclaimed their vicious commander, Vitellius, Emperor. Otho marched against Vitellius, but his troops were defeated ; and Otho, in despair, committed suicide, after a reign of but little more than three months. (A. D. 69.) REIGN OF VITELLIUS (A. D. 69-70). Extravagance and Cruelty of Vitellius. — Upon Otho's death, Vitellius was declared Emperor by the Senate. When Vitellius entered Rome, he caused more than four hundred of the Pra;tf)rian Guards to be put to death. Vitellius entrusted the management of public affairs to the most abandoned and debauched wretches. He won the favor of the Roman people by donations of provisions and by expensive entertainments. Vitellius was noted for his gluttonous and luxurious habits. In less than four months he squandered a sum equal to seven millions sterling on the luxuries of the table and for expensive banquets. Not satisfied with gratifying his appetite, the emperor indulged in acts of the most unrelenting cruelty. Many who ate with him were put to death without mercy. Many of the wealthy Roman citi- zens were deprived of their property, and also of their lives, by this bloated and debauched emperor. He declared that he derived pleasure from tormenting his victims. On one occasion, when a man was condemned to death, he executed his two sons with their father for begging his life. Overthrow and Death of Vitellius. — At last the Roman legions in the East engaged in the siege of Jerusalem proclaimed their general, Vespasian, Emperor. Province after province submitted to Vespasian's troops, who marched to Italy and took possession of Rome. A furious and bloody struggle ensued in the city; and Vitellius was seized by his enemies, put to death, and his body thrown into the Tiber, amid the execration of the populace. (A. D. 70.) REIGN OF VESPASIAN (A. D. 70-79). Wise Reforms of Vespasian. — Upon the ignominious death of Vitellius, Ves- pasian was hailed as Emperor by the Roman people. This good and virtuous monarch did all in his power for the welfare of his subjects, by whom he was greatly beloved. He instituted many wise reforms, improved the administration of justice, and restored the discipline of the army and the authority of the Senate. He encouraged the arts and sciences, and beautified Rome with many splendid edifices, of which the Coliseum was the most remarkable. The Emperor Vespasian was very generous, as is fully shown by his refusal to punish certain conspirators who had plotted against him. Jewish Rebellion — Destruction of Jerusalem and of the Jewish Nation. — The Jews, who had risen in rebellion against the Roman power during the reign of Neio, were subdued during the reign of Vespasian, when they were destroyed as a nation. The rebellion of the Jews was caused by the tyranny of Florus, the Roman governor of Judea. The deluded Jews believed themselves to be able to resist the gigantic power of the whole Roman world. Vespasian had been for three years conducting the war against the Jews when he was called to Rome to receive the imperial purple. When Vespasian left Judea, he assigned the command of his legions to his son Titus, who laid siege to Jerusalem during the Feast of the Pass- 7 98 ANCIENT HISTORY. nvcr, when i)cn])lo.from all parls of Judi-a were feathered in the Holy City. The Jews (lefen(Iei)eared to be a just and merciful s»)vercign; but Domilian's character soon changed, and he became a hard-hearted tyrant. His favorite anuisemenl was archery, and his chief ambition was to enter- tain the Roman people with expensive sjiorls and games. He spent his houi-s of seclusion in killing Hies. This emperor had also a great jwssion for military gloiy. He undertook an expedition to Gaul, but as he ilid not meet with an enemy, he dressed slaves like tlcrmans, tixik them to Rome, and pictcndcd that they were prisoneni whom lie had talten in battle. Assassination of Domitian. — The I'lmjK-ror Domitian cruelly jKn-secuted the Christians, and sic/cd the estates of the wealthy to gratify his avarice. At length HISTORY OF ROME. 99 a conspiracy was formed against Ihc despot l)y his own wife, Domitia, whom he had resolved to put to death; and Domilian, the last of the Caesars, was assassinated after some resistance. (A. D. 96.) THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. REIGN OF NERVA (A. D. 96-08). Noble and Generous Conduct of Nerva. — Upon the assassination of Domitian, the talented and virtuous Nerva was chosen f'mperor by the Senate. Nerva was liberal and generous to excess. He made good laws, abolished oppress- ive taxes, and eveasold his gold and plate that he might be able to bestow gifts on his friends. He allowed no statue to be erected to himself, and no Senator was punished with death during his mild and merciful reign. This good emperor died after a reign of two years. (A. D. 98.) REIGN OF TRAJAN (A. D. 98-117). Good Character of Trajan. — The next emperor after Nerva was Tr.ijan, who was a mild and merciful monarch as well as a successful warrior. Trajan devoted his attention to the welfare of his empire, and took measures for imjiroving its condition. Notwithstanding his many merits, Trajan was a persecutor of the Christians. Conquest of Dacia by Trajan. — Soon after Trajan became Emperor, the Dacians north of the Danube ravaged the northern frontier of the Roman Empire, The Emperor Trajan led an army against the Dacians, overthrew them in battle, and reduced their country, Dacia, to the condition of a Roman province. When Trajan returned to Rome from his Dacian campaign, a splendid triumph was cele- brated, and the public rejoicing continued for one hundred and twenty days. Trajan's Asiatic Campaigns. — The Emperor Trajan afterwards marched into Asia for the purpose of subduing the Parthians and the Armenians, who attempted to regain their independence. Parthia, Syria, and Chaldca were conquered by the Roman Emperor after several campaigns. Trajan made a triumphal entry into Paljylon, crossed the Tigris, took Ctesiphon, in .Syria, and conquered some of the Persian provinces. The fatigues of war hastened Trajan's dc-ath, which took place in Cilicia, after a reign of nineteen years. (A. D. 117.) REIGN OF ADRIAN (A. D. 117-13.'3). Adrian's Love of Peace. — The good Trajan was succeeded by Adrian, who also belonged to the list of good emperors. Adrian was a great lover of peace, and he abandoned all the countries which had been confjuered by Trajan, as he deemed them detrimental, rather than valuable, to the Roman Empire. The Emjieror Adrian, with all his many virtues, was a persecutor of the Christians. Adrian's Travels. — The Emperor Adrian spent much of his time in traveling over Gaul, Sjjain, Germany, Britain, Greece, and through all his dominions in Asia and Africa. In Britain he greatly improved the city of York, which wa.s the capi- tal of that Roman province. The emperor also caused a wall to be erected from the river Tyne to Sol way Frith, in order to prevent the ravages of the Caledonians, L.cfC. lOO ANCIENT HISTORY. who iiilial)ited tlie northern part of Ihc island. Adrian died near Naples, after a quiet and prosperous reij^m of eighteen years. (A. D. 135.) REIGN OF ANTONINUS PIUS (A. D. 133-163). Mild and Beneficial Rule of Antoninus Pius — Tranquillity of the Em- pire. — Adrian's successor on the imperial throne was the gooil and peaceful Titus Antoninus, who, on account of his mild and merciful reijjn, was called Antoninus ( Pius. The period of the reign of this emperor was the most liai^py and prosperous that the Roman Empire ever enjoyed, as peace prevailed throughout the whole Roman world. The virtuous Antoninus suspended the persecution of the Christians, and punished their persecutors, lie devoted all his energies to the welfare of his sub- jects, and protected the people of the various Roman provinces from the oppression and avarice of their governors. After a tranquil and prosperous reign of twenty- two years, the good Antoninus Pius died. (A. 1). 163). REIGN OF MARCUS AURELIUS (A. D. 163-180). Parthian Expedition of Verus. — Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the successor of 'I'itus Antoninus Pius, also belonged to the class of good emperors. Marcus Aurelius shared his power with his unworthy son-in-law, Lucius Verus, whom, soon after his accession to the' throne, he sent with an army against the Parthians. Verus established his residence at Antioch, where he abandoned himself to all sorts of vice, while his officers defeatetl the Parthians. War Against the Marcomanni — The " Thundering Legion." — A fright- ful war next broke out between the Romans and the Marcomanni, a jxiwerful German tribe of barbarians. Both Aurelius and Verus tot)k the held against the barbarians ; but the intemperate Verus soon died. Marcus Aurelius remained five years in Germany, carrying on the war against the Marcomanni. On one occasion, ■ the Romans were drawn into a narrow defde, where they had almost perished from thii'st, when they were relieved by a thunder-storm, which struck into the tents of the barbarians, who, greatly frighteneil, immediately agreed to a peace with the Romans. It was believed that the storm was sent in answer to the prayers of the Christian soldiers in the Roman army. The emperor immediately named their division "The Thundering Legion." Character of the Successors of Marcus Aurelius. — The mild and bene- ficent Marcus Aurelius died at Vienna, after a reign of seventeen years. (A. D. 180.) lie w.as the last of a succession of good Roman emperors. With his death the glory of the Roman Empire virtually ended. The greater number of his suc- cessors were detestable and hitolerable tyrants, who generally sufTereil violent deaths. From this time the Roman Enquire rajiidly verged towards its fall: the barbarians from Northern Europe at length pressed heavily upon its northern frontiers, and finally put an end to its existence. THE PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM. ' REIGN OF COMMODUS (A. D. 18O-102). Feats of Commodus — Assassination of Commodus. — Marcus Aurelius w;is succeeded on the imperial throne by his son Commodus, who, on account of HISTORY OF ROME. loi his vices and cruelties, proved himself unworthy of the imperial dignity. Commo- dus possessed great physical strength; and he often fought with the gladiators in the Amphitheatre, where he conquered seven hundred and fifty times, on which account he styled himself " Conqueror of a Thousand Gladiators." The tyranny of Commodus at length led to plots against his life ; and he was assassinated after a reign of twelve years, and his body was cast into the Tiber. (A. D. 192.) REIGN OF PERTINAX (A. D. 102-193). Assassination of Pertinax. — The virtuous Pertinax succeeded the unworthy Commodus on the imperial throne. Pertinax protected the citizens from the inso- lence of the Praetorian Guards, who, for this reason, rose against the good emperor and put him to death, after a reign of only three months, (A. D. 193.) REIGN OF DIDIUS JULIANUS (A. D. 193). Purchase of the Empire by Didius Julianus — His Overthrow and Death. — The insolent Prsetorian Guards now put up the Roman Empire for sale to the highest Ijidder. The wealthy Senator, Didius Julianus, bid off at a sum equal to ten millions of dollars, and was accordingly raised to the imperial dignity. This disgraceful transaction raised up several rivals against the unworthy Didius Julianus. These were Septimius Severus, who commanded the Roman legions in Pannonia ; Pescennius Niger, in .Syria; and Clodius Albinus, in Britain. .Se]j- timius .Severus reached Rome Ix-'fcjre his rivals and was made Emperor; and Didius Julianus was put to death by the executioner. (A. D, 193.) REIGN OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (A. D. 193-211). Overthrow and Death of Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus. — After securing the imperial purple, .Septimius .Severus look the field against Pescen- nius Niger, who was defeated and killed in battle on the plain of Issus, famous for the great victory gained by Alexander the Great over the Persians five centuries before. Severus next marched against Clodius Albinus in Gaul; and a terrible battle was fought at Lyons, and Albinus, being defeated and taken prisoner, was ])Ut to death. Campaigns of Septimius Severus in Asia and Britain. — Having overcome his rivals, Septimius Severus next marched against the Parthians, who continued their attacks on the Roman power in Asia. .Severus defeated the Parthians, and captured their principal cities, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Babylon. The emperor was afterward called to Britain to repress the incursions of the savage Picts and Scots. After driving back the savages, Severus rebuilt the wall between the Clyde and Forth rivers, for the purpose of keeping the troublesome savages in their own part of the island. The Emperor .Septimius Severus died at York, in Britain, after a reign of nearly eighteen years. (A. D. 217.) REIGN OF CARACALLA (A. D. 211-217). Cruelty and Tyranny of Caracalla — Assassination of Caracalla. — .Septi- mius Severus left his empire to his two sons, Caracalla and Geta; but Caracalla killed his Ijrothcr in his mother's arms, and became sole emperor. Caracalla proved 1 o 2 A NCI E NT JUS TOR Y. to be a cruel and tyrannical sovereign. His despotic conduct finally caused his as- sassination after a reign of six years. (A. D. 217.) HEIGN OF MACRINUS (A. D. 217-218). Overthrow and Death of Macrinus. — Macrinus, captain of the Prx-torian Guards, and instigator of the assa.ssination of Caracalla, was next raised to the im- jjcrial dignity; hut soon a competitor ajjpearcd to contest with him the sovereignty of the Roman Empire. Macrinus was put to death, and his competitor, llelioga- halus, was raised to the imperial llirone. (A. I). 218.) Ion the assassination of Hcliogabalus. Alexander soon jiroved himself in every res])ect deserving of his high station. He insliluted many wise reforms for the benefit of the Roman people. Assassination of Alexander Severus. — The strict military discijjlinc of Airxander .Severus iiillanicd llic soldiers against him, and he was murdered by them while engaged in driving away the barbarians who had invaded the northern parts of the Roman l'"inj)ire. (A. D. 235.) REIGN OF MAXIMIN (A. D. 288-288). Tyranny and Cruelties of Maximin. -'i'he Thracian Maxiniin, wlio had in- stigatccl ilie soldiers to the assassination of thi; worthy A lexaneror Philip sent his general, Decius, will; an army, to suppress a relx;]lion which had broken out in Pannonia. The soldien; of Decius comjjelled their general to accept the office of Emper^n- by threatening to kill him if he refused. Philip, on hearing of this, marched against Decius, but was defeated and slain near Verona. (A. D. 249. J REIGN OF DECIUS (A. D. 249-231). Great Persecution of the Christians. — The Emperor Decius was in many resjjtcts a wise and virtuous sovereign ; but he tarnished his character by the most cruel persecutions of the Christians. Thousands of these perv^as in various parts of the Roman Empire were driven from their homes, subjected to the severest tor- tures, and put to death in the most cruel manner. Many fled for refuge to the mountains and deserts. Gothic Invasion of the Empire— Defeat and Death of Decius.— Dunng the reign of Decius, occurred a formidable invasion of the Roman Empire by the Goths, a Scandinavian tribe, who crossed the Danul^e and frightfully devastated MoE^ia and Thrace. The Emperor Decius marched against the lyarl^arians and gained a great victory over them; but he was at last defeated, and, in de;i[/air, he plunged into a marsh and was immediately swallowed up. (A. D. 251.; I04 ANCIENT HISTORY. REIGN OF GALLUS (A. D. 2S1-2SS). Cowardly Conduct of Gallus — Assassination of Gallus — ^milianus. — Upon the death of Declus, Gallus was proclaimed Emperor by the army. Gallus made an ignominious peace with the Goths, and renewed the violent persecution of the Christians which Decius had commenced. The cowardly conduct of Gallus aroused universal indignation among his subjects, and the Koman armies in the East proclaimed .'Emilianus Emperor, whereupon Gallus was killed by his own sol- diers. The Senate refused to recognize ^milianus as Emperor, whereupon he was put to death by his own troops, and the virtuous Valerian was proclaimed and acknowledged Emperor. (A. D. 253.) REIGN OF VALERIAN (A. D. 253-260). The Goths and the Scythians — The Persians. — Valerian's shining quali- ties did not appear to much advantage when he became emperor. The Christians were cruelly persecuted, and the Roman Empire was ravaged on the north by the Goths and the Scythians, and on the east by the Persians. Captivity of Valerian in Persia — His Brutal Treatment by Sapor. — The Emperor Valerian defeated the Goths ; but when he attempted to drive the Persians out of Syria, he was surrounded by the Persian asmy, taken prisoner, and carried in triumph to Persia. Tlie Persian king, Sapor, caused the captive emperor to be treated in the most brutal manner, — using his neck as a footstool whenever he mounted his horse, and after keeping him in captivity for seven years, caused him to be flayed alive, and his skin to be stuffed and dyed in scarlet, and nailed up in a Persian temple as a great national trophy. (A. D. 260.) REIGN OF GALLIENUS (A. D. 260-268). Odenatus, Prince of Palmyra. — Gallienus, the son of Valerian, succeeded as Emj^eror, receiving the intelligence of his father's cruel treatment and death with inward satisfaction. The barbarians now pressed upon the Roman Empire on all sides ; and a host of competitors appeared for the thron'e, the most powerful of whom was Odenatus, Prince of Palmyra, who inflicted severe defeats upon the Persians. Zenobia, Queen of the East — Assassination of Gallienus. — In order to gain the friendship and support of Odenatus, the Emperor Gallienus made him his partner in the Empire, assigning to him the Eastern Roman provinces. But Oden- atus was soon murdered by his own troops, and was succeeded on the throne of Palmyra by his widow, Zenobia, who styled herself " Queen of the East." All the rivals of Gallienus suffered violent deaths; and Gallienus himself was assassinated while he was besieging one of his rivals in Milan. (A. D. 268.) REIGN OF FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS (A. D. 268-270.) Defeat of the Goths and Vandals by Flavius Claudius. — Flavius Claudius succeeded Gallienus on the imperial throne. Claudius defeated the Goths and the Vandals with frightful slaughter; after which he marched against Zenobia, the Queen of the East, but died on his way of a pestilence which had broken out in his army, (A. D. 270.) HISTORY OF ROME. 105 REIGN OF AURKLIAN (A. D. 270-27S). Quintillius — Defeat of the Germans and Vandals by Aurelian. — Quin- tillius, the brother and successor of Flavius Claudius, killed himself in despair, after a reign of seventeen days, when he learned that Aurelian had been proclaimed Emperor by the army. (A. D. 270.) Aurelian defeated and drove back the bar- barian Goths and Vandals from the northern frontiers of the Roman Empire. Overthrow and Captivity of Zenobia. — After his successes over the barbarians in the North, the Emperior Aurelian passed over into Asia, overthrew^ the Kingdom of Palmyra, carried Zenobia, the Queen of the East, captive to Rome, and presented her with an estate, where, to all appearances, she passed the remainder of her life contentedly. Assassination of Aurelian. — With some commendable qualities, Aurehan possessed a stern and severe disposition. While marching with an army against the Persians, he was assassinated by some of his own officers. (A. D. 275.) REIGN OF TACITUS (A. D. 27S). Character of Tacitus. — The enlightened and virtuous Tacitus, a descendant of the historian of that name, was chosen Emperor by the Senate, after Aurelian's assassination. Tacitus distinguished himself as a soldier, and died in Cappadocia, while preparing to carry on a war against Persia, after a reign of seven months, (A. D. 275.) REIGN OF PROBUS (A. D. 275-282). Florian and Probus. — Florian, a brother of Tacitus, was proclaimed Emperor by one portion of the army, while Probus was chosen by another portion. As Florian was not acknowledged by the Senate, he killed himself in despair, and Probus was left in full possession of the empire. (A. D. 275.) Defeat of the Barbarians by Probus — Assassination of Probus. — Probus was a successful warrior. He first overthrew the barbarians who had invaded Gaul, killing 100,000 of their number. He next defeated the Goths, the Vandals, and the Samiatians. Having passed his native city, Sirmium, in Pannonia, Probus em- ployed his soldiers in draining a marsh, but they, disliking the work, became enraged and killed their emperor. (A. D. 282.) REIGN OF CARUS (A. D. 282-288). Victories of Carus over the Sarmatians and Persians. — Probus was suc- ceeded on the imperial throne by Carus, commander of the Praetorian Guards, who was proclaimed Emperor by the army. Carus defeated the Sarmatians, after which he marched against the Persians, who continued their ravages on the Eastern prov- inces of the Roman Empire. After defeating the Persians in Mesopotamia, Carus was killed in his tent by lightning. (A. D. 283.) REIGN OF DIOCLETIAN (A. D. 284-30S). Short Reign and Assassination of Numerian and Carinus — Diocletian. — Numerian and Carinus, the sons of Carus, succeeded to the empire, but Numerian was soon assassinated, whereupon the soldiers proclaimed Diocletian Emperor. io6 ANCIENT HISTORY. (A. D. 284.) Carinus resolved to dispute the sovereignty with Diocletian, when he was killed by his own troops. (A. D. 2S4.) Origin and Character of Diocletian. — Diocletian was of low origin, his parents having been slaves. He received his name from Dioclea, a town in Dal- matia, where he was born. He had passed through the various gradations of office, being promoted successively to the offices of Provincial Governor, Consul, and Prcctorian Prefect. He owed his elevation entirely to his abilities and merits, and was about forty years of age when he became Emperor. Diocletian possessed many virtues, but he sullied his character by a cruel persecution of Uie Christians in all parts of the Roman Empire. The " Era of Martyrs." — The commencement of Diocletian's reign is often called the " Era of Martyrs," on account of the dreadful persecutions of which the Christians were the victims. This epoch was long obseiTcd in the Christian Church, and is still remembered by the Copts of Egypt, the Abyssinians, and other African Christians. Division of the Imperial Authority — Maximian and the Two Csesars. — As the cares of the va.st Roman Empire were too great for one person, the Emperor Diocletian divided the imperial authority, taking as his partner in the Empire Maximian, a brave and able soldier, but an ignorant and cruel barbarian. Diocle- tian retained for himself the government of the East, while Maximian ruled over the West. Still the troubles of the Empire were so great that Diocletian took Galerius as his subordinate colleague, or Csesar, while Maximian chose Constantius Chlorus as his subordinate, or Ctesar ; so that the Roman world was now divided among four sovereigns, of which Diocletian was the chief. Diocletian retained Asia, Galerius ruled over Thrace and Illyricum, Maximian swayed Italy and Africa, and Constantius Chlorus governed Spain, Gaul, and Britain. Suppression of Rebellions in Britain and Egypt — Defeat of the Per- sians. — A rebellion which broke out in Britain was suppressed by Constantius Chlorus after a continuance of ten years. A revolt in Egypt was crushed by Dio- cletian himself, who made the rebellious inhabitants feel the effects of his vengeance. The Moors of Nurlhcrn Africa, who had attacked the Roman dominioins in that quarter, were vanquished by the anns of Maximian. A war which broke out with Persia was brought to a successful conclusion by Galerms after two campaigns with the Persians. Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian. — After a glorious reign of twenty years, sullied, however, by a violent persecution of the Christians, the Emperor Diocletian abdicated the imperial throne in the presence of a vast multitude of peo- ple, and retired to private life. (A. D. 305.) On the same day, Maximian resigned his authority. Diocletian never regretted this act, which he survived nine years. When requested by Maximian and others to resume the purple, he replied, "If you would see the cabbages I raise in my garden, you would not ask me to take a throne." REIGN OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (A. D. 306-S87). Galerius and Constantius — Constantine — Confusion and Civil War. — After the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, Galerius and Constantius Qilorus HISTORY OF ROME. 107 were recognized as Emperors, and each took a subordinate colleague, or Cresar. (A. D. 306.) Constanline died at York, in IJritain, and was succeeded by his son Constantine, afterwards surnanied "the Great." A period of great confusion and sanguinary civil wars followed. Galerius and the two Caesars refused to recognize the claims of Constantine, and very soon the Roman Empire was divided among six competitors, among whom were Maximian and his son Maxentius; but Constan- tine finally prevailed over all his rivals and became sole Emperor. Constantine's Conversion to Christianity. — It was during the progress of these civil wars that the Emperor Constantine became a convert to Christianity. While marching against Maxentius, it is said that Constantine saw a luminous cross in the heavens with the inscription, " By this conquer." This produced a great impression upon Constantine and his whole army. Constantine now consulted the principal teachers of Christianity, and publicly avowed the religion of Christ. Overthrow and Death of Maxentius and Licinius. — Constantine overthrew Maxentius in a desperate battle at the Milvian Bridge. In attempting to make his escape, Maxentius found his death in the waters of the Tiber, and Constantine en- tered Rome in triumj)h. Internal peace and domestic tranquillity were only restored to the Roman Empire, when Constantine was left in the undisputed sovereignty of the vast Roman world, after his brother-in-law and last rival, Licinius, a zealous cham- pion of paganism, had been defeated in several engagements ajid put to death. Constantine Sole Emperor — Triumph of Christianity. — Thus after eigh- teen years of confusion and civil war, Constantine the Great became sole master of the Roman world, which extended from the Iwrders of Caledonia to the frontiers of Persia, and from the Red .Sea to the Atlas Mountains. The victory of Constan- tine the Great over his pagan rivals marked the complete triumph of Christianity over the paganism of the Roman world. Constantine now devoted himself to the establishment of Christianity on a firm basis. lie summoned a Council of the Christian Church at Nice, which was attended by numerous bishops and deacons, over which the emperor presided, and in which the doctrines of Arias, who denied the divine nature of Christ, were condemned as heretical. But Constantine, by some great crimes, which stained his character, and among which were the murder of his noble son Crispus, and of his wife Fausta, showed that the doctrines of the crucified Redeemer had little influence in restraining his savage and ferocious dis- position. Constantinople made the Capital of the Roman Empire. — After defeat- ing the Goths and the Sarmatians, the Emperor Constantine returned to Rome, where he was coldly received and insulted by the people for abandoning the religion of his ancestors. Provoked at this treatment, and in order to have his residence nearer the centre of his dominions, Constantine removed the seat of government of the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium, which since that time has been called (Constantinople, or City of Constantine, in honor of the great emperor. (A. D. 336.) Death of Constantine the Great. — After a memorable and glorious reign of thirty-one years, Constantine the Great, the first Roman emperor who professed Christianity, died at Nicomedia, in Asia Minor. (A. D. 337.) Io8 ANCIENT HISTORY. REIGN OF CONSTANTIUS II. (A. D. 387-361). The Sons of Constantine — Confusion and Civil War — Constantius II. — After the death of Constantine the Great, the Roman Empire was by his orders divided among his three sons, Constans, Constantine II., and Constantius II., and his two nephews, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus. The consequence of this division was sixteen years of confusion and anarchy, during which the Roioan Empire was disturbed by usurpation, insurrections, and civil wars; and internal tranquillity was only restored when Constantius II. became sole master of the Roman world, after all his rivals and several usurpers had perished. (A. D. 353.) Julian's Victories over the Germans in Gaul. — While Constantius II., after obtaining the sole sovereignty of the Roman Empire, was in the East, conducting a war against the Persians, his cousin Julian wa.s winning great renown by his victo- ries over the German tribes who had invaded Gaul. After defeating the Germans near Troyes, at Sens, and at Strasburg, Julian secured peace to Gaul, when his soldiers, elated by victor)', proclaimed their general Emperor. The Roman world was only saved from the horrors of another civil war by the death of Constantius II., as he was preparing to dispute the sovereignty with Julian. (A. D. 361.) REIGN OF JULIAN THE APOSTATE (A. D. 361-368). Character of Julian — His Opposition to the Christian Religion. — Julian had been educated at Athens, where he had imbibed a fondness for the pagan phi- losophy and religion of the Grecians ; and when he became Emperor he renounced the Christian religion and became a pagan, acquiring from that circumstance the surname of " the Apostate." Julian was, however, a just, wise, and virtuous mon- arch, the only blemish on his character being his renunciation of Christianity and conversion to paganism. He was, however, jwssessed of an excessive share of vanity; and he seemed more desirous of being considered a philosopher tlian a sovereign. Julian sought to revive fallen paganism, and labored with great zeal to undo what had been done by the great Constantine. Julian was, however, too good and too wise to engage in a violent persecution of those who professed Christianity, as he allowed all his subjects the same right to opinion which he claimed for him- self; but he attacked the holy religion of the Redeemer in writing, and endeavored to bring it into disrepute by ridicule. Not content, however, with opposing the Christians with the weapons of argument and ridicule, the emperor enacted several disqualifying laws by which he deprived the Christians of wealth, knowledge, and power. He also removed Christians from all civil and military offices, filled their places with pagans, and ordered the Christian schools to be closed. Julian's Attempt to Rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem. — For the purpose of disproving the prophecy of Christ, Julian the Apostate attempted to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, and to restore the Jewish worship; but this design of the em- peror was frustrated, it is said, by the miraculous explosion of fire from the earth, driving away the workmen, and compelling them to abandon their work. Julian's Invasion of Persia — His Retreat and Death. — In a war with the Persians, the Emperor Julian advanced victoriously into the very heart of Persia; but the Persians, defeated in the field, laid waste the country, so that the Roman army, exhausted by hunger, was finally forced to retreat. In a skirmish between HISTORY OF ROME. 109 the retreating army and the Persian liglit cavalry, Tulian received a wound, of which he died the same night. (A. D. 363.) REIGN OF JOVIAN (A. D. 363-364). Dishonorable Peace with Persia. — After the death of Julian the Apostate, the anny raised the virtuous Jovian, a Pannonian, to the imperial dignity. Upon his accession to the throne, Jovian concluded a dishonorable peace with Persia, by which a large portion of the Roman possessions in Asia were given up. Restoration of Christianity. — The Emperor Jovian, who avowed Christianity, restored that holy religion; but he secured the good will of his pagan subjects by allowing them toleration for their worship. The zeal oi the people for the Christian religion fully attested how ineffectual were the efforts of the apostate Julian for the restoration of fallen paganism, as the heathen temples were immediately deserted and the heathen priests were left alone at their altars. After a reign of seven months, the good Jovian was accidentally suffocated by the fumes of burning charcoal while sleeping in a damp room. (A. D. 364.) BARBARIAN INROADS, AND THE FALL OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE. REIGN OF VALENTINIAN AND VALENS (A. D. 364-378). Division of the Roman Empire. — Valentinian, Jovian's successor on the im- perial throne, divided the Roman Empire, retaining the Western provinces for him- self, and bestowing the Eastern on his brother Valens. From this time the Roman world was divided into the Eastern and Western Empires, although they were after- wards transiently reunited. Valentinian made Milan his capital, while Valens held his court at Constantinople. The Barbarian Inroads. — The inroads of the barbarians upon the northern an eastern frontiers of the Roman dominions now became more formidable and dan- gerous than ever before : the Picts and .Scots harassed Britain ; the Saxons began their piracies on the Northern seas; the German tribe of the Allemanni ravaged Gaul ; and the Goths crossed the Danube and ravaged Thrace. The Emperor Valentinian, who checked the inroads of the barbarians on all sides, died in the year 375 A. D. Defeat of the Goths by the Huns. — After Valentinian's death, the Gothic nations had been almost annihilated by the Huns, a savage tribe from Central Asia. After crossing the Volga and the Don, and driving before them the tribes of Eastern Europe, the Huns fell upon and vanquished the Ostrogoths, and drove them from their country. The Huns then crossed the Dnieper and the Dniester, and defeated the Visigoths and drove them from their lands. The Goths in Thrace — Battle of Adrianople — Death of Valens. — The Gothic tribes, who had so long defied the arms of the Romans, now ap-icared as suppliants on the banks of the Danube, and asked permission of Valens, tlic Eastern Emperor, to occupy and cultivate the waste lands of Thrace. This request was granted on condition that the Goths would resign their arms; but the Roman officers who were sent to see the enforcement of this stipulation were bribed. The Goths no ANCIKJV7' //JSJ'OA'V. iflaiiKil their wfiipDns; niul when tlu-y l)c<;;ui to siitlor IVoin famine, they carried phiiuler ami ilesi)l;Uioi» throuj;h Thraee, MaceiUmia, ami Thessaly. The Cloths marciieil towanl Constantinople, and ilefeateil the army of Valens in the l>KHuly l)attie of Adrianople. The emperor escaped to a hut, wlucii, during the nij^lit, was set on tire l)y the Coths, and Valens was Inirned to death. (A. 1). ,?7S.) KEIGN U\- THEODOSIUS THE CHEAT (A. D. 878-80B). Gratlan and Theodosius.— After the death of Valentinian (A. D. 375), his son (uatian tieeame ICmperor of the West. Wiien the throne of the East beeame vacant hy the ileath of V.dens, dratian assijjned it to the Spaniaril Theodosius, who closed the war with the tloths hy settling a part of that nation in the region of the D.mulie, and enlisting another part in the Roman armies as soldiers. Persecution of the Pagans by Theodosius. — The Emperor Theodosius, surnamed "the Great," was a cruel persecutor of the pagans, anil also of the Arian Christians. The pagans of Alexandri;\, in Egypt, having attacked the Christians of that city, Theodosius ordered all the pagan temples in the city to be pulled down. lie afterwards ordered all the heathen temples throughout his empire to be tle- stroyeil. The reign of Theodosius the Great is noted for the con»plete triumph of the religion of the crucified Saviour over the ancient paganism. Maximinus, Valentinian II., and Eugenius — Theodosius Sole Emperor. — The severity of the Western Emperor, Gratian, to his jwgan subjects, produced an insurrection in Gaul and Hritain, headed by Maximinus. (.Iratian was defeated and killed near Paris, and Maximinus became EmjH'ror i>f the West. (A. D. jSj.) Maximinus wi\s defeated and slain by Theodosius, the Eastern Emperor, and Valentinian II. ascended the throne of the West. (A. D. 3SS.) Valentini.an II. was murdered by the Gaul Arbogastes, whereuiv^n the throne of the West w.^s usurpevl by Eugenius. Theodosius defeated and killed the usurper, anil, reuniting the Eastern and Western Empires, became sole master of the Roman world. (A. 1^- 394) I'l^iT months afterward, Theodosius the Great died at Milan (.\. H. 395), after apix>inting his elder son, Arcadius, Emperor of the E;ist. and his younger son, Ilonorius, Emperor of the West. UEIC.N OF HONORIUS (A. D. 803--123). Alaric the Goth's Invasions of Greece and Italy— Defeat by Stilicho— Soon after the accession of Arcadius and Ilonorius, the Goths, under their celebrated king, Alaric, conimenced a fresh war against the Romans. After Alaric had ravaged nearly all of Greece, Stilicho, the able general of Ilonorius, marched to the aid of the Greeks. Alaric then abandoned Greece, directeil his course toward Italy, and, crossing the Julian Alixs, advanced toward Milan. (.\. O. 403.) Ilon- orius tied from his capital, but was overtaken by the Goths, and besieged by them in Asta. Stilicho hastened to the relief of the emperor, and defeated the Goths with great slaughter at Pollentia, in Northern Italy. Instead of abandoning Italy after this defeat, .Marie marches! directly toward Rome, which was saved by the diligence of Stilicho; but the withdrawal of the Goths tVom Italy was purchased by a heavy ransom. Another Barbarian Invasion of Italy — Stilicho's Victory at Florence. — The timid Emperor Ilonorius, greatly alarmed at these barbarian mvasions, ///.';'/ O A' V Of- ROME. ,,, w-'latc'i ill'; fctron^ furtrcm of l<:i.v<:iiii:i :i>, }ii?i rc;.i'l<:nc« and v^at of y',v>:niii,i:iii, No MK>nt:r wan July frct/l from t)ic rava({C/i of Alaric and hi** f/olliio foJIowc-r;., tlian another lioxlilc inundation of l>arijarian warrior)i, cx^njtiistin^j of GolliH, Vandal;-., Sucvtti, Alan», and Jiurj^undianis, lr;d l^y tli<; warlike ICvlaj^ai^vui*, a{/j*<:arcd, and thrcatc-ncd Italy with fclaujditer and dcv^l.-uion, 'J"he \/AT\t:>.i\:iu'A then cn/AVud the Aljw, the J'o, and the A\i<:ii\ui\<:%, awi laid fticjje to Florence, iJul aj^ain Italy v/;i!t delivered by the valiant Siilieho, who hlocka^led the bev.ie^^in^j l/firl/ftriann, and finally, after they hifl j^reatly >niffered from famine, o^rnf^elled thcrn t/> surrender at discretion. f^A. I^. 406.J 'llic l^arl/arian Icarlcr, I.iinal^d l/y order of the jealous and un;.;rate- fiil f lonoriii:-.. OlytnpiuR — Maanacre of the Barharianit in Italy, — 'Ihc pl;t/,e of .Stilicho wa« supplied hy the unworthy Olympiiw, hy wh'/ie a/l/ice the Krn{>*;ror Ilonoriiw ordered the rnaAwacre of the familie/, of the l/arl/arian;* throughout If^aly. Thi^ horrihie order wa» cruelly cxccuU-A, and the re'/.ult of it wax that yj/Xj^) fjr/thio aoldicrx in the Roman pay revolt^!, and invited Alaric t/.i c/ine to It;xly and avenge the xlaught/rr of hi>, atuniryincn. Alaric's Second Invanion of Italy and Capture of Rome, — At the call of hi.H cjuntrymen, Alaric the Goth again inva^ied luly, and marched directly t/^ Korne and laid «iegc trj the city, korne would have fallen int/> the hands of the l/arl/arian chief, had not the Ern|;<arl/arian //rigin. When the Ia>Aa/l/>r// a^Vi-A, " If Huch, O King, are yz/ur tcrnv., what fl/^ you intend to leave u» ?" the «t/Trn chief iiTjAUA, " Vour live-,4." Thc^e w;vcre term» were, however, V/mev/hat ut'A]Uv\, and Alaric h^^ti-jA it) al/an/J/^n the siege of fm[)f.\\iit\ the city t/^ mnerAnr. (A. h. 410.) Thf: cap- tured city was given up t/j plun/lcr, but the Gothis, profew-ing t/j U; Christian)!, sf/are/1 the churdrcs. Death and Burial of Alaric the Goth, — After Rome ha/1 suffered «ix days from the fury of the c^/n/jucring Goths, the city wa» aF/an-'lz/nf;/! l/y Ihemj and they marche/l int/^ S^/uthcm Italy, where Alaric die/1, 'IT-ic Ixyiy of the barl/arian chief w;w 1/uric/l in the l^;d of a ftmall stream, an/i the caf/tiv/rs who ha/1 f/ref/sre/l his grave were murderc/1 that the R//rnans might never find the place '/f his js/tj/uI- chrc. fA. D. 410.; fori the death of llf/niir'wa (A. D. 423;, bi» y/Aithful nephew, Valentiniarj III., l/ccamt Ern j^eror of the Weirt, 'Hic Gothii xel all nations to acccjH it with fire and sword. Those who sac- rificed tlu'ir lives for the jiropaf^ation of the new faith were promised .1 paradise of sensual enjoymenLs. Ahul)ckir's celebrated {general, Kaled, called «'The Swortl of God," Mibdiied in a short time the few Arabian trii)es who had abandoned the now faith, and reestablished the relijjion of Mohammed over the whole of Arabia. Invasion of Syria — Siege and Capture of Damascus — Death of Abube- kir. — After all Arabia had received the Moslem faith, it was resolved to carry the religion of the Koran beyond tlie borders of Arabia ; and preparations were innnc- diiteiy made to invade the Uyzantine and Persian Empires, both of which had been reduced to a condilit)n of the most deplorable weakness from the long and deso- lating wars that hail raged between them. Kaled invaded I'crsia with an immense nrmy; but he was soon recalled to assist in the con([uest of Syria, which hail been invaded by several large Saracen armies. The great cities of Palmyra and l?o/rah submitted to the invaders. Damascus was besieged by the .Saracens, and finally Carried by storm. On the very day of the capture of Damascus, Abubckir died. (August 3, 634.) HEIGN OF OMAR (A. D. 004-04-4). Accession of Omar — Battle of Yermouk — Fall of Jerusalem— Conquest of Syria. — Abubekir was succeeded as Calii>h by Omar. After the fall of Damas- cus, Kmessa and Baalbec or lleliopolis were also reduced by the Saracen arms. The (Ireek Emperor lleraclius made great efforts to save Syria to his cm]Mre; but his armies suffered an overwhelming defeat from the Saracen forces under Kaled in a great battle on the banks of the Yermouk, where 70,000 Byzantine soldiers laid down tlieir lives. (A. D. 636.) After a siege of four months, Jerusalem sur- rendered to Omar, who caused the ground on which the Temple of Solonu)n had stood to be cleared of its rubbish and prejiared for the erection of a Mohannnedan mosipie, or temple, which still beai-s the name of the Caliph. The reduction of the gre.at cities of Aleppo and Anlioch, in the year 638 A. D., completed the conipiest of Syria by the Saracens. Invasion of Persia— Battle of Cadesiah — Conquest of Persia. — While the events just related were occurring in Syria, other Saracen generals were engaged in the subjugation of Pci-sia. In the ye.ar of the battle of Yermouk (A. 1). 636), one of the bloodiest battles recorded in histoi-y was fought between the Saracens and the Pei-sians on the plain of Cadesiah, the Arabians losing 7,500 men and the Persians 100,000. This great battle broke the power of the Persian monarchy, and five years afterward (A. D. 641), the Persian king, Ycsdejird, like Darius Codomantnig of old, having tied before his conquerors to the mountains, was .assassinated by his own officers. With the death of Ycsdejird ended forever the famous dynasty of the Sassanidiv and the second great Persian Empire; and Pei^sia yielded to the Saracen dominion. Invasion of Egypt — Capture of Memphis and Alexandria. — In the mean- time, Egypt, then a province of the Byzantine or (Jreck Empire, had been Invaded by the Saracen forces under Amru. The Copts of Upix^r Egypt, descendants of the ancient Egyptians, joined the Arabians .against the Ciroeks. Memphis surrendered to the Saracens after a siege of seven montlis; but Alexandria held out longer, and THE DARK AGES. 1 23 only fell into the hands of the Arabians in the year 640 A. D., after an ol/4-e.'3.e). Accession of Othman — Conquest of Cyprus and Rhodes — Assassination of Othman. — Omar was succeeded in the Caliphate by Olhrnan, Mohammed's early secretary, who published a new edition of the Koran. During Othrnan's reign of eleven years, the Islands of Cyprus and Rhodes submitted Xft the Saracen power. Othman was assassinated on his, throne in the year 655 A. D., while he cf/vered his heart with the Koran. HEIOJI OF AI-I (A. D. 653-6^0). Accession of Ali — Civil War among the Saracens — Assassination of Ali. — Up'jn the assassination of Othrnan, Ali, .Mohammed's v^n-in-law, became Caliph. During the reign of Ali, the Mohamme'lan world l>ecame divided into two great religious parties, the Snnnites and the .Shiites. A civil war now broke out among the Saracen-s; and Ali was assassinated, and the throne of the Caliphs was seized \rj the family of the Ommiya.rl':'^. (A. D. f/yj.) REIONS OF THE OMMIYADES (A. D. <3eO-7.92). Damascus made the Saracen Capital — Conquests in India and Tartary, — The fir t Caliph of the dynasty of the Ornrniya/les wa,s Mr^wiyah, who made the beautiful city of Damascus the capital of the Saracen Empire. Under the Omrni- ya/les, the empire of the .Saracens and the religi'/n '^/f the Koran were carried intf) Northern IJindo'^r^;tan and ako into a great jx>rtion of Tartary. Unsuccessful Attacks on Constantinople. — Under the Ornrniya/lcs, the Sara- c«t5 ma/ie several uasuccessful attempts to conquer the Byzantine or Greek Empire, Durinj; a period of seven years (A. D- 66^^-675), Constantinople witlistood seven attacks, and was only saved l;y the newly-invente'l Greek fire. Alx»ut forty years afterwards (A. D. 717), the Byzantine capital was again l>csieged l>y the Saraceiu; but after a siege of more than a year, it was relieved by the Bulgariarj-S, who attacked the .Saracens and inflicted upon them a CTu-.hing d'.-Prat. Siege, Capture, and Destruction of Carthage — Conquest of Northern Africa. — Under the Omnjiyades.the Arabs prosyecuted with vigf/r their comjuest* in Northern Africa. After a heroic resistance of nine yean, Carthage was tak/m by 124 MIDDLE ACES. stoiiii, uiid filially and coiniiletcly ilfstiDyeil. (A. 1>. 69S.) The Snracens cncoun- tfiTil a stiililioiu ii'sistnmc from tlif Mooiisli ami Horhor races, whom Ihcy finally sulxlued in tlif year 701) A, J).; iiml all Norlhcni Africa hecainc n portion of the viust SaratcM I'liiipirf. 'flic Moorish Irihcs, resenihliiij; the rovinj; Arahs in their customs aiul luaiiiu'is, araltar, meaning (lebel al Tarik, or Mill of Tarik. After landing in Spain, 'J'arik ovcrilircw Roderick in the great seven days' battle of Xcres de la Frontera, which tcmiinaUil the Visigothic monarchy in Spain. (A. D. 712.) Roderick VM.ipcd iVom the battle-field, bill found his death in the waters of the CiuadaUpiivir, Alter a gallant defense, Merida, the Spanish capital, surrendered to the victorious S.u.ucns, whose dominion was then esl.iblislu'd in the whole (>f Spain. (A. I'*. 713."^ Saracen Invasion of France — Terrible Defeat of the Saracens near Tours. — Alter the ci>ni|uest of Spain, tlie Saracens resolved to push their arms acriiss the I'yrenees, ami to extend their domiuiiMi and religion over France, ami, if possible, over all Fiirope. Tiu- 1 i.dlic tribes of Southern France submitted without resistance to the ct)iu|uering Arabs; and Abdelrahinan, the Saracen governor of Spain, entered France at the heail ol a large .Xr.ibi.in and Moorish army, and marclied triumph- antly northward, desolating the country along his route with lire anil sword, to the very centre of France, ami established his camp between Tours and Toitiers. Hut now the confederacy of Franks, which had long been torn by ilissensions, united to se the common enemy of luiiope and Christianity. In the year 732 A. D., C'harles Martel, " the Hammer," at the head of a powerful army of I'^anks, met Alxlelrahman and his Saracens near Tours; and after a great battle of seven days, during which several hundred thousand Moslems perished, the victory was decided in favor of the t'hristian I'Vanks. The tide of Mussulman coiupiest was rolled b.uk, aiul luiiope w.is saved to the I'hristian religiori. m:tr.Ns cii-" thk auhasides (a. d. 7r>c-icts). Overthrow of the Omniiyades by tlve Abbasides The Caliphate of Cordova. The Saracen power had already been greatly weakened by domestic dis.sensions ami civil waj-s; and in the year 752 .\. !>., twenty yeai-s after the defeat of the Saracens by the Franks, the dynasty of the Oinnuyailes was overthrown, and the family of the Abbasides, descendants of Abbas, the uncle of M shammed, seized the throne of the Saracen Caliphate. Abderrahman. the only ciue of the Ommiyades who escaped destruction, fled to Spain, in which country he founded the independent Caliphate of Cordova, which lasted 250 years. Bagdad Founded and Made the Saracen Capital. — Under W Mansur, the second Caliph of the Abbaside dynasty, the Saracens built on the hanks o'i the Tigris a new city which thev named Ragdad, and which became the capital of the Saracen Kmjiire and the great centre of Arabian civili.'ation, learning, wealth, and rettnement. THE DARK AGES. "S Civilization of the Arabs. — During the reign of Haroun al Raschid (Aaron the Just) and several of his successors, the Arabs carried science and literature to a very high degree of perfection. Bagdad, Cairo, and Cordova became famous as the seats of learning, while the greater part of Europe was slumbering in the dark- ness of barbarism. The Arabs taught the arts, sciences, literature, and poetry wherever they established their dominion and religion. Architecture and music flourished in all the Arabian cities of Asia, Africa, and Spain. Agriculture, industry, and commerce were encouraged. Decline and Dissolution of the Saracen Empire. — The extensive Saracen Empire, torn by religious and political dissensions, soon declined in power and importance, and before the close of the ninth century it fell to pieces; and numer- ous petty Mohammedan kingdoms arose from the fragments of the once-vast empire of the Caliphs. Although the civil power of the Saracens was thus subverted, the religion of Mohammed remained in all the countries in which it had been estab- lished. Decline and Overthrow of the Saracen Power in Spain. — Under the rule of the Mohammedans, Spain enjoyed a greater dagree of prosperity and a higher state of civilization, than at any previous period. But Ihe .Saracen power in Spain soon began to decline; and in the year 103 1 A. D., the Caliphate of Cordova was dissolved into a number of small .states, which were gradually conriuercd by the Christians from their mountainous seats of the Asturias, in the northern part of the Spanish peninsula. In the course of time arose the Christian kingdoms of Aragon, Ca.stile, Leon, and Portugal, which waged continual wars against the Mohammedan kingdom of Granada, in the south of Spain. The kingdom of Granada was founded in the year 1238 A. D., and conquered in 1492 by the united power of Aragon and Castile, With the conquest of Granada ended the Mohammedan power in Spain, after it had existed in that country eight centuries. THE FRANK EMPIRE. THE REIGNS OF THE MEROVINGIANS. Conquest of Gaul by Clevis, King of the Franks. — In the fifth century of the Christian era, the Franks, or Freemen, conducted by their warlike king, Clovis, invaded Northern Gaul, subdued the country, and, at .Soissons, put to death Syag- rius, the last Roman governor in Gaul. Clovis soon conquered all the country between the Loire and the Seine, and fixed his capital at Soissons, after which he proceeded against the AUemanni on the Rhine, whom he overcame in the battle of Tolbiac. (A. D. 496.) During the battle, Clovis made a vow that if the God worshiped by his wife, who was a Christian princess, would give him the victory he would embrace Christianity. Clovis and 5,000 of his subjects were baptized in the Rhine, on Christmas day, in the year 496 A. D. Savage Character of Clovis. — Christianity had little or no influence on the bloodthirsty disposition of ClovLs. He put to death all the chiefs or kings who fell into his hands ; and, in order to secure himself against rivals, he caused his nearest relations to be murdered. Clovis, who had already made Paris the capital of his kingdom, died in the year 511 A. D. 126 MIDDLE AGES. Division of the Frank Kingdom. — After the death of Clovis, his dominions ■vvcrc divided amoiiij liis sons, and tluis were formed the thrCe kingdoms : Austrasia, east of the Rhino; Neustria, between the Rliinc and the Loire; and Aquitaine, be- tween the Loire and the Pyrenees. These three kingdoms were afterwards nnited under one sovereign, and were enlarged by the conquest and annexation of Burgundy. Character of the Merovingian Kings. — Clovis and his descendants are called Merovingians, from MerovKus, their supposed ancestor. The reigns of the Mero- vingian kings were a period of crime and continual bloodshed. As soon as a king received his crown he caused his male relatives to be put to death. The conse- quence of these murders was that the Merovingian race was reduced to we.ikness nnd imbecility ; and fmally the ministers of the kings, called Mayors of the Palace, usurped all the powers of sovereignty, leaving to the monarchs nothing more than tlie empty title of royalty. Pepin d' Heristal and Charles MarteL — At length Pepin d' Heristal, Mayor of the Palace, united the three Frankish kingdoms, Austrasia, Neustria, and Bur- gundy, and made the Mayoralty hereditary in his family; from which time the Merovingian kings ruled only in name, while all the sovereign power was exercised by the Mayors of the Palace. Pepin d' Heristal was succeeded in the Mayoralty by his son, the heroic and valiant Charles Martel, who by his great victory over the Saracens proved to be the saviour of Christianity in Europe. THE REIGNS OF THE CARLOVINGIANS. REIGN OF PEPIN THE LITTLE (A. D. 751-768). Usurpation of Pepin the Little — Beginning of the Pope's Temporal Power. — On the death of Charles Martel, his son Pepin the Little succeeded to thf Mayoialty. Pepin put an end to the nominal reign of the Merovingian dynasty by deposing the imbecile Childeric IlL, and causing himself to be proclaimed King of the Franks. (A. D. 75'-) Pepin the Little and his descendants are called Car- lovingians. The Pope contirmed the dethronement of the Merovingian race, hoping thereby to secure the assistance of Pepin against the Lombards. In return for this favor from the Head of the Church, Pepin endowed the Pope with a large portion of the .\driatic coast of Italy southward from Ravenna. This was the beginning of the temporal power of the Pope. B»oniface or Winfried — Introduction of Christianity amon^ the Germans. — During the reign of Pepin the Little, Boniface, or Winfried, the active and zeal- ous English missionary, fust promulgated the doctrine of a crucified Redeemer to the savage inhabitants of Germany ; and through his efibrts churches and bishoprics were established in that country. Boniface preached the Gospel of Christ in Hesse, and displ.iyed such zeal that he was surnamed " The Apostle of the Germans." After being made Archbishop of Maycnce, Winfried, in his old age, undertook a mission to the pagan Finlanders, who put the noble missionary to a violent death, REIGN OF CHARLEMAGNE (A. D. 768-814). Accession of Charlemagne or Charles the Great. — Pepin the Little diedia the ycui 76S A. D., and left the Fnuik kingdom to his two sons, Charles and Carlo- THE DARK AGES. 127 man. On the death of Carloman, in the year 871, Charles seized upon all the Prankish dominions, and thus became sole sovereign of the vast Frank monarchy. Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, as he is called, was one of the grealc;st and wistst monarchs of the Middle Ages, as he did much for the establishment of Chris, tianity and the revival of civilization in Europe. Charlemagne's First War with the Saxons. — After crushing a revolt of the Afiuitiiiiiaii.s, Charlemagne led an army against the Saxons of Northern Germany. Charlemagne took the fortress of Eresburg, destroyed the pagan idols, and in the year 772 compelled the Saxons to accept a treaty of peace. But this peace was of short duration; and for thirty-two years, Charlemagne waged war against the Saxons, for the purpose of punishing them for their repeated aggressions, and extending his empire and the Christian religion. Conquest of the Lombard Kingdom in Italy by Charlemagne. — After his lir.it war with the Saxons, Charlemagne Ijecame involved in a war with the Lombards of Northern Italy. The Lombard king, Dcsidcrius, had given protection to the widow of Carloman, the deceased brother of Charlemagne; and when Pope Adrian I. refused to anoint her sons Kings of the Franks, Desiderius threatened an invasion of the papal dominions. Upon the Pope's appeal for aid, Charlemagne crossed the Alps into Italy with a large army, and compelled Desiderius to .shut himself up in his capital, Pavia, which surrendered to the Franks after a six months' siege. Desiderius was made a prisoner, and spent the remainder of his days in a cloister; and Charlemagne, placing upon his own head the iron crown of the Lom- bards, assumed the title of King of Italy, thus putting an end to the Lombard monarchy which had existed in Northern Italy for two centuries. (A. D. 774.) Charlemagne's Second War with the Saxons.— While Charlemagne was in Italy, the Saxons expelled the Frank garrisons from their territory. But after the conquest of the Lombards, Charlemagne again led a large army into the Saxon country, subdued the barbarians a second time, and compelled the Saxon chiefs to agree to the peace of Paderborn. The warlike Saxon duke, Witikind, refusing to accept the treaty, fled to the Danes. (A. D. 777.) Charlemagne's Aid to the Christians of Spain — Battle of Roncesvalles. — In the year 778 A. D., Charlemagne went to the assistance of the Christians of Spain against the Saracens, He dismantled Pampeluna and Saragossa, and united all that portion of Spain between the Ebro and the Pyrenees to the great Frank Empire. As the Frankish monarch was recrossing the Pyrenees into France, his rear-guard, under the command of his nephew Roland, was attacked and cut to pieces in the pass of Roncesvalles. Roland himself was among the slain. The battle of Roncesvalles gave rise to many romances, and was celebrated in the poetry of the Middle Ages. Renewal of the War with the Saxons. — While Charlemagne was fighting against the Mohammedans in Spain, the Saxons again took up arms against the Franks; but after his return from Spain, Charlemagne again invaded and ravaged the territories of the Saxons, and again subjugated those fierce people after a series of desperate encounters. The victorious Frankish king compelled many of the conquered Saxons to join his armies in a war against the Slavonians in the East of Europe, 128 MIDDLE AGES. Conquest of the Saxons by Charlemagne. — On the march against the Slavo- uians, the Saxons in Charlemagne's army fell suddenly upon the Frankish soldiers and massacred many of them. This treachery was terribly avenged by the Frankish monarch, who devastated the Saxon territory and caused 4,500 Saxons whom he had made prisoners to be put to death. The Saxons now renewed the war, but after sustaining a severe defeat on the Hase they were obliged to submit; and Saxony became a portion of the Frank Empire. Witikind, the Saxon chief, swore fealty to the Frankish monarch, received Christian baptism, and he and his people embraced Christianity. Bishoprics, monasteries, and churches, rapidly sprung up in the Saxon country. The Margraviate of Brandenburg — Thassilo, Duke of Bavaria. — In the year 7S8 A. D., not long after Charlemagne had established the Margraviate of Brandenburg as a check against the destructive inroads of the Slavonians, his nephew, Thassilo, Duke of Bavaria, endeavored to cast off the yoke of Frankish supremacy, with the aid of the wild Avars, who had established themselves in the East of Europe. The treacherous Bavarian duke was defeated, made prisoner, and pun- ished for his faithlessness by perpetual imprisonment in the cloister at Fulda, in Hesse. Charlemagne then incorporated the Dukedom of Bavaria with the great Frank Empire, and established the Eastern Margraviate to check tlie incursions of the Avars. Charlemagne Crowned at Rome Emperor of the West — Division in the Church. — When Charlemagne had become master of all France, Germany, and Italy, and a large portion of Spain, he proceeded to Rome, where, on Christ- mas day, in the year 800 A. D., as the great Frankish monarch was attending divine service in the Church of St. Peter, Pope Leo HI. placed the golden crown of the Roman Empire upon his head, and saluted him with title of " Emperor of the Ro- mans," while the people in the church shouted, "Long life to Charles Augustus, crowned by the hand of God great and pacific Emperor of the Romans." The crowning of Charlemagne at Rome was regarded as a revival of the Roman Empire of the West; and Charlemagne was considered a successor of the Csesars. The capital of Charlemagne's empire was Aix-la-Chapelle. There were now two great empires in Christendom ; — that of the East with Constantinople for its capital, and that of the West with Aix-la-Chapelle for its seat of government. The division which had for a long time existed in the Christian Church now ended in a complete separation; and thus arose the Eastern, or Greek Catholic, and the Western, or Roman Catholic Churches. Rebellion of the Saxons — Their Final Subjugation by Charlemagne. — Maddened by the oppressive system of military service, and by the payment of tithes to the Church, the Saxons rose in rebellion against the Frank power; but they were finally reduced to submission in the year 840 A. D. ; and 10,000 Saxon fami- lies were forced to settle among the Franks, while colonies of Franks were settled in the Saxon country. Charlemagne's Domestic Policy. — Charlemagne, who was extremely fond of learning, received instruction from the Saxon Alcuin, one of the greatest scholars of his time. He made the greatest exertions for the advancement of civilization among his subjects, and established order and improved the administration of justice throughout his vast dominions. He encouraged the arts, agriculture, commerce, THE DARK AGES. 129 and literature; and founded schools and cathedrals for the diffusion of intellectual enlightenment and Christianity. His capital, Aix-la-Chapelle, was splendidly em- bellished with palaces, churches, and works of art. Death of Charlemagne. — This great monarch, who did so much to dispel the intellectual darkness which almost universally prevailed in Europe, died in the year 814 A. D., leaving his extensive empire to his son, Louis the Debonnaire (the Good-natured). CHARLEMAGNE'S SUCCESSORS. Louis the Debonnaire — His Disposition — Civil War— Battle of Fon- tenaille. — Charlemagne's successors were unalile to keep together the great empire which he had l^uilt up. Louis the Debonnaire, who was a weak prince and unfit for government, was dethroned by his own sons, who had taken up arms against their father. The sons then quarreled, and a fierce civil war followed. A sanguinai"y battle of three days was fought at Fontenaille, in Burgundy, in the year 841 A. D., where many thousands of the bravest of the Frank nobles and soldiers were slain. Partition Treaty of Verdun — Dismemberment of the Frank Empire — — Charles the Fat. — Two years after the battle of Fontenaille (843 A. D.), the partition treaty of Verdun was concluded, by which the sons of Louis the Debon- naire divided the Frank Empire among themselves — Lothaire taking Italy, Bur-, gundy, and Lorraine; Louis the German obtaining Germany; and Charles the Bald receiving France. By the rapid deaths of most of the Carlovingian princes, the empire of Charlemagne was restored in the year 884 A. D., under the imbecile Charles the Fat; but three years afterward (A. D. 887), it was finally dissolved. BARBARIAN RAVAGES IN EUROPE. The Slavonians or Slaves and the Avars. — The dissolution of the Frank Empire was followed by a time of great confusion, during which Europe was greatly harassed on all sides by the ravages of barbarians. In the East of Europe were the Slavonians, or Slaves, who made the most destructive inroads into the Eastern portions of Germany. The Avars, another fierce tribe, also made very de- structive incursions on the Eastern frontiers of Germany. The Hungarians or Magyars. — Germany was a prey to the ravages of a fiercer and more valiant people than either the Slavonians or the Avars, — namely, the Hungarians, or Magyars, a warlike and ferocious tribe of Tartars from Asia, who, after crossing the Ural, under their leader, Arpad, settled in the valleys of the Theiss and Danube rivers, which region has ever since been called Hungary. For several centuries, Germany was harassed by these fierce barbarians, whose ferocity was only tamed when they embraced Christianity, toward the close of ihe tenth century. The Saracens in Italy. — While the barbarian Slavonians, Avars, and Mag}'ars ravaged Central Europe, the Saracens ravaged the coasts of Italy after they had established themselves in Sicily. The armies of the Byzantine Empire for a time defended Southern Italy against the Arabs, whose ravages in Italy were only termi- nated after their defeat by Otho II., Emperor of Germany, in the tenth century. 9 l-o MIDDLE AGES. The Northmen or Normans. — A far more daring and formidable race of bar- barians than the Slaves, the Avars, or the Hungarians, were the freebooting North- men, or Normans, from the Scandinavian peninsida, who kept the coasts of Germany, France, and England in constant alarm. In their light vessels, the Normans rav- aged the coasts of the North Sea, sailed up the mouths of rivers, and, after securing a vast amount of booty, returned with it to their homes. For two centuries, the Normans, under the name of Danes, ravaged England. A band of Normans, led by a chief named Rollo, settled in that portion of France named from them, Nor- mandy. Ruric, a Norman Varangian chief, became the prince of the Russians, a Slavonic race to the south of the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. Icela,nd was dis- covered and peopled by Norwegians, who established in that remote island a flour- ishing republic. Greenland was discovered and peopled from Iceland. The Nor- mans are said to have visited the North American continent. EUROPEAN INSTITUTIONS. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. Origin of the Feudal System — Divrsion of Lands among the Barba- rians. — We will now proceed to give an account of the Feudal System, or fonn of government which prevailed throughout Euroj^e during the Middle Ages. The barbarians who overthrew the Western Roman Empire divided the conquered lands among themselves. The chief of each of these tribes of barbarians was called a " king." Under him were other chiefs or leaders called " barons." Under each of these barons there were still other chiefs, and under each of these last was a large body of people. The military organization was kept up in the conquered countries. The barbarian conquerors devoted themselves entirely to war, leaving the tilling of the .soil to the conquered inhabitants, who became slaves or serfs. The serfs could not be taken from the Lands on which they lived, but were bought and sold with them. Castles of the Kings and Barons — Allotment of the Lands — Feuds or Fiefs. — The kings and barons owned large stone castles, to which they retired when attacked by an enemy. All the personal property of the conquered people was divided by lot among the conquerors; but the lands were regarded as the pro- perty of the king, not to retain, however, but to grant to his followers. The king kept a portion of the lands for his own use. These were called "crown lands;" and the king's power depended upon the extent of his private estates. The remain- der of the lands was bestowed on his subordinate chiefs, the barons, to be held by them for life. At the death of a chief or baron, his portion of land, called a '*feud," or " lief, " was again taken by the king, who then bestowed it on some other baron. From tlie term "feud," the word "feudal" is derived; and by the Feudal System is meant tlie system based on the feuds or fiefs. EUROPEAN INSTITUTIONS. 131 Vassals and Lord-paramount — Conditions of the Allotment -Sub- fiefs. — Those to whom the king granted fiefs were called "vassals of the crown," or "liegemen." The giver of the lands was called a " liege-lord," or "lord-para- mount." The king bestowed the lands on his vassals, on condition that they should join him with a cortain number of soldiers whenever he should call them to arms. To this they bound themselves by a solemn oath, which was called " swearing fealty." The king, who was lord-paramount, or liege-lord, in return, swore to protect his vassal, and not to continue in arms more than forty days at a time, nor war against the Church. On the same condition, the vassals of the crown distributed their lands among their followers or vassals. Thus each vassal bestowed fiefs and sub-fiefs on his vassals, each of whom did homage for his lands to his liege-lord. .So there were many grades of fiefs and sub-fiefs. Fiefs and Titles become Hereditary. — These fiefs, which were at first granted only for life, at length became hereditary in the families of the great vassals of the crown, each of whose estates at his death passed into the possession of his eldest son. In the same manner, great offices and their titles, such as duke, marquis, count, or baron, finally became hereditary also. Out of this state of things origin- ated the exclusive privileges yet enjoyed by the nobility of Europe. CHIVALRY. Origin of Chivalry — Devotion to the Cause of the Weak and Oppressed. — The great oppressions and abases to which the Feudal System gave rise, led to the establishment of a remarkable institution throughout Europe about the begin- ning of the eleventh century. This peculiar institution, called Chivalry, originated in the piety of some nobles who wished to give to the profession of arms a religious tendency. These nobles devoted their swords to God, and bound themselves by a solemn oath to use them only in the cause of the weak and the oppressed. Those who took upon themselves these vows were called "knights." Very soon every noble aspired to the honor of being a knight; and the result was that much attention was given to the education of the young, for more than physical power was needed before any one could be admitted to the honors of knighthood. Virtues Requisite for Knighthood — Education of a Knight. — The aspi- rant to knighthood was required to be brave, courteous, generous, truthful, obedient, and respectful to his superiors in age or rank, and also to the ladies. The result of the development of these virtuous and noble qualities was that the candidate for knighthood became kind and affable to all who were below him in rank or fortune, The young noble who aspired to knighthood was placed at a very early age under the caro of some noble distinguished for his chivalrous qualities, who, in his castle, instructed the young aspirant to knighthood in all the duties of Chivalry. Ceremonies of Admission to Knighthood. — The ceremonies of admission to the order of knighthood were somewhat singular. The candidate was first placed in a bath, to denote that in presenting himself for knighthood, he must pre- sent himself washed from his sins. When he left the bath he was clothed; first in a white tunic, to signify the purify of the life he was vowing to lead ; then in a crimson vest, to denote that he was called upon to shed blood ; and lastly in a com- 1^2 MIDDLE AGES. plete suit of black armor, which was an emblem of death, for which he must always be prepared. He took an oath to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect the distressed, to practice courtesy, to defend the Christian religion, to despise the allurements of ease, and to vindicate the honor of his name. Dress and Arms of a Knight. — The knight was dressed in a suit of armor which protected his whole person. This armor was sometimes made of mail, that is, links of iron forming a kind of net-work dress, which a sword or a lance could not easily penetrate. Often this armor consisted of plates of iron, which protected the whole body of the knight. The aggressive weapons of a knight were a lance twelve or fifteen feet in length, a large sword, a dagger, and sometimes a battle-axe, or a steel club called " mace-at-arms." The knight's war-horse, like himself, was protected by a covering of mail or iron plate. Knights-errant — Tournaments. — Those knights who traveled about from place to place, independent of each other, were called " Knights-errant." Some- times a great entertainment, called a " tournament," was given by some king or rich prince, at which a mock combat was held for the knights to display their skill in the use of arms. A vast number of ladies and gentlemen assembled to witness these friendly trials of skill. At the conclusion of the exercises, the judges, who were usually old knights, declared the victors; and the prizes were presented to the successful knights by the noblest or most beautiful lady present. Good Effects of Chivalry on European Civilization. — The good effects of the institution of Chivalry were many. While it protected the defenseless and the downtrodden in that warlike and barbarous period, the Middle Ages, it contributed much to the final overthrow of feudalism and the revival of European civilization, which had disappeared with the fall of the "Western Roman Empire. Commerce increased, talent and invention received encouragement, the arts and the sciences began to flourish, and many new towns were built and peopled. THE PAPACY AND HIERARCHY. The Papal Power— Hildebrand. — The Pope, or Head of the Church, assumed command or authority over all the princes and kingdoms of Christendom. He regarded the empire of Germany and all other Christian kingdoms as papal fiefs. From the eleventh to the sixteenth century the papal power was at its height. During that period the power of the Pope was so great that the most powerful monarchs of Europe could be subjected to the greatest humiliations by His Holiness. The most powerful and most illustrious, and the ablest of the Popes, and the one who raised the papacy above every other power in Christendom, was Gregory VH. (Hildebrand), who compelled Henry IV., Emperor of Germany, to come to Italy and stand three days and three nights barefoot in the snow, without tasting a mouth- ful of food. Interdict and Excommunication. — The two punishments by the influence of which the Pope endeavored to maintain his authority were the interdict and the excommunication. The papal punishment by the interdict was forbidding or inter- dicting divine service to be publicly performed. When a nation was under an interdict, the churches were all closed, the bells were not rung, the dead were thrown into ditches and holes without any funeral ceremonies, divei-sions of all sorts were EUROPEAN INSTITUTIONS. -^zi forbidden, and everything presented an appearance of gloom and mourning. An interdict was leveled at a village, a city, a state, or a nation; but an excommunica- tion was directed against individuals. A person excommunicated by the Pope was regarded as unholy and polluted; and every person was forbidden to come near him or render him any friendly assistance. If the sentence of excommunication could be enforced, as in most cases it could, the proudest and most powerful mon- arch could become, by a single decree of the Holy See, a miserable outcast. The Power and Influence of the Clergy. — The power and influence of the clergy during the Middle Ages was almost as great and important as was that of the nobles and the princes. Besides their ecclesiastical dignities, the superior clergy often held the most important offices of state ; and by degrees great numbers of the archbishops, bishops, and abbots acquired extensive possessions, so that they finally became as powerful and influential as most of the princes. The magnificent cathe- drals and abbeys, adorned with all the productions of art, fully attested the greatness of the ecclesiastical residences. MONACHISM. Origin of Monachism or Monasticism — Life of Solitude and Religious Devotion. — Monachism, or Monasticism, had its birth-place in the East, where a life of solitude and devotion to the contemplation of divine subjects was by degrees adopted by so many, that about the close of the third century of the Christian era, the Egyptian Antonius, who had divested himself of all his vast possessions and selected the desert for his residence, collected the hitherto scattered monks, or mona- chi, as they were called, into enclosed places styled monasteries, cloisters, or con- vents. In these monasteries the monks lived together in fellowship; and Pachomius, the disciple of Antonius, gave the fraternity a rule. The Benedictine Monks — The Augustinians and other Monastic Or- ders. — Monasticism soon extended into Western Europe. In the sixth century, ]3encdict of Nursia established a monastery on Mount Casino, in Southern Italy, and thus became the founder of the famous order of Benedictine monks, which rapidly spread jnto all European countries and built many cloisters. Numerous orders of monks arose in the course of time, among which were the Augustinians, so called from their founder, St. Augustine. Other noted monastic orders were the Cistercians, the Premonstrahts, and the Carthusians. The Franciscan and Dominican Monks. — Two celebrated monkish orders arose in the thirteenth century, — the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The order of Franciscans was founded by the pious Francis of Assisi, a wealthy merchant's son, who, in 1226, renounced all his possessions, clothed himself in rags, and went from place to place, begging and preaching the Gospel. His wonderful zeal for the sal- vation of souls made for him many disciples, who, following his example, renounced their worldly possessions, fasted, prayed, and supported themselves by alms and donations. The order of Franciscans became wide-spread throughout Europe. About the same time arose the order of Dominicans, founded by the learned Span- iard, Dominicus. The chief aim of the Dominican monks was the extinction of all heretical doctrines and the preservation of the predominant faith in its original purity. The Dominicans took a vow of absolute poverty, and sought to gain heaven 134 MIDDLE AGES. by austerity of manner and by a strict religious devotion. The Court of the Inqui- sition, with all its horrible examinations, dungeons, and tortures, was assigned to the Dominicans for the extermination of heretics, as all who differed from the estab- lished Church were called. The Franciscan monks, who mingled with the people, were chiefly engaged in the salvation of souls; while the Dominicans, who gave their attention to the sciences, filled, by degrees, the chairs of the universities. Monastic Vows — Nuns and Nunneries — Relations of Monachism to the Papacy. — All monks were obliged to take the three vows of celibacy, personal poverty, and obedience. Females who took upon themselves the obligations of Monachism were called "nuns," and their cloisters or convents were styled "nun- neries." The monastic orders were the strongest support of the power of the Pope, who endowed them with the greatest privileges and removed them friim the author- ity of the bishojjs. Beneficial Influence of Monachism on Civilization and the Manners of the Age. — Monachism proved a blessing to humanity during the dark and barba- rous period of the Middle Ages. It preserved the remains of ancient civilization, afforded an asylum or place of refuge for the down-trodden and the oppressed, and diffused morality and intellectual enlightenment, and softened the rude manners of those benighted times by the preaching of the Gospel, and by the establishment of schools for education. THE CRUSADES. THE FIRST CRUSADE (A. D. 1096-1099) Christian Pilgrimages to Jerusalem — Outrages upon the Pilgrims- — From the time of the triumph of Christianity over the paganism of the Roman world in the fourth century, it had been a custom among the people of Christian Europe to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem for the purpose of expiating a sinful life, praying at the Holy Sepulchre, and exhibiting gratitude for heavenly mercies. As long as Syria and Palestine formed a part of the Byzantine, Greek, or Eastern Roman Em- pire, access to the Holy City was secured to these pilgrims. While the Holy Land remained under the enlightened dominion of the Saracens or Arabians, the Christian pilgrim was also unmolested in his journey to and from the Holy Sepulchre. But when the Seljuk Turks, a race of fierce barbarians from the plains of Tartary, took Terusalem in 1076, and obtained full possession of the Holy Land in 1094, the native Christians and the pilgrims from Europe were ill-treated, and many of them became martyrs to their religion. Those who returned to Europe from their pil- gi-images gave a melancholy account of the cruelties and oppressions suffered by the Christians in Palestine at tlie hands of the infidel Turks, and thus excited the greatest indignation in Christian Europe. THE CRUSADES. 135 Preaching of Peter the Hermit — Enthusiasm of the People of Europe. — Among others who had been witnesses of the cruelties and ojJiJressions suffered by the Christians in Palestine was the zealous and fanatical monk, Peter the Hermit, of Amiens, in the French province of Picardy. On his return to Europe from a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, Peter the Hermit resolved to arouse the Christian nations of Europe to a gigantic effort to wrest the Holy Land from the hands of the infidels. Peter went from town to town, and from castle to castle, preaching of the duty of Christian Europe to expel the barbarian Turks from the Holy City. Wher- ever he went, numerous crowds assembled to hear him; and very soon all France and Italy were aroused to the wildest enthusiasm for an expedition against the infidel desecrators of the shrine of the Saviour. Pope Urban IL and the Council of Clermont. — Pope Urban II., who zeal- ously abetted the design for an expedition for the redemption of the Holy Land, as- sembled a Council of the Church at Clermont, in Southern France. This Council was attended by numerous bishops and an immense concourse of people. When the Pope, addressing the clergy and the multitude, said, " It is the duty of every one to deny himself and take up the cross, that he may win Christ," there arose a simultaneous shout, " It is the will of God!" and great numbers demanded to be enlisted in the sacred army. As the symbol of enlistment in the cause of God was a red cross to be worn on the right shoulder, the expedition was called a "Crusade," and those who engaged in it were called "Crusaders." All who engaged in the enterprise received from the Church the promise of a remission of sins and an eter- nal heavenly reward after death. The First Band of Crusaders under Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless — The enthusiasm for the Crusade was so great throughout Christian Europe that many became impatient at what they considered the slowness of the preparations of princes; and accordingly, in 1096, numerous bands, consisting of thousands of the lowest classes of society, set out for the Holy Land without order or discipline. They were led by Peter the Hermit and a French knight called " Walter the Penniless." They proceeded through Germany and Hungary towards Constantinople, but very few of them ever reached Asia. Having attempted to obtain the necessaries of life by forcible means in the countries through which they passed, and having carried robbery and desolation through Bulgaria and stormed Belgrade, the inhabitants of those countries rose against them and destroyed nearly the entire band of Crusaders; and Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless had very few followers when they reached Constantinople, where they waited to join the great army of the First Crusade under Godfrey of Bouillon. Fate of other Disorderly Bands, — Other disorderly and undisciplined bands, which violently persecuted and even murdered Jews and others who rejected Christ, followed those of Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless; but they were totally destroyed before they reached Constantinople by the people whom they had robbed and plundered. The Great Army under Godfrey of Bouillon — The other Chief Leaders, — Nearly 300,000 of the Crusaders had already perished when the valiant Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, led a powerful and disciplined army toward the Holy Land. The principal leaders of the Crusaders next to Godfrey of Bouillon were Count Hugh of Vermandois, brother of King Philip I. of France; Duke Robert 136 MIDDLE AGES. of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror of England ; Count Stephen of Blois, father of King Stephen of England ; the chivalrous Count Raymond of Toulouse ; Earl Robert of Flanders; and Bohemond, brother of Robert Guiscard, the Norman prince of Southern Italy. This great army of Crusaders set off for Palestine in six divisions, which took different routes to Constantinople, where all were united be- fore passing over into Asia. When the Crusaders arrived in Asia their army con- sisted of 400,000 men, of whom 100,000 were cavalry. Siege and Capture of Antioch by the Crusaders — Their Cruelties. — The Crusaders captured Nice, in Asia Minor, in 1097, after a siege of two months, and defeated the Turks in the battle of Dorylseum. Proceeding in their victorious career, the Christians next laid siege to Antioch. That city was finally taken by the strategy of Prince Bohemond and the treachery of one of the Turks, who left a gate open to the besieging Crusaders. The greatest cruelties were perj-ietrated upon the unfortunate inhabitants of Antioch, by the victorious Christians, after the capture of the city. Great Christian Victory at Antioch. — A few days after the Crusaders had taken Antioch, an army of 300,000 Turks and Persians appeared before that city. The finding of a " holy lance" in the Church of St. Peter raised the courage of tlie Christians, who sallied out of the city, and, after a desperate battle, totally defeated the infidels and forced them to a precipitate flight. Siege and Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders — Massacre of Mo- hammedans. — Onward the Crusaders proceetlcd. When they came in sight of Jerusalem they shouted and wept for joy, and fell down on their knees and offered thanks to God; but their joy was succeeded by rage at beholding the Holy City in the possession of the Mohammedans. The Crusaders therefore laid siege to the city, which they finally took by storm, in July, 1099, after a siege of nearly six months. The streets of the captured city were soon filled with the bodies of 70,000 slaughtered Mohammedans. The conquering Christians believed that they were doing God good service by slaughtering all who rejected the Saviour; and both Jews and Mohammedans were massacred. After this most sho9king atrocity, the Crusaders proceeded with hymns of praise to the Hill of Calvary, and kissed the stone which had covered the body of the Saviour; and then offered thanks to the God of Peace for the signal success of their undertaking. Founding of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem. — After the capture of the Holy City, the Crusaders established the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem, whicli lasted nearly a century. Their gallant leader, Godfrey of Bouillon, was made ruler of the new state. He was too pious to assume the title of "King;" but called himself " Defender of the Holy Sepulchre," and wore a crown of thorns instead of one of gold. Godfrey gained a great victory over the Sultan of Egypt, at Ascalon, in August, 1099. He died in the following year (A. D. iioo), and was succeeded at the head of the new state by his heroic brother Baldwin. Founding of the Knights of St. John and the Knights Templars. — Some time after the First Crusade, two celebrated orders of knighthood arose at Jerusalem. These were the Knights of St. John, or Hospitallers, and the Knights Templars, or Red Cross Knights. Both these orders became famous for their mili- tary exploits against the infidels. THE CRUSADES. THE SECOND CRUSADE (1147-1148). 137 Loss of Christian Fortresses in Palestine — Preaching of St. Bernard. — The Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem sufiered many attaclvs from the infidels, and some of the principal Christian fortresses in Palestine were lost. Under these circumstances, Christian Europe undertook a Second Crusade. The pious and eloquent St. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, in Burgundy, preached the cross in Fiance and Germany. (A. D. 1 147.) Expeditions under Conrad III., of Germany, and Louis VIL, of France. — Powerful expeditions were led toward the Holy Land by Conrad IIL, Emperor of Germany, and Louis VIL, King of France. The army under Conrad marched by way of Constantinople into Asia Minor, where it was decoyed by the treach- erous Greek generals into a waterless desert, where the Turkish cavalry sud- denly attacked and thoroughly annihilated the army of German Crusaders, only a tenth part of whom succeeded in escaping to Constantinople. The French anny, led by King Louis VIL, marched along the coast, but the greater portion perished from famine and fatigue, and by the swords of the infidels, before reaching Jerusa- lem. The shattered remnants of the immense hosts of French and Germans, led by the two sovereigns, after reaching the Holy Land, engaged in an unsuccessful siege of Damascus, which was the termination of the Second Crusade. THE THIRD CRUSADE (A. D. 1189-1192). Conquest of Palestine and Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, Sultan of Egypt. — The situation of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem became more and more perilous after the Second Crusade; and at length the valiant Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, reduced a part of Palestine under his sceptre. The magnanimous Saladin finally granted the Christians of Palestine a truce; but when a Christian knight interrupted the passage of Saladin's mother, seized her treasures, and slew her attendants, the exasperated Sultan of Egypt recommenced hostilities, defeated the Christians in the battle of Tiberias, took Joppa, Sidon, Acre, and other towns, and in 1 187 Jerusalem also fell into the possession of the conquering infidel. Sala- din, who surpassed his CHristian foes in virtue, generosity, and nobleness of heart, treated the inhabitants of the Holy City with mildness, but caused the crosses to be torn down and the furniture of the Christian churches to be destroyed. Expeditions of Frederic Barbarossa, Philip Augustus, and Richard the Lion-hearted.— Upon the arrival of intelligence of the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, great alarm prevailed throughout the whole West of Europe ; and from the shores of the Mediterranean to the coasts of the Baltic, armed bands set off for the Holy Land. The three most powerful sovereigns of Europe, Frederic Barbar- ossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard the Lion-hearted of England, led powerful armies against the infidels. (A. D. 1 189.) Frederic Barbarossa's Victory at Iconium — His Accidental Death. — The Emperor Frederic Barbarbossa with the German army marched by land to Asia Minor, and defeated the Sultan of Iconium in a great battle near the walls of his chief city; but the noble-hearted German Emperor lost his life in a stream i;,S Minni.E ACES. wliich lie hiul allcmpti'il to cross. His sccoiul soi\, KrccU'vio, with w part of the cxprdilioii, [iiiu-ci'di'tl to I'iilcstiuc, anil took jwit in tlic siege of Aiio. Siege and Capture of Acre by Richard the Lion-hearted and Philip Augustus.— Kings Kiiliaid Ihc 1 ion luMilcil ami riiilip Auj;iistiis, willi tlic Kng- iisii and .l''rcneli armies, alur icailiinj; lliclluly 1 , and i>) sia, laid siege to Acre, wliieh leli into llieii liands in 119J, after a siege of nearly two years, during wliiclr nine great tiatlUs weie fonglit before the eily. Rielianl tiic 1, ion-hearted was noted for Ids eniMgy, ability, and valor, as well as lor liis jiriile, severity, and cruelly. Arrogance and Cruelty of Richard the Lion-hearted. -I>y the orders of Kieliard the 1 , ion-hearted, tlie (.Jernian l)anner, wliieh Duke Leopold of Austria liad caused to be erected o\\ tlie battlements of Acre, was torn down and tr.unpled under foot by the English. When the infidels failed to billll the stipulations for the payment of a ransv)m lor liie captive Saracens, 3,500 of them fell victims to the liery temper of the English king. Richard's courage made him feared anil respecleil by the inlidels ; but notwithstanding his military skill and bravery, his elforls lor the recapture of Jerusalem were unavailing. Quarrel of the Kings of England and France Richard's Captivity in Qcrmany. — The King of I'Vaucc was jealous of the sujierior military ability of the King of Kngland. The two nionarchs soon quarreled, and I'hilip Augustus returned to I'rancc. After gaining a great vicloiy over Sultan Saladin near Ascalon, Richard the Lion-hearted set out i>n his rcl\irn, by sea, to his kingdom. (A. J). 1192.) His vessel, having been ilriven by a stoim to the coast of Italy, Richard proceeded on ids way to England, by land, through (.Icrmany; but he was seized and imprisoned in the castle of Tiifels, by order of the ICmperor Henry VL of tU-rmany, in revenge for the insult to the tJeiman Hag after the capture of .Acre, and only obtained his release upon the payment of a heavy ransom by the lMig1i>h people. Till-: FOURTH CRUSADE (A. D. i'J02-1203\ ICxpedition of l-'rcnch anil It.ili.ur Knights under Count Baldwin of l'"landcrs. -Inlheye.ir uo.* .A. l>.,ihe Kouilh C'rus.ide was underl.ikcn by I'rench and Italian knights, imder C'ovmt Baldwin of I'landers, at thtJ instigation i>f I'ojie Inno- cent HI. Alter assembling at Venice for the purpose of being conveyed to rales- tine, the Crusaders eaptnreil Zara, in D.dni.itia, for the Venetians; but instead of sailing to the Holy Land, they proceeded againit Constantinople for the j)urposc of restoring to the throne .inded the rewards which had been promised to them, the inhabitants of Coustantino|)lc laised an insurrection in which the Emperor Isaac Angelus and his son Alexius perished. Thereupon the French Crusadci's stormed and took the l>y4'antine capit.d, plundered the churches, [ul.ices, and dwellings, ilestroycd n\auy valuable monuments of art, and tilled ihc whole citv w ith terror and dcsol.uion RICHARD, THE LIOII-HLARTED THE CRUSADES. 139 Temporary Subversion of the Greek Empire — A New Roman or Latin Empire. — After plundering Constantinople, the French Crusaders subverted the IJyzantine or Greek Empire, and established in its stead a new Roman or Latin Empire, with Constantinople for its capital, and Count Baldwin of Flanders for its sovereign. This Latin kingdom lasted fifty-six years, after which it was overthrown, and the old Byzantine dynasty was restored to the throne of Constantinople in the person of Michael Palaiologus. THE FIFTH CRUSADE (A. D. 1228-1229). Separate Bands of Crusaders — The Child's Crusade — Expedition of Andrew IL of Hungary. — The Puurth Crusade was witliout results, concerning Jerusalem; and at times after its conclusion separate bands of Crusaders, without chiefs or without discipline, made journeys to the Holy Land, and ventured upon the hazardous undertakings of restoring the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem and defending the Latin kingdom of Constantinople. On one occasion, 20,000 children left their homes in Europe on a journey to the Holy Sepulchre, but they perished from hunger and fatigue, or were sold into slavery. In 1218, King Andrew H. of Hungary began the T'lfth Crusade; but his expedition to Egypt had a disastrous result. Expedition of Frederic IL of Germany to Palestine — Treaty with Melek Kamel. — In 1228, the excommunicated Frederic II. , Emperor of Germany, led an expedition into Palestine, at a time when the Sultan of Egypt was at war with the governor of Damascus respecting the possession of Syria and Palestine. The Pope forbade all Christian warriors from joining the expedition until the Emperer Fred- eric II. should be relieved from the curse of the Church. In 1229, Frederick II. concluded a treaty with Sultan Melek Kamel of Egypt, by which Jerusalem and the greater part of the Holy Land were surrendered to the Christians ; but the Pope excommunicated the Holy City, and Frederick II. was crowned at Jerusalem with- out being consecrated by the Church. The abandoned Emperor soon returned to Germany. THE SIXTH CRUSADE (A. D. 1250-1251). Ravages of the Corasmins in Palestine — Capture and Massacre of Jerusalem. — In the year 1243 A. D., fourteen years after the Fifth Crusade, the Corasmins, a fierce tribe of barbarians from the plains of Tartary, overran Pales- tine, carrying slaughter and desolation wherever they appeared, took Jerusalem, massacred its inhabitants, destroyed the Holy Sepulchre, and wasted the flower of the Christian chivalry in a desperate battle at Gaza; but they were finally defeated Sy the Christian and Turkish armies, which, for the moment, united against the common enemy. Expedition of St. Louis to Egypt — Captivity and Release of St. Louis. — The horrible deeds of the Corasmins in Palestine led to the Sixth Crusade, which was conducted by the French king, Louis IX., or St. Louis, who, in 1250, accom- panied by many of his nobles, sailed at the head of a powerful expedition to Egypt. 140 MIDDLE AGES. After taking the town of Damietta, the French fleet was destroyed in the Nile by means of Greek fire; and St. Louis was taken prisoner by the Sultan of Egypt, and only obtained his freedom by the payment of a heavy ransom. (A. D. 1250.) At length the Mamelukes, a race of Circassians who had been held as slaves in Egypt, obtained control of the government of that country. THE SEVENTH CRUSADE (A. D. 1270-1271). Expedition of St. Louis to Tunis — Siege of Tunis — Death of St. Louis. — In 1270, St. Louis undertook the Seventh Crusade — the last of those great e.xpe- ditions of the Christians against the infidels. The French fleet, having been driven by a storm upon the coast of Sardinia, St. Louis resolved to attack the piratical Moors of Northern Africa. The valiant French monarch landed near Tunis, and besieged that city; but soon a pestilential disease carried St. Louis and the greater number of his followers to their graves. The surviving French leaders concluded a treaty of peace with the Moors, and returned to France. Exploits of Prince Edward of England in the Holy Land. — Prince Ed- ward of England (afterward King Edward L), who participated in the Seventh Crusade, went to the Holy Land, where he performed many gallant exploits, and struck such terror into the hearts of the Saracens that they hired an assassin to mur- der him. ♦ Prince Edward wrenched a poisoned dagger from the hand of the assas- sin; but in the scuflle, the prince received a wound in the arm which might have proved fatal had not his afifectionate wife, Eleanor, who had accompanied him to Palestine, sucked the poison from the wound. Siege and Capture of Acre by the Turks — Loss of the Holy Land to the Christians. — The infidels gradually recovered their lost power in Palestine; and, in 1291, a Turkish army of 20o,oco men appeared before Acre, and, after a vigorous siege, took the city by storm. The remaining Christians voluntarily retired from Syria, which for two centuries had been drenched with the blood of millions of Christian and Mohammedan warriors. CONSEQUENCES OF THE CRUSADES. Influence of the Crusades on Chivalry. — The Crusades ennobled the knightly class by furnishing a higher aim to their efforts, and gave rise to the estab- lishment of new orders, which presented a model of Chivalry and were presumed to possess all the knightly virtues. Of these new orders were the Knights of St. John, the Knights Templars, and the Teutonic Knights, which combined the spirit of the knight and the monk, their vows being chastity, poverty, obedience, and war against the infidels. The Knights of St. John. — After the re-conquest of the Holy Land by the Turks, the Knights of St. John established themselves in the Island of Rhodes, which was finally wrested from them by the Ottoman Turks, in 1 522, when they received the island of Malta from the celebrated Charles V., Emperor of Germany and King of Spain. The Knights Templars. — The Knights-Templars acquired great wealth by THE CRUSADES. 141 donations and legacies. After the loss of their possessions in Palestine, the greater number of them returned to France, where they abandoned themselves to infidelity and corruption, the consequence of which was the final dissolution of their order. The Teutonic Knights. — The Teutonic Knights were celebrated for their services in the civilization of the countries on the shores of the Baltic sea. They defended Christianity, against the heathen Prussians in the region of the Vistula, and converted the inhabitants of the territory between the Vistula and the Niemen to (Christianity, and established there the German language, customs, and civiliza- tion. The cities of Culm, Thorn, Eliding, Konigsburg, and others arose; liishop- rics and monasteries sprung up; and German industry and civilization produced a complete change. Influence of the Crusades on the Feudal System. — The Crusades gave rise to a free peasantry and tended to break up the Feudal System, as by their means great numbers of serfs received their freedom, and extended the power and influence of the burgher class and of the towns. The rich barons were compelled to sell their possessions, for the purpose of raising money to equip troops and to transport them to the Holy Land. Diffusion of Knov/ledge. — The Crusades promoted the diffusion of knowledge and the advancement of science and literature. Those who engaged in them were at first deplorably ignorant and illiterate; but when they came in contact with the Greek and Arabian civilization, they acquired a fondness for science and literature, and after returning to Europe they imparted the same spirit to their countrymen. Development of Commerce. — The Crusades gave great encouragement to commerce, as Ijy their means different countries were brought into communication and more intimate commercial relations with each other; and the advantage of a mutual exchange of products was soon perceived. In consequence, great progress was made in the arts of navigation and ship-building; and many flourishing cities, such as Venice, Pisa, and Genoa, acquired immense wealth and attained to vast commercial importance. Influence of the Crusaders on the Church — Crusade against the Albi- genses. — The Crusades gave greater power and influence to the clergy, and multi- plied the riches of the Church. They also tended to exalt the religious enthusiasm produced by them into a spirit of fanatical intolerance. This intolerance was soon manifested in a crusade against the Albigenses, a new religious sect which arose in the South of France. Pope Innocent III. ordered the cross to be preached against the Albigenses and their protector, Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse; whereupon ])ands of fanatical warriors overran the fertile region inhabited l)y the new sect, and spread death and desolation wherever they appeared, destroying cities, towns, and villages, massacring the inhabitants, and converting that beautiful region into a va5t wilderness. P'inally, in 1228, King Louis VIII. of France undertook a bloody campaign against the heretics; and after a desolating war, Count Raymond was defeated and subdued, and the unfortunate creed of the Albigenses was extinguished in blood. The Assassins and The Old Man of the Mountain. — About the time of the First Crusade, the Mohammedan prophet, Hassan, founded the fanatical sect of the " Assassins," who dwelt in the mountains of Syria, and who became the 142 MIDDLE AGES. terror alike of Christians, Jews, and Turk's. These Assassins were blindly devoted to their chief, "The Old Man of the Mountain," and paid the most implicit obedi- ence to his commands; and they believed that if they sacrificed their lives for his sake, they would certainly be rewarded with the highest joys of paradise. When- ever the Old Man of the Mountain considered himself injured by any one, he dis- patched some of his Assassins secretcly to murder the aggressor. Thus was derived the common name of "assassin," which has ever since been applied to a secret murderer. LATIN STATES. ITALIAN STATES. THE PAPAL STATE OF ROME. Rome under the Popes. — From the time that Pepin the Little, King of the Franks, endowed the I'ope with a large tract of territory in Middle Italy, the city of Rome, with its neighboring territory, had been under the dominion of the Popes, who, in uninterrupted succession, have fdled the Chair of St. Peter. Feuds at Rome — Rise of Cola di Rienzi — His Fall and Assassination. — During the seventy years that the Pope resided at Avignon, in France, Rome was a prey to internal dissensions, and suffered greatly from the lawlessness of the nobles. Out of these intestine disorders and quarrels of the familes of Orsini and Colonna arose Cola di Rienzi, called the "Last of the Tribunes," who was imbued with the spirit of the ancient Roman republicans, and who endeavored to restore Rome to its former glory and preeminence. Having gained the sup{X)rt of the Roman people by his fiery addresses, Rienzi was made a Tribune of the People ; and he seized the supreme power in Rome in 1347, and expelled the lawless nobles; but his impolicy in loading the Roman people with the most oppressive taxes, soon made liim unpopular, and, after a brief existence of seven months, his government was overthrown, anil he was driven into exile. Rienzi afterwards returned to Rome, and was assassinated iluriiig a tumult in the city, in 1354. THE DUCHY OF MILAN. Northern Italy under the Emperor of Germany. — After the fall of the Carlovingian dynasty in Northern Italy, that countiy was a prey to confusion and anarchy, until it passed under the sway of the Emperor of Germany, in the tenth century. In the course of time, Milan and other towns emerged into importance. The Lombard League — Peace of Constance — Guelphs and Ghibellines. — In 1 177, Milan and other towns of Lombardy formed the Lombard League against tlie German emperor, and by the Peace of Constance, in 11 S3, the Lombard cities secured their independence; but Italy was distracted for centuries by the civil w.us LATIN STATES. 143 between the Guclphs, or supporters of the Pope, ari'l tlic Gliibellincs, or adherents of the Emperor of Cjerniany. Milan under the Families of Visconti and Sforza. — Milan, which was ruled by the family of Visconti, in the process of time acquired nearly the whole of Lombardy. The ruler of Milan and its territory received the title of Duke fnjm the Emperor of Germany. On the death of the last Milanese duke of the family of Visconti, in 1450, the f^overnment of the duchy was bestowed on Francisco Sforza. Milan under the French and the Spaniards. — In 1500, the iJuchy of Milan was subdued by Iye and those of the East. Ceremony of " Wedding the Adriatic." — In the twelfth century, the cere- mony of- "wedding the Adriatic" was instituted, the Pope presenting the Doge of Venice with a ring for the purpose. The ceremony was performed with great pomp, and consisted in casting a ring into the Adriatic, to indicate that the sea was subject to Venice as a bride is to her husband. 14A MIDDLE AGES. Acquisitions of Venice — Domestic Dissensions — Council of Ten. — Venice aeiiuircd possession of many rich towns in I-onibardy, anil also of Crete, Cyprus, the Peloponnesus, and tlic islands of the Archipelago (the ancient /ligean sea), Venice, like all the other Italian republics, was torn by the contests of domestic factions. In the fourteenth centuiy, the democralic system in Venice was overthrown, and a government of the aristocracy was erected in its stead. A "Council of Ten" was appointed to prevent any attempt at the rceslablishment of (lenu)cracy. Height of Venetian Glory — Check Against the Turkish Naval Powei. — At the commencement of the fifteenth century, Venice attained the highest pilch of greatness and prosjicrity, and was for more than a century the chief commercial and maritime power of the workl. Venice did very important service to all Chris- tian Eurojic by checking the naval jiower of the Ottoman Turks in the Mediterra- nean sea; but her long maritime wars finally exhausted her resources, anil her gov- ernment grew ilcs-])otic and corrupt. Decline of Venetian Commerce and Maritime Power. — The discovery of a sea-passage to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope scaled the fate of VenicCi and her commercial and maritime glory, in a great measure, departed from her; but for several centuries longer Venice continued formidable, and her fleets con- tended succesefully against the Olloinan Turks, who endc.ivored to secure the control of the Mediterranean sea. League of Cambray Against Venice. — When, at the beginning of the six- teenth century, Venice attempted to extend her territorial possesions in Italy, the powerful "League of Cambray" was formed against her by Tope Julius II., King Ferilinand the Catholic of Spain, King Louis XII. of France, and the Emperor Maximilian I. i)f Germany. (A. I). 150S.) The Venetians soon succeeded in winning the Tope and the King of Spain to their interest, and so contrived to dis- solve the league; and the French, who had threatened the independence of Venice, were soon expelled from Italy. REPUBLIC OF GENOA. Genoa's Naval Wars with Venice — Domestic Dissensions, — The Repub- lic of Genoa, the great comnuMcial rival of Venice, was ollcn engaged in naval wni-s with that powerful maritime republic. In these wars, Venice was generally successful. Genoa was greatly weakened by dissensions between the democracy anil the aristocracy, or Guelphs and Gliibellines. Acquisition of Genoa by the French — Its Liberation by Andrea Doria. — In the latter part of the lit'tcenth century, Cicnoa came into the possession of the French, and afterwards of the Duchy of Milan. In 152S, Andrea Doria, the great Genoese admiral, liberated Genoa from the sway of the I'Vench, and reestablished the republican government, thus winning for himself the title of " Father of his Country and Restorer of its Liberities." REPUBLIC OF FLORENCE Conquest of Pisa by Florence — Domestic Dissensions. — The commercial city of risa was the first town of any importance in Tuscany; but in a war witli LATIN STATES. M5 Genoa its power was greatly weakened, and finally I'isa was conquered by the Repiil;lic of Florence and became a dependency of that powerful state. I''lor(;nce, which was also distinguished for her commerce and manufactures, was likewise greatly weakened by the quarrel between the Gucljjhs and the (jhibellincs; and the stale was alternately governed by the aristocracy and the democracy. Wise Rule of Cosmo de Medici and Lorenzo the Magnificent. — In 1428, Cosmo dc Medici assuiaod the government of J'lijrcncc and nded with almost dic- tatorial power; but he used his power wisely, thus earning the glorious title of " Father of his Onmtry." Under the rule of Cosmo de Medici, and that of his distinguished grandson, Lorenzo "the Magnificent," Florence enjoyed the greatest prosperity; and the arts, sciences, and literature flourished in the state. After the death of L/jrenzo the Magnificent, the democratic government was reestablished in I'lorence; but in 1530 the republican constitution was again overlhr(;wn, and the House of Medici was restored to the government of Florence, through the interfer- ence of Pope Clement S\l. and the Emijcror Charles V. of Germany. THE KINGDOM OF NAPLES AND SICILY. Expulsion of the Saracens from Southern Italy by the Normans. — In the ninth century. Southern Italy was invaded by tlie Saracens, against whom that country was defended by the armies of the IJyzantine and German Empires; but the Saracens retained possession of many places in Southern Italy, until they were ex- pelled by the Normans, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Hordes of Normans from Normandy y)oured into Southern Italy and took possession of the country. Robert Guiscard, the Norman Duke of Southern Italy. — In 1060, Robert Guiscard, a Norman chieftain, led a band of his countrymen into Southern Italy ; and was acknowledged by the Pope, Duke of Apulia and Calabria, and other territories in Italy and Sicily which he might wrest from the Greeks and the Saracens. 'I"hc Norman duke, who was the greatest soldier of his age, extended his conquests throughout Southern Italy, and put an end to the dominion of the Eastern Emperors in Italy. He afterwards led a large army, officered by Norman knights, into the other territories of the Greek Empire, and captured Durazzo after a seven months' siege; and then marching eastward, he threatened Constantinople. He was, how- ever, recalled by Pope Gregory VH. fllildcbrand), to defend the Head of the CTiurch against his inveterate enemy, Henry IV., luiiperor of Germany. Kingdom of Naples and Sicily — Royal Houses of Hohenstauffen and Anjou, — Roger I., the brother of Robert Guiscard, wrested Sicily from the .Sara- cens after a war of several years; and his son, Roger H., ruled over the Noirnan territories in Italy and Sicily, and founded the kingdom of Naples and Sicily; but with the death of William IL, the grandson of Roger IL, the Norman dynasty in Italy became extinct; and Southern Italy passed under the sway of the German House of Hohenstauffen, and thas remained until the reign of Manfred, who, in 12G6, was defeated in the battle of Bcncvento, by Charles of Anjou, who thus ob- tained the throne of the kingdom of Naples and Sicily, and retained it until the bloofly massacre of the Sicilian Vespers in 1282. Naples and Sicily under the Spaniards.— Py the massacre of the Sicilian Vespers, Charles of Anjou lost Sicily, but he and his posterity ruled over Naples 10 146 MIDDLE AGES. Hntil 1435, when Naples passed under the dominion of the kings of Aragon, who had ruled over Sicily from the time of the Sicilian Vespers. The French kings endeavored to wrest Naples from the kings of Aragon; but in 1504, Ferdinand the Catholic, King of Spain, effected the final subjugation of Naples and united it with Sicily. The kingdom of Naples and Sicily belonged to Spain for more than two centuries. KINGDOM OF FRANCE. CARLOVINGIAN KINGS OF FRANCE. France under the Carlovingian Dynasty — Charles the Simple. — Under the Carlovingian dynasty, P'rancc was divided into a number of principalities vir- tually independent of the central power of the monarchy. The royal power was reduced to mere shadow, and France suffered greatly from the predatory inroads of the Normans from Scandinavia. Under Charles the Simple (898-922), so called because of his imbecility, the royal authority in France fell into contempt, the inso- lent nobles possessed all the power, and the king was closely confined by Count Hugh of Paris. Duke RoUo and the Normans — Usurpation of the throne by Hugh Capet. — In the year 911 A. D., a horde of Normans, led by Duke Rollo, made their appearance in France; and King Charles the Simple, unable to resist their progress, offered Rollo his daughter in marriage and to cede to him a large tract of territory between the Seine and the English Channel, on condition that he should embrace Christianity and acknowledge the King of France ae his feudal sovereign. Rollo accepted these propositions, and he and his followers settled in that part of Northern France called from them, Normandy. The Normans immediately aban- doned their former predatory habits, and became peaceful citizens, cultivating the soil, practicing the arts of civilized life, and adopting the religion, the language, and the customs and manners of the French. On the death of Louis V., the last Carlovingian monarch of France, Hugh Capet, Count of Paris, usurped the French throne. At this period, the French kingdom consisted of only a small territory about Rheims and Paris. FRANCE UNDER THE HOUSE OF CAPET. REIGN OF HUGH CAPET (A. D. 987-996). Accession of Hugh Capet — Weakness of the Royal Power. — Hugh Capet gained the French clergy to his interest Ijy renouncing the rich a])beys which he had inherited from his father. In an assembly at Noyons, Hugh was formally elected King of France, and was immediately consecrated at Rheims. (A. D. 987.) This was the commencement of the Capetian dynasty, which occupied the throne of France for three and a half centuries. The reign of Hugh Capet was disturbed by the restlessness and ambition of the French nobles. There were at this time eight powerful principalities in France, each independent of the French crown; — namely, Burgundy, Aquitaine, Normandy, Bretagne, Gascony, Flanders, Cham- p.agne, and Toulouse; and the royal authority was most insignificant. LATIN STATES. 147 REIGN OF ROBERT THE PIOUS (A. D. 996-1031). Supposed Approach of the End of the World — Excommunication of King Robert. — Hugh Capet died in 996, and was succeeded on the French throne by his son, -Robert the Pious. It was generally believed that the world was only to last 1,000 years after the birth of Christ; and on the approach of the year 1000 A. D. a general gloom and dread prevailed. The more serious and pious people employed themselves in acts of religious devotion. King Robert was excommunicated and his kingdom laid under an interdict by Pope Gregory V., and the king was obliged to divorce his beloved wife, Bertha, beause she was his fourth cousin. Robert then married Constance of Provence, a proud and indolent princess. REIGN OF HENRV T. (A. D. 1031-1060). Project of Queen Constance — ^A^eakness of the Royal Authority. — On the death of King Robert the Piours, in 1031, his son, lienr)- I. ascended the throne of France; but Robert's widow, Constance, endeavored to place her favor- ite son on the throne. With the assistance of Duke Robert the Magnificent of Normandy, the father of King William the Conqueror of England, King Henry I, defeated the project of Constance, who ended her life in prison. So little wxs the authority of Henry I. respected that the leading French nobles, such as the Counts of Toulouse, Flanders, and Champagne, eclipsed the king in power. REIGN OF PHILIP I. (A. D. 1060-1108). King Philip I. and Count Baldwin of Flanders. — King Henry I. died in fo6o, leaving the crown of France to his son, Philip I.; and the wise and virtuous Count Baldwin of Flanders was appointed the young king's guardian. King Philip I. became a slave to his vices. Duke William of Normandy and his son Robert. — One of King Philip's most powerful vassals, Duke William of Normandy, conquered England and seated himself on the throne of that kingdom. This aroused the jealousy of Philip, who excited Robert, Duke William's son, to rebellion against his father. William besieged his rebellious son in a castle in Normandy; and Robert sallied forth, and encountered a knight, whom he threw down, horse and man, but when he sud- denly discovered that he was about to slay his own father he assisted him to rise and implored his pardon. The First Crusade. — During the reign of Philip I., the First Crusade was undertaken by Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless. Hundreds of thous- ands of Crusaders left Europe for the redemption of the Holy Land, and great numbers of them perished. Antioch and Jerusalem were, however, wrested from the infidels, and a new Kingdom of Jerusalem was established, which continued for nearly a century. Wretched Condition of France Under Philip I.— "The Truce of God." — The condition of France under King Philip I. wa.s most wretched indeed. T)ie lawless nobles and knights erected castles in the vicinity of Paris, and committed the grossest outrages upon the unoffending inhabitants; but the insolent nobles were chastised by the king's son, Louis. In order to check the violence which at this 148 MIDDLE AGES. time so universally prevailed, the bishops published what was called " The Truce of God," which enacted that no act of violence should be committed from Wed- nesday evening to Monday morning. REIGN OF LOUIS VI. (A. D. 1108-1137). Good Character of Louis the Fat, — King Philip I. died in iioS, leaving the croNvn of France to his son, Louis VL, who, on account of his corpulenci;, was surnamed "the Fat." Louis VL was possessed of a good heart, an inflexible love of justice, a friendly disposition, and a gay and cheerful temper, although he had no taste for learning and no political talents. He was brave and active, and his magnanimity in sharing with his soldiers their hardships and dangers won for him their attachment and esteem. Louis the Fat acquired great popularity by humbling the lawless nobles and knights, who had perpetrated the greatest outrages upon the defenseless people. Formation of Communes. — With the view of humbling the French nobles, King Louis VL granted to the inhabitants of cities and towns charters for forming themselves into associations for mutual defense, called Commimes, which freed the citizens from feudal servitude, permitted them to nominate their own magistrates, and required them to take the field only at the command of their sovereign. REIGN OF LOUIS VII. (A. D. 1187-1180). Annexation of Aquitaine — Count Thibault of Champagne — Second Crusade. — King Louis VI. died in 1137, and was succeeded on the French throne by his son, Louis VII., sumamed " the Young," to distinguish him from his father. Louis VII. had previously married Eleanor, the sole heiress of Aqui- taine, thus uniting that extensive territory to the French crown. Count Thibault of Champagne had rebelled against the king, but had been reduced to submis- sion and pardoned. But Thibault took up arms a second time; and Louis VII., exasperated at his conduct, attacked his castle of Vitry, and set it on fire, but the flames spread to a village close by and destroyed a church and many of its inmates. Shocked at this accident, the king made peace with Count Thibault; and, as an atonement for the dreadful accident, Louis VII., in connection with Conrad III., Emperor of Germany, engaged in the Second Crusade; but both monarchs were unfortunate in that undertaking, and after losing all but a few of their followers they returned to Europe. Loss of Aquitaine — War between Louis VII. and Henry Plantagenet. — King Louis VII. quarreled with his wife Eleanor, and obtained a divorce from her, thus losing all the vast dower which he had received with her. Eleanor soon afterward married Henry Plantagenet, Duke of Normandy, afterward King Henry II. of England, and thus her extensive possessions were annexed to the English crown. For twenty years Louis and Henry were engaged in almost con- tinual war, as the French king claimed the right of feudal superiority over the English monarch. During his war with the Duke of Normandy, Louis besieged Rouen ; and after granting the citizens of the beleaguered town a truce, he perfidiously as- saulted the city, but was justly punished by a vigorous repulse. LATIN STATES. I4p REIGN OF PHILIP AUGUSTUS (A. D. 1180-122S). Remarkable Increase of the Royal Power — Improvement of Paris. — King Louis VII. died in llSo, and left the crown of France to his son, Philip II., surnamed Augustus, under whom the political condition of France underwent an entire change. Before this period, the King of France had been merely the feudal chief of a confederacy of princes, but now he became an absolute monarch. Philip Augustus greatly improved Paris and enclosed tlie city with a strong wall, and built the famous palace of the Louvre. Eager for war with King Henry II. of England, one of the most powerful monarchs of that age, Philip Augus- tus induced that king's sons, Richai^d and John, to take up arms against their father. Third Crusade — Quarrel between Philip and Richard the Lion-hearted. — King Philip Augustus, in conjunction with King Richard the Lion-hearted of England and the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa of Germany, undertook the Tliird Crusade. After taking Acre, the Kings of England and France quarreled; and Philip Augustus returned to France, and his ungenerous heart was filled with joy when Richard the Lion-hearted, while on his return to England, was imprisoned in Germany. Conquest of Normandy and the other English Possessions in France by Philip. — Upon the death of Richard the Lion-hearted, in 1 189, his brother John usurped the throne of England, and murdered his nephew. Prince Arthur of Bretagne, the rightful heir. Philip Augustus, desirous of the acquisition of Nor- mandy, summoned John, as Duke of Normandy, to Paris, to answer for his conduct; and upon John's refusal to comply, the French king seized on all the English pos- sessions in France, — namely, Normandy, Maine, Touraine, and Anjou. Coalition of England, Germany, and Flanders against France — Battle of Bouvines. — A powerful coalition was now formed against the King of France by the King of England, the Emperor of Germany, and the Count of Flanders. France was invaded, but King Philip Augustus defeated the united English, Ger- man, and Flemish forces, numbering 50,000 men, in the battle of Bouvines, near Tournay, on the 27th of August, 12 14. Fourth Crusade — Crusade against the Albigenses. — In the meantime, the Fourth Crusade, undertaken by French and Italian knights, resulted in the tempor- ary subversion of the Greek Empire, and the substitution, in its stead, of a new Latin Empire, with Count Baldwin of Flanders on the throne of Constantinople. The Crusade now undertaken against the new religious sect of the Albigenses, in South- em France, resulted in the defeat of Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse, the chief of the sect, and the sacrifice of thousands of Albigenses to the fanaticism of their conquerors. French Invasion of England. — The English barons, having risen in rebellion against King John, invited Prince Louis, a son of Philip Augustus, to come Jo Eng- land and be their king. Prince Louis accepted the invitation gladly, landed in England with a French military force, and had almost completed the conquest of that kingdom, when King John died, in 121 6. Thereupon the English barons abandoned Prince Louis and refused to recognize him as their sovereign; and tlie prince was obliged to return to France. l-o MIDDLE AGES. REIGN OF LOUIS VIII. (A. D. 1223-1226). Successful War against Henry III. of England. — On the deaih of King Philip Augustus, in 1223, his son, Louis VIII., became King of France. Louis VIII., surnamed "the Lion," was a weak monarch; but the wise policy of his father had given such an impulse to the affairs of France that the French contin- ually triumphed over the English, whose king, Henry III., had repeatedly attacked the French dominions. Conquest of the Albigenses. — Under the authority of the Pope, Louis the Lion undertook a campaign against the Albigenses; and with a powerful army he besieged Avignon, but only obtained possession of the town after a heroic defense on the part of its inhabitants, and after 20,000 of his troops had miserably perished from disease and famine. REIGN OF SAINT LOUIS (A. D. 1226-1270). Character of Louis IX. or St. Louis — Regency of Queen Blanche. — King Louis VIII. died in 1226, a short time after the fall of Avignon, and left tlie crown of France to his eldest son, Louis IX., commonly called Saint Louis, on account of his piety. Saint Louis possessed a mild, upright, benevolent, and for- giving disposition. During the minority of Saint Louis, his mother. Queen Blanche, governed the French kingdom as regent. Sixth and Seventh Crusades— Captivity and Death of St. Louis. — Saint Louis undertook the Sixth Crusade against the infidels. Instead of leading an expedition to the Holy Land, Saint Louis invaded Egypt ; and after taking Dami- etta, he was made a prisoner by the Sultan of Egypt, but was released on the pay- ment of a heavy ransom. In the Seventh Crusade, twenty years later (A. D. 1270), Saint Louis sailed to Africa and besieged Tunis; but a plague which broke out in the French camp carried Saint Louis and many of his soldiers to their graves. REIGN OF PHILIP THE HARDY (A. D. 1270-128S). Reduction of the King of Tunis. — St. Louis was succeeded on the throne of France by his son, Philip HI., surnamed "the Hardy," who continued the war against the Moors of Africa, and with his uncle, Charles of Anjou, King of Naples and Sicily, reduced the King of Tunis to submission. Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers. — Charles of Anjou greatly oppressed his Sicilian subjects, who, in revenge, massacred 8,000 French in Palermo when the church bell sounded for vespers, on Easter day, 1282. This is known as the Mas- sacre of the Sicilian Vespers. Charles of Anjou then lost Sicily, and that island passed under the dominion of Peter the Cruel, King of Aragon. REIGN OF PHILIP THE FAIR (A. D. 1283-1314). War with Edward I. of England — Revolt of the Flemings. — King Philip the Hardy died in 1285, and was succeeded on the French throne by his son, Philip IV., surnamed "the Fair." For seven years, Philip the Fair waged an unsuccessful war against King Edward I. of England for the acquisition of Gui- enne. Philip the Fair acquired Flanders, which he governed so oppressively that the Flemings rose in rebellion, massacred 3,000 French in Flanders, and success- LATIN STATES. ici fully resisted all the efforts of the French king to compel them to submission. The Flemings were at this time celebrated for their skill in weaving and in other indus- trial arts. Quarrel Between Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface VIII. — A fierce quarrel arose between King Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface VIII. , through the attempt of Boniface to prevent the taxation of the clergy in France. The French monarch treated with contempt every bull of excommunication issued by the Pope, and after the death of Boniface, Philip the Fair placed the Archbishop of Bordeaux in the papal chair, with the title of Clement V., and transferred the residence of the Pope from Rome to Avignon, in the South of France, where it remained for seventy years. Dissolution of the Order of Knights Templars — The Third Estate. — King Philip the Fair also caused the celebrated order of Knights Templars to be condemned and abolished, for alleged corruption and immorality; and the Grand Master and many other members of the order were burned alive, while the rest were treated with the most barbarous cruelty. During the reign of Philip the Fair, the representatives of the Third Estate, or the Communes, were called to meet with the nobility and the clergy in the grand council of the French kingdom, in order to give their consent to the levy of taxes. (A. D. 1302.) REIGN OF LOUIS X. (A. D. 1814-1316). Tumultuous Conduct of the Nobles — Enfranchisement of the Serfs. — On the death of King Philip the Fair, in 1314, the crown of France fell to his eldest son, Louis X., sumamed " Hutin," meaning disorder or tumult, from the tumultous conduct of the French nobles and clergy, who compelled Louis to restore to them most of the privileges of which they had been deprived by Philip the Fair. Louis X. issued an order enfranchising all the French serfs within the royal domains. Louis X. was under the influence of his uncle, Charles of Valois, who caused DeMarigny, the illustrious prime minister of Philip the Fair, to be executed on the absurd charge of sorcery. REIGN OF PHILIP THE TALL (A. D. 1316-1321). The States-General — The Salic Law — Persecution of the Jews. — On the death of King Louis X., in 1316, the throne of France fell to his Ijrother, Philip v., sumamed " the Tall," who assembled the States-General, or the grand assembly of the French nation, to pronounce upon his right to the French throne, which was disputed by the daughter of Louis X. The States-General issued a decree declaring females incapable of inheriting the crown of France. This decree was based on the barbarous code of the Salian Franks, and is therefore called the " Salic Law." The reign of Philip the Tall is remarkable for a terrible persecution of the Jews in France, and many of them were barbarously massacred in Touraine. REIGN OF CHARLES THE FAIR (A. D. 1321-1328). Accession of Charles the Fair — End of the Direct Line of Capet. — Philip the Tall died in 1321, and as he only left daughters and no sons, his brother, Charles IV., surnamed "the Fair," became King of France by the operation of tke ^52 MIDDLE AGES. Salic Law. On the death of Charles the Fair, without heirs, in 1328, the direct line of the House of Capet became extinct; and the crown of Finance fell to Philip of Valois, a nephew of riiilip Uie Fair. FRANCE UNDER THE HOUSE OF VALOIS REIGN OF PHILIP OF VALOIS (A. D. 1329-1330). Claims of Edward III. of England— His Invasion of France— Battle of Crecy. — Philip of Valois, or Philij) VI., the first P'rcuch king of the House of Valois, soon had a competitor to contend with, in the person of King lulward III. of England, who claimed the crown of France as a direct descendant, through his mother, of Philip the Pair; but the French considered this claim invalid, because, by the Salic Law, Isabella, Edward's mother, had no right to the French throne, and therefore Edward could inherit no claims from her. But the King of England, resolving to make his claim good by force of arms, invaded France with a powerful army; and on the 25th of August, 1346, he defeated an immense French army under King Philip VI., in the famous battle of Crecy, in which the French lost 40,000 men, among whom was the blind old King John of Bohemia. In the battle of Crecy, the English had several pieces of cannon, which was the first instance of those weapons of warfare being used. Among those who distinguished themselves by their braveiy at Crecy was the English monarch's son, Edward the Black Prince. Defense of Calais— Its Surrender — Story of Eustace St. Pierre. — After the battle of Crecy, King Edward HI. laid siege to Calais, the gate to France. The inhabitants had made an obstinate defense for nearly a year, when, threatened with all the horrors of famine, they were finally forced to surrender to the victorious in- vaders. It is said (though the story is now generally discredited) that the King of England, exasperated at the stubborn resistance of the citizens of Calais, agreed to spare the inhabitants, if six of the principal citizens were brought to him, with halters about their necks, ready for hanging ; whereupon Eustace St. Pierre, a wealthy mer- chant of Calais, offered himself as the first victim, and five other leading citizens followed his noble example. W^hen the six citizens appeared before Edward III., the stern monarch ordered them to execution, and their lives were only spared through the earnest entreaties of the English nobles, of King Edward's heroic son, the Black Prince, and of his noble-hearted queen, Philipixa, who fell on her knees before her husband and exhorted him not to violate the laws of religion and honor by so inhuman an act. King Edward HI. expelled the French inhabitants of Calais and peopled the city with English; and for two centuries that important town remained in the possession of the English. Acquisition of Dauphiny— The First Dauphin — The Black Plague. — Near the close of the reign of Philip of Valois, the province of Dauphiny was an- nexed to the territories of the French crown, on condition that the French king's eldest son should thereafter be called "The Dauphvn," as the eldest son of the British monarch is styled " the Prince of Wales." During the years 1348 and 1349, the Black Plague raged throughout France, and in Paris alone 50,000 persons fell victims to its ravages. LATIN STATES. 1 53 REIGN OF JOHN THE GOOD (A. D. 1380-1364.). English Invasion of France — Battle of Poitiers — King John a Prisoner. — King Philip VI. died in 1350, and was succeeded on the French throne by his son, John the Good. During this reign an English army of 12,000 men, under Edward the Blaclc Prince, landed in the province of Guienne, and advanced into the very centre of France, where it was confronted by an army of 6o,oco Frenchmen under King John. The Black Prince hereupon offered to surrender the conquered terri- tory and give up the war, if he were permitted to retreat unmolested; but the ob.sti- nacy of the French monarch, who insisted on terms of unconditional submission, brought on the celebrated battle of Poitiers, which was fought on the 19th of Sep- tember, 1356, and in which the French were most disastrously defeated, and King John was taken prisoner. King John's Captivity in London — The Dauphin made Regent of France. — King John was carried a captive to London by the victorious Black Prince, who treated the unfortunate monarch with the utmost generosity; and during the four years of his captivity in the English capital, John was treated by King Edward III. more like a guest than a prisoner. During King John's captivity in London, his son Charles, the Dauphin, was made regent of France. The States-General — Marcel's Insurrection. — During the regency in France, the Parisian populace, under the leadership of Marcel, the chief of the municipality of Paris, endeavored to restrict the despotic power of the sovereign and to obtain a share in the government of France. The States-General were assembled and conceded the privileges demanded by the people of Paris; but these privileges were afterwards annulled, in consequence of which a frightful insurrection broke out and continued for some time, but it was finally ended by the death of Marcel and the defeat of the cause of popular liberty. Insurrection of the Jacquerie. — At this time a sanguinary insurrection of the French peasantry burst forth, in consequence of the miserable condition of serfdom in which the peasants had so long been kept by the despotic nobility. This great popular revolt is known as the "Insurrection of the Jacquerie," from Jacques Bon- homme, the name given in derision to a French peasant. The insurgent peasants sacked the feudal castles, and put to death their inmates, without respect to age or sex. After the peasants had been repulsed in an attack upon one of the towns, they were hunted down like wild beasts, and thousands of them were brutally massacred; and many of the rural districts were almost depopulated, and presented a sad picture of ruin and desolation. Another Invasion of France by Edward III. — Honorable Conduct of King John. — In the meantime King John, still a captive in England, agreed to surrender to the English monarch a large portion of the French dominions, in order to obtain his release ; but the States-General of France refused to ratify so humili- ating a treaty; and King Edward III. of England again invaded France, but finally made peac«, agreeing to release the French monarch on more reasonable conditions. After a four years' captivity in England, King John the Good returned to his king- dom, and was received with almost universal demonstrations of joy by his subjects; but when his son, Louis, who had been delivered to the King of England as a hostage for the fulfillment of the treaty, escaped, the conscientious King John vol- 154 MIDDLE AGES. untarily returned to captivity in England, and died soon after his arrival there (A. D. 1364.) Beginning of the Ducal House of Burgundy. — In 1363, the year previous to his death, King John the Good assigned to his son, Philip the Good, the Duchy of Burgundy, as a reward for his gallantry in the battle of Poitiers. This was the beginning of that celebrated Ducal House of Burgundy, which lasted more thaii a century, and which is so celebrated in French history. REIGK OF CHARLES THE >A^ISE (A. D. 1864-1880). Character of King Charles the Wise. — John the Good was succeeded on the throne of France by his son, Charles V., surnauied " the Wise," who was of a peaceful disposition, and whose wise measures contributed much to restore pros- perity to the French kingdom. Charles the Wise was fond of study, and possessed talents for statesmanship. He founded the Royal Libraiy in Paris, and liberally patronized literature and art. DuGuesclin — Battle of Navaretta — Loss of English Possessions in France. — King Charles tlie Wise appointed the great general, DuGuesclin, to the position of High Consl.ible of France. DuGuesclin was defeated and taken pris- oner by the English under the Black Prince in the battle of Navaretta; but after the death of that great English warrior, the Constable conducted the war against the English with great success, depriving them of most of their territories in France. REIGN OF CHARLES VL (A. D. 1380-1422). Regency of the Duke of Anjou — Popular Insurrection in Paris. — On the dealh of King Charles the Wise, in 13S0, the crown of Prance fell to his son, Charles VI., who was then only twelve years old. During the minority of Charles VI., his uncle, the Duke of Anjou, acted as Regent of France. The unjust and oppressive taxes imposed upon the French people occasioned a formidable popular insurrection in Paris, and order was restored with great difticulty. Revolt of the Flemings — Battle of Rosbecque. — The Flemings having revolted .igainst their ruler. Count Louis of Flanders, a I""rench amiy was sent to subdue them. In the battle of Rosbecque, in which the King of P'rancc himself was present, the Flemish leader, Philip Von Artevelde, and 25,000 of his followers, were defeated and slain by the French commanded by Oliver Clissons, High Con- stable of P^rance. (A. D. 1382.) Increase of the Royal Power — Execution of Popular Leaders. — The great victory at Rosbecque strengthened the royal power in P>ance. All the French towns which had resisted the tyrannical exactions of the monarch were obliged to yield, and all their citizens who had taken a conspicuous part in the popular move- ment were mercilessly put to death, 3,000 being led to the scaffold in Paris alone. (A. D. 1382.) Invasion of France by Henry V. of England — Battle of A?incourt — Treaty of Troyes. — King Charles VI. at length became a victim to insanity; and while in consequence P"rance was distracted by domestic dissensions respecting the Regency, King Henry V. of England invaded the French kingdom, took Har- fleur, and on the 14th of October, 1415, with only 8,000 men, he defeated a French LATIN STATES. 155 army of 50,CXX) men, in the great battle of Azincourt, and conquered Normandy, after taking its capital, Rouen. In 1422, the Treaty of Troyes was concluded, by which Henry V. of England was to become King of France on the death of King Charles VI., in exclusion of the rights of the Dauphin. Although the States-Gen- eral of France ratified this treaty, it was never carried into effect, Charles VI. outliving Henry V. several months. (A. D. 1422.) REIGN OF CHARLES THE VICTORIOUS (A. D. 14.22-1461) Charles VII. and Henry VI. of England Crowned Kings of Fiance. — On the death of the imbecile Charles VI., in 1422, his son, the Dauphin, was crowned at Poitiers, King of France, with the title of Charles VII.; but, in accord- ance with the Treaty of Troyes, the infant Henry VI. of England had already been crowned at Paris, King of England and France. The army of Chailes VII. had been disastrously defeated by the Duke of Bedford, the English legent in France (1424); and town after town fell into the hands of the English, until, in 1428, Orleans was the only stronghold remaining in the possession of the French, and even that city was besieged by the victorious invaders. Siege of Orleans — Appearance of Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans. — ■ The English pushed the siege of Orleans with vigor. A sally was made by the French, but they were repulsed after a short engagement known as " the Battle of the Herrings," so called because an attack had been made on an English escort which was conveying a supply of herrings to the camp of the besiegers. Orleans was on the point of surrender, when the beleaguered city was relieved, and the deliverance of Charles VII. was effected by one of the most extraordinary circum- stances recorded in history. Joan of Arc, a poor peasant girl of Dom Remy, in Lor- raine, aged nineteen years, had been told by a prophecy that France could only be delivered from its English invaders by a virgin, and her mind became impressed with the belief that she herself was divinely commissioned to effect this great object. She soon induced others, among them King Charles VII. and his officers, to be- lieve in the truth of her divine mission. Charles VII. gave her the command of his army, and she was admitted into Orleans, arrayed in armor and provided with a train of attendants. Under her leadership, the French, influenced by superstition, seemed inspired with fresh courage and hopes, and they soon compelled the Eng- lish to raise the siege of Orleans. (A. D. 1429.) Coronation of Charles VII. at Rheims — Capture and Death of the Maid of Orleans. — Joan of Arc, now called the Maid of Orleans, next urged King Charles VII. to proceed to Rheims, in order to be there crowned and conse- crated King of France; and after several more victories, under the leadership of the valiant Maid, Rheims was wrested from the English, and Charles VII. wos crowned in the great cathedral of that city. (A. D. 1429.) Joan then declared her mission finished, and wished to retire from the army; but as the French king insisted upon her remaining with the army until the expulsion of the English invaders from ]'"rance, she complied with his wishes. As a reward for the heroine's services, Charles VII. ennobled her family. The English lost town after town and suffered defeat after defeat. At length, the French officers, jealous of the fame of Joan of Arc, allowed the Duke of Burgundy, the ally of the English, to make her a prisoner in a sally from the town of Compeigne. The Duke of Burgundy sold her to the 156 MIDDLE AGES. Duke of Bedford, the English regent in France, who caused the heroic Maid of Orleans to be burned alive, on the charge of sorcery, in the market-place of Rouen. (A. I). 1431.) Expulsion of the English from France — Wicked Conduct of the Dau- phin. — Altliough the French were no longer led by the Maid of Orleans, still they were victorious ; and finally, in 1453, the city of Calais was the only place in all France remaining in the hands of the English. Duke Philip the Good of Bui • gundy had become reconciled to the French monarch. In 1436, King Charle.v VII., now surnamed "the Victorious," because of his triumph over the English, entered Paris, and reigned in peace. Although Charles the Victorious was re- lieved of the English invaders, the wickedness of his son Louis, the Daujihin, pre- vented him from enjoying quiet. Louis excited a rebellion against his father, who forgave him, but was soon obliged to banish him to Dauphiny, where he so op- pressed the j)eople that they compelled him to flee to Burgundy, where he excited dissatisfaction against Duke Philip tiie Good. The wicked Dauphin sought to procure his father's death by poison, and the unhappy king was so afraid to taste food that he died from starvation. (A. D. 1461.) REIGN OF LOUIS XI. (A. D. 1461-1483). King Louis XI. and "The League of the Public Good." — The good Charles the Victorious was succeeded as King of France by his wicked son, Louis XL, who, immediately upon his accession, proceeded to measures so extreme to degrade the French nobles that they formed a defensive league, known as " The League of the Public Good." At the head of this formidable confederacy were the Dukes of Berri, Bretagne, and Bourbon, and Count Charles of Charolois. The league collected a large army, which advanced to Paris, but after some fighting without much result, the crafty king, by the most liberal promises, which he never intended to fulfill, contrived to dissolve the league. The Dukedom of Burgundy— Louis XL a Prisoner to Charles the Bold. — At this period the Dukedom of Burgundy was the most prosperous country in Europe; and the cities of Antwerp, Bruges, Ghent, and Arras were widely cele- brated for their manufactures and commerce. The Duke of Burgundy, though a vassal of the French crown, was more powerful than most kings, and his court was the most splendid in Europe. In 1468, King Louis XI. went to meet Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy, at Peronne; and when Charles discovered that the artful Louis had treacherously excited the Duke's subjects to rebellion, he seized the perfidious monarch and kept him a prisoner for some time. The French king obtained his release only on the most humiliating conditions: he was obliged to surrender several counties to the Duke of Burgundy, and to accompany the Duke to Liege and assist in quelling the revolt which he himself had excited. The two princes vented their anger and disappointment on the unfortunate inhabitants, who were slaughtered without mercy. Invasion of France by Edward IV. of England — Disasters to Charles the Bold. — In 1475, ^'"S Edward IV. of England invaded France with a jxiw- crful army. Louis XL, recollecting the terrible days of Crecy, Poitiers, and Azin- court, was exceedingly alarmed at this English invasion; but he succeeded by large bribes in inducing the English monarch to consent to a treaty of peace. In 1476, LATIN STATES. ley Charies the Bold, the mighty Duke of Burgundy, made war on the Swiss, by whom he was defeated in the great battles of Granson, Murten, and Nancy, in the last of which he was slain. (A. D. 1477). Reannexation of Burgundy— Mary of Burgundy and Maximilian of Austria. — Ujxjn the death of Duke Charles the Bold, King Louis XL seized on Burgundy proper and reannexed that territory to the possessions of the French crown ; but he was frustrated in his attempts to obtain possession of the other terri- tories of the late Duke, as Mary of Burgundy, the daughter of Charles the Bold, disgusted with the treachery of the French king, married the Archduke Maximilian of Austria, afterwards Emperor of Germany, who obliged Louis XL to resign his pretensions. The result of this marriage was a rivalry of more than two centuries between France and Germany, After the death of Mary, the King of France incited the Netherland towns to rebellion against Maximilian, but the insurgents were soon reduced to submission. Last Days and Death of King Louis XL — By secret treachery or open violence, King Louis XL had greatly enlarged the PVench dominions. His consti- tution was broken down and his mind was approaching imbecility. So suspicious was he that his oppressed subjects would revenge themselves by assassinating him, that he shut himself up closely in his castle of Plessis, which he strongly fortified, and no one was permitted to visit him without his invitation. In this gloomy cas- tle, Louis diverted himself with various amusements, one of which was rat-hunting. Louis XL was delivered from his miserable existence by a slow disease, of which he died in August, 1483. REIGN OF CHARLES VIIL (A. D. 1483-1498). Charles the Courteous and the Acquisition of Brittany. — The wicked Louis XL left the French crown to his son, Charles VIIL, who, on account of his kindness of manner and his amiaVjle qualities, was surnamed "the Courteous." During his minority, Charles VIIL was under the guardianship of his aunt, the Duchess Anne of Beaujeu. Charles resolving upon the conquest of Brittany, or Bretagne, the only fief in France that yet remained independent of the French crown, a war ensued; and the Bretons were defeated by the French army in the battle of St. Aubin, on the 28th of July, 1488. The Duke of Bretagne died soon afterward; and his daughter Anne, sole heiress of the Duchy of Brittany, married King Charles VIIL in 1491, thus uniting the whole of France under one sovereign. Conquests of Charles VIII. in Italy — Battle of Fornova — Loss of Naples. — France was now at the highest pitch of power; and King Charles the Courteous resolved upon enforcing some claims which he had upon the kingdom of Naples, and for this purpose he invaded Italy with an army of 18,000 men; and after receiving the submission of many Italian cities, he entered Rome and Naples in triumph. But when the King of France considered his Italian conquests secure, a powerful coalition was formed against him by the Italian princes, the Emperor Ma«cimilian I. of Germany, and Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. The allies at- tempted to cut off Charles's retreat to France, but he defeated their united ff^rces in the battle of Fornova, and reached his kingdom in safety ; but all his conquests in Italy were lost to him. The whole kingdom of Naples was soon recovered from the French by the able Spanish general, Gonsalvo de Cordova, " the Great Captain." 158 MIDDLE AGES. REIGN OF LOUIS XII. (A. D. 14.98-1518). Character of Louis XII., "The Father of his People."— On the death of Charles the Courteous, in 1498, without children, his third cousin, the Duke of Orleans, ascended the throne of France with the title of Louis XII., and proved to be one of the best kings that ever wore a crown. He was so solicitous to promote the welfare and happiness of his subjects, and was so dearly beloved by them in return, that he was called "The Father of his People." Louis XII. took great pains to lessen the taxes and improve the administration of justice. He retained Brittany by marrying Anne, the widow of Charles VIII. French Conquests in Italy — League of Cambray — Battle of Ravenna. — In 1499, King Louis XII. sent an army into Italy to enforce his hereditary claims upon Milan. The French conquered Milan and Genoa, and Louis XII. and King Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain wrested Naples from its king, Frederic; but a quarrel arose between the robbers, and the Spanish king forced the I'rench monarch to yield his claim upon Naples. In 1508, Pope Julius II., the Emperor Maximilian I. of Germany, King Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, and King I>ouis XII. of France formed the powerful League of Cambray against the Republic of Venice; but the Pope and Louis soon quarreled and open war ensued, and the Venetians secured the alliance of the Pope and the King of Spain. The French defeated the combined forces of their enemies in the great battle of Ravenna, on the nth of April, 1512. In the following year (1513), King Henry VIII. of England invaded France and won the battle of the Spurs, near Tournay. Louis XII. died in 15 15, and was succeeded by his cousin Francis I. IBERIAN KINGDOMS. Christian Kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal — Battle of To- losa.. — Inuring the Middle Ages, the Christian kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal arose in the Iberian or Spanish peninsula. These kingdoms waged con- stant wars against the Moors in the Southern portion of the peninsula. In 121 2, the united armies of Aragon and Castile achieved a great victory over the Moors at Tolosa, in the Sierra Morena, after which Saracen power in Spain rapidly declined. Aragon's Foreign Possessions — Alphonso the Wise and Alphonso XI. of Castile. — Aragon conquered the Spanish provinces of Valencia, Murcia, and Catalonia; and also the Mediterranean islands of Majorca, Minorca, Sardinia, and Sicily ; the latter during the reign of Peter III., and the kingdom of Naples in the time of Alphonso V. Castile wrested much of the Southern portion of Sjiain from the Moors, thus obtaining the towns of Seville, Cadiz, and Cordova. The most cele- brated kings of Castile were Alphonso the Wise, noted for his fondness for learning, particularly astronomy, and Alphonso XL, famous for his victories over the Moors. Rise of Portugal. — Alphonso VI., King of Castile, bestowed the Earldom of Portugal on his chivalrous son-in-law, Henry of Burgundy, who was to rule in fief. The Earl Alphonso I., having gaii>ed a great victory over the Moors in I139, was crowned the first King of Portugal, which he liberated from Castilian supremacy. King Alphonso III. extended Portugal to its present limits by the annexation of Algarve, the most southern province, which he had conqueretl from the Moors. GERMANIC STATES. 159 Union of Aragon and Castile under Ferdinand and Isabella — The In- quisition.— In 1474, Isabella ascended the tlirone of Castile, and in 1479, Ferdi- nand the Catholic became King of Aragon. The two kingdoms were united into one, called Spain, by the marriage of Isabella with Ferdinand. The horrible Court of Inquisition, which condemned Mohammedans, Jews, and others charged with heresy, to tortures, imprisonment, and deatli itself, was established in Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella. Fall of Granada and End of the Saracen Power in Spain — Conquest of Navarre. — In 1481, Ferdinand and Isabella began a war against the Moorish kingdom of Granada, in the South of Spain, and their armies took the city of Gran- ada, with its famous fortress, the Alhambra, in 1492, after a siege of ten years, thus putting an end to the Saracen power in Spain, after it had existed in that country a period of about eight centuries. In 1512, the whole of Spain was united under one scepter by the conquest and annexation of the kingdom of Navarre, on the south side of the Pyrenees. GERMANIC STATES. THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE OF GERMANY. THE CARLOVINGIAN SOVEREIGNS OF GERMANY. Germany under the Carlovingian Dynasty — Charles the Fat and Ar- nolph. — The existence of the Holy Roman Empire of Germany began with the Partition Treaty of Verdun, in the year 843 A. D. Under the Carlovingian sover- eigns, Germany was in a most deplorable condition. Charles the P"at was deposed by the German nobles, for making a humiliating peace with the free-booting Nor- mans, and his valiant nephew, Amolph, was elevated to the imperial throne of Germany. Amolph defeated the savage Avars and Slavonians, and called in the aid of the wild Magyars, or Hungarians, from the region of the Ural ; but the Mag- yars soon proved to be a more dangerous enemy than either the Avars or the Sla- vonians. GERMANY UNDER THE SAXON AND PRANKISH EMPERORS. REIGN OF CONRAD I. OF FRANCONIA (A. D. 911-919). Germany an Elective Empire. — On the death of Louis IV., the last of the Carlovingian sovereigns of Germany, in 911, the Dukes of Franconia, Saxony, Swabia,' Bavaria, Thuringia, and Lorraine electedoli>h, and the Kniperor consequently wa^'ed war ajj;ainsl the Jioheniian king and overthrew liim in the bloody and decisive hatlie of Marchfeld, in 127S. Ottocar himself was amonjj; the slain. Founding of the Royal Austrian House of Hapsburg. — The luuiieror Ivoilolph leit Wenceslaus, Olloear's son, in iKissessigii of oidy liohemia and Mora.- via. (.^Ilocar's other territorial possessions — namely, Austria, vSlyria, and Carniola — Rodolph bcstowetl on his own sons, and thus became the founder of the Royal Austrian House of llapsburjj, which has ever since occupied the Austrian throuc. Restoration of Order in Germany. — J5y his energy, firmness, and justice, Rodolph succeeded in restoring law and order throughout the Empire. The chiv- aln)us I'imperor traversed Germany, and reduced the lawless nobles and robber knif^ils to submission, ami razeil their castles and strongholds to the ground. Thff illustrious Rodolph died in 1291, and was buried in the Cathedr;U of Sjiire. REIGN OF AlDOl-PH OF NASSAU (A. D. 1201-1298). Purchase of Thuringia by Adolph — War with Frederic "With the Bit- ten Check." — On the ile.uii of Roilol|)h of Hapsburg, in 1291, the Oerman Elec- toral Trinces cliose Count Adolph of Nassau to the im])erial throne. Adolph jnirchased a ]>orlion of the Thuringian territories from Duke Albert the Uncourteous, — a step which involved the Emjieror in a war with Albert's sons, Frederic "with the bitten cheek" and l)icl/maii, w iio were heirs to their father's territorial posses- sions. Dethronement of Adolph and Election of Albert of Austria. — The dis- graceful and dishonest means which the Emperor Adolph employed for the aggran- dizement of his family rendered him exceedingly unpojjular with the German pco])le, anil di.sgusted the Electoral I'rinces to such a degree that they deposed him in 1298, and electc>reserve his crown, but was defeated and killed at Worms by Albert. REIGN OF ALDEltT OF AUSTRIA (A. D. 1208-1008). Austrian Tyranny over the Swiss. — Helvetia was a component part of the Germar. lOmpire. When the Ha|isburgs, whose territorial jwssessions lay to the north of the Swiss Cantons, came into possession of the hereditaiy Austrian states, they endeavored to annex Switzerland to the hereditary Austrian dominions, and the EmiKMor Albert's governors were instructed to exercise the greatest tyranny over the slurdv .Swiss motinlaineers. GERMANIC STATES. 167 League of Rutli— Legend of William Tell — Assassination of Albert. — The tyranny of the Austrian governors in Switzerland Jed to the formation of the League of Rutli by three Swiss Cantons, — Uri, Sehwytz, and Unterwalden ; — and the tyrannical governors were expelled by the Swiss. One of these governors, Gesler, according to a well-known legend, was killed by William Tell, whom the tyrant had compelled to shoot an apple from his son's head, for refusing to bow to the ducal cap of Austria, which the governor had placed upon a pole in a conspic- uous place. The assassination of the Emix;ror Albert, in the year 1308, by his nephew, John of Swabia, only saved the Swiss from his vengeance. REIGN OP HENRY VII., OF" LUXEMBURG (A. D. 1308-1313). Henry's Expedition to Italy. — Upon the assassination of Albert of Austria, the Electoral Princes of Germany invested lienry VII., of the House of Luxem- burg, with the imperial dignity. Henry VII. led a military expedition into Italy, where he was well received by the Ghibellines; but the Guelph.s rose against the Emperor. Henry marched to attack Florence, a Gueljjhic city; but he died on the way, and was buried in the Ghibelline city of Pisa. (A. D. 13131^ REIGN OF LOUIS THE BAVARIAN AND FREDERIC THE FAIR OF AUSTRIA (A. D. 131S-134&;. Civil War Between the Rival Emperors — Honorable Conduct of Fred- eric. — On the death of Henry ^i\., another civil war arose in Geruiany concern- ing the succession to the imperial throne. Some of the German Electoral Princes chose Louis of Bavaria, while others declared for Frederic the Fair of Austria. Frederic was defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of Muhldorf; but Duke Leopold of Austria, Frederic's l^other, refused to accept peace, and Po|x; John XXIL, who sided with Leopold, excommunicated Louis the Bavarian. P'rederic the Fair was at length restored to freedom, on condition of persuading his brother Leopold and the Pope to agree to a peace; but as neither Duke Lcopf>ld, nor the Head of the Church, would listen to any proposals of peace, the honest Frederic voluntarily returned to captivity; which conduct led to the closest friendship be- tween PVederic and Louis, and the latter was willing to allow his rival a share in the Empire, but the Electoral Princes would not agree to such an arrangement. The Swiss Confederation — Battle of Morgarten. — Upon the assassination of the Emperor Albert I., in 1308, his brother Leopold succeeded him in the sove- reignty of the hereditary Aastrian territories. Duke Leopold marched against the Swiss Confederates, but he was thoroughly defeated by them in the narrow pass of Morgarten, in 131 5, and only saved himself by a disgraceful flight from the scene of action. The three revolted cantons, Uri, Sehwytz, and Unterwalden, were soon joined by the towns of Lucerne, Periie, Zug, and Zurich. Quarrel between the Emperor Louis and Pope John XXIL — Soon after Frederic the Fair had returned to captivity, his brother, Duke Lcojxjld of Austria, died; and as Pope John XXIL still obstinately refused peace, the Emjjeror Ivfjuls appfjihted Frederic the Fair regent of the Empire, and led an army into Italy U) humble the stubborn pontiff. I^ouis caused another Pope to l>c elected ; and before his retarn to Germany, Frederic the Pair had died. In consequence of the obsti- nacy with which Poj;je John XXIL and his successor, Benedict XII, , retained the 1 68 MIDDLE AGES. excommunication against the Emperor Louis, the German Princes declared in the Electoral Diet that in future the confirmation by the Pope should be unnecessary to the validity of the election of Emperors. Charles IV., of Luxemburg. — The ambition of the Emperor Louis finally made him unpopular, and the Electoral Princes raised Charles IV., soi c>f King John of Bohemia, of the House of Luxemburg, to the imperial dignity; l.u,. Charles was not fully acknowledged Emperor until Louis the Bavarian had been killed in a bear hunt near Munich. GERMANY UNDER THE HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG. REIGN OF CHARLES IV. (A. D. 1349-1378.) Founding of the University of Prague — The Golden Bull. — The Emperor Charles IV. was an aml)itious and avaricious monarch; but he did much for the 'welfare and prosperity of Germany. In 1348, he founded the University of Prague, which was attended by over 5,000 students. Charles IV. also established the code of laws known as " The Golden Bull," by which the election of Emperors was left exclusively to the seven leading Princes of Germany. REIGN OF WENCESL.AUS (A. D. 1378-1400). Lawlessness and Confusion — The Faust-recht. — On the death of Charles IV., in 1378, his son, the dissolute and hard-hearted Wenceslaus, was chosen Em- peror of Germany. During the reign of Wenceslaus great confusion and lawlessness prevailed throughout the Empire. The only law which prevailed over all others was the Faust-rccht, or club-law, which called upon every man to take care of himself. Wars between the Cities and the Knights. — To put an end to the prevail- ing disorder and confusion, the towns of Soutliern and Western Germany formed confederations against the lawless nobles and knights. To oppose these confeder- ations of towns, the knights also united themselves in leagues. Destructive wars ensued between the cities and the knights, and the people of South Germany were reduced to great distress. The Swiss — Battle of Sempach — Patriotic Devotion of Arnold Winkel- ried. — Duke Leopold of Austria was at this time engaged in a war with the Swiss Confederates. In 1386, the Swiss gained a victory over Leopold and his Austrian and German chivalry in the battle of Sempach, famous for the self-devotion of Arnold Winkelried, a gallant knight of Unterwalden, who plunged into the midst of the enemy, tearing their spears from their hands and burying them in his body, and opened a way for his countrymen, who rushed upon the Austrians and killed or routed their whole force. Duke Leopold a>nd 656 of his nobles were among the slain. REIGN OF RUPERT OF THE PALATINATE (A. D. 1400-1410). Deposition of Wenceslaus and Election of Rupert of the Palatinate. — Disorder, robbery, and lawlessness prevailed to such an extent in Germany that the Electoral Pi-inces deposed Wenceslaus from the imperial throne, in the year 1400, and chose Rupert of the Palatinate in his stead. Rupert, however, did not succeed GERMANIC STATES. 169 in restoring order and tranquillity to the German Empire. He also failed in his endeavors to heal the dissensions in the Church. REIGN OF SIGISMUND (A. D. 1410-1487). Council of Constance (1414-1418). — The Emperor Rupert died in 1410, and Sigismund, King of Hungary, brother of Wenceslaus, received the imperial dignity from the Electoral Princes of Germany. In order to heal the dissensions in the Church, the Emperor Sigismund induced Pope John XXHI. to summon a great • Council of the Church at Constance. For seventy years, the Popes had resided at Avignon, in France. The Italians and Germans, not succeeding in having the papal residence reestablished in Rome, elected another Pope: .so there were nov/ two Popes, one at Avignon and another at Rome. A Council of the Church which had convened at Pisa proclaimed the deposition of the two Popes, and chose another in their stead ; but as the two Popes would not resign their dignities, there were now three Popes reigning at the same time. To remove this scandal, and to purge the Church of its many abuses and corruptions, the grand Council of Con- stance was called. The clergy and Church dignitaries from all Western and Central Europe hastened to Constance at the appointed time, and 150,000 men are said to have been assembled there. The first business of the Council was the deposition of the three Popes and the elevation of Martin V. to the pontifical chair. Martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of Prague. — The Council of Con- stance, without effecting any reformation in the Church, devoted itself earnestly to the consideration of doctrines and opinions differing from those of the Church, and condemned the writings of John Wickliffe, the great English reformer, to be burned. The Council also summoned the learned and pious John Huss, a professor in the University of Prague, who had adopted the opinions of Wickliffe, and preached against the power of the Pope and condemned many of the practices of the Church, to appear and answer for his conduct. Being provided by the Emperor Sigismund with a safe-conduct, Huss went to Constance, but as soon as he arrived there ho was imprisoned for preaching heretical doctrines. Having refused to recant, Huss was burned alive, in 1415, by order of the Council of Constance, notwithstanding the Emperor's promise that he should safely return to Prague, the Council being of the opinion that promises made to heretics were not binding. The following year (1416), Jerome of Prague, a Bohemian nobleman, the associate and disciple of Huss, also perished at the stake. Hussite War. — The horrible deed just mentioned, aroused the adherents of Huss in Bohemia to a furious religious war of sixteen years' duration, in which they took a terrible revenge on tlie Empire and the Church for the death of the great reformer. In vain did the Pope issue interdict after interdict against the Hussites. They stormed the town-house at Prague and murdered the counsellors, which ace so enraged the aged ex-Emperor Wenceslaus that he died of apoplexy. Under the leadership of the valiant John Ziska, the Hussite Bohemians defeated the armies of the Emperor Sigismund in many bloody battles. They burned churches and convents in Bohemia and Saxony, and compelled Brandenburg and Bavaria to pay tribute. By the death of Wenceslaus, his Bohemian crown fell to his brother, the PZmperor Sigismund, but the latter was unable to obtain possession of the king- dom, until a reconciliation was brought about between the Church and the moderate 170 MIDDLE AGES. Bohemians, or Calixtines, and until the radical Hussites, or Taborites, suffered a defeat near Prague. Some of the Hussites afterwards withdrew from the Church, and formed the sect since known as "The Bohemian and Moravian Brethren." GERMANY UNDER THE HOUSE OF HAPSBURG. REIGN OF ALBERT II. (A. D. 1438-1439.) The Hapsburg-Austrian Dynasty. — After the death of Sigismund, in 1437, his son-in-law, Albert II., of the House of Austria, or llapsburg, was chosen Em- peror of Germany, from which time until the dissolution of the German Empire, in 1806, the throne of Germany was occupied, with little intermission, by princes of the Hapsburg-Austrian dynasty. REIGN OF FREDERIC III. (A. D. 144O-1403). The Council of Basle (A. D. 1431-1449). — The Emperor Albert II. died in 1439, and his nephew, the weak and imbecile Frederic HI., was elected his successor on the imperial throne of Germany. Another great Council of the Church had been assembled at Basle, in 143 1, during the reign of Sigismund, for the pur- pose of effecting the removal from the Church of all the abuses and corruptions which disgraced it. The Council of Basle continued in session until 1449, a period of nearly eighteen years, during which it endeavored to diminish the power of the Pope. To frustrate the designs of the Council, the Pope ordered it to be removed to Ferrara, and afterwards to Florence; but the members of the Council refused to obey the order of the Father of the Church, and elected another Pope in his stead. Having secured the support of the Emperor Frederic HI., the lawful Pope, Euge- nius IV., finally triumphed; and the Church was left in her corruption. After having acknowledged Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius IV., as Pope, the Council of Basle dissolved itself (1449). Imbecility of Frederic III. — The Emperor Frederic HI. possessed no talents for government. He looked on with seeming indifi'erence when the Ottoman Turks were threatening his hereditary Austrian estates with jilunder and desolation, and when the miglily Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy was extending his do- minions to the banks of the Rhine, while at home the imperial authority fell into contempt. Feuds of the Princes, Nobles, and Cities. — The German Empire was again a theatre of the greatest lawlessness. The German princes claimed the right of carrying on war against each other, and made themselves independent of the au- thority of the Emperor. A bloody war was waged by the Swabian League against the Margrave Albert of Brandenburg, the Achilles of Germany, — a war in which nine battles were fought and two hundred towns and villages laid in ashes. In Western Germany raged the war of the Palatinate, in which Ulric of Wurtemberg, the Margrave of Baden, and the Bishop of Metz were defeated and made prisoners by the Count Palatine, Frederic the Victorious, near Seckenheim, in 1461. Not- withstanding his success, Frederic the Victorious could not prevent the deposition of his ally, the Archbishop of Mayence, in whose cause he had taken up arms. GERMANIC STATES. 1 71 REIGN OF MAXIMILIAN I. (A. D. 1493-1319). The Land-friede. — The weak and imbecile Frederic III. died in 1493, and •was succeeded in the imperial dignity by his son, Maximilian I., who succeeded in securing the establishment, by the Diet of Worms, of the Land-friede, or Land- peace, which put an end to the prevailing lawlessness and private warfare in Ger- many. The Land-friede forbade any private redress of injuries by arms under the penalty of outlawiy; and an Imperial Chamber was established to settle disputes among the Princes, and the German Empire was divided into ten Circles. Defeat of the Emperor Maximilian by the Swiss — Peace of Basle. — The Swiss having refused to recognize the Imperial Chamber, the Emperor Maxi- milian marched against them with an army, but he was defeated and compelled to retreat, and in the Peace of Basle, in 1499, to acknowledge the independence of Switzerland. Importance of the Reign of Maximilian I. — The reign of Maximilian I. was an imjmrlant ej)och in the history of Europe; as it was the transition period between the Middle Ages and Modern Times, — the period when the night of barbarism was passing away and the light of civilization was again dawning upon Europe ; when the Feudal System was giving way to more enlightened usages; and when Chivalry was in its decay. Maximilian died in 15 19, and was succeeded as Emperor by his grandson, Charles V. KINGDOM OF ENGLAND. ENGLAND UNDER THE SAXON AND DANISH KINGS. REIGNS OF THE ANGLO-SAXON KINGS (A. D. 827-1017). Founding of the Kingdom of England — Egbert, First King. — In the year 827 A. D., the seven kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy in Britain were united, under the government of Eglx;rt, King of Wessex, into one great kingdom, called Angle-land, or England. Egbert had been educated at the court of Charlemagne, and was an enlightened and accomplished prince. Predatory Incursions of the Danes into England.— During the reigns of Egbert and his successors of the Anglo-Saxon dynasty, the Danes, a daring Scan- dinavian tribe, were continually making irruptions into England and securing a vast amount of booty, which they carried off to their own country. King Alfred the Great and the Danes — Institutions of Alfred. — During the reign of the good and illustrious Alfred the Great, who ascended the throne of England in 871 A. D., the Danes obtained possession of the greater part of the English kingdom; and Alfred became a fugitive among his Anglo-Saxon subjects. On one occasion. King Alfred went into the camp of the Danes, disguised as a harper ; and after having obtained the knowledge he wanted, returned to his own subjects and led them against the Danes, whom he conquered after a severe struggle. The Danes whom Alfred had made prisoners, and among whom was their chief, Guthrum, were allowed to remain in England, on condition of becoming Christians. King Alfred the Great had a great fondness for learning, and he gave great encour- agement to the arts, sciences, and literature. lie founded the University of Oxford, 172 MIDDLE AGES. improved London, reformed the Saxon division of the kingdom into counties or shires, instituted trial by jury, and laid the foundations of the English navy. Alfred the Great, who was himself the most learned man in his kingdom, and who was as virtuous as he was learned, died in the year 901 A. D., and was succeeded on the throne of England by his son, Edward the Elder. Renewal of the Incursions of the Danes — Massacre of the Danes in England. — After the death of Alfred the Great the Danes again ravaged England; and in the reign of King Ethelred II., who a.scended the English throne in 978, they obtained possession of the greater portion of the country, and King Ethelred several times bribed them to leave the kingdom. When the Danes again returned to England, in the year 1002 A. D., and committed their former ravages, King Ethelred II. caused all the Danes in England to be massacred. To avenge their death, Sweyn, King of Denmark, with a large army of Danes and Norwegians, invaded England, which he soon subdued. King Ethelred II. fled to Normandy, but soon afterward returned to England. THE DANISH KINGS OF ENGLAND (A. D. 1017-1041). Reign of Canute the Great. — King Ethelred II., at his death, was succeeded on the English throne by his son, Edmund Ironside. Sweyn's son, Canute the Great, King of Denmark, invaded England in 1016; and on the death of Edmund Ironside, the next year, became sole King of England. At first Canute the Dane treated his Anglo-Saxon subjects with great severity, but he soon embraced Christianity, and thereafter governed with mildness and wisdom. Canute the Great was one of the most powerful monarchs of his time ; and before his death, he wore the crowns of four kingdoms, having been King of Denmark since his father's death, in 1013, and having conquered England in 1016, Sweden in 1025, and Norway in 1027. Short Reigns of Harold Harefoot and Hardicanute. — On the death of Canute the Great, in 1035, his son Harold, surnamed " Harefoot," on account of his swiftness in running, became King of England. Harold Harefoot died in 1039, and was succeeded on the throne of England by his brother Hardicanute, who died ater a tyrannical reign of two years. (A. D. 1041.) THE RESTORED SAXON DVNASTY (A. D. 1041- 1066). Reigns of Edward the Confessor and Harold. — Upon the death of Har- dicanute, in 1041, the Saxon dynasty was restored to the throne of England, in the person of Edward the Confessor. On Edward's death, in 1066, the English crown was usurped by his wife's brother, Harold. Tostig, Harold's brother, claimed the English throne, and, with the aid of the Kings of Scotland and Norway, he raised a large army, but was defeated by Harold in a great battle on the river Tyne, in the North of England, on the 25th of September of the same year. (A. D. 1066.) Invasion of England by Duke William of Normandy — Battle of Has- tings. — A few days after Harold's victory over his brother, Duke William of Nor- mandy, to whom Edward the Confessor had bequeathed the English kingdom, and whose pretensions were sanctioned by the Pope, landed on the Southern coast of England, at the head of 60,000 men. In the great battle of Hastings, which was GERMANIC STATES. 173 fought on the 14th of October, 1066, Harold was killed, and the Duke of Nor- mandy gained a victory which changed the whole fate of England. ENGLAND UNDER THE NORMAN DYNASTY. REIGN OF "WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR (A. D. 1066-1087). "The Norman Conquest" of England. — The battle of Hastings made the Duke of Normandy King of England. P'rom this time he was called " William the Conqueror," and his subjugation of England is styled "The Norman Conquest." The immediate result of the battle of Hastings gave William only about one-fourth of England, and it was only after a war of seven years that the Conqueror com- pleted the subjugation of the entire kingdom. Introduction of the Feudal System into England — Domes-day Book. — William the Conqueror introduced the Feudal System into England by dividing the lands of the conquered kingdom among his Norman favorites, thus depriving the Anglo-Saxon nobility of their rights, and reducing the English peasants to a condition of serfdom. The account of the survey of the lands then made was written in Domes-day Book, or "Book of Judgment," which is preserved in the Tower of London to this day. REIGN OF WILLIAM RUFUS (A. D. 1087-1100). Quarrel Between King "William Rufus and His Brothers. — William the Conqueror died in 1087, and was succeeded as King of England by his second son, William Rufus, or " the Red," so called from the color of his hair; while his eldest son, Robert, became Duke of Normandy. King William Rufus was involved in quarrels with his brothers, Robert and Henry, He also waged war against Malcolm, King of Scotland. In order to obtain money to join in the First Crusade, Robert sold his duchy of Normandy to William Rufus, who obtained money to pay for it by forced levies upon his English subjects. REIGN OF HENRY I. (A. D. 1100-11S5). Quarrel Between King Henry 1. and His Brother Robert. — King William Rufus was accidentally killed by one of his companions while hunting, in the year 1 100 A. D.,^and was succeeded on the throne of England by his younger brother, Henry; his elder brother, Robert, being absent in the Jloly Land. King Henry I. was surnamed Beauclerc, or "Good Scholar." After his return from Palestine, Robert recovered Normandy; but a war arose between him and Henry I., and Robert was made prisoner and ended his days in a castle in Wales. REIGN OF STEPHEN OF BLOIS (A. D. 11SS-11S4). Stephen's Usurpation — Civil AA/ar — Matilda's Triumph and Fall. — On the death of King Henry I., in 1135, the English throne was usurped by Count Stephen of Blois, the rightful claimant being Henry's daughter, Matilda, the wife of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Earl of Anjou. The result of Stephen's usurpation was a civil war, which ended in the triumph of Matilda, and she was declared Queen of England; but her tyranny and arrogance disgusted her English friends, and she was finally compelled to flee from the kingdom ; and Stephen was restored to the throne. 174 MIDDLE AGES. ENGLAND UNDER THE PLANTAGENETS. REIGN OF HENRY II. (A. D. 1184-1189). Usurpations of the Clergy — Constitutions of Clarendon — Assassination of Becket. — Upon the death of King Stephen, in 1154, the Plantagenet dynasty ascended the throne of England, in the person of Henry II., of Anjou, Matilda's son. Henry II. was one of the greatest monarchs of the Middle Ages, and his reign was cotemporary with that of Frederic Barbarossa in Germany. In order tD check the usurpations of the clergy in England, King Henry II. assembled the English nobles and priests at Clarendon, in 1 164; and by the " Constitutions of Clarendon," which were framed by this assembly, the privileges of the English clergy were restricted. But Pope Alexander III. and Thomas a Becket, Arch- bishop of Canterbury, rejected the Constitutions of Clarendon; and a long and bitter quarrel ensued between the King and the Archbishop. At last, Henry exclaimed in a fit of anger, "Will no one rid me of this troublesome priest!" whereupon four of the King's servants went to Canterbury and killed Becket. The consequence of this assassination" was the final triumph of the Church ; the assassins were pun- ished, the Constitutions of Clarendon were abolished, and the murdered Becket was canonized by the Pope. Thousands of pilgrims visited Becket's altar, and King Henry II. at length went to the tomb of the murdered Archbishop, and there did penance for the crime by allowing the priests to assault him with rods. Conquest of Ireland by the English. — At this time Ireland was divided into five separate kingdoms. In 1 171, the Earl of Pembroke, surnamed Strongbow, went over into Ireland to assist Dermot Macmorrogh, King of Leinster, who had been driven from his dominions by the other Irish princes. Dermot soon recov- ered his kingdom, which, at his death, the following year (1172), he left to Earl Strongbow, who had married his daughter. Strongbow immediately resigned his kingdom to King Henry II., who immediately invaded Ireland and subdued the whole island. (A. D. 1172.) Ever since this event the Emerald Isle has been subject to the English crown. Rebellions of King Henry's Sons. — The Sons of King Henry II. were sev- eral times induced by their wicked mother, Eleanor, to take up arms against their father, and were assisted in their rebellion by the Kings of Scotland and France, and also by the English barons. King William of Scotland was taken prisoner by a band of English knights, but was afterwards released, on condition that he and his successors should do homage to the English monarchs for their crown. King Henry II. died in 1189, of grief and anxiety caused by the rebellion of his two sons, Richard and John, who were aided by King Philip Augustus of France. REIGN OF RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED (A. D. 1189-1199). Richard's Deeds in Palestine — ^His Imprisonment in Germany. — Henry II. was succeeded on the English throne by his elder son, the chivalrous Richard the Lion-hearted, who was renowned for his deeds in Palestine as a Crusader. On his return home from the Holy Land, in 1192, Richard was imprisoned in Ger- many, by order of the Duke of Austria and the Emperor Henry VI. of Germany, in revenge for an insult to the German flag in Palestine after the capture of Acre. The English, people only obtained Richard's release by paying a ransom of a mil- GERMANIC STATES. 175 lion dollars. King Richard the Lion-hearted was killed in 1199, while besieging a castle in Normandy. REIGN OF JOHN (A. D. 1199-1216). Accession of John Lackland. — Richard the Lion-hearted was succeeded on the throne of England by his dissolute brother, John, surnamed "Lackland," be- cause he lost Normandy and the other territories which the English monarchs had possessed in France, to the French king, Philip Augustus, after a long contest. King John's Quarrel with Pope Innocent III. — King John quarreled with Pope Innocent IIL about the appointment of an Archbishop of Canterbury. The Pope laid the English kingdom under an interdict, and afterwards excommunicated King John, and called upon King Philip Augustus of France to invade England, dethrone John, and take possession of his kingdom. In order to release himself from the excommunication. King John was compelled to surrender his crown and kingdom to the Pope, and to acknowledge himself the Pope's vassal, whereupon John received his kingdom back as a papal fief. The King of France was then forbidden to make war on England, which country the Pope now considered as one of the territories of the Church. Rebellion of the English Barons — Magna Charta Signed by King John, — Disgusted with the dissipation and tyranny of King John, the English barons rose in rebellion against him; and on the 19th of June, 1215, at Runnymede, on the Thames, near Windsor, they compelled the king to sign Magna Charta, or Great Charter of rights and liberties. Among the important articles of this great docu- ment were the following: "No delay should take place in doing justice to every one; and no freeman should be taken or imprisoned, dispossessed of his free tene- ment, outlawed or banished, unless by the legal judgment of his peers." Magn-a Charta has ever since been considered the foundation of the free constitution of England. Civil War in England. — Irritated at the English barons, the Pope excommu- nicated them, and also absolved King John from the oath he had taken. John collected an army of foreign mercenaries, and made war on his barons, who offered the crown of England to the French monarch's son, Louis, who immediately landed in England with an army, and prepared to contend with King John for the posses- sion of the English throne; but when John died, in 1216, Louis was suddenly aban- doned by the English barons. REIGN OF HENRY III. (A. D. 1216-1272). Civil War between Henry III. and his Barons — Simon de Montfort. — The dissolute King John was succeeded in the royal dignity by his son, Henry III., who was a weak and profligate prince, and profuse to his favorites, who were gen- erally unworthy persons. King Henry III. was engaged in a continual struggle with the English barons, who were endeavoring to secure their own rights and the liberties of the English people. The whole kingdom was rent by anarchy and civil war. The chief among the rebellious barons was Simon de Montfort, who, dis- gusted with the vicious conduct and tyranny of the King, called a Parliament, in 1258, which deprived Henry III. of his authority; and a council of twenty-four barons was appointed to govern the English kingdom. 176 MIDDLE AGES. Origin of the House of Commons — Civil War — Battles of Lewes and Evesham. — In 1265, Simon de Montfort, who liad risen to the dignity of Earl of Leicester, called another Parliament, in which not only the English nobles, but also the cities and boroughs of England were represented. This was the origin of the House of Commons, which, as the popular branch of the English Parliament, has ever been the chief guardian of the rights and liberties of the people of England. An attempt of King Henry IH. to recover his lost authority involved him in another civil war with his barons. In the battle of Lewes, in 1264, the king was defeated and made a prisoner by the Earl of Leicester; but Henry afterwards obtained his freedom by the great victory which his son. Prince Edward, gained in the battle of Evesham, in which the Earl of Leicester and his son were slain. The wretched life and miserable reign of Heniy IH. terminated with his death, in 1272. REIGN OF ED^ArARD I. (A. D. 1272-1307.) Edward I. in Palestine — Banishment of the Jews from England. — The chivalrous son of Henry HI., Edward I., who was at the time in Palestine as a Crusader, became King of England at his father's death; but he did not return to England until two yeai-s afterward. King Edward I. had a great hatred for the Jews, and, as soon as he arrived in England from the Holy Land, he confiscated the property of Jews, and banished 13,000 of them from his kingdom. Conquest of Wales by Edward I. — The First Prince of Wales. — Unlike his father, Edward I. was an able monarch. He humbled the English barons and restored order throughout his kingdom. His mind was occupied with the thought of uniting the whole island of Great Britain under one government. When Llewellyn Prince of Wales, refused to do the customary homage to the English king, Edward I. marched against him with an army ; and Llewellyn was defeated and slain in bay over the English at Stirling, and regained their independence. Edward I. again in- vaded Scotland, and defeated the Scots under Wallace at Falkirk, in 1298. Wal- lace was betrayed to Edward, who carried the valiant patriot to London, and caused him to be executed. (A. D. 1305.) The Scots again revolted, and were led by Robert Bruce, a grandson of that Robert Bruce who had been a rival candidate with Baliol for the Scotch crown in 1292. In 1306, Bruce was crowned King of Scotland, at .Scone. King Edward L again marched toward Scotland with a powerful army, but died at Carlisle. (A. D. 1307.) On his death bed he ex- horted his son Edward to lead the expedition into Scotland, and not to give up tlie war until the Scots were entirely subjugated. REIGN OF EDWARD II. (A. D. 1S07-1327). The War with Scotland — Battle of Bannockburn — Independence of Sctoland. — King Edward I. was succeeded on the throne of England by his son, Edward II., who disobeyed his father's dying injunction, and disbanded the army which had been raised for the subjugation of Scotland, P'or seven years, the Scots, under the leadership of their king, Robert Bruce, carried on the war against the Eng- lish. Finally, in 1314, King Edward II. led an army of 100,000 men into Scotland; and on the 24tli of June (1314), he fought with Robert Bruce, who had only 30,000 men, the famous battle of Bannockburn, in which the Scots gained a glorious vic- tory and secured the independence of their country. In 1315, Edward Bruce, Robert's brother, went over into Ireland, and the Irish proclaimed him their king ; but he was totally defeated by the English in the battle of Dundallt. Edward's Favorites — Rebellion of the Barons and the Queen — Murder of Edward II. — Edward II. was a weak and profligate sovereign, and he sur- rounded himself with the most unworthy favorites, the chief of whom was a Frenchman named Gaveston, who treated the English barons with such insolence that they openly rebelled, took Gaveston prisoner, and put him to death. Gaves- ton's place in the king's favor was supplied by the dissolute Hugh Spenser, a Welshman, who was as much hated by the English barons as Gaveston had been. The barons, with the Earl of Lancaster at their head, again rebelled against the king, and were joined in their rebellion by the king's wife, Isabella, a daughter of King Philip the Fair of France, Edward II. was dethroned and imprisoned ; and in 1327, he was brutally murdered, at the instigation of his queen and her unworthy favorite, Roger Mortimer. REIGN OF ED^A^ARD III. (A. D. 1327-1377). War with Scotland— Battle of Halidon Hill— Flight of David Bruce. — The imbecile and dissolute Edward II. was succeeded as King of England by 12 ♦ 1 78 MIDDLE AGES. his son, the brave and chivalrous Edward III., who was a very able sovereign. Edward III., upon his accession to the throne, caused Roger Mortimer to be put to death, and his mother, Isabella, to be imprisoned, on account of her conduct toward his father. The attempt of King Edward III. to dethrone David Bruce, the reign- ing King of Scotland, led to a war between England and Scotland. Edward invaded Scotland, and gained a victory at Halidon Hill, which placed Scotland at the mercy of the English monarch. King David Bruce being obliged to seek refuge in France. Invasion of France by Edward III. — Battle of Crecy — Cannon First Used.— By the death of King Charles the Fair of France, the last of the direct line of the House of Capet, in 1328, the crown of France passed to his cousin, Philip of Valois, the nephew of Philip the Fair. But Edward III. of England claimed to be the proper heir to the French throne, because his mother, Isabella, was a daughter of Philip the Fair; but by the Salic Law, which has always prevailed in France, females are excluded from the throne, and therefore the P'rench denied the validity of Edward's pretensions. To enforce his claims, the King of England led an army iiito France; and inflicted upon the French army, far superior to his own in numer- ical strength, a complete overthrow in the battle of Crecy, fought on the 25th of August, 1346. The French lost over 40,000 men, among whom was the blind old King John of Bohemia. King Edward and his son Edward, the Black Prince, so called from the color of his armor, greatly distinguished themselves in the battle of Crecy for their bravery. In the battle of Crecy, cannon, but of a rude construction, were first used, the English having several pieces. Siege and Capture of Calais by Edward III. — Eustace St. Pierre. — After his great victory at Crecy, Edward III. laid siege to Calais, the key to France. The city was stubbornly defended by the Franch for nearly a year, when, reduced by famine, Calais was obliged to surrender. It is said that the English king agreed to spare the inhabitants of Calais, whose long resistance exasperated him, if six of the leading citizens should be sent to h'lm, with ropes about their necks, ready for hanging. The unfortunate inhabitants gave way to despair at these hard conditions; but Eustace St. Pierre, a wealthy merchant of Calais, offered himself as one of the victims. Inspired by his noble example, five others followed him. The entreaties of the English nobles, of Edward's queen, Philippa, and of his heroic son, Edward the Black Prince, finally prevailed over the king's obstinate temper and saved the lives of the six noble-hearted citizens. This story is very generally doubted. After the surrender of Calais, Edward III. expelled its French inhabitants, and peopled the city with English ; and for two centuries, that important town remained in the possession of the English. Scottish Invasion of England — Battle of Nevil's Cross — David Bruce a Prisoner. — While the King of England was thus employed in France, the Scots had again raised David Bruce to the throne of their country. Upon his restoration to the Scotch throne, David Bruce invaded England ; but in the battle of Nevil's Cross, near Durham, fought on the loth of October, 1346, the King of the Scots was defeated and made a prisoner by Philippa, the wife of Edward III. Invasion of France by the Black Prince — Battle of Poitiers — King John a Prisoner. — After a truce of several years. King Edward III. again resolved to attack France ; and for this purpose, he sent the Black Prince with an army to GERMANIC STATES. 179 Guienne, one of the Western provinces of France. The Black Prince advanced into the heart of France with only 1 2,000 men ; but at Poitiers he found himself confronted by a French army of 60,000 men, under King John the Good, the suc- cessor of Philip of Valois on the throne of France. Desiring to retreat, the Black Prince offered to restore all his conquests in France and make peace ; but the French king rejecting all terms but unconditional submission on the part of the invaders, a battle ensued, which, owing to the bravery and skill of the Black Prince, ended in the total defeat of the French, King John hiniself being taken prisoner. This memorable conflict, known as the battle of Poitiers, occurred on the 17th of Sep- tember, 1346. Captivity of King John of France in London — English Possessions in France. — Edward the Black Prince took King John of France a prisoner to Lon- don. Both the Black Prince and his father treated the captive monarch with the greatest generosity; and during the whole period of his captivity in England, the French king was treated more as a guest than as a captive. The English now had possession of the whole West of France, and the Black Prince and his wife, " the Fair Maid of Kent," established their court at Bordeaux. Honorable Conduct of King John — Renewal of the War with France. — Edward III. now had two kings in his possession. The King of the Scots was soon ransomed by his subjects. In 1360, a treaty of peace was made between France and England, by which King John was to be released on the payment of a heavy ransom. One of the hostages delivered to the English king having escaped, the French monarch voluntarily returned to captivity in London, where he died in 1364. The war between England and France was renewed in 1368. Edward the Black Prince, who had been highly esteemed for his generosity and moderation, died in 1376; and his father's death occurred the following year. REIGN CF RICHARD II. (A. D. 1377-1399). Wat Tyler's Insurrection. — On the death of King Edward III., in 1377, the son of the Black Prince ascended the throne of England, at the age of eleven years, with the title of Richard II. The lower orders of the English people were discontented with the condition of serfdom in which they were kept, and with the oppressions which they suffered from the privileged classes; and in 1 381, a dan- gerous insurrection of the lower classes was occasioned by the indignity which the daughter of Wat Tyler, a blacksmith, at Deptford, in Essex, suffered at the hands of the brutal tax-gatherers. Enraged at the conduct of the tax-gatherers, the black- smith killed the tax-ofhcer with his hammer ; and rousing the people to insurrection, placed himself at their head as leader. The insurgents, 100,000 in number, after assembling at Blackheath, uuder the leadership of Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, broke into London, burned the palaces and mansions of the nobles, plundered the warehouses, and killed the Chancellor and the Archbishop of Canterbury. King Richard II. went to meet the insurgents, accompanied by a few attendants. Wat Tyler treated the king with such insolence that William Walworth, Lord Mayor of London, struck him to the ground, whereupon the blacksmith was slain by others of the king's retinue. The enraged insurgents threatened to overwhelm the king's party, but this was averted by the presence of mind of Richard XL, who kindly addressed the malcontents, and induced them to return to their homes by promising I go MIDDLE AGES. them a release from some of the degrading conditions of serfdom. As soon as order was restored, the government broke its phghted faith by revoking the certifi- cates of freedom which had been granted to the peasants. The consequence of this action was that Richard II. lost the favor of the lower orders. A Regency of Nobles. — The prodigality and dissipation of King Richard II., and his profusion to his unworthy favorites, such as Michael de la Pole, induced the king's uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, to compel Richard to resign his authority to a regency of nobles. After several years, the king recovered his lost power, and caused his uncle to be put to death. Banishment of Henry of Lancaster — His Usurpation of the Crown. — Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, openly charged Richard II. with the mur- der of the Duke of Gloucester. The king's cousin, Henry of Lancaster, surnamed Bolingbroke, defended Richard against the charge. At length a personal combat was about to take place between Bolingbroke and Mowbray, but the king banished the two noblemen from the kingdom. At last, in 1399, when the king seized on the estates of Henry of Lancaster, that nobleman returned to England, and was soon at the head of an army of 60,000 men. Henry dethroned his cousin, and caused himself to be crowned King of England, with the title of Henry IV. The fallen Richard ended his life in prison. ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. REIGN OF HENRY IV. (A. D. 1399-1413). Conspiracies and Rebellions Against Henry IV. — Battle of Shrews- bury — Ovyen Glendower. — Henry IV., surnamed Bolingbroke, was the first English king of the Lancaster branch of the Plantagenet dynasty. He had no legal right to the crown, for the true heir was Edmund Mortimer. No sooner had Henry IV. ascended the throne than a dangerous conspiracy was formed against him. At length, the Earl of Northumberland, and his brother, the Earl of West- moreland, the two richest noblemen in England, and who had been chiefly instru- mental in raising Henry to the throne, raised the standard of rebellion against the king. These nobles had gained a victory at Homildon Hill, over the Scotch Earl Douglas, whom they took prisoner ; and an order from King Henry forbidding them to admit any of their prisoners to ransom, provoked their resentment. Henry took the field against the rebellious barons, and defeated them in the great battle of Shrewsbury, on the 2rst of July, 1403. Henry Percy, surnamed "Hotspur," the son of the Earl of Northumberland, was killed in the battle. This rebellion was now quelled, but another immediately broke out, headed by Scrope, Archbishop of York, and Thomas Mowbray, Earl-Marshal of England. This rebellion was also suppressed, and Scrope was beheaded. King Henry IV. had more difficulty in subduing the Welsh, who, under the leadership of the valiant Owen Glendower, whom they proclaimed Prince of Wales, fought seven years for their independqjice. Captivity of the Young Prince of Scotland in England. — One of the most cruel acts of King Heniy IV. was the seizure of the young prince James, son of King Robert III. of Scodand. This prince had been sent by his father to be educated in France; but he was seized on his voyage from Scotland to France, by order of the English monarch, who kept the prince a prisoner for eighteen years, GERMANIC STATES. iSr when he was finally ransomed by the Scotch people, and became King James I. of Scotland. REIGN OF HENRY V. (A. D. 1413-1422). Reformation in the Character of Henry V. — Persecution of the Lol- lards. — King Henry IV. died of a broken heart, in 1413, whereupon his son, Henry v., became King of England. Henry V. had been very wicked in his youth, asso- ciating with persons of the greatest vices; and on one occasion he was committed to prison by Chief-Justice Gascoigne, for striking the judge, who had sentenced one of the young prince's dissolute companions to prison for highway robbery; but when Henry ascended the throne, he immediately reformed, and became one of the most virtuous persons of his time. Henry V. was a great persecutor of the Lollards, as the followers of John Wickliffe, sometimes called " The Morning Star of the Refor- mation," were called. Lord Cobham, and many others of the most prominent Lollards, were condemned and executed. Invasion of France by Henry V. — Battle of Azincourt — Treaty of Troyes. — As France was at this time torn by internal dissensions, King Henry V. considered this a good opportunity to invade that kingdom and claim its crown. In 141 5, Henry landed on the Northern coast of France with 30,000 men, and took Harfleur; and, after his army had been reduced by sickness to 11,000 men, he de- feated the French army of 50,000 men, in the famous battle of Azincourt, on the 24th of October, 141 5, on which occasion 10,000 Frenchmen were killed, and 14,000 were made prisoners, while the English lost only forty men. Henry V. again in- vaded France in 141 7, and in 1422, he concluded with the French king, Charles VI., the Treaty of Troyes, by which the English king was declared to be the suc- cessor to the crown of France. REIGN OF HENRY VI. (A. D. 1422-1461). Coronation of Henry VI. at Paris — The Dauphin, afterward King Charles VII. — King Henry V. died in 1422, and was succeeded on the English throne by his son, Henry VI., who was then only nine months old. King Charles VI. of France died the same year, and the infant Henry VI. was crowned in Paris, King of England and France. Charles's son, the Dauphin, afterwards King Charles VII., resolved to expel the English from France, and secure the French crown, which of right belonged to him. Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans — Expulsion of the English from France. — The English were now in possession of almost the whole of France. Town after town submitted to them, imtil Orleans was the only place that remained in the possesion of the French, and even that city was besieged by the English. At length, the famous Joan of Arc, a poor peasant girl of Dom Remy in Lorraine, de- clared that she had received a mission from Heaven to drive the English invaders from the soil of France and restore her country's independence. The Dauphin, having faith in the truth of her mission, gave her command of the army defending Orleans ; and the English, excited by superstitious fears, soon relinquished the siege of Orleans. (A. D. 1429.) The French next recovered Rheims from the English; and the Dauphin was crowned in that city as King of France, with the title of Charles VII. Joan's family was ennobled, and she was thereafter called the "Maid 1 82 MIDDLE AGES. of Oilcans." The French officers finally became jealous of the fame of the heroine, and allowed her to he taken jirisoner by the Duke of Burf;undy, who sold her to the Duke of Bedford, the English regent in France. The Duke of Bedford stained his liithcrto irreproachable characjer by causing the valiant Joan of Arc to be burned alive as a sorceress, in the market-place of Rouen. (A. D. 1431.) Although the French were no longer led by the Maid of Orleans, still they were victorious; and finally, in I453, the English were completely driven out of France, Calais only remaining in their possession, and Charles VII. was left in full possession of his kingdom. Jack Cade's Insurrection. — England was now distracted by domestic troubles. Henry VI. was a weak and idiotic prince, and unfit for the diflkult station of king. In 1455, an insurrection of the lower classes broke out in Kent, the leader of which was Jack Cade. London was taken possession of by the insurgents, init the rebel- lion was soon suppressed, and Jack Cade was afterwards killed in a garden in Sussex. The Duke of York Claims the Crown — " Wars of the Roses" — Battle of St. Albans. — The reigning family of England had long been unpopular with the iMiglish people, on account of the imbecility of the king and the loss of the English conquests in France. This afforded Richard, Duke of York, a good oppor- tunity to claim the crown of England, which liad been unlawfully wrested from his ancestors by Heniy of Lancaster in 1399. The Duke of York accordingly laid claim to the English crown, for the possession of which he began a war against King Henry VI., in 1455. On the 3d of May of that year, was fought the first battle of St. Albans, in which the king was defeated and taken prisoner by the Duke of York. The civil war which now commenced in England lasted thirty years, and is called "The Wars of the Roses," the badge of the adherents of the House of York being a white rose, and that of the partisans of the House of Lancaster a red rose. In this long civil war eighty princes of the blood-royal perished, and the ancient nobility of England w;vs nearly annihilated. The Earl of Warwick — Death of the Duke of York — Dethronement of Henry VI. — The greatest general in the Wars of the Roses was the Duke of York's wife's brother, Nevil, Earl of Warwick, who was the richest nobleman in England, and who maintained on his different estates about 30,000 persons. In the battle of Northampton, in 1460, Henry VI. was defeated and taken prisoner by the Earl of Warwick. Duke Richard of York might now have obtained the royal crown without any difficulty, had not many of the English nobility and King Henry's queen, Margaret of Anjou, a woman of masculine qualities, risen in sup- port of the reigning sovereign ; but the Parliament declared the Duke of York to be the lawful successor of Henry VI., thus excluding Prince Edward, the son of Henry VI. and Margaret of Anjou, from the English throne. In 1460, Margaret defeated the Yorkists in the battle of Wakefield, in which Duke Richard of York himself was slain. The sanguinary Margaret caused the fiillen Duke's head to be cut off and jilaced upon a pole upon the gates of York with a paper crown, in derision of his claim. Shortly afterward, Margaret defeated the Earl of Warwick in the second battle of St. Albans, and regained possession of the king's person; but Edward, son of tlie late unfortunate Duke of York, uniting his forces with those of the Earl of Warwick, compelled Margaret to retreat, and entered London; GERMANIC STATES. ig^ whereupon the helpless Henry VI. was dethroned, through the agency of the Earl of Warwick, who caused the young Duke of York to be proclaimed King of Eng- land, with the title of Edward IV. ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF YORK. REIGN OF EDWARD IV. (A. D. 1461-1483). Continuation of the Wars of the Roses — Battle of Towton. — Edward IV. was the first English king of the York branch of the Pianlagcnet dynasty. The dethronement of Henry VI. did not put an end to the Wars of the Roses; and in 1461, was fought the sanguinary battle of Towton, in which Margaret was de- feated by King Edward IV. and the Earl of Warwick, and in which 36,000 Lan- castrians were slain. Margaret and her husband fled to Scotland, hut afterwards returned; and, in 1464, Margaret was again defeated, after which she found refuge in France, and the poor, helpless Henry fell into the hands of Edward IV., who lodged him in the Tower of London. Marriage of Edward IV. — Warwick the King-maker's Alliance with Margaret. — Although the Earl of Warwick had been chiefly instrumental in elevating Edward IV. to the throne of England, that powerful nobleman soon be- came the young king's most inveterate enemy. The Earl of Warwick desired Edward IV. to marry some foreign princess, and was so offended when the king married Lady Elizabeth Grey, an English lady, that he joined the Lancastrians and formed an alliance with Margaret; and Edward was obliged to fiee from the kingdom, whereupon the Earl of Warwick dragged poor Henry from his prison, and restored him to the throne. As the Earl of Warwick was so powerful in rais- ing princes to the throne and deposing thern again, he was called " the King- maker." Battle of Barnet and Death of Warwick — Battle of Tewksbury — Fate of Henry's Family. — P^dward IV. soon returned to England, and, deposing Henry VI., regained possession of the royal throne, Edward next marched against the Earl of Warwick, who had taken a position at Barnet, near London. The treachery of the King-maker's rvephew, the Duke of Clarence, who deserted with a part of the Lancastrian army to his brother, King Edward IV., brought about the victory of the Yorkists in the battle of Barnet, in which the Earl of Warv/ick was slain, while bravely fighting for the Lancastrians. (A. D. 1471.) A few weeks lat^r the cause of Margaret was ruined, and she and her son Edward were taken prisoners by Edward IV., in the decisive battle of Tewksbury. Prince Edward was murdered by the Dukes of Clarence and Gloucester, the brothers of King Edward IV. ; and a few days afterward Henry, VI. was found dead in the Tower, supposed to have been murdered by the Duke of Gloucester. Margaret was im- prisoned in the Tower for five years, after which she was ransomed by the King of France, in which country she then found refuge and died in 1480. Character of Edward IV. — His Disgraceful Treaties with Louis XI.— King Edward IV. was now securely on the throne of England. He was a cruel, tyrannical, and profligate monarch. His brother, George, Duke of Clarence, hav- ing incurred the displeasure of the king, was put to death at the instigation of his other brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester. In 1480, Edward IV. invaded i84 MIDDLE ACES. France witli a. iiowcrful .-iiiny, Imt was biibcd Id return to Knf^liuul by the crafty Ix)uis XI., Kill;; >)( I'Vaiur, vvlio Ihiiikinjj of the clays of Crccy, I'oiticrs, anil Azin- courl, trcniljlcd at the very thont;hl of an Knj^Iish army in France. Eilwartl IV. was outwitted in another treaty with the artful Louis XI.; and the vexation which this circumstance caused the Knj^lish kinjj, hastened him to his grave, lie died in I48J, leaving the crown of luigland to his eldest son, Edward V. nEIGt^ OI^ En\A/^Al{n V. (A. D. 1483). Crimes of Richard, Duke of Gloucester Murder of Edward V. and His Brother.- I'Mw.nd V. was only thirteen yc;irs old wdien he ascended the throne of England. '1 lie young king's wickeil imcle, Richard, Duke of (.llouces- ter, who had secured for himself the appointment of I'rotector ilurinjj the minority of I'ldward v., aspired t(j the English crown. After causing the young king's maternal relatives. Lords Rivers and Clrcy, to be beheaded in prison, the Duke of Gloucester sununoned a council, in the presence of wdiich he caused Lord Hastings, another of the young king's relatives, to be belie, idcd. The wicked Duke of Gloucester then caused himself to be proclaimed King oi lOngland, with the title of Richaril III.; and at his instigation, Edward V. and his brother, the young Duko of York, were smothered to ileath in the Tower. Hi:iC-.N OF niCVIAlin 111. (A. D. I.t80-1488). Plot of the Duke of Buckingham — Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond. — Tlie usurping Kichard 111. was mil permitted to enjoy i|uict!y the buits of his crimes; and his reign w.us soon ilisturbed by a i)lot against his power, headed by the Duke of Buckingham, who had largely contributed to Rich;ud's clcvatioif to the throne; but the conspiracy was frustrated, and the Duke of IJuckingham was exevuti'd. 'I'lure was still remaining (.>uc luir of the House of Lancaster. This w;\.s Henry Tudt)r, Earl of Richmond, whom Richard 111. several times attempted to get into his p>wer, but failed, and who saved himself by lleeing to Enmce. Tudor's Rise — Battle of Bosworth Field and Death of Kichanl III. — • In 1485, the Earl of Richmond landeil on the Southern coast of England, with a small army, composed of Englisli exiles and some French troops, and marched northward to the very centre of England, his army continually increasing in lunnerical strength. On the 14th of August, 1485, was fought the celebrated battle of Rosworth Field, which, through the defection of Lord Stanley, wdio deserted to tl»c ICarl of Richmond with a part of the king's army, ended in the total overthrow of Richard 111. In the courage of despair, Richartl jilunged into the thickest of the light, crying "Treason! treason!" and fell covered with wounds and expired. The royal crown was taken from the head of the fallen Richard, and placed on the head of the Earl of Richmond, who was crowned, by Sir William Stanley, on the battlefield, and hailed as King of England, with the title of Henry Vll. Thus ended Uie Plantagenet dynasty. GERMANIC STATES. 185 ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. REIGN OF- HENRY VII. (A. D. 1480-1000). Marriajje of King Henry VII. — His Character. — Ilcnry VII., the first ICnf;lish kiii!^ of the House of TiKlor, married the I'riricesM ElizabclJi, dfiuj^htcr ot Jviward IV., and heiress of the Iloiuse of Yorit, — thus uriitinjj the claims of the Houses of York and Lancaster, and puttinjj an end to the civil wars which for thirty years had rlelu;.jefl ICnj^land witli tlic Ijlood of her own peo])ie. Henry VH. was an unamhilioiis n)oiiarch, preferrinjj peace to wax, and consequently he did not involve his kinjjdom in forei{(n wars; but he was cxcccdinjdy avaricif>us, and accumulated an enormous amount astian Cabot again sailed westward, and explored the greater part of the Atlantic coast of the present United States. In 1517, Sebastian Cabot was again sent to find a North- west passage to India; and in 1526, while in the service of the King of Spain, he discovered the great river La Plata, in South America. Expeditions and Explorations of John Verrazzani and James Cartier. — In 1524, PVancis I., King of France, employed John Verrazzani, a Florentine, to make discoveries in the New World. Verrazzani explored the Atlantic coast of North America, from the mouth of the Cape Fear River to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and named the region "New France." In 1534, the French king sent James Cartier, a Frenchman, on an expedition to New France. Cartier discovered the mouth of the great river which he named St. Lawrence. In 1535, Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence, exploring the country to Montreal. BOOK III. MODERN HISTORY. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. AGE OF HENRY VIII. AND CHARLES V. THE GERMAN REFORMATION. Corruption of the Church — Dr. Martin Luther. — In different ages, as we have seen, there had been men who protested against the assumptions of the Holy See, and the immorahty and licentiousness of the clergy; but every attempt at a reformation of the Church had failed. The abuses and corruptions of the Church increased. The majority of the clergy were ignorant and immoral. There were many who were dissatisfied with the existing corrupt state of the Church, and who only waited for an opportunity to unite themselves in a powerful opposition to the Roman Pontiff. The opportunity was at length given by Pope Leo X., as we shall presently see; and in 1517, the assumptions of the Holy See were openly opposed by Dr. Martin Luther, a pious Augustinian monk, who was born at Eisleben, in Saxony, on the loth of November, 1483. Luther early exhibited great capacities for learning; and he had studied jurisprudence four years, when, in 1506, he entered an Augustinian monastery, where he found a neglected copy of the Bible, to the study of which he then diligently devoted himself. He soon became convinced of the errors of the existing Rom^.ih Church, and his fame for learning and piety procured for him the appointment of Professor in the University of Wittenberg, on the Elbe. Pope Leo X. and the Sale of Indulgences. — In 1513, John de Medicis, of the illustrious ruling family of Florence, was elected Pope with the title of Leo X. In order to defray the expenses of the building of the great Church of St. Peter, in Rome, which had been begun by his predecessor, Julius HI., Leo X. offered the sale of indulgences, or licenses to sin, by which not only past sins, but those that might afterwards be committed, could be pardoned. Agents were sent into different European countries to sell these indulgences, and the Pope obtained a great profit from their sale. Martin Luther and His Ninety-five Theses. — In 1517, the Augustinian monk, Martin Luther, then a professor of theology in the University of Wittenberg, on the Elbe, read in public his famous ninety-five theses, in which he boldly denied the right of the Pope to offer pardon to any but the penitent. This was the begin- ning of the great religious " Reformation," which convulsed Europe during the sixteenth century. Luther found many adherents. The Elector of Saxony, who had adopted his views, effectually protected him from all the attempts of the exas- perated Papists to secure him. The Reformation made rapid progress from this (199) f 200 MODERN HISTORY. time. Luther separated himself more and more from the Romish Church; and the art of printing enabled him to make known his opinions in all Christian coun- tries. Luther's Disputation with Eckius at Leipsic. — In 1519, Dr. Luther had a disputation, at Leipsic, with Dr. Eckius, the papal theologian and professor in Ingol- Stadt. Luther there asserted that the liishop of Rome had not been Pope by the ordination of Christ, and expressed doubts of the Pope's infallibility, or incapability to err. In order to prove that the Papacy was a divine institution, Eckius comi)osed a work in which he endeavored to show that it was derived from Christ through St. Peter. Condemnation of Luther's Writings — Burning of the Bull of Condem- nation. — In 1520, the Pojio condemned Luther's writings as lierclical and tndered them to be burned, and threatened the great Reformer with excommunication, unless he recanted within sixty days. Luther was still active in exposing the errors and corruptions of the Romish Church; and, on the loth of December, 1520, in the midst of a vast concourse of people, in the public square of Wittenberg, the great Reformer cast the volumes of the canon-law of the Romish Church, together with the papal bull of condemnation, into the Hames. The Emperor Charles V. and the Diet of Worms. — In 15 19, the grandson of the Emperor Maximilian I., Charles I. of Spam and Burgundy, was elected Em- peror of Germany with the title of Charles V. The new Emperor, whose first attention was directed to a unity of the Church, called a Diet of the German Em pire at Worms, in 1520, at which the Reformer of Wittenberg was to apjiear, to answer for his conduct. Provided with a safe-conduct from the Emperor, Luther went to Worms, and presented himself before the assembled Diet. He avowed himself the author of the writings that were produced ; and boldly and lirmly vindi- cated his opinions, and rejected the invitation to recant without being convinced from the scriptures of the errors of his views. Through the honorable conduct of the Emperor, Dr. Luther was allowed to return unmolested to Wittenberg. Then the Diet pronounced the ban of the Emiiire against Luther and his adherents and defenders, and sentenced his writings to the llames. Luther's Confinement in the Wartburg Castle. — After his return to Wit- tenberg, Luther was placed in confinement for protection in the castle of Wartburg, by the Elector Erederic of Saxony. Here the great Reformer commenced his translation of the Bible, which appeared completed in 1534. In 1522, Luther left the Wartburg castle and returned to Witteniierg, for the purpose of checking the hasty innovations of Dr. Carlstadt and the new fanatical sect of the Anabaptists. Rapid Progress of the Reformation. — The Reformation soon spread beyond the borders of Saxony. The Landgrave Philip of Hesse was a believer in the doctrines of the Reformers. In 1524, the Pope entered into the "Alliance of Re- gensburg" with Archduke Ferdinand of Austria and the Duke of Bavaria, for the purpose of preventing the establishment of the new faith in their own territories. The Peasant War. — An insurrection, known as the " Pe.xsant War," now broke out in dilTcrcnt j>arts of CJermany. The peasants, led by such religious fanatics as Thomas Munzer, Hans Miller, and George Metzler, rose in arms against the Ger- man princes and nobles. Thomas Munzer was defeated by the Elector of Saxony SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 20I and the Landgrave Philip of Hesse, and captured and executed ; and the insurrec- tion was soon suppressed in all parts of the German Empire. Marriage of Luther — Philip Melancthon. — In 1524, Luther left the cloister and married Catharine of Bora, who had formerly been a nun. This aroused the rage of his opponents to a still greater degree. The Reformation was still making rapid progress in Northern Germany; and Luther had now a co-laborer in the Re- formation, in the mild and peaceable, and learned I'liilip Melancthon. Diet of Spire — The Protestation. — The Juiipcror ( 'IkuIcs V., determined to arrest the progress of the Reformation, assemljled a Diet of the German lunfjirc at Spire, in 1529. In this Diet it was resolved by the Catholic German princes that no further innovations should 1)C made in the Romish religion ; and th.at the progress of the new faith should be checked. The princes who favored the Reformation, entered a protest against this decree of the Imperial Diet, on which account they were called Protestants, — a name now applied to all Christians, who do not recog- nize the authority of the Heads of the Romish and Greek Churches, and who differ in doctrine and practice from those churches. Diet of Augsburg — The Augsburg Confession. — The German Kniperor called another Diet of his Empire at Augsiiurg, in 1530, to heal the dissensions in the Church and effect a reconciliation of opinions. In this Diet, Melancthon pre- sented the articles of faith of the Reformers, known as the "Augsburg Confession." In this confession the aljuses in the Romish Church were enumerated. The Cath- olic members of the Diet endeavored to defend the usages of their Church; and no reconciliation of opposing opinions took place, as neither party would make any concessions. After the protesting princes had withdrawn from the Diet, that assem- bly left Augsburg and threatened the Protestants with being put under the ban of the Empire, if they refused to renounce their innovations. Ulric Zwingle— Religious W^ar in Switzerland — Battle of Kappcl. — The Protestants were already divided int(j two great parties. .Some were the fol- lowers of Luther, while others were the disciples of the learned priest, Ulric Zwingle, who was born in Switzerland in 1484. Zwingle, who had oj)posed the sale of indulgences and the corruptions of the Church with all his might, endeavored to improve the morals of the people. He differed from Luther with respect to the Lord's Supper. The Landgrave Philip of Hesse, who endeavored to unite all the opponents of the Church of Rome into one powerful party, induced Luther to have a disputation with Zwingle, at Marburg. Zwingle construed the words, " This is my body," ttj mean "This represents my body;" while Luther contended that the l>ody of the Lord was present in the bread and wine. Zwingle offered Luther his hand with tears in his eyes, and asked to be received as a iirother; but Luther de- clined the offer, and thrust back his own hand. Luther also refused to recognize those who had adopted Zwingle's doctrines as Christians. A religious war broke out between the Catholics and Zwinglians in Switzerland, in 1530. The Zwinglians were defeated in the battle of Kappel, in 1531 ; and the noble-hearted Zwingle was slain, and his body was burned by the victorious Catholics. 202 MODERN HISTORY. WARS BETWEEN CHARLES V. OF GERMANY AND! FRANCIS I. OF FRANCE. CHARLES v., FRANCIS I., AND HENRY VIH. The Possessions of Charles V. — The dominions over which Charles V. niicil were the most extensive, lU tliat time, in Cliristendom. Charles V., was the grandson of Maximilian of Austria and Mary of ]hugundy, and also of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. While' yet a youth, Charles was lord of the Netherlands; and on the death of Ferdinand of Aragon, in 1516, he obtained the kingdom of Spain, with Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, together with the Spanish possessions in America. Shortly afterward, the succession to the sovereignty of the hereditary Austrian territories devolved upon him from his grandfather, the Emperor Maximilian I.; and in 1519, he was chosen Emperor of Germany, by the German Electoral Princes. Charles V. soon bestowed his hereditary Austrian estates on his brother Ferdinand, who also added the kingdom of Bohemia and a large portion of Hungary to the possessions of the House of Hapsburg. Francis I. of France. — The great rival of the Emperor Charles V. w.as the chivalrous Duke Francis of Angoulemc, who, on the death of Louis XH., in 1515. .■vscended the throne of France, with the title of Francis I. ; and who was also a candidate for the imperial throne of Germany, and on the election of Charles V. became his rival enemy. Four wars arose between these two monarchs, caused by the claims of each to the other's ix)ssessions in Italy, Navarre, and the Netherlands. Henry VIII. of England. — Charles V. and Fr.incis I. each wished to secure the favor of the vain and capricious Henry VIH. of England. Charles visited Henry in England, and Francis met him at Calais, at the splendid festival, known, on account of its magnificence, as the "Field of the Cloth of Gold." The Empe- ror, however, succeeded in winning the favor of the English monarch, by bribing and flattering Henry's celebrated Prime Minister, Cardinal Wolscy. FIRST -WAR BETWEEN CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. The Allies of Charles V. and Francis I. — Besides securing the aid of the King of England, the Emperor of Germany also obtained the alliance of Pojie Leo X., while the King of I'rance received the assistance of the Swiss, the Genoese, and the Venetians. German Invasion of Italy — Loss of Milan to the French. — Since the famous battle of Marigiiano, in 1515, in which Francis 1. liad defeated the Milan- ese, the Duchy of Milan had remained in the jiossession of the French king; but Charles V. claimed the duchy as a fief of the (ierman Empire, and marched a powerful army of German peasants into Italy, against the French and their Swiss allies. The French soon lost Milan, and an attempt to recover the duchy brought on the battle of Bicocca, in which the French were completely defeated. Pope Leo X., died of joy caused by these events. Pope Adrian VI., Leo's successor, induced Florence and Genoa to enter into an alliance with Charles V. French Invasion of Italy — Defection of the C-onstable de Bourbon. — Charles V. and Henry Vlll.iirvaded France at the same limc,l)ut their forces were driven back. Encour.tged by this pajtial success, Francis I. again attempted the FRANCIS CHARLES V. OF GERMANY, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 203 recovery of Milan; and in 1523, he sent another army into Italy for that purixise, but his undertaking failed, in a great measure, through the conduct of his wicked mother, Louisa of Savoy, whose injustice to the Constable de Bourlwn made that powerful French nobleman the most bitter enemy of the French court, and caused him to enter into the service of the German Emperor against his own sovereign. French Retreat from Italy — Death of the Chevalier Bayard. — The I'>ench army which had been sent to attempt the recovery of Milan was also unsuccessful, and was finally compelled to retreat across the Alps, pursued by the German im- perial army under the Constable de Bourbon. During this retreat, the Chevalier Bayard, "the Knight without fear and without reproach," who commanded the French rear, received a wound of which he shortly afterward died. Bourbon's Invasion of France — Reconquest of Milan by Francis I. — In 1524, the imperial German forces under the Constai;le de Bourbon invaded Southern France, and laid siege to Marseilles; but on the approach of Francis I. with a powerful army, Bourbon raised the siege and beat a jirecipitate retreat. The King of France pursued Bourbon's retreating forces into Italy and recon- quered Milan. i Battle of Pavia and Captivity of Francis I. — With characteristic impru- -^ dence, Francis I. laid siege to the strongly fortified town of Pavia, which was de- fended by a numerous garrison, under the command of Antonio de Leyva, an able general. The imperial generals, the most energetic of whom was the Constable de Bourbon, made the greatest efforts to collect a numerous army for the relief of the garrison of Pavia. The inactivity and indiscretion of the French king, who weak- ened his army by sending detachments against Naples and Savona, operated in favor of the imperialists. Bourbon accordingly resolved to attack the French in tlieir intrcnchments; and on the 2d of February, 1525, Bourbon's army stormed the French camp, while at the same time the garrison of Pavia made a furious sally, thus placing the French between two fires. After a most sanguinary conflict, the French army was almost totally destroyed. Twelve thousand brave warriors were either killed in the encounter, or drowned in the waters of the Ticino. The chiv- alrous Francis himself, after a gallant defense, was compelled to suiTcnder, and conveyed a prisoner to Madrid. In a single line, the captive Francis conveyed the intelligence of the sad event to his mother, " Madame, all is lost but honor." Peace of Madrid and Release of Francis I. — After a year's captivity in the Spanish capit.1l, the King of France concluded with his triumphant rival the Peace of Madrid. (1526.) In this treaty, Francis I. renounced his claims to Milan, sur- rendered the Dukedom of Burgundy to Charles V., and delivered up his two sons to the Emperor as hostages for the fulfillment of the stipulations. SECOND WAR BETWEEN CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. The Holy League Against Charles V. — No sooner had Francis I., after his release, returned to his own kingdom, upon deliyering up his two sons as hostages for the fulfillment of the stipulations of the Peace of Madrid, than he openly denied the validity of a treaty that had been extorted from him while a prisoner; and the Pope absolved him from his obligations to the Emperor Charles V. The increasing power of Charles now excited the jealousy of the other princes of Europe; and the 204 MODERN HISTORY. Kings of France and England, the Italian princes, and the Pope entered into an alliance called " the Holy League," to compel the Emperor of Germany to liberate the sons of the French monarch and to restore the Duchy of Milan to the family of Sforza. Capture and Pillage of Rome — Captivity of the Pope. — Irritated at the Pope's alliance with the enemies of Charles V., the Constable de Bourbon, who commanded the German and Spanish forces in Italy, marched upon Rome; and on the 6th of May, 1527, the Eternal City was taken by storm and plundered by the soldiers of a Catholic prince. The Constable de Bourbon was among the slain. The pillage of Rome by the Germans on this occasion, equaled that of the Goths and the Vandals, more than a thousand years before. Convents, churches, and dwelling-houses were plundered; and nearly 8,000 Romans were massacred on the day of the capture of the city. Pope Clement VII. was besieged in his castle of St. Angelo, and soon obliged to surrender himself a prisoner. Charles V. affected great sorrow and displeasure at the insults suffered by the Head of the Church, but was inwardly pleased at the Pope's humiliation; and instead of ordering the release of the Holy Father, the hypocritical Emperor commanded prayers for the liberation of the Pontiff to be offered in all the churches in his dominions. Successful Career of Francis I. m Italy — Andrea Doria. — The pillage of Rome and the captivity of the Pope excited the indignation of the allies of Charles V. to such a degree that Francis I. was enabled again to invade Italy and to advance to the very walls of Naples ; but the French monarch, by his impolicy and arro- gance, lost his most faithful allies. The Genoese admiral, Andrea Doria, now supported the Emperor of Germany, and restored the Republic of Genoa and earned for himself the glorious title of " Father of his Country and the Restorer of its I^iberties. The "Ladies' Peace" of Cambray. — Both the rival monarchs had now become anxious for peace; and the second war between Charles V. and Francis I. was closed in 1529, by the "Ladies' Peace" of Cambray, so called because it was negotiated by the aunt of Charles and the mother of Francis. By this treaty the King of France relinquished his pretentions to the Duchy of Milan, and paid two million crowns for the ransom of his two sons held as hostages by the German Emperor; but retained possession of the Dukedom of Burgundy. ■WARS AGAINST THE INFIDELS. Turkish Invasion of Hungary and Austria — Siege of Vienna. — In the meantime, the mighty Sultan of Turkey, Solyman the Magnificent, led an army of 300,000 men into Hungary, and after gaining the battle of Mohacz, advanced to the very walls of Vienna, and laid siege to that proud capital, but the infidels were soon defeated and driven back. (1529.) First Expedition of Charles V. to Africa — Capture of Tunis. — After having driven the Turks from the Austrian territories, the Emperor Charles V., in 1535, led an expedition of 30,000 men to Africa, attacked and captured Tunis, and compelled the Mohammedan prince, Hayraddin Barbarossa, the terror of all Chris- tians, to abandon his piracies, and to set at liberty 22,000 Christian captives, whom the piratical Moors had reduced to slavery. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 205 THIRD ^A;■AR BETWEEN CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. Invasion of Italy by Francis I. — On his return to Europe, Charles V. found himself obliged to engage for a third time in hostilities with the King of P'rance, who had formed an alliance with Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, and who, during the Emperor's absence in Africa, had invaded Italy, and, as a preliminary step to the reconquest of Milan, seized Savoy and Piedmont, the Duke of which was in alliance with Charles V. Invasion of France by Charles V. — His Retreat. — In 1536, Charles V. after driving the French from Italy, invaded Southern France with a powerful aniiy, but the French commander, the Constable de Montmorenci, laid waste the country between the Rhone and the Alps, and the Emperor was in consequence obliged to make a disgraceful retreat after considerable loss. Ten Years' Truce of Nice. — All Christendom was shocked at the alliance of the King of France with the Sultan of Turkey; and in 1538, Pope Paul III. suc- ceeded in inducing Francis I. and Charles V. to conclude the Ten Years' Truce of Nice, which suspended hostilities between the rival monarchs. Second African Expedition of Charles V. — Its Unfortunate End. — In 1 541, the Emperor Charles V. led another expedition to Africa, for the purpose of thoroughly annihilating the power of the piratical Mohammedans of Algiers. But this expedition was a total failure. The fleet of Charles was destroyed by a terrible storm, and many of his followers died of a pestilential disease ; and the Emperor, who had magnanimously shared all the sufferings of the humblest of his followers, was obliged to reembark and return to Europe, without effecting his object. FOURTH ^A^AR BETWEEN CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. Coalition against Charles V. and Henry VIII. — In 1542, a fourth war broke out between Francis I. and Charles V.; the Sultan of Turkey, the Kings of Scotland, Denmark, and Sweden, and the Protestant princes of Germany uniting with the King of France ; and the King of England taking sides with the Em- peror of Germany. Bombardment of Nice — Disgraceful Spectacle. — The allied French and Turkish fleets vainly bombarded the castle of Nice, in north western Italy ; and, for the first time, the Christian world beheld, with astonishment and shame, the dis- graceful spectacle of Christians and Mohammedans united in hostilities against the leading prince of Christendom. Progress of the War — Battle of Cerisoles. — The war was prosecuted with various success in Spain, in France, in Italy, and in the Netherlands; but the only battle of any consequence was that fought at Cerisoles, in north-western Italy, in which the French gained a most brilliant victory. Invasion of France by Charles V. and Henry VIII.— Peace of Crepy. In 1 544i France was invaded on the side of Lorraine, by a powerful German army under the Emperor Charles V., and by way of Calais by a considerable EngKsh j^ce under King Henry VIII. The English king captured Boulogne, and the German emperor advanced so rapidly toward Paris that the French monarch became alarmed, and hastily concluded the Peace of Crepy with his powerful rival. By this peace, the two rival monarchs agreed to restore all the conquests which they had 2o6 MODERN HISTORY. made during the war, to unite against the Turks, and to suppress the Reformed religion in their respective dominions. From this time, for several centuries, Italy was under the undisputed possession of the House of Hapsburg. At length a treaty of peace was also concluded between the Kings of France and England. Both Francis I. and Henry VIII. died in 1547; and Charles V. directed his whole energy to the suppression of the religious Reformation in the German Empire. WAR BETWEEN CHARLES V. AND HENRY II. OF FRANCE. Alliance of Henry II. of France with the Protestant Princes of Ger- many. — King Heniy II. of France, the son and successor of Francis I., engaged in hostilities with the Emperor Charles V., and formed an alliance with the Protest- ant princes of Germany, while in his own dominions he endeavored to arrest the progress of the Reformed doctrines by the most sanguinary persecutions. Siege of Metz. — Henry II. led an army into the German Dukedom of Lor- raine, and captured the strong fortresses of Toul, Verdun, and Metz. These con- quests Charles V. resolved to wrest from the young French monarch. In 1552, Charles laid siege to Metz, which was so gallantly and sucjcessfully defended by the French garrison, under the command of the valiant Francis of Lorraine, Duke of Guis£, that the German Emperor, after a siege of little more than two months, was obliged to retire and to beat a disgraceful retreat, having lost in all, during the siege, about 40,000 men. Capture and Destruction of Tourenne — Peace of Chateau-Cambresis. — In 1554, Charles V., after a vigorous siege, took the town of Tourenne by assault, destroyed it, and put the entire garrison to the sword. The war was continued between Henry II. and Charles's son, Philip II. of Spain, until 1559, when the Peace of Chateau-Cambresis put an end to the long contest between the Houses of Valois and Hapsburg. THE RELIGIOUS WAR IN GERMANY. The League of Schmalkald. — As the Emperor Charles V., after the Peace of Cambray, in 1529, seemed determined to suppress the religious Reformation in his dominions, the Protestant princes of Germany, with the Elector of Sa.xony and the Landgrave of Hesse at their head, united, in 1530, for their own protection, and formed an alliance, known as "the League of Schmalkald," which was joined by the Kings of England, France, Denmark, and Sweden. Effect of the Turkish Invasions of Austria on the Reformation. — The Emperor of Germany was obliged to avoid hostilities with his Protestant subjects at this time, in consequence of the formidable invasions of the Austrian territories by tlie Turks, who were then the most powerful people in Europe. Thus these con- slant Turkish invasions were highly favorable to the cause of the Reformation, as the Protestants of Germany refused to assist the Emperor in driving back the infidels, as long as the sword of Catholic vengeance was raised over their heads. The p}^R of Charles V. for the extermination of heresy were thus frustrated, and he found himself obliged to conclude with the League of Schmalkald the Peace of Nuremburg, in 1532. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 207 Progress of tUe Reformation in Germany — The Anabaptists. — The Re- formation still continued to make rapiil progress throughout Germany ; and the Reformed religion was at length introduced into the Duchy of Wurtemberg, the March of Brandenburg, the Palatinate, Baden, and Cologne. In Munster, a fanati- cal sect, known as " Anabaptists", became nmnerous. A few decades later, the Anabaptists experienced a salutary reformation of their doctrines, from Menno, in which condition, under the name of Mennonites, they have continued to the present time. The Council of Trent Summoned— Death of Luther. — Importuned by the Emperor Charles V., Pope Paul III. summoned a Council of the Church to meet at Trent, in the Tyrol, for the purpose of effecting a reconciliation of opposing opinions and restoring the unity of the Church. The Protestants, foreseeing that their doctrines would be condemned in a Council held under the auspices of the Pope, rejected it as partial, and demanded, in its stead, a general synod of the Church of Germany. The Council, however, assembled at Trent, in December, 1541;. Dr. Martin Luther died in his native city, Eisleben, in Saxony, on the iSth of February, 1546. The Religious War of Schmalkald— Perfidy of Duke Maurice of Sax- ony. — The very first decision of the Council of Trent rendered a reconciliation of opposing opinions hopeless; and the Emperor, having concluded a disgraceful peace with Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, now determined to crush the Reforma- tion by force of arms, and, in the year 1547, the Religious War of Schmalkald broke out between Charles V. and his Protestant German subjects. The Protest- ant princes of Germany seemed to be well prepared for the contest, but all their efforts were rendered fruitless by the perfidy of one of their own number,— Duke Maurice of Saxony,— who deserted the League of Schmalkald, and allied himself with the Emperor. The Schmalkald forces were soon broken up, and the Protestant towns of Germany were obliged to submit to the Emperor. Defeat of Maurice — Battle of Muhlberg — Captivity of Protestant Princes. — Maurice's cousin, the Elector John Frederic of Saxony, still held out against the Emperor, and defeated Maurice and recovered Saxony. The Emperor marched to the assistance of the perfidious Maurice, and in the decisive battle of Muhlberg, John Frederic was defeated, wounded, and made prisoner by the Emperor, who bestowed the Electorate of Saxony on Maurice. Shortly after the defeat and capture of John Freckric, another leading Protestant prince, the Landgrave Philip of Hesse, was treacherously made a prisoner by the Duke of Alva. The Council of Trent. — The Council of Trent assembled on the 13th of December, 1545. The division in the Church was made greater than before; and the Pope, suspecting the Emperor of Germany of a design to limit the papal power, removed the Council to Bologna, in Italy; but Charles V. forbade the clergy to leave Trent, and a small number of them remained. Th€ Augsburg Interim — The Leipsic Interim. — For the purpose of bring- ing about a restoration of the unity of the Church, the Emperor Charles V. pub- lished an edict, which set forth how matters should be conducted until the teraiin- ationof the Council of Trent; and the "Augsburg Interim" of Charles V., which was strictly conformable to the tenets of the Romish Church, and the "Leipsic Interim," which had been framed by Melancthon, were not favorably received by the Pro- 2oS MODERN I/ISTORV. testant princes and towns, and were utterly r<;jccted in Ndrlliern Germany. Tlie Council of the t'luncli resumed its sittings at Trent. Maurice of Saxony Makes War on the Emperor Charles V. — When the lOinjJcror (!liarles V. seemed to have attained the object ot' his desires; 'when every- thing; seemed to insure his elevation to liie [vosilion of temporal head of all Chris- tendom; anil when the Council of the C'hurch had reassembled at Trent, Duke Maurice of Saxony, the prince to whom Charles V. was indebted for tlic overthrow of the League of Sehinalkald, seeiujj; to what danj^ers the civil and reli{;;ious liber- ties of Crennany were e.\]V)seil by the ambiiious schemes of the Kn^ioror, suddenly formed a secret alliance with Kinj; Henry 11. of France, but concealed his designs until the most favorable time arrived for their execution. Maurice immediately gr.iiiiid fnidom of religion to llie Prolestanl city of Magdeburg, which he had been for some time besieging; and then, sudilenly throwing ofl" the mask, he marched toward Innsjiruck, in the Tyrol, to make the Emperor a prisoner. The Coimcil of Trent was broken up in confusion; and Charles V., who was then adlictetl with the gout, escaped with ditVicvdty, in the night, into Carinlhia, and released the l'',lector John Frederic of Saxony, whom lie had kept a prisoner since the battle of Mulilberg. At the same time, Henry II. of France invaded the tK-nn.ui Oid^odiim of lAirr.une, and seized the strong towns of Toul, Verdun, and Met^. Religious Peace of Passau.— Alarmed at the lapid advance of Maurice, the Emperor's brother, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, immeiliately concluded with the Protestant jtrinces the Religious Peace of I'assau, by which the Protestants of tiermany were allowed jierfect religious freedom; the Landgrave Philip of Hesse was set at liberty; ami a permanent peace and amnesty was decided ujwn. This was the (irst victory of the Reformation. Death of Maurice. — The triumjihant Maurice next marched against the Mar- grave Albert o\ Hrandenburg, who refused to accept the treaty of Passau and still continued the war. Maurice was victorious in the battle of Sivcrshausen, but re- ceived a wound of which he died a few days afterward. Religious Peace of Augsburg. — In 1555, the Religious Peace of Augsburg was conchuled between Charles V. and his IVotestant German subjects, by which the Protestants were allowed perfect liberty of conscience and full toleration for their religion, as well as equal civil and political rights with |he Catholics. Abdication and Retirement of Charles V. — Ferdinand L, Emperor. — The failure of the attempts of Charles V. to restore the unity of the Church made the Emperor lose all interest in the atVairs of the world; and in 1556, to the astonish- ment of the whole world, he abdicated all his thrones and retired to the monastery of St. Just, in the West of Spain. He bestowed Spain, Italy, the Netherlai\ds, and Spanish America on his son, Philip II. ; and the Austrian territories on his brother I'crdinand, who was chosen by the German Electoral Princes to succeed him on the imperial throne of Germany, with the title of Ferdinand I. Charles spent the remaining two years of his life in religious devotion and mechanical inventions. Having tailed in repeated attempts to make two watches run exactly alike, he is said to have exclaimed, " I cannot make two watches run alike, and yet, fool that 1 was, I thought of governing so many nations of diHerent languages and religions, CARDINAL THOMAS WOLSEY. SIXTEENTH CENTUR Y. 205 and living in different climes!" Two days before his death he went through the ceremonies of his burial. He died in 1558. THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. REIGN OF HENRY VIII. (A. D. 1309-154,7). Accession of Henry VIII. — The avarrcious Henry VII., at his death, in 1509, was succeeded on the throne of England by his son, Henry VIII., who proved to be one of the most passionate, capricious, and tyrannical sovereigns that ever occu- pied a throne. Henry VIII., who was only eighteen years of age when he became monarch, was one of the most learned princes of his time. He ascended the throne under very happy circumstances : the kingdom was prosperous and at peace; and the claims of the Houses of York and Lancaster were united in the young king's person. Cardinal Wolsey. — As the Earl of Surrey encouraged the lavishness of the youthful monarch, Bishop Fox of Winchester introduced at Court the shrewd and dexterous Thomas Wolsey, who was immediately taken into the service of the king, who at length made him Prime-Minister. For a considerable period, Wolsey acted a more conspicuous part in the affairs of England than his sovereign. In 15 18, Wolsey was made a cardinal by the Pope. Cardinal Wolsey had a train of eight hundred servants, and he excelled all churchmen in dignity. He encouraged learning, and invited the learned Erasmus of Rotterdam to corrie to Oxford to teach Greek. Wolsey's inordinate ambition finally caused his own fall. Invasion of France by Henry VIII. — " Battle of the Spurs" — Battle of Flodden Field. — In 1513, King Henry VIII. invaded France and defeated the French at Tournay, in an action known as "the Battle of the Spurs," so called because the French army fled at the first onset. After his victory, Henry VIII. immediately returned to England. On the very day of the Battle of the Spurs (September 10, 15 13), an English army under Lord Surrey defeated and killed King James IV. of Scotland, in the celebrated " Battle of Flodden Field," in the north-eastern comer of England. Visit of the Emperor Charles V. to Henry VIII. — " Field of the Cloth of Gold." — The favor of Henry VIII., as we have already seen, was courted by each of the two rival monarchs, Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of France. Charles flattered the vanity of Henry by paying him a visit in England, in 1 520; after which the English monarch went to Calais to meet the French king. The meeting of Henry and Francis, which took place in Jane, 1520, in a plain near Calais, lasted a fortnight, and because of the magnificence there displayed, the meeting is known as "the Field of the Cloth of Gold." Henry VIII. writes a Volume against Luther. — In 1521, King Henry VIII. wrote a Latin volume against Dr. Luther and the Reformation, for which he was loudly praised by Pope Leo X., who conferred upon the royal author the title of " Defender of the Faith," and sent the king a letter, praising his learning, zeal, ability, and wisdom. Henry VIII. Divorced from Catharine of Aragon and Married to Anne Boleyn. — Henry VIII. had been married to Catharine of Aragon, daughter of 2IO MODERN HISTORY. Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, in 1502. He now applied to Pope Clement VII. for a divorce from Catharine, that he might man-y the beautiful Anne Boleyn, one of the ladies of his court. The Pope, fearing the displeasure of the Emperor Charles V., who was Catharine's nephew, refused to grant the request of the Eng- lish king; but Henry, supported by the opinions of learned men, such as the young and virtuous Thomas Cranmer, whom the king made Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1533, obtained a divorce from CaUiarine, and then married Anne Boleyn. Disgrace and Death of Cardinal Wolsey. — Cardin.il Wolsey, who was be- lieved to be opposed to the divorce of Henry VHI. from Catharine, soon began to lose the king's favor; and at lengh the ambitious cardinal was banished from court, and all his estates were seized by the king. A charge of treason was also preferred against Wolsey. At York, Wolsey was attacked with a violent fever, occasioned by anxiety and grief at his fall. In this dangerous condition, the fallen Minister set out for London, but died on his way, at Leicester Abbey, on the 29th of Novem- ber, 1530. On his death-bed, he uttered these affecting words, "Had I served my God with half the diligence that I served my king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs." Henry VIII. and the Pope — Henry VIII. created Head of the Church in England. — The Pope was greatly exasperated at Henry VIII., because of his divorce from his first wife; and in consequence, the English monarch separated himself from the Romish Church, and caused an act to be passed by his Parlia- ment, in 1534, tr.ansferring the supremacy of the Chui-ch in England from the Pope of Rome to the King of England. The English monasteries and nunneries were dissolved, and their possessions were bestowed on the crown. The learned Sir Thomas More, the author of "Utopia," and Bishop Fisher of Rochester, declined to approve of the act which made the king Head of the English Church, and both were consequently beheaded. The king violently pereecuted both Lutherans and Roman Catholics. The Pope at length excommunicated Henry VIII., who re- sented the anger of the Holy Father by causing those who had prepared the excom- munication to be put to death. Execution of Anne Boleyn — The King's Marriage with Jane Seymour. — Henry VIII. soon became displeased with Anne Boleyn; and in 1536, he caused her to be beheaded on a false accusation. The very next day after the execu- tion of Anne Boleyn, the king married Jane Seymour, who died the following year. (IS37-) Henry's Last Three Wives, Anne of Cleves, Catharine Howard, and Catharine Parr. — By the advice of his minister, Sir Thomas Cromwell, who had been one of Wolsey's favorite servants, Henry VIII., in 1540, married Anne of Cleves, a German princess, of whom he had seen a portrait which had been taken by Hans Holbein, the great Swiss painter; but the king soon obtained a divorce from Anne, and beheaded Cromwell, who had advised the marriage. Henry VIII. next married Catharine Howard, niece of the Duke of Norfolk; but in 1542, he caused her to be beheaded, and then married Catharine Parr, who outlived him. The King's Zeal Against Lutherans and Roman Catho-lics. — As we have already said, Henry VIII. vehemently persecuted both Lutherans and Roman Catholics in his own domaiions, — the former as heretics, and the latter for refusing SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 211 to recognize him as Head of the Cliurch in England; and many were burned at the stake. The king was fond of theological discussions, but woe to such as had the hardihood to differ from him. On one occasion, his last wife, Catharine Parr, who was a Protestant, naiTOwly escaped being sacrificed to his anger, for expressing her religious opinions rather too freely. Cfanmer's Translation of the Bible. — The pious Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, who was a zealous friend of the RefoiTnation, was greatly respected l)y King Henry VHL, whose permission the Archbishop at length obtained to have the Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer translated into English ; and linally, with the consent of the king, Cranmer prepared a new translation of the Bilile, Wickliflc's translation being too faulty in many particulars. War Between England and Scotland— Battle of Solway Moss. — In 1541, Henry VHI. commenced a war against Scotland. The English army defeated the Scots in the battle of Solway Moss, which so disheartened the Scotch king, James v., that he died a few months afterward (December, 1542), and the crown of Scot- land fell to his daughter Mary, then a mere child. Peace was made between Eng- land and Scotland in 1546. In 1544, Henry VHL, while at war with France, as an ally of the Emperor Charles V., invaded France and captured Boulogne. Execution of the Earl of Surrey — Death of Henry VHI. — The tyranny of Henry VHI. increased as he advanced in years; and in 1547, he caused the Duke of Norfolk, and his son, the Earl of Surrey, the leading English noblemen, to be arrested. Surrey was executed on a false charge of treason. Henry VIII. died soon afterward. Just before his death, the king signed a warrant for the exe- cution of the Duke of Norfolk, but happily the warrant was not carried into exe- cution. REIGN OF ED^ArARD VI. (A. D. 1S47-15S3). Accession of Edv/ard VI. — The Duke of Somerset Protector. — The son of Henry VIII. and Jane Seymour, succeeded Henry VIII. on the throne of England, with the title of Edward VI. As the new king, at the time of his acces- sion, was only nine years old, the government of the kingdom was entrusted to his uncle, the Duke of Somerset, with the title of Protector. Edward VI. was edu- cated a Protestant by his uncle, who appointed the virtuous Latimer the young king's preacher. Edward's greatest delight was in studying theology and in listen- ing to sermons; and he gave great promise of becoming a good monarch. Establishment of the Church of England. — The Protector soon set about establishing the Protestant religion in England; and Archbishop Cranmer and Bishop Ridley of London were appointed to prepare a book of prayer. The Psalms were translated into English; and the Thirty-Nine Articles were drawn up by Cranmer. These articles are the confession of faith of the Church of England. In order to insure a religious conformity of faith, many of the Catholic prayers were retained. This was the establishment of the Anglican Church. The Protector's Invasion of Scotland — Battle of Pinkie. — The Protector sought to carry out the wish of Henry VHI. for a marriage of Edward VI. with the young Mary, Queen of Scots. As the Protector did not succeed in accomplish- ing that object by treaty, he led an army into Scotland and defeated the Scottish army in the battle of Pinkie, on the lolh of September, 1547. This event exasper- 212 MODERX IIISI^ORY. ated the Scots lo such a degree that they sent Mary to France, where she was married to tlic Daujihin, afterward King Francis II. of France. Execution of Seymour and the Protector — Death of Edward VI. — The wicked Dudley, Karl of Warwick, caused Seymour, the brother of the Duke of Somerset, to attempt to raise himself to the Protectorship, and then induced the Protector to have him executed for high treason. Warwick's next act was the over- throw and execution of the Protector for high treason. Warwick, who was created Earl of Northumberland, now ruled the kingdom. The pious King Edward VI. died in 1553, at the early age of fifteen years. REIGN OF MARY (A. D. 1B83-18S8). Lady Jane Grey — Accession of Mary — Restoration of Catholicism. — The unscrujiulous and usurping Earl of Northumberland had procured the appoint- ment of his daughter-in-law, Lady Jajie Grey, as the successor of Edward VI. to tlie English throne; but Lady Jane was obliged to yield the throne to Edward's half-sister, Mary, the daughter of Henry Vlll. and Catharine of Aragon. Mary, who was a bigoted Roman Catholic, soon forgot her promises of toleration to her Protestant subjects, and restored the popish religion in her kingdom. Mary's Marriage with Philip II. of Spain — Insurrections. — In 1554, Queen Mary of England married Philip, son of the Emperor Charles V., and after- wards King Philip II. of Spain, who was also an unrelenting Catholic. The con- sequence of tlus marriage was an insurrection in England, against the authority of Queen Mary, whom the insurgents intended to depose. The revolt was suppressed, and many of the leading insurgents were executed. Lady Jane Grey, whom the malcontents intended to elevate to the English throne, and who was falsely accused of countenancing their design, also died on the scaflold. Religious Persecution — Martyrdom of Ridley, Latimer, Hooper, and Cranmer. — We have already said that t^ueen Mary restored the Roman Catholic religion in England. She also proceeded to a vigorous persecution of her Protest- ant subjects ; and many pious bishops and ministers were burned alive for adhering to the Protestant faith. Among those who thus perished at the stake were Bishop Ridley of London, Bishop Hooper of Gloucester, the pious Latimer, and the good Archbishop Cranmer. The bigoted queen had allowed Cranmer an opportunity to recant; and the Archbishop, in a moment of weakness, signed a paper avowing his belief in popery; but when his strength returned, he again avowed his full lielief in Protestant doctrines ; and when he was brought to the slake, he first put the hand with which he signed the paper avowing his belief in Roman Catholicism, into the fire, and held it there until it was burnt ofi", saying, " This is the arm that has offended." War with France — Battle of St. Quentin — Loss of Calais — Death of Mary. — In 1556, Queen Mary's husband became King of Spain, with the title of Philip 11.; and at the same lime, he induced her to join him in a war against France. In 1557, the combined English and Spanish forces defeated the French in the battle of St. Quentin, in Northern France; but in 155S, the imiwrtant town of Calais, which had belonged to England for two centuries, was talten by the French army under the command of the valiant Francis of Lorraine, Duke of Guise. Queen Mary was so ovei-whelmed at this loss that she died a few months MARY I. THE BLOODY. GUSTAVUS I. OF SWEDEN. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 213 afterward (November, 1558), saying a short time before her death that the word " Calais" would be engraven on her heart. Mary was succeeded as Queen of England by her half-sister, Elizabeth. THE REFORMATION IN THE SCANDINAVIAN KING- DOMS. Sweden's Liberation from Denmark by Gustavus Vasa. — The tyranny and cruelly of King Christian II., of Denmark, who caused ninety-four Swedish nobles to be foully massacred in Stockholm, in 1520, induced the valiant and patri- otic Gustavus Vasa, the son of one of these massacred nobles, to attempt the liber- ation of Sweden from the yoke of the King of Denmark. In the disguise of a peasant, Gustavus Vasa found refuge in the mountainous region of Dalecarlia, whose brave inhabitants flocked to his standard. Gustavus repulsed the Danish troops that had been sent against him, took Upsala, drove the Danish invaders from Swedish soil, and secured his country's independence. In gratitude, the Swedes chose the heroic Gustavus Vasa as their king, and made the Swedish crown heretlitary in his family. Establishment of the Lutheran Religion in Sweden.— Under Gustavus Vasa, who died in 1560, the Lutheran religion was established in Sweden. Eric XIV., the son and successor of Gustavus Vasa, became insane, and was imprisoned by his brothers. Eric's successors, John III. and Sigismund, the latter of whom was .Sigismund III. of Poland, vainly attempted to restore the jxjpish religion in Sweden; and Sigismund was deposed from his Swedish throne by his uncle, the Duke of Sudermania, who assumed the crown of Sweden, with the title of Charles IX. (1600.) The latter king, and his son and successor, Gustavus Adolphus, warred against Poland. Adoption of Lutheranism in Denmark and Norway. — The tyrannical Christian II. irritated his Danish subjects to such a degree that they dethroned him, and bestowed the crown of Denmark on Frederic II., who established the Lutheran faith in Denmark. The deposed Christian II., who became a Catholic to obtain the aid of the Pope and the Emperor of Germany in his efforts to recover his lost crown» was seized and kept a prisoner for sixteen years. The final and ])erfect establish- ment of Lutheranism in Denmark was accomplished during the reign of Frederic's son, Christian III. (i534-i5S9-) The Lutheran religion was also adopted in Norway. THE SOCIETY OF JESUITS. Ignatius Loyola and Establishment of the Society of Jesus. — The efforts of the Popes to suppress the Reformation, or to arrest its progress, found their chief support in the Order of Jesuits, which was founded in the year 1 540, by the excitable and enthusiastic Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish nobleman. After renouncing the military profession, Ignatius made a pilgrimage to the Ploly Sepul- chre at Jerusalem; and, after his return to Spain, he acquired in Salamanca and Paris the education which he needed, and then he and six associates took upon themselves the three monastic vows of poverity, chastity, and obedience, and swore upon the host to allow the objects of their aspirations and desires to be decided upon by the 214 MODERN HISTORY. Pope, and then to yield an unconditional submission to his decision. Shortly afterward, Ignatius and his companions prostrated themselves at the feet of the Holy Father, who confirmned the new Order, which was named "the Society of Jesus." Ignatius Loyola became the chief of the Order, and his successor, the Span- iard Lainez, framed a constitution for the government of this Societ)-, the members of which were endowed by the Pope with great privileges. Objects of the Society of Jesuits. — The Jesuits were obliged to disconnect iheniselves with the rest of the world. Their chief object was to oppose Protes- tantism and to suppress the spirit of inquiry awakened by the Reformation. They endeavored, by persecution and seducement, to win Protestants over to Catholicism ; and, by getting the education of youth into their hands, they endeavored to bring up the young in the doctiines of the Romish Church. Spread and Influence of the Order of Jesuits. — The Societj' of Jesus ac- quired immense wealth by presents and legacies, and was thus enabled to establish schools of education, which attracted the necessitous by imparting instruction gra- tuitously. The Order of Jesuits soon spread over Catholic Europe, and many of its membei-s were engaged, in remote quarters of the globe, in proclaiming the Gospel to heathen. Jesuit missionaries converted many of the American Indians to Christianity, while Jesuitical missions were established in China and Japan. SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA. Conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortez. — In 1517, the Spaniard Cordova discovered Mexico, the seat of the flourishing empire of the Aztecs, a partially civilized race of American Indians, who had built large cities 'and established a regular government. In 1 5 19, Fernando Cortez, a Spanish soldier and adventurer, invaded Mexico with 1,500 men ; and being joined by some of the natives, he was enabled to take possession of the city of Mexico, and succeeded by treachery in making the Aztec emperor, Montezuma, a prisoner. The Aztecs rose against the invaders, and killed many of them. The ill-fated Montezuma, having tried to in- duce his people to submit to the strangers, was also put to death by them. Cortez and his followers finally succeeded in conquering tlie country in 1521 ; and for three hundred yeai-s, Mexico, under the name of New Spain, was a Spanish prov- ince. Cortez, notwithstanding all his services to the Spanish monarch, was treated with ingratitude by his master. Conquest of Peru by Francisco Pizarro. — In 1529, the brave but cruel Spaniard, Francisco Pizarro, with little more than 300 men, invaded the beautiful country of Peru, which was inhabited by a highly civilized American Indian race, whose monarchs were called "Incas." Like the Aztecs of Mexico, the Peruvians had large cities and a regular government. By treacher)', Pizarro made the reign- ing Inca a prisoner; and notwithstanding his promise to give the Inca his liberty, in return for an enormous amount of gold, Pizarro caused his unfortunate captive to be put to death. Pizarro completed the conquest of the countiy in 1532; and for nearly three centuries, Peru was a province of Spain. About this time, Alma- gro, Pizarro's comrade, discovered Chili. Pizano and Almagro soon quarreled, and the latter was put to death; but Almagro's son, in revenge, caused Pizarro to be murdered. Nearly the whole of tlie South American coast came into the pos- SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 215 session of Spain, during the sixteenth century. The precious metals which Spain obtained from her American possessions made her for a time the leading power of Europe, but finally led to her rapid decline. PERSIA AND INDIA. Rise of the Persian Empire under Ismael — Shah Abbas the Great. — A powerful Mohammedan dynasty arose in Persia, at the begiiniing of the sixteenth century, in the person of the warlike Ismael. The dynasty founded by Ismael was called the Suffccan dynasty, from the holy shiek Suffee. Ismael was a great conqueror, but he was once defeated by Sultan Selim I. of Turkey. Ismael was succeeded on the Persian throne by his son Tamasp, under whom Persia prospered. In 1582, Shah Abbas the Great, the grandson of Tamasp, ascended the throne of Persia. This celebrated monarch gained many victories over the Turks; and in 1622, he deprived the Portuguese of the city of Ormuz, on the Persian Gulf. The arts of peace and internal improvements received great encouragement from Shah . Abbas ; and the city of Ispahan, which was at that time the capital of Persia, was one of the most splendid and important cities in Asia. The treatment of Shah Abbas toward his children and his relatives was most cruel and inhuman. He caused his oldest son to l>e put to death, and the eyes of the others to be put out. The Persian Empire rapidly declined under the successors of Shah Aljbas. Establishment of the Mogul Empire in India by Baber — Aurungzebe. — In 1525, Baber, a descendant of the great Mogul conqueror, Tamerlane, invaded liindoostan, overthrew the Afghan dynasty that had ruled in that country for three centuries, and became the founder of a dynasty of Mogul princes which ruled liin- doostan for more than two centuries. The religion of the Moguls was Mohamme- dan, and their capital was the city of Delhi, in Northern Hindoostan. The most noted of the Mogul princes who occupied the throne of Delhi were Humayan, Jehanghir, Akbar, and Aurungzebe; the last of whom mounted the throne in 1659, by murdering his father and other relatives. Aurungzebe, however, governed with wisdom and mildness; and the Mogul Empire was very prosperous during his long reign. After the death of Aurungzebe, in 1707, the Mogul Empire in India rapidly declined, and soon fell to pieces. AGE OF PHILIP II. AND ELIZABETH. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. Philip II. of Spain— The Inquisition — Expulsion of the Moors. — Under the bigoted, tyrannical, and cruel Philip II., the horrible Inquisition, with all its frightful work, was in full operation in Spain and Naples. Philip's own son, Don Carlos, died in its dungeons. His half-brother, Don Juan, the victor over the Turks in the great sea-fight of Lepanto, in 1571, died of grief at the treatment which he received from Philip. The Duke of Alva was a cruel instrument for the execu- tion of Philip's tyrannical orders. Philip's tyranny in the Netherlands finally resulted in the loss of those fair provinces to Spain. After the death of Philip II., in 1598, Spain rapidly declined in power and importance. Under his son and successor. 2 1 6 MODERN HISTOR Y. Philip III., the Moors of Spain, who for more than a century had suffered the most cruel persecutions, formed a conspiracy for the overthrow of the Spanish power; but the plot was discovered, and the Moors were banished from Spain in 1610. Thus 600,000 Mohammedans were cruelly driven from their homes. The Sixty Years' Union of Spain and Portugal. — On the death of King Henry of Portugal, in 1580, Philip II. of Spain claimed the Portuguese crown, and sent an army under the Duke of Alva to enforce his pretensions. The Portuguese were obliged to submit, the rival claimant, Antonio, being defeated ; and Poi tugal was united \vith Spain for sixty years. Finally, in 1 640, Spanish tyranny produced a rebellion of the Portuguese, who, after a brief struggle, regained their independ- ence, and elected the Duke of Braganza for their king, with the title of John IV. WAR OF INDEPENDENCE IN THE NETHERLANDS. Attempted Introduction of the Inquisition into the Netherlands by Philip II. — King Philip II. of Spain bestowed the vice-regency of the Netherlands on his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, and caused the laws against heresy to be made very severe. At the same time, the Spanish king endeavored to establish the Inquisition, with all its horrible tortures and dungeons, in the Netherlands ; and Cardinal Granvella was made Grand Inquisitor. Spanish troops were also sent into the Netherlands to uphold Philip's tyranny. Vain Efforts of Prince William of Orange and Count Egmont for Toleration. — \'ain endeavors were made by Prince William of Orange and Count Egmont, to induce the bigoted King of Spain to grant toleration for the Protestant religion in the Netherlands. The Inquisition was opposed by Catholics, as well as by Protestants; and four hundred Roman Catholic nobles petitioned Philip II. for a discontinuance of the horrible institution in the Netherlands ; but the bigoted sovereign obstinately refused their request. Violence of Mobs — The Duke of Alva Governor — Death of Count Egmont. — Spanish tyranny at length led to the collection of mobs in Brussels, Ant- wei-p, and other towns of the Netherlands. These mobs perpetrated many outrages, such as the destruction of crucifixes and images of the saints. In 1567, the infam- ous and bloodthirsty Duke of Alva was sent into the Netherlands with an army by Philip II. Upon Alva's arrival, many of the Netherlanders, among whom was Prince William of Orange, fled to Holland. Count Egmont remained, and was treacherously put to death by order of the Duke of Alva. The Bloody Council — Tyranny of the Duke of Alva — Margaret's Re- signation. — Soon after his arrival in Brussels, with unlimited power, the Duke of Alva established a council, called by the Netherlands, " The Bloody Council," which inflicted the most severe and cruel punishments upon the Protestants, and also upon the Roman Catholics who opposed his tj'ranny and that of his master, the King of Spain. Disgusted with the condition of affairs, Margaret of Parma resigned the vice-regency of the Netherlands, and retired to Italy, followed by the respect of the Netherlanders. Prince William of Orange Stadtholder — Adoption of Calvinism. — The Northern Provinces of the Netherlands, in 1572, recognized Prince William of Orange as their ruler, with the title of Stadtholder; and the Synod of Dort, in 1573, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 217 recognized Calvinism as the established religion of the Netherlands, and erected a Protestant university at Leyden, as a reward for the gallant defense of the inhabi- tants of that town against a besieging Spanish army. The Duke of Alva's Successors, Louis of Zuniga and Don Juan. — After exercising the most cruel and unmitigated despotism in the Netherlands for six years, the Duke of Alva was finally recalled by the Spanish Court, in 1573, and was succeeded by Louis of Zuniga, who abolished the Bloody Council and adopted moderate measures ; but the Netherlanders, however, continued to resist Spanish authority. Louis of Zuniga died in 1576, and was succeeded by Don Juan, the victor of Lepanto, and the half-brother of the Spanish monarch. The Pacification of Ghent — Alexander Farnese of Parma — Union of Utrecht. — In 1576, Prince William of Orange succeeded in uniting all the prov- inces of the Netherlands in a confederacy, known as "the Pacification of Ghent," for the purpose of expelling the Spanish troops, and securing the inde- pendence of the Netherlands. In 1578, Don Juan was recalled by the Court of Madrid, and Alexander Farnese of Parma, the son of Margaret, was appointed his successor. As Alexander endeavored to create a hatred between the Northern and Southern Provinces, for the purpose of preserving the latter to the Spanish crown. Prince William of Orange induced the Northern Provinces to unite, in 1579, in a close league, known as "the Union of Utrecht." Assassination of Prince William of Orange. — King Philip II. had long offered a reward and a title of nobility, to any one who would hand over to him Prince William of Orange, dead or alive. This promise led to some attempts to seize or kill the prince, which, however, failed; but in 1581, William was assas- sinated in the royal banqueting-hall at Delft, by the fanatical Gerhard of Franche- Comte. The assassin was, however, seized, and put to a most cruel death. Prince Maurice of Orange Stadtholder — English Aid to the Nether- landers. — Upon the assassination of Prince William of Orange, the Netherlanders chose his son. Prince Maurice of Orange, for their Stadtholder. Queen Elizabeth of England, the enemy of Philip II. of Spain, sent an army under the Earl of Leicester to the Netherlands, to prevent the Spaniards from suppressing the rebel- lion. This conduct of the English Queen, together with the execution of the Queen of Scots, induced the Spanish monarch to send a gigantic fleet, known as "the Invincible Armada," for the conquest of England. The destruction of the Armada, by storms and English war-vessels, gave great moral support to the strug- gling Netherlanders. Achievement and Acknov/ledgment of the Independence of Holland. — The war between the Spanish government and the rebellious Netherlanders con- tinued until 1609, when, through the mediation of the good King Henry IV. of France, the Northern Provinces of the Netherlands, or " the United States of Hol- land," secured their independence. The Southern Provinces, or Belgium, under the name of "the Spanish Netlierlands," continued to belong to the Spanish crown until 1714, when, by the Treaty of Rastadt, they were ceded to the House of Austria, under the name of "the Austrian Netherlands." The independence of Holland was formally acknowledged by Spain in 1648, by the Treaty of Westpha- lia, which closed the great Thirty Years' War in Germany. 2iS MODERN HISTORY. Government of Holland — Religious Dissensions — Synod of Dort. — The legislative power of the Republie of the United States of Holland was vested in an assemlily called the States-General ; and the executive power was exercised by a High Council, at the head of which was a Stadtholder. No sooner was the independence of Holland secured, in 1609, than a religious dispute about the Cal- vlnistic doctrine of predestination divided the Dutch people into two parties, — the Gormarists, with Prince Maurice of Orange at their head, and the Arminians, at the head of whom was Van Olden Bai-nveldt, the author of the constitution of the Dutch Republic. The Synod of Dort, in 161S, decided in favor of the Gormansts, and Van Olden Barnveldt was executed. Commerce, Colonies, and Maritime Power of Holland. — Holland emerged from her long struggle for independence strong and prosperous. The Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602, and many of the Portuguese jwssessions in the East Indies were taken possession of by the Dutch. The Dutch colony of Batavia, in the island of Java, was founded in 1619. The Dutch navy was the largest in Europe; and for almost two centuries, Holland was the most powerful commercial ajid maritime rival of England. CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. REIGN OF HENRY II. (A. D. 1847-1559). Accession of Henry II. — Persecution of the Calvinists or Huguenots. — The warlike Francis 1., known as ''the Fatlier and Restorer of Letters," died in 1547, and was succeeded on the throne of France by his son, Henry II., who, like his father, was a zealous persecutor of the Huguenots, as tlie French Protestants were called. The Protestants of France, as well as those of Holland, Scotland, and many in England, were believers in the doctrines of John Calvin, the French Reformer, who had adopted the doctrines of Ulric Zwingle. The Calvinists of France were called Huguenots; those of Scotland, Presbyterians; and those of England, Puritans. War with Spain and England— Battle of St. Quentin — Recovery of Calais. — Henry II. of France, as an ally of the Pope, eng.\ged in a war against Philip II. of Spain and his wife. Queen Mary of England. The French were de- feated by the united English and Spanish forces in tlie battle of St. Quentin, in Northern France, in 1557; but in the following year (1558), Francis of Lorraine, Duke of Guise, with a French army, wrested Calais from the English, who had possessed that key of France for two centuries. In 1559, tlie Peace of Chateau- Cambresis was made between the Kings of France and Spain. Queen Mary of F'ngland, the wife of Philip II., having died, the Spanish king married the daughter of Henry II.; while the French monarch married C.ilharine de Medicis, of the illustrious family of Florence. REIGN OF FRANCIS II. (A. D. 1SS9-1860). Accession of Francis II. — The Guises — The Prince of Condfe and Ad- miral Coligni. — On the death of King Henry II., in 1559, from the efteets of a wound which he received at a tournament, his son, Francis II., who had married the beautiful young Queen Maiy of Scotland, ascended the throne of France. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 219 Mary's uncles, the Guises, who were zealous Roman Catholics, gained great influ- ence at the French court; and endeavored to crush the Prostestant party in France, headed by the Prince of Cond6 and Admiral Coligni. King Francis II. died in 1560, when the Guises retired from court, and Queen Mary sailed for her kingdom of Scotland. REIGN OF CHARLES IX. (A. D. 1S60-1374,). Charles IX. and Catharine de Medicis — Toleration to the Huguenots — Religious War. — Francis 11. was succeeded on the throne of France by his youthful half-brother, Charles IX., during whose minority the Government of France was conducted by his mother, Catharine de Medicis, as queen-regent. Catharine granted toleration to the Huguenots in 1562. The Guises were indignant at this; and as Duke Francis of Guise and his followers were passing the town of Vassy, they fell upon and slaughtered a number of Huguenots engaged in prayer. This outrage was the signal for a bloody religious war, in which the most shocking cruel- ties were perpetrated by both parties. The Catholics were assisted by Philip II. of Spain and by the Pope, while the Huguenots received aid from Queen Elizai;elh of England. Battle of Dreux — Assassination of Duke Francis of Guise — Peace of Amboise. — The Prince of Cond6 took the chief command of the Huguenots, while the Duke of Guise placed himself at the head of the Catholics. After the indeci- sive battle of Dreu.x, the Duke of Guise laid siege to Orleans. The assassination of Duke PVancis of Guise by a Protestant saved Orleans to the Huguenots; and during the same year (1564), the Peace of Amboise was made, by which the Cal- vinists were assured of toleration for their religion. Renewal of the War — Assassination of the Prince of Conde — Peace of St. Germain. — The promises of toleration to the Pluguenots were soon forgot- ten; and in 1567, the religious war was renewed with all its horrors. The Catholics were victorious in the battle of St. Denis, but their leader, the Constable Montmo- renci, was among the slain. After a few more sanguinary engagements, in which the Huguenots were defeated, and after their leader, the Prince of Conde, had been assassinated by a Catholic, the Peace of St. Germain was concluded, by which the Protestants were again promised religious toleration. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew. — The leaders of the Protestants now were Admiral Coligni and Prince Henry of Beam, the Prince of Condi's nephew. On the death of his mother, Henry of Beam became King of Navarre. For the purpose of reconciling the two jmrties, the young King of France, Charles IX., ])roposed that his sister Margaret should be mamed to King Henry of Navarre. The French Catholics, with the Guises and the queen-mother, Catharine de Medi- cis, at their head, had planned secretly to massacre all the Huguenots who should come to Paris for the celebration of the nuptials. Accordingly, at two o'clock in the morning of St. Bartholomew's day, August 24, 1572, when the alarum bell of St- Germain 1' Auxerrois gave a signal, bands of armed assassins rushed upon the de- fenseless and unsuspecting Huguenots, and slaughtered them without mercy. The massacre continued for three days; and about 5,000 Protestants were killed in Paiis, among whom was the aged Admiral Coligni. The king himself shot at the poor victims, from the windows of his palace. The young Prince of Cond6 and King 220 MODERN HISTORY. Henry of Navarre were spared only on the condition of becoming Roman Catho- lics; but no sooner were they secure from the power of the papists than they again avowed their old faith. The orders of King Charles IX., for the extension of the massacre to other parts of France, were so well obeyed that 50,000 Protestants were sacrificed to the cruelty and fanaticism of their Catholic enemies. Some of the Catholic commanders, however, refused to obey the orders of the king ; and one of them wrote to the court that he commanded soldiers, not assassins. The French Court was congratulated by Philip II. of Spain; and Pope Gregory XIII. offered thanks to Heaven for " this signal mercy." This horrible atrocity is known as " The Massacre of St. Bartholomew." Consequences of the Massacre. — The consequences of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew were quite different from what the French Court had expected. Many of the Roman Catholics renounced their religion and became Huguenots, from a feeling of horror and shame; and the civil and religious war again burst forth with all its former fury. Remorse and Sufferings of King Charles IX. — His Death. — Charles IX. at one time endeavored to put the whole responsibility for the great crime on the Guises; and the next moment he confessed the part he had taken, and expressed joy at what he considered a blow at heresy; but, from the time of the massacre, he was troubled with remorse and grief, at his participation in the horrible crime. He frequently imagined that he saw the bloody forms of the massacred Protestants before his eyes ; he had no rest night or day; and he was often known to sigh and to bemoan himself with tears. His health rapidly declined, and his miserable life was terminated on the 30th of May, 1574. REIGN OF HENRY III. (A. D. 1874-1889). Accession of Henry HI. — Duke Henry of Guise and the Catholic League. — Charles IX. was succeeded as King of France by his brother, Henry HI., who had been, but a year previous, fleeted King of Poland, which country he now abandoned, to go to Paris, to take possession of a more delightful kingdom. Henry HI. was an imbecile and a dissolute monarch. He made peace with the Huguenots, by granting them religious toleration and the same privileges enjoyed by the Catholics. This exasper.ated the Catholic party, at the head of which was Duke Henry of Guise, who, with other French Catholic nobles, concluded "The Catholic League," for the purpose of upholding the popish religion in France. King Henry III. and the Catholic League — Exclusion of Henry of Navarre.— King Ileniy III. soon declared himself the head of the Catholic League, and renounced his peace with the Huguenots. In 15S4, the king's brother, the Duke of Anjou, the heir to the French throne, died, and the Protestant King Henry of Navarre became the nearest heir; but the Catholic party in France attempted to exclude him from the throne, on account of his religion ; and Henry III. found himself obliged to revoke all his concessions to the Calvinists. Plot of Henry of Guise — Conflict in Paris — Assassination of the Guises. — Duke Henry of Guise at first only aimed at the suppression of the Re- formed religion in France, but he at length entertained the design of dethroning Ileniy HI. and placing himself on the throne of France. The king nofv became SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 221 alarmed, and ordered some Swiss troops into Paris, in May, 1588, to prevent the Guises from entering the city. The Parisians, however, adhered to the Guises, and began a terrible conflict with the king's troops. The king fled to Chartres, but soon returned to Paris, and procured the assassination of Duke Henry of Guise and his brother, Cardinal Louis of Guise. Another Civil War — Siege of Paris by Henry III. — Assassination of Henry III. — The assassination of the Guises roused the indignation of the French Roman Catholics against King Henry III., and the Pope excommunicated him. The king found himself obliged to leave Paris ; whereupon he threw himself into the arms of the Huguenots, and received assistance from King Henry of Navarre. A terrible civil war again broke out, and the two King Henrys appeared before Paris with their armies, and laid siege to the city. The capital was only saved from destruction by the assassination of Henry HI., in August, 1589, by James Clement, a fanatical monk. HOUSE OF BOURBON.— REIGN OF HENRY IV. (1S89-1610). Accession of Henry IV. — Siege of Paris by Henry IV. — Spanish Relief. — Henry HI. was the last French king of the House of Valois; and just before his death he appointed as his successor King Plenry of Navarre, who was the first French monarch of the House of Bourbon. The Duke of Maine, a brother of the murdered Guises, became the head of the Catholic League; and supported by Philip II. of Spain, he resisted King Henry IV. In 1590, Henry IV. laid siege to Paris; and the Parisians were almost reduced by starvation, when a Spanish army under Alexander of Parma marched to their relief from the Nether, lands. Conversion of Henry IV. to Catholicism and Its Happy Consequences. — On the approach of the Spanish army of relief, King Henry IV. relinquished the siege of Paris; but he continued the war against the Catholic League until 1593, when, for the sake of bringing peace to his subjects, he renounced Calvinism, and made a public profession of Roman Catholicism, in the Church of St. Denis, in Paris. The Parisians now hailed him with joy, the French nobles tendered him their submission, the Pope recalled the excommunication against him, and Philip II. of Spain made peace with him. Edict of Nantes — The Duke of Sully — Character of Henry. — In 1598 King Henry IV. issued, at Nantes, an edict which secured to the Huguenots free- dom of conscience, and equal rights and privileges with the Catholics. Henry IV. encouraged agriculture and commerce; and his faithful friend, the Duke of Sully, whom he appointed as his Prime-Minister, arranged the economy of the state. Jienry IV. was greatly beloved by his subjects. His mild and forgiving spirit made his worst enemies his best friends, and he proved to be one of the best kings that ever occupied a throne. Henry's Project for a Christian Union — Assassination of Henry IV. — Henry IV. was desirous of having all Christian nations united in a sort of union, with equal freedom for all Christian confessions. On the 14th of May, 1610, this good king was assassinated in his carriage, in the streets of Paris, by the fanatical Ravaillac, a Jesuit. The consternation and the public grief were universal through- 22 2 MODERN HISTORY. out France, and never was the death of a king so lamented by his subjects. Henry's son, Louis XIII., became his successor. ELIZABETH OF ENGLAND AND MARY OF SCOTLAND. Queen Elizabeth of E^ngland — Restoration of the Anglican Church. — On the death of the bigoted Catholic queen Mary, in 1555, the crown of England fell to her half-sister, Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn. Eliz- abeth was a Protestant ; and upon her accession to the throne, she restored the Anglican Church, which had been overthrown by her Catholic predecessor. Eliz- abeth was regarded as the head of the Protestant party in Europe, while Philip II. of Spain was considered the champion of Roman Catholicism. Queen Elizabeth had an exalted idea of the royal prerogative, and she allowed the Parliament but very few privileges. She was vain and capricious, but these faults were overlooked by her gayety and cheerfulness. The English kingdom was very prosperous during her long reign; agriculture, commerce, and navigation were encouraged; and Eng- land never had a sovereign who swayed the sceptre with more ability than did this mighty queen. Mary, Queen of Scots. — Queen Elizabeth's vanity, and her jealousy of the superior qualities of others, led her to commit an act which has left an ineffaceable stain upon her character, — the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. Mary, as we have already seen, had been sent to France, at quite an early age, and married to the Dauphin, afterward King Francis II. of France. On the death of her hus- band, in 1560, Mary, although harshly treated by her mother-in-law, the wicked Catharine de Medicis, still for a time remained in France, which land she most dearly loved. Mary's Return to Scotland — Calvinism in Scotland — ^John Knox. — Finally the clamors of her Scotch subjects induced Mary to leave the delightful France, and to return, with great reluctance, to the wild country of the Scots, which she was then to govern. When Mary returned to Scotland, she found the Roman Catholic religion overthown in that country, and Calvinism adopted in its stead. Mary was a strict Roman Catholic, and this was very distasteful to the Scotch Reformers, at the head of whom was the celebrated John Knox. Mary's Marriage with Lord Darnley — Murder of David Rizzio. — In 1565, Queen Maiy, contrary to the advice of the Queen of England, married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who was a rigid Roman Catholic. This marriage was very displeasing to John Knox and the other Scotch Reformers. As Mary was soon treated with neglect by her fickle husband, she bestowed her favor on her private secretary, David Rizzio, an Italian singer. This offended Darnley to such a degree that he formed a plot with some of the Scotch nobles; and the conspirators mur- dered Rizzio in the queen's presence. (1566.) Murder of Lord Darnley — Mary's Marriage with the Earl of Bothwell. — The Scotch queen now burned with hatred against her husband, but she paid him a visit when he was taken sick. One night after this visit (February 10, 1567), the people of Edinburgh were awakened by a terrible explosion. Darnley's house had been blown up by gunpowder, and his lifeless body was found at a dis- tance. The Scotch people fixed upon the Earl of BoLhwell as the perpetrator of MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 223 the horrilile murder; and as Queen Mary married Bothwell three months after- ward, she was believed to have been an accomplice in the crime. Rebellion of the Scotch People against Queen Mary — Bothwell's Fate. — Queen Mary's marriage with the Earl of Bothwell roused the indignation of the Scotch people, who in consequence rose in rebellion against her. Bothwell fled from Scotland, and lived by piracy, until he was thrown into prison in Denmark, where he became insane, in which wretched condition he remained the last ten years of his life. Imprisonment and Dethronement of Mary — Regency of the Earl of Murray. — Queen Mary wa-s seized and imprisoned in a lonely castle in the island of Lochlevin, by her rebellious subjects, who compelled her to resign her crown to her infant son, James VI., while her half-brother, the Earl of Murray, was ap- pointed regent during the minority of her son. Mary's Escape from Prison — Her Defeat and Flight to England. — In 1568, Mary escaped from her prison, and raised an army to recover her lost author- ity; but after being defeated by the Earl of Murray, in a lattle at Langside, she fled to England to seek the protection of Queen Elizabeth. Elizabeth's Refusal to receive Mary — Retention of Mary in England. — Elizabeth, who was envioiLS of the superior beauty and gracefulness of the Scotch queen, and who feared that she would make pretensions to the English crown, de- clined to receive Mary until she should have cleared herself of the accusation of having been an accomplice in the murder of her second husband. Lord Damley. As Mary, as an independent sovereign, would not submit to a trial by an English tribunal, she was retained as a prisoner in England by order of Elizabeth. Plots in Favor of Mary — Execution of the Duke of Norfolk. — The reten- tion of Mary in England soon endangered the safety of Elizabeth's throne and life. Conspiracies for dethroning Elizabeth and placing Mary on the throne of England, v/ere undertaken by the English Roman Catholics, of whom there were yet many in the northern part of the kingdom. The Duke of Norfolk, the leading Catholic nobleman in England, was detected in such a plot, and was beheaded in conse- quence, a few years afterward. (1572.) Unsuccessful Rebellion of the English Roman Catholics. — In 1569, a rebellion of the English Roman Catholics, headed by the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, broke out against Elizabeth. The objects of the insurgents were the liberation of the Queen of Scots, and the restoration of the popish religion in England. The efforts of the rebels were unsuccessful, and their leaders were tried, condemned, and punished with death. Trial and Execution of Mary by Order of Elizabeth. — In 1586, a conspir- acy was formed, by English Roman Catholics, to assassinate Elizabeth, and place Mary on the English throne. The leading conspirators were tried and executed. Mary was tried for being an accomplice in the plot, and was found giiilty. Eliza- beth appeared reluctant to consent to the execution of the unfortunate Mary, al- though she had long wished for her death. After waiting several months, the English queen signed the death-warrant, and her Prime-Minister, Lord Burleigh, having obtained it from her private secretary, had it hastily executed; and the un- fortunate Mary, Queen of Scots, was beheaded on the 7th of Febraary, 1587, after 2-24 MODERN HISTOR Y. having been kept a prisoner in Enj^hmd for nineteen ycai^s. She died with firm- ness. In order to put the responsibihty for Mary's execution on her servants, Queen Elizabeth affected great dissatisfaetion at the haste with which the death-warrant had been carried into cft'ect; and imprisoned her private secretaiy, Davison, for having handed the warrant to her Prime-Minister. Philip II. of Spain and his "Invincible Armada." — The execution of the Queen of Scots aroused the indignation of tlie Roman CathoHcs throughout Europe; and riiihp 11. of Spain fitted out a lleet of 130 vessels, for the subjugatiim of Eng- land, France, and the Netherlands, at one blow, and for the establishnient of a }X)wer- ful Roman Catholic empire in Western Europe. This gigantic Spanish fleet was nameil " llie Invincible Armaila" by the Catholics, who were confident of its success. Queen Elizabeth's Preparations for Defense. — Elizabeth, imdismayed by the coming storm, made extensive preparations for defense. She called out an army of 40,000 men, and placed it under the command of the Earl of Leicester, her favorite general ; and the English fleets were placed under the command of Lord Howard of Eflingham. Elizabeth, who displayed great firmness, appeared on horseback before her troops, and made them a short speech, which greatly raised their courage and zeal. Among other things she said, " I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart of a king, and of a king of Eng- liuid too, and think proud scorn that Parma, or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realms, for which, rather than any dis- honor come upon me, I will take up arms myself." Destruction of the Spanish Armada. — The Invincible Annada, under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, sailed from Lisbon for the English Channel, in May, 15S8. The English fleet under Effingham had just got out of port, when it beheld the Armada ajiproach, in tlie form of a crescent, extending a distance of seven miles. The English sent a number of fire-ships into the midst of the Armada, destroying many vessels and tlisabling the whole fleet. The Spanish admiral then resolved to return home; and as the wind blew from the south, he was obliged to sail northward along the Eastern shores of England, around Scot- land, and down along the Western coast of Ireland. But most of the Spanish vessels which escaped the destructive effects of the English fire-ships, were wrecked off the coasts of Scotland, by a succession of the most furious storms, and very few of them returned to the shores of Spain. Consequences of the Destruction of the Armada. — The moral conse- quences of the destruction of the Invincible Armada were very great: it virtually secured the independence of Holland; it inspired the Huguenots in France with hope; and it raised the courage of the Protestants throughout Europe. From this time Spain rapidly declined in power and national greatness, and her naval superi- ority was broken ; while England took her place as a great maritime power. Elizabeth's Favorites. — The wise Cecil, Lord Burleigh, was Elizabeth's Prime-Minister during the first forty years of her .reign. Queen Elizabeth was never married. Her first chief favorite w.as Robert Dudley, whom she created Eai'l of Leicester. At a later period, tlie accomplished Sir Walter Raleigh was received into the queen's favor. The Earl of Essex, Leicester's son-in-law, was Elizabeth's last favorite. SE VENTEENTJI CENTUIi Y. 225 Catholic Rebellion in Ireland. — When Eli/.ahcth altciiipted to firmly L-staljlisli Uic religious laws of England in Ireland, a formidable rebellion of the Irish peo- ple, who were mostly papists, broke out, under the leadership of the Earl of Tyrone. The rebels were aided by the Pope and by Philip II. of Spain. The English quoen appointed her favorite, the Earl of Essex, Lord Lieutenant of Ire- land; but instead of quelling the revolt, Essex made a treaiy with the liarl of Tyrone. Plot and Rebellion of the Earl of Essex — His Execution — Death of Queen Elizabeth. — Displeased with the conduct of her favorite, Elizabeth recalled him. Provoketl at this, the Earl of Essex formed a plot with James VI. of .Scot- land to dethrone Elizabeth, and raised an insurrection against the queen. When the insurrection was suppressed, Essex was tried and executed. Elizabeth's grief for the death of her favorite, and the conviction that she had lost the affections of her subjects, caused her to bewail herself with tears, during the last moments of her life. She died in 1603, after appointing James VI. of Scotland, .son of the ill- fated Mary, her successor. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (A. D. 1648-1648). CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE WAR. Violation of the Rights of the German Protestants. — During the mild and equitable reigns of the Emperors Ferdinand I. (i 556-1564) and Maximilian II. (1564-1576), the articles of the religious treaties of Passau and Augsburg were observed, and the German Protestants enjoyed perfect religious toleration; but when the careless and incompetent Rodolph II. occupied the imperial throne (1576 -1612), the Catholic princes of Germany, such as the Archduke Ferdinand of Styria and the Elector Maximilian of Bavaria, violated the religious rights and privileges of their Protestant subjects in various ways; while the complaints of the Protestants were unheeded by the weak and negligent Emperor. The Protestant Union and the Catholic League. — In order to secure their religious privileges against the encroachment of the Catholic power, the Protestant princes of Germany concluded an alliance known as " the Protestant Union." To oppose this Union, the Catholic German |)rinces entered into a comp.act called " the Catholic League." Thus Germany was divided into two hostile religious parties. The Protestant Union secured the aid of Henry IV. of France, and the Dutch Re- public, while the Catholic League obtained the assistance of Philip III. of Spain. The first occasion for hostilities between the two jmrties, was a dispiute between the Elector of Brandenburg and the Count Palatine of Neuburg, for the hereditary pos- »5 2 26 MODERN HISTORY. sessions of the deceased Duke of Cleves and Berg. After a blootly war of several years, it was agreed that the Elector of Brandenburg should have Cleves, while the Count of Neuburg should receive Berg and Dusseldorf. The Emperor Rodolph II. Deprived of His Hereditary Dominions. — In consequence of the weakness and negligence of the Emperor Rodolph II., his relatives compelled him to relinquish Austria and Hungary to his brother Mat- thias. For a while Rodolph secured to himself the respect and support of the Bohemians, by granting them letters-patent which accorded great religious priviliges to the Protestants ; but at length he was also compelled to surrender the crown of Bohemia to Matthias, so that the only crown which he still possessed was that of the German Empire. The miserable existence and imbecile reign of Rodolph were ended by his death, in l6l2; and his brother Matthias succeeded him on the imperinl throne of Germany. Ferdinand, King of Bohemia — Closing of Protestant Churches — Bohe- mian Revolt. — No sooner had Matthias become Emperor of Germany, than he showed himself as incapable of governing as Rotlolph, and he soon convinced the German Protestants that they could not expect much favor from him. The Protest- ants of Bohemia were greatly alarmed for the security of their religious liberties when the Emperor Matthias caused his cousin, Duke Ferdinand of Carinthia, to be invested with the crown of Bohemia. At length, in accordance with an imperi.il decree, a Protestant church which had been erected in the small town of Closter- grab was destroyed, and another which had been built in the territory of the Abbot of Brannau was closed. The Protestant states of Germany, regarding this as an infraction of the letters-patent, held a meeting in Prague, and presented a remon- strance to the Emperor, who, in his reply, sharply reproved those who had made the complaint, and confirmed the decree prohibiting the building of Protestant churches on ecclesiastical territory. Enraged at this, the Protestant deputies armed themselves, and, with Count Thurn at their head, proceeded to the council-house of Prague with the design of attacking the imperial council, whom they blamed for issuing the hareh decree. After a short dispute, the two Catholic councilors, Mar- tinitz and Slawata, were seized and thrown out of the castle window, more than fifty- six feet, by the enraged Protestant deputies. Notwithstanding the height of their fall, and the shots that were fired after them, both councilors escaped with their lives. The Bohemians est.ablished a council of thirty noblemen to govern them, and raised an army, at the head of which they placed Count Thurn. With the aid of the heroic Ernest von Mansfeld, Count Thurn defeated the imperial troops in Bohemia, after which he appeared with his army before Vienna, and made Matthias tremble in his capital. Death of Matthias — Ferdinand II. Emperor — Frederic V. of the Pala- tinate. — In 1619, the Emperor Matthias died, and his bigoted cousin, Ferdinand of C;uinthia, was chosen Emperor of Germany, by the Electoral Princes at Frankfort; but the Bohemians refused to acknowledge him as Emperor, and chose as King of Bofeemia in his stead the Elector Frederic V. of the Palatinate, the head of the :Protestant Union, and son-in-law of King James I. of England. Frederic, weak and incompetent, proved himself unfitted for so momentous a crisis. SEV ENTH CENTURY. 227 PALATINE PERIOD OF THE WAR. Alliance of Ferdinand II. with Maximilian of Bavaria — Battle of Weissenberg. — The enery;etic Emperor Ferdiiiaiul II. concluded an alliance with the ])o\verful Elector Maximilian of Bavaria, the head of the Catholic League. Maximilian's great general, Tilly the Netherlander, marched into Bohemia and defeated Frederic of the Palatinate in the battle of Weissenberg, near Prague. Frederic, after his defeat, fled in the utmost consternation into the Netherlands, being outlawed and deprived of his hereditary dominions; and Bohemia and Moravia soon submitted to the power of Austria. Dreadful Punishment of the Bohemians. — The unfortunate Bohemians were now cruelly punished for their rebellion. Twenty-seven of the Bohemian nobles were executed; the property of the others was confiscated and bestowed on the Jesuits and other Catholic orders; the Protestant clergymen were gradually banished from Bohemia; and finally it was declared that no subject who would not conform to the Catholic creed would be tolerated, in consequence of which harsh measure, 30,000 Protestant families left their homes in Bohemia, and took up their abode in the Protestant states of Saxony, Hanover, and Brandenburg. The War on the Rhine — Battles of Wiesloch and Wimpfen. — Ernest von Mansfeld, Duke Christian of Brunswick, and the Margrave George Frederic of Baden-Durlach, took the field in the cause of the outlawed Frederic of the Palati- nate, and of the Protestant religion. Mansfeld jilundered Alsace and desolated the Catholic bishoprics and monasteries on the Rhine, and, in conjunction with George Frederic of Baden-Durlach, gained the battle of Wiesloch, in April, 1622, over the Bavarian general, Tilly, who had been sent into the Palatinate of the Rhine, for the purpose of subduing the chief of the Protestant Union; but George Frederic was soon afterward defeated by Tilly, in the battle of Wimpfen (May 8, 1622); and, on the 20th of June of the same year. Christian of Brunswick was also de- feated by Tilly. Mansfeld and Christian then marched into the Netherlands, to procure assistance from England, while Tilly took Manheim and Heidelberg by storm, and committed the most frightful ravages. Duke Maximilian of Bavaria crowned Elector-Palatinate. — In 1623, the Electorship of the Palatinate was bestowed on Duke Maximilian of Bavaria, through the influence of his ally, the Emperor Ferdinand II. This proceeding, and the evident intention of Ferdinand to attempt the suppression of Protestantism, blasted the hopes for a speedy termiimtion of the destructive civil and religious war. DANISH PERIOD OF THE WAR. Foreign Aid to the German Protestants — Rise of Lower Saxony.- -Eng land, Holland, and Denmark now lent their assistance to the Protestant cause in Germany; and the Protestant towns of Lower Saxony took up arms in defense of their religion, and formed an alliance with King Christian IV. of Denmark, whom they invested with the chief command of their armies. Those valiant Protestant leaders, Ernest von Mansfeld, Christian of Brunswick, and George Frederic of Baden-Durlach, again appeared in the field. Albert of Wallenstein. — Thus far the war asjainst the German Protestants had 2 2S MODERN HISTORY. been carried on almost cnliicly by llie Catholic League; but as the stiu<;gle had assumed greater proportions, tlie League demanded supphes of troops from the Em- peror. Ferdinand himself, who was jealous of the power and influence of Maxi- milian of Bavaria, resolved to raise an army of his own. Albert of Wallenstein, a Bohemian nobleman, oflcred to furnish and support an army of 50,000 men, at his own expense, for the Emperor, on condition of being allowed the unlimited com- mand of them. Ferdinand accepted the oficr of the daring adventurer, made him governor of Fricdland, elevated him to the dignity of an Elector of the German Empire, and afterward created him Duke of Fricdland. Defeats of the Protestants in Northern Germany. — Northern Gerni.\ny now became the chief theatre of the war, and the army oi the Catholic League under Tilly, and that of the Emperor under Wallenstein, soon broke the power of the Protestants in that cpiarter. Mansfeld, after being defeated by Wallenstein at the bridge of Dessau, marched into Hungary, and died in Bosnia, while attempt- ing to make his way to the Netherlands. (1626.) Christian of Brunswick died the same year; and King Christian IV., of Denmark, having been defeated by Tilly, at the castle of Luttcr, near Barenberg, in Hanover, on the 27th of August, 1626, was compelled to retreat into his own dominions; and the Duke of Meck- lenburg w;is driven from his territories, wliich were inmiediately seized by Wallen- stein. Subjugation of Denmark and Northern Germany. — In 1627, Schleswig, llolstein, and the peninsula of Jutland were concpiered and frightfully ravaged, by the Catholic armies of Germany under Tilly and Wallenstein; and the King of Denmark was obliged to seek refuge in his islands. The Protestant German Slates of Pomerania and Brandenburg also submitted to the Catholic power; and the whole North of Germany lay i)rostrate before the power of the Emperor and the . Catholic League. Defense of Stralsund. — The heroic inliabitants of the city of Stralsund, in Pomerania, however, refused to submit, and resolved to resist the imperial army to the last extremity. Wallenstein marched against the city, and swore that he would take it if it were bound to heaven with chains ; but all his assaults were gallantly repulsed by the inhabitants; and after a siege of ten weeks, during which he lost 12,000 men, Wallenstein w;is obliged to relinquish the siege and to retire. Peace of Lubec. — The failure of Wallenstein to take Stralsund induced the EmjKror of Germany to conclude a treaty of peace with the King of Denmark. By the Peace of Lubec, concluded in 1629, Christian IV. recovered the territories which had been conquered from him; but he was required to abandon the cause of the German Protestants. Edict of Restitution. — The Emperor Ferdinand II. and the Catholic parly, encouraged l)y their recent triumph, now resolved upon the suppression of the Protestant religion, antl the full reestablishment of Roman Catholicism througliout Germany; and, instigated by the Society of the Jesuits, -the Emperor issued an " Edict of Restitution," which required the Protestants to restore all ecclesiastical property which had been taken from the Catholics since the Peace of Passau. The execu- tion of this edict would deprive many of the Protestant German princes of their wealth, and was therefore violently resisted; and the Emperor found himself CROMWELL. '' MP:-. CHARLES I. OF ENGLAND. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 229 obliged to employ militarj' force to carry out his designs, but his army was no longer commanded by Wallenstein. Removal of ^A^allenstein. — Wallenstein's barbarous conduct in spreading ruin and desolation wherever he appeared, aroused the indignation of both Catholics and Protestants, and the whole body of the German princes, with Duke Maximilian of Bavaria at their head, demanded the removal of Wallenstein from the chief com- mand of the imperial army. The Emperor yielded to the unanimous voice of the princes and people of Germany, and removed Wallenstein and appointed Tilly to the chief command of his army. Wallenstein retired to his Duchy of Friedland, where he lived in the enjoyment of immense wealth, until he should again be called upon to assume the chief command of the imperial army. King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. — The vmfortunate Protestants of Germany were now compelled to yield before the superior power of Austria and Bavaria; but they soon found a deliverer in the valiant Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, whom the intriguing and unprincipled French Prime-Minister, Cardinal Richelieu, the enemy of the House of Hapsburg, had induced to assist the German Protestants in their war against their Emperor. SWEDISH PERIOD OF THE WAR. Appearance of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. — On the 24th of June, 1630, Gustavus Adolphus, with only 6,000 men, landed on the coast of Pomerania. The Swedish soldiers, who assembled ai-ound their chaplains twice a day, were not permitted by their pious king to devastate any of the territory through which they marched. Many of the Protestant princes of Germany, fearing the vengeance of their Emperor, and jealous of the foreign monarch who had espoused their cause, at first refused to cooperate with the King of Sweden; but their fear and jealousy were soon overcome, and in their distress they concluded alliances with Gustavus. Destruction of Magdeburg. — On the i6th of May, 1631, the Protestant city of Magdeburg, which had opposed the Edict of Restitution, fell into the hands of the imperial army under Tilly, after a siege of six weeks, during which many fierce assaults had been gallantly repulsed. The devoted city was fearfully punished. The greater part of it was burned to the ground; and 30,000 of its inhabitants were brutally massacred to gratify the victorious Tilly's thirst for revenge. Battle of Breitenfeld and Leipsic. — After the barbarous destruction of Magdeburg, Tilly, with the imperial army, marched against the Elector of Saxony, who, in his distress, concluded an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus. The King of Sweden marched to meet Tilly; and on the 7th of September, 1 631, at the vil- lage of Breitenfeld, near Leipsic, was fought a sanguinary battle, in which the united forces of the Swedes and the Saxons gained a most brilliant victoiy. Victorious March of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany — Death of Tilly. — .\fter his great victory at Breitenfeld, Gustavus Adolphus marched victoriously tvj the Rhine ; and the whole North and West of Germany were soon in (he pos- session of the Swedes and their Protestant German allies. In the spring of 1632, the King of Sweden turned eastward, for the purpose of invading Bavaria, and chas- tising the powerful Elector Maximilian. Tilly, who was at the head of a powerful 230 MODERN HISTORY. imperial army, had strongly intrenched himself on the river Lech, for the puqwse of disputing the passage of that stream by the Swedes. The Swedes stormed the intrenchments of the imperialists, and forced a passage across the river. Tilly was so severely wounded by a cannon ball that he died at Ingolstadt, several weeks afterward. This old war-worn hero directed military affairs until the moment of his death. Restoration of Wallenstein. — After occupying Augsburg, where the Protest- ant form of worship was again established, Gustavus Adolphus advanced into Bavaria and entered Munich, which had been abandoned by Maximilian, a* the approach of the Swedish monarch. In this moment of peril, the Emperor Ferdi- nand II. again had recourse to the services of Wallenstein, who agreed to raise a new army, on condition of being allowed the unlimited command of it. Blockade of Nuremburg. — Wallenstein was soon at the head of 40,000 men; and after driving the Saxons out of Bohemia, he marched against the victorious Gustavus Adolphus, who had strongly intrenched himself near Nuremburg. Wal- lenstein, at the head of 60,000 imperialists, fortified himself opposite the position of the Swedes, and for several months the two armies were watching each other. During this blockade of Nuremburg, both armies suffered dreadfully from hunger. At length Gustavus Adolphus stormed the camp of Wallenstein, but was repulsed with heavy loss. Battle of Laatzen, and Death of Gustavus Adolphus. — From Nuremburg, the German imperial army under Wallenstein marched into Saxony, whither it was followed by the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus. The two armies met at Lutzen, where, on the i6th of November, 1632, a memorable battle was fought. The Swedes gained a glorious victory, but this was dearly purchased with the death of the heroic and valiant Gustavus Adolphus. Pappenheim, the leader of the imperial German cavalry, was also mortally wounded, and Wallenstein fled in dismay into Bohemia, with his defeated and shattered army. The Swedes sent the body of their illustrious king, which was frightfully disfigured by the hoofs of horses, to his native land for interment. Alliance of Heilborn — Destructive Character of the War. — After the death of Gustavus Adolphus, the Swedish Chancellor, Axel Oxenstiern, resolved to continue the war in Germany with vigor, and concluded the alliance of Heilborn with the Protestant princes of Germany. After the death of their valiant king, the Swedes committed the most savage devastations, while Wallenstein was frightfully ravaging Bohemia. Assassination of Wallenstein. — Wallenstein was now accused by his enemies of treason to the Emperor and the Catholic religion. He was charged with the design of forming an alliance with the Swedes and the German Protestants, and of making himself king of Bohemia. When the Emperor had secured the persons of Uie adherents of the powerful general, and declared his deposition, Wallenstein immediately took up his march to join the Swedes; but before he could unite his forces with the Swedish army, he was murdered by a band of assassins, with '.he Irishman Butler at their head, sent for that purpose by the Emperor Ferdinand II. Wallenstein's faithful adherents and confederates, Illo, Terska, and Kinsky, were also assassinated. The assassins were rewarded with honors, dignities, and wealth. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 23 1 Battle of Nordlingen — Peace of Prague — French Interference. — Soon after the assassination of Wallenstein, the German imperial army advanced into Bavaria, and defeated Bernhard of Weimar in the battle of Nordlingen. (Septem- ber, 1634.) In May, the following year (1635), several of the Protestant German princes concluded the Peace of Prague with the Emperor Ferdinand II.; but still the bloody war continued, and Cardinal Richelieu, who at that time wielded the destinies of France, thinking the opportunity favorable for humbling the proud House of Austria, and extending the Eastern frontier of France to the Rhine, now began to take an active part in the struggle, and sent French armies into Germany, to aid Bernhard of Weimar and the Swedes. FRENCH PERIOD OF THE WAR. Death of Ferdinand II. — Accession of Ferdinand III. — Baner, Tors- tenson, and Wrangel. — The Emperor Ferdinand II. died in 1637, without seeing the end of the civil and religious war in which he had been engaged from the commencement of his reign; and was succeeded on the imperial throne of Ger- many by his son, Ferdinand III. Bernhard of Weimar, after making important conquests on the Rhine, and the Swedish general Baner, after ravaging Bohemia, did not long survive Ferdinand II. On the death of Baner, the command of the Swedish army in Germany was assigned to Torstenson, who gained brilliant vic- tories over the imperial forces at Leipsic and the hill Tabor, and even threatened Vienna with a siege; but, on account of illness from the gout, Torstenson was finally obliged to relinquish his command to Wrangel, an able general. Wrangel and the French general Turenne marched into Bavaria, and compelled the Elector Maximilian to flee from his dominions; but while they were preparing to invade Bohemia, they received intelligence of the Peace of Westphalia; and hostilities were suspended. Peace of Westphalia. — After five years of negotiation at Munster and Osna- burg, the Peace of Westphalia was concluded in October, 1648, to the great joy of the German people, who had long clamored for the termination of the war. By this treaty a part of the German tejritory on the Rhine was ceded to France; the island of Rugen and a portion of Pomerania were surrendered to .Sweden ; another portion of Pomerania was given up to the Great Elector Frederick William of Brandenburg; Lusatia was allotted to the Elector of Saxony; the Upi:>er Palatin- ate was bestowed on the Elector of Bavaria; and Switzerland and Holland were acknowledged as independent republics, the former by Germany, and the latter by Spain. The religious treaties of Passau and Augsburg were confirmed; and the privileges of free religious worship, and equal civil rights with the Catholics, were secured to the Protestants of Germany. Condition of Germany at the Close of the Thirty Years' War. — During the continuance of the Thirty Years' War, two-thirds of the German population perished by the sword, famine, pestilence, and other causes. The resources of Germany were exhausted, and her territory at the close of the war appeared almost like a desert waste. Cities, towns, and villages had been laid in ashes; agriculture, manufactures, and commerce had been neglected ; and much of the former pros- perity of Germany had passed away. Peace therefore came none too soon for the unfortunate land. 2^2 MODERN HISTORY. Sweden After the Thirty Years' War. — Gustavus Adolphus was succeeded on the throne of Sweden by his daughter Christina, during whose minority the government was conducted by a senate. Christina, who assumed the government in 1644, surrounded herself with the society of hterary men; and her taste for art and her love for science induced her to abdicate her throne ten years after attaining her majority. She then embraced Roman Catholicism, and passed the remainder of her life in Rome. Christina's successor on the Swedish throne, Charles X. (1654-1660), was a great warrior, and famous for his victories over the Poles and tlie Danes, Charles XI. (1660- 1697) broke the power of the Swedish aristocracy. THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION. ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF STUART. REIGN OF JAMES I. (A. D. 1603-1625). Accession of James I. — Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland. — On the death of Queen Elizabeth, in 1603, James Stuart, King of Scotland, sou of the unfortunate Mary, ascended the throne of England. From the time of his mother's fall, he had reigned over Scotland, with the title of James VI., but now he became James I. of England. Thenceforth the crowns of England and Scotland were united, but each kingdom had its own parliament until 1 707, when a legisla- tive union took place. During the reign of James I. the English colonies of James- town and Plymouth, in North America, were planted. Vanity and Bigotry of James I. — His Theological Learning. — James I. was a v.iin, bigoted, and pedantic prince. He was in the possession of much theo- logical learning, and delighted to engage in controvei-sies on religious subjects. He loved to make a display of his wisdom and knowledge in lengthy harangues. James was also ambitious of the reputation of being a great author; and he wrote many books. Peaceful Disposition of James I.— His Lavishness to His Favorites. — James I. lacked the shrewdness and decision essential in a sovereign. He was so extreme a lover of peace as to sacrifice the honor and dignity of his kingdom, for the sake of living on friendly terms with foreign governments. One of the faults of James was his lavishness of favors to unworthy persons. Of these, George Vil- liers, Duke of Buckingham, had the greatest influence. James's Idea of " the Divine Right of Kings." — James I. was a firm be- liever in " the divine right of kings." He believed that his authority was directly dcriveil from God, and that his power was unlimited. For this reason he hated the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, which made the king only a common member of the congregation ; but he was zealously attached to the Episcopal Church of England, in which the monarch was considereil the he.ad and origin of all spiritual power; and the great object of James was the suppression of Puritanism in England and Presbyterianism in Scotland, and the full establishment of Episcopacy, as the only form of religion throughout his dominions. Conspiracy in Favor of Lady Arabella Stuart — Execution of Sir W. Raleigh. — The quiet of King James' reign was soon disturbed by a conspiracy to SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 233 place Lady Arabella Stuart, his first cousin, on the throne of England; but the de- sign of the conspirators was easily frustrated. Sir Walter Raleigh, who was accused of complicity in the plot in favor of Lady Arabella, was held in imprisonment for thirteen years, during which he wrote his " History of the World." After his re- lease, Raleigh conducted an English gold-searching expedition to South America. Raleigh attacked and captured a small Spanish town, although a state of peace existed between England and Spain. In order to appease the clanK^rs of the Spanish Government, King James resolved to sacrifice Raleigh; and on the 29th of October, 1618, that distinguished personage was beheaded. This cruel act is an indelible stain upon the character of James L; and at the time made him exceedingly unpopular. The Gunpowder Plot. — No sooner was James I. seated on the English throne, than he forgot his promises of toleration to the English Roman Catholics, and fol- lowed the example of Queen Elizabeth in making them pay an oppressive capita- tion tax, that he might enrich his favorites, and defray the expenses of his court festivals. This aroused the indignation of the Catholics, some of whom resolved upon a conspiracy to blow up the Parliament House with gunpowder, at a time when the King, the Lords, and the Commons would be assembled there, and thus destroy the whole government of England. At length the plot; was discovered, and the leading conspirator, Guy Fawkes, was detected in a cellar in which thirty-six barrels of gunpowder were concealed. Guy Fawkes was seized and executed, and his fellow-conspirators perished in an insurrection which they had excited. This conspiracy took place in 1605, and is known as "The Gunpowder Plot." In conse- quence of it, the English Catholics were heavily fined, and compelled to take an oath of fidelity to the monarch. Nuptial Expedition of Prince Charles into Spain. — James I. was anxious that his son Charles, heir to the throne, should marry a daughter of the King of Spain. The English people were opposed to such a marriage; but the Duke of Buckingham warmly advocated it. Buckingham and Prince Charles undertook a romantic journey into Spain to see the princess. When they arrived at Madrid, they were treated with respect by the Spanish king, Philip III.; but Buckingham's insolent conduct offended the haughty Spaniards, and thus prevented the marriage. Prince Charles afterwards married Henrietta Maria, daughter of the murdered Henry IV. of France. Disputes between King James I. and his Parliament. — James I., as we have already said, was a firm believer in the divine right of kings. He was ex- tremely jealous of any encroachments on the royal prerogative. During the reigns of the sovereigns of the House of Tudor, the English Parliament possessed but little liberty, and the monarch wielded almost absolute power. This unlimited power, James I. was resolved to preserve and extend ; and he was consequently involved in a continual contest with the Parliament, which was determined to as- sert its own rights, and to uphold the liberties of the English people. ParKaments were repeatedly dissolved, but the next were always sure to be more obstinate than their predecessors. At length, when the king declared that what the Parliament regarded as its rights were but privileges for the enjoyment of which they were in- debted to his majesty's favor, the Commons registered a protest, in whicli they as- serted that the enactment of laws, the assent to taxes, and the rights and privileges 234 MODERN 1/ IS TOR Y. of Parliament, were inherent rights of every Englishman. Exasperated at this bold declanition, the king tore with his own hand from the record the leaf on which was written the protest, dissolved the Parliament, and ordered the imprisonment of sev- eral of the members; but the Parliament displayed a bolder attitude under his suc- cessor. REIGN OF CHARLES I. (A. D. 1623-1649). Difficulties between King Charles I. and the Parliament. — James I. died in 1625, and was succeeded on the English throne by his son, Charles I. No sooner was Charles I. seated on the throne, than a vehement dispute arose between him and the Parliament, and that body was consequently dissolved during the first and second years of his reign. The assistance given to the Elector Frederic V. of the Palatinate and the German Protestants in the Thirty Years' War, and a useless war with France, brought about by the Duke of Buckingham, still Prime-Minister of England, produced heavy expenses ; and the king was irritated that liie Parlia- ment refused to vote supplies as he freely as he desired. Petition of Right. — When the war with France resulted unfavorably for the English, the third Parliament summoned by Charles I. was disposed to impeach the Duke of Buckingham. In order to save his favorite minister, Charles found himself obliged to acknowledge the validity of " the Petition of Right," presented to his majesty by lx)lh Houses of Parliament, and consequently to restore to the Parliament its former privileges, and freedom of speech and inviolability of person and property of its members. Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, Prime-Minister. — Soon after the presentation of the Petition of Right, the Duke of Buckingham was assassinated, whereupon the king appwinted Thomas Wentworth, one of the leaders of the popular party, to the head of the Ministry, and created him Earl of Strafford and governor of Ireland. From this time forward, Wentworth was an avowed opponent of the principles of liberty which he had formerly advocated ; and, with the view of in- creasing the royal power, he advised the king to govern for some time without a Parliament. Illegal Measures of the King to Obtain Money — Ship-money. — For the purpose of obtaining money to defray the expenses of the Government, the king now had recourse to the most arbitrary and unjust expedients. Heavy fines were imposed for the most trifling offenses, and heavy duties were levied upon various articles. Charles I. also imposed a tax called "ship-money," because it was used for the support of the navy. These illegal measures of the king aroused the indig- nation of the English people. Arbitrary Measures of Archbishop Laud. — Charles I. also attempted to establish the Episcopal Church on a firmer basis, and to suppress Puritanism in England and Presbyterianism in Scotland, with the view of checking the rapid growth of republican principlei^ among the English people. For the purpose of accomplishing this end, the king appointed the zealous Bishop Laud, of London, Archbishop of Canterbury. Laud caused the Cathedral of St. Paul's, in London, to be consecrated anew, and the churches to be supplied with numerous im.ages and ornaments, and imposed upon the Puritans ceremonies and observances hitherto unpracticed by the Church of England. The new Archbishop also removed the SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 235 Puritan preachers from their offices, and invested arbitrary tribunals, such as the Courts of the Star Chamber and High Commission, with the authority of pronoun- cing severe punishments against those who manifested any opposition to estabhshed institutions. Thus Prynne, a Puritan, was sentenced to lose lx)th his ears, and to be imprisoned for life, for writing a volume against dancing, masks, theatrical plays, and other amusements in which the court delighted. Trial of John Hampden. — The proceedings just mentioned endangered civil and religious liberty in England, and threw the whole kingdom into a ferment. The resolute John Hampden refused to pay any ship-money, and was consequently tried in the Exchequer-Chamber, in the presence of all the Judges of England. The Judges decided in favor of the crown, but Hampden was more than compensated for the loss of his cause by the applause of his countrymen. The Puritan Preachers. — The Puritan preachers who had lost their offices traveled through the country, denouncing the arbitrary measures of Laud as pre- liminaiy steps to the reestablishment of popery in England ; and by their passionate appeals, they excited the people against the king, the archbishop, and the clergy. The Scotch Covenant — Scotch Rebellion. — While the royal assumptions were thus viojently opposed in England, the attempts of the king to establish the Episcopal form of worship in Scotland produced a formidable rebellion in that country, in 1 637. The first attempt to worship according to the Episcopal form in the Cathedral of Edinburgh caused a violent tumult. The Episcopal priest was driven from the cathedral, amid the cries of " Pope !" " Antichrist !'" " Stone him !" The Scotch people immediately entered into a solemn league, or " Covenant," for the protection of their Presbyterian form of worship, drove away the Episcopal bishops, and took up arms. The king, resolving to crush all opposition by force, sent an army against the Scotch insurgents; but his troops were overcome by the zealous Scots, who went forth to battle with prayer. The victorious Scots marched into England, and the king found himself obliged to summon another Parliament, after an interval of eleven years, to solicit aid against the Scotch rebels. The Long Parliament. — The Parliament just summoned, instead of voting supplies against the relx;lIious Scots, began to attack the unlawful assumptions of the king, and to discuss the grievances of the English people. In a fit of exas|>era- tion, Charles I. dissolved this Parliament; but his necessities obliged him to call another. The Parliament which now assembled is known as "The Long Parlia- ment," on account of the extraordinary length of its existence. Its leading mem- bers were Sir Arthur Haslerig, John Hampden, John Pym, and Oliver Cromwell, who were opposed to absolute monarchical power and Episcopal church government, and who were strong advocates of republican principles. Trial and Execution of Strafford — Fate of Archbishop Laud. — Instead of affording the king any assistance against the Scotch insurgents, the Long Parlia- ment formed a secret league with them. The Parliament next impeached theEarl of Strafford for high treason. The king vainly endeavored to save his favorite minister. The Commons were resolved upon his destruction. After a trial of seventy days, and a dignified and eloquent defense, Strafford was declared guilty and condemned to death. In a moment of weakness, the king signed the death-warrant, and the unfortunate Strafford >vas beheaded. He died with firmness and resolution. 236 MODERN HISTORY. Archbishop Laud was also impeached and tried, for endeavoring to destroy the liberitics of the people of England. He was declared guilty, imprisoned, and three years afterwards beheaded. The Courts of High Commission and the Star Chamber were now dissolved, and the Episcopal bishops were excludetl from their seats in the House of Lords. Irish Rebellion. — .\ dangerous rebellion broke out in Ireland in 1641, and the Protestant settlers in that country were massacred by the Catholic Irish. The Par- liament accused the court, and particularly the queen, of instigating the rebellion and the massacre, and declared that the Catholic and Episcopal bishops and the court had entered into a plot for the destruction of religion and liberty in England. Rash Act of the King. — At length, Charles I., exasperated at the increasing demands of the Parliament, ordered five of its bf)ldest speakers, — H.-islerig, Hollis, Hampden, Pym, and Strode, — to be arrested, and went in person to the hall of the House of Commons to seize them. For this rash act, the king afterwards found himself obliged to apologize in a humiliating message to the Parliament. Parliamentary Encroachments on the Royal Prerogative. — From this time the Parliament encroacheil more and more on the royal prerogative, until scarcely a vestige of monarchical power remained. The Commons now demanded that the appointment of ministers of state, and of military and naval commanders, should depend upon their approval. The Commons also required that the Tower of London, several of the sea-ports, and the management of the navy, should also be given into their possession. When the Parliament demanded that the king should relinquish the command of the army for a certain period, his majesty angrily re- plied, " No, not for one hour!" This refusal dispelled all hopes for a peaceful settle- ment of difficulties, and ])oth parties resolvetl upon an appeal to arms. Presbyterians and Independents. — The opponents of the king were divided into several parties. The Independents, who were Puritans in religious belief and republicans in political faith, aimed at the overthrow of the monarchy; while the Presbyterians, or moderate party, merely wished to put an end to the abuses of the royal power, but not to deprive the king of his crown. CIVIL WAR (1642-1649). The King's Withdrawal from London — Commencement of the Civil War.—The breach between King Charles I. and the Parliament continually widened ; and in 1642, the king withdrew from London and retired to York, where he declared war against the Parliament. On the 25th of August, 1642, Charles erected the royal standard at Nottingham, but it was soon blown down by the violence of the wind. A civil war of six years now commenced, in which England was drenched with the blood of her own people. " Cavaliers " and " Roundheads." — On the side of the king were the nobility, the Roman Catholic and Episcopal clergy, and all the advocates of the established Church, and of absolute monarchy. The whole ofthe king's party were called " Cavaliers." On the side of the Parliament were the Puritans, all who advocated a reform in Church and State, and all believers in republican principles. All the adherents of the Parliament received from their enemies the nickname of " Round- heads," because their hair was cropped close to their heads. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 237 Battle of Edge Hill. — During the first and second years of the war, the king's forces, commanded by his nephew, Prince Rupert of the Palatinate, and the Mar- quis of Newcastle, were victorious in almost every encounter with the undiscip- lined forces of the Parliament, commanded by Lord Fairfax and the Earl of Essex, the latter of whom was the son of Queen Elizabeth's favorite. The first great bat- tle of the civil war was fought at Edge Hill, in Warwickshire, on the 3d of October, 1642. The king's army was commanded lay Prince Rupert, and the Parliamentary forces by the Earl of Essex. Both sides lost about 5,000 men killed, and neither gained the victory. Royalist Victories in 1643 — Death of John Hampden.— The campaign of 1643 was favorable to the royal cause. The Parliamentary forces were defeated at Stratton Plill, in Cornwall; at Roundway Down; and at Chalgrave Field. Bristol was besieged and taken by the Royalists, who also gained a victor)' in the battle of Newbury. During the year 1643, ^^'^ Parliamentary party exjx;rienced a severe loss in the death of the brave, illustrious, and upright John Ham]xlen, who was killed in a skirmish with Prince Rupert. The Royalists now secured the aid of some Irish Roman Catholics, while the Parliament entered into a solemn league, or " Covenant," with the Scotch Presbyterians, who sent an army of 14,000 men into the field against King Charles I. Appearance of Oliver Cromwell. — The tide of success was now turning in favor of the Parliamentary side, whose troops had been greatly benefited by the experience of the first two years of the war. The resolute and enthusiastic Puritan, Oliver Cromwell, now began to take a conspicuous part in the contest. At the head of a hardy and pious squadron of cavaliy which he had organized, he took the field in the cause of God and liberty. Battle of Marston Moor. — The first great Parliamcntarj' victory was gained at Marston Moor, about nine miles from York, on the 3d of July, 1644, by Crom- well and his " Ironsides," as the sturdy squadron of cavalry which he commanded was called. The defeat of the royal army was partly due to the impetuosity of Prince Rupert. The whole of Rupert's artillery fell into the hands of Cromwell's victorious troops. The consequence of the battle of Marston Moor was that the whole North of England fell into the possession of the Parliamentarians. Soon after- ward occurred the second battle of Newbury, in which neither parly was victorious. Presbyterians and Independents. — The Puritans now banished the Book of Common Prayer from religious worsiiip, and substituted the Calvinistic form of worship and church government for the Episcopal. They also caused images and or- naments to be taken from the churches, and forlwde festivities. But the Puritans were divided into two great parties, — the Presbyterians and the Independents, — between whom the greatest animosity already prevailed. The Presbyterians, or moderate Puritans, inclined toward the support of monarchical and aristocratic institutions, and longed for the establishment of their Church, to the exclusion of all others, and opposed toleration. The Independents, or radical Puritans, held democratic or republican views in regard to civil government, and desired toleration for all Christian faiths. The Self-denying Ordinance. — Oliver Cromwell belonged to the Independ- ents; while the Earl of Essex, who held the chief command of the Parliamentary 238 MODERN HISTORY. forces, belonged to the Presbyterians. The Independents caused the enactment, by Parliament, of the Self-denying Ordinance, which allowed no member of Parliament to hold a command in the army. The Earl of Essex was therefore compelled to resign; and Lord Fairfax, an able general, was appointed to the chief command of the army of the Parliament. Cromwell, who had been one of the most enthusiastic supporters of the Self-denying Ordinance, hastened to resign his command; but through the influence of Fairfax, who felt that Cromwell's services in the army were necessary to insure the overthrow of the Royal party, the Parliament dispensed with the Self-denying Ordinance in Cromwell's case, and he was permitted to retain his position. Renewal of the Civil War — Battle of Naseby. — Some efforts at peace having failed, the civil war again burst forth with all its fury. The army of King Charles I. was completely overthrown, and his cause was utterly ruined, in the desperate battle of Naseby, in Northamptonshire, on the 14th of June, 1645. The Parliamentary forces were commanded by Fairfax, Skippon, Cromwell, and Ireton; and the Royalists by the king, Prince Rupert, Lord Astley, and Sir Marmaduke Langdale. The defeat of the Royal army was caused, in a great measure, by the rashness and impatience of Prince Rupert, who overruled the more prudent judg- ment of the king. Rupert, with the right wing of the Royal cavalry, dashed with the most fiery impetuosity upon the Parliamentary left wing, commanded by Gen- eral Ireton, Cromwell's son-in-law. At the same time Cromwell, with the Parlia- mentary right wing, assailed the Royal left wing; while the centres of the two armies, led respectively by Fairfax and the king, were struggling desperately. The Parliamentary left was thoroughly annihilated, and Ireton was made a prisoner; but Rupert lost precious time in an unnecesary pursuit of Ireton's broken forces, when he should have gone to the aid of the king. In the meantime Cromwell with his "Ironsides" defeated the Royal cavalry, after which he flew to the aid of the Parliamentary centre, which was beginning to give way before the Royalists. Crom- well and his Ironsides, who insured victory wherever they appeared, soon put the king's infantry to a total rout ; and Charles I., seeing that the day was lost to his cause, retired with his forces, leaving the field, all his baggage and cannon, and 50,000 prisoners, in the hands of the victorious Parliamentarians. The King in the Hands of the Scots. — By their victory at Naseby, the Par- liamentarians obtamed possession of all the strong cities in the kingdom, such as Bristol, Bridgewater, Bath, and Chester. Exeter was besieged and taken by Fair- fax, whereupon the king and his broken hosts retreated to Oxford, which Fairfax and Cromwell were preparing to besiege. Rather than be taken prisoner by his enemies, Charles I. fled into Scotland, hoping to find respect and kind treatment among his Scotch subjects. He went into the camp of an army of Scots that was entraged in the service of the Parliament; but instead of treating him as their king, the Scots placed a guard around him and kept him as a prisoner. The fanatical Scotch preachers, unable to restrain their zeal, insulted him to his face, and, in sermons preached in his presence, bitterly reproached him as a wicked tyrant. The King in the Power of the Parliament. — When the Parliament was in- formed that the king was in the hands of the Scots, it began to negotiate with them for th*? possession of his person. The Scots surrendered Charles I. into the hands of commissioners appointed by the Parliament, upon receiving 400,000 pounds SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 239 sterling. The Scots were ever aftenvards ashamed of the reproach of having sold their sovereign to his inveterate foes. Presbyterians and Independents. — As we have already seen, the king's enemies were divided into the Presbyterian and Independent parties. The most inveterate animosity now existed between these two factions. The Presbyterians had a majority in the Parliament, while the Independents had a majority in the army. The King in the Power of Cromwell. — The Presbyterians, in conjunction with the Royalists, now endeavored to restore to the king his authority; but in this they were opposed by the Independents, the most rigid of Puritans, and republicans in principle. The leader of the Independent party was Oliver Cromwell, who took King Charles I. from the commissioners of the Parliament, and placed him in the charge of the army. The Parliament now proposed to disband the army; but the officers and troops, instigated by Cromwell, resolved to remain together. Aribitrary Proceedings of Cromwell. — Cromwell now marched to London, and subjected the city and the Parliament to his authority. The king in the mean- time escaped to the Isle of Wight. The Parliament now desired an accommodation with the king ; but Charles relied upon foreign aid. Cromwell having discovered the insincerity of the king, resolved upon his destruction. The Parliament was thrown into the greatest consternation upon the reception of intelligence that the king had again been seized and placed in the power of the army, by the secret orders of Cromwell. Colonel Pride's Purge. — The Parliament now endeavored to destroy Crom- well; but, anticipating their design, he resolved to annihilate their power by a decisive blow. He therefore sent to London a body of troops under Colonel Pride, who surrounded the Parliament-house and excluded all the Presbyterian members from their seats. (De-cember, 1648.) This violent proceeding is known as " Col- onel Pride's Purge." Trial and Execution of Charles I. — Oliver Cromwell was now virtual dicta- tor of England, and the Parliament, which now consisted of Independents, and which was called " The Rump Parliament," was entirely under his control. Crom- well now caused articles of impeachment to be preferred against the king, or Charles Stuart, as he was now called, charging him with high treason, in levying war against his Parliament. A High Court of Justice was organized, and held in Westminster Hall, for the purpose of trying the king; but Charles persistently denied the juris- diction of the court. The trial commenced on the 20th of January, 1649. As the king was on his way to the court-room, he was insulted by the soldiery and the mob, who uttered all sorts of unfeeling cries. After a trial of seven days, Charles I. was declared guilty, and was condemned to death as a traitor and a murderer. On his way from the court-room, he was again insulted by the soldiers and the rab- ble, who cried out, "Justice!" "Execution!" and some even went so far as to spit in his face. Charles bore all their insolence with patience, saying, "Poor souls, they would treat their generals the same way for a six-pence." On the 30th of January, 1649, the king was led to the place of execution, in front of the palace of Whitehall. He ascended the scaffold with a firm step. Addressing those around him, he declared himself innocent toward his people, and forgave his enemies. !40 MODERN HISTORY. Turning to Bishop Juxon, he said, " I go from a corruptible to an incorruptible crown, where no disturbance can take place." "You exchange," said the bishop, "a temporal for an eternal crown; a good exchange." The king then laid his head upon the block, saying to Bishop Juxon, " Remember." One of the executioners then struck ofl" the king's head; and another, holding it aloft, exclaimed, "This is the head of a traitor!" Many of the spectators wept at the horrid spectacle. THE COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND. (FEBRUARY 1, 1649— MAY 29, 1660.) Abolition of Monarchy — England a Commonwealth. — A few d.iys after the execution of Charles 1., the House of Lords and the monarchical form of gov- ernment were abolished by the Commons; and the "Rump Parliament," as it was called, upheld by Oliver Cromwell and the army, governed the country. The so- called republic was styled "The Commonwealth of England." Reduction of the Irish Royalists. — The Royalists were still active in Ireland. After arranging affaii-s in England, Cromwell and his army jwssed over into Ireland, where the Royalists, headed by the Duke of Ormond,were still in arms against the republican Parliament. After defeating the Royalists in many encounters, and taking numerous towns, Cromwell reduced Ireland to subjection, treating the van- cpiished with the greatest severity. Those gaiTisons which obstinately resisted his assaults were put to the sword, after falling into his hands. After returning to England, Cromwell received the thanks of the Parliament for reducing Ireland to submission. Rise of the Scotch Covenanters in Favor of Prince Charles. — In the meantime, the Scotch Covenanters, who bitterly repented of tticir conduct toward their late unfortunate king, took up arms in favor of his son, Prince Charles, whom they acknowledged .is king, by the title of Charles II. The terms upon which the Scots agreed to recognize Prince Charles as king, were that he should sign "the Covenant," enter the Presbyterian Church, and accept a limited royal prerogative. After some hesitation, the prince agreed to these conditions, left Holland, and made his appearance in Scotland. Battle of Dunbar. — At the head of i6,oco troops, Cromwell marched against the Scotch Covenanters, but many of his troops died from hunger and sickness on the way. At Dunbar, Cromwell, with only 12,000 men, was opposed by 27,000 Scotch Covenanters, who considered victoiy certain. The Scotch preachers endeav- ored to prove from the Old Testament that the Covenanters would conquer, and urged an attack upon Cromwell's army. When Cromwell saw the Scots advancing, he exclaimed, " The Lord has delivered them into our hands !" A furious battle ensued, on the 3d of September, 1 650, and Cromwell gained a glorious victory. The Scotch troops threw down their arms and lied in every direction, after losing 4,000 killed and wounded, and io,ooo prisoners. Battle of Worcester. — While Cromwell was still in Scotland, Prince Charles, with a body of Scotch troojis, marched into England, and was joined by a consider- al)le number of English Roy.alists. Cromwell at length advanced against the prince; and, on the 3d of September, 1651, exactly one year after the battle of Dunbar, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 241 was fought the battle of Worcester, in which Cronnvcll gained another brilliant victory. The Royal army was hopelessly annihilated. Prince Charles fled from the field, and, after a series of narrow escapes, arrived safely in France. Scotland was soon subdued by General Monk, whom Cromwell had left in command in that country. Success of the English in a Naval War with Holland.— In October, 1651, the Knglish J'arliament passed the famous Navigation Act, which prohibited foreigners from bringing into England in their own ships anything but their own productions. This measure operated injuriously against Holland, then the leading commercial natitjn of the world ; and in May, 1652, a furious naval war broke out between England and Holland. The English navy, under the command of the gallant Admiral Blake and (General Monk, the latter of whom proved to be as able a commander on sea as on land, gained splendid victories over the Dutch fleets, commanded by Van Tromp and He Ruyter. Peace wa.s made in K\m\, 1654, on terms humiliating to the Dutch. Cromwrell's Dissolution of the Long Parliament.— In the meantime, while the war with Holland was raging, a quarrel had arisen between Oliver Cromwell and the Long Parliament, as to which should have the su])reme power. Secure in the attachment of his army, Cromwell resolved uix)n a decisive blow. He i)er- suaded the officers of the army to present a petition to the Parliament for the pay- ment of arrears and for a redress of grievances, which he knew would be rejected with scorn. In this petition, the officers, after demanding the payment of arrears, asked the Parliament to consider how long it had sat, and what professions it had once made of establishing liberty on the widest basis. The Parliament was so ex- asperated at this haughty presumi^tion of the army, that it appointed a committee to report an act declaring that all persons presenting such petitions in future should be considered guilty of high treason. This action was followed by a remonstrance of the army officers, to which an angry reply was returned by the Parliament. The quarrel became warmer and waifner; and when Cromwell was informed of the subject upon which the Parliament was deliberating, he left the council of officers, and, appearing very angry, hastened to the Parliament House with 300 soldiers. Leaving the soldiers outside at the door, Cromwell entered the house and sat down. After sitting for some time, he suddenly started up, exclaiming, "This is the time, — I must do it!" and stamping his foot upon the floor as a signal, the house was immediately filled with soldiers. Then addressing the members, he said, "P'or shame, get you gone. Give place to honester men, — to men who will more faith- fully discharge their duties. You are no longer a Parliament: I tell you, you are no longer a Parliament. The Lord has done with you." Sir Henry Vane crying out against this conduct, Cromwell exclaimed, "Sir Henry Vane! O Sir Henry Vane! the Lord deliver me from Sir Henry Vane !" Cromwell then reproached the members for their vices, and said, " It is you who have forced me to do this. I have sought the Lord, night and day, that he would slay me rather than put me upon this work." Colonel Harrison then led the speaker from the chair, and the other memljers rushed out of the door. After the hall had been cleared, Cromwell ordered the doors to be locked, and, putting the keys into his pocket, he returned to Whitehall, Cromwell's dissolution of the Long Parliament occurred on the 20lh of April, 1 653. 16 2 42 MODERN HISTORY. "Praise-God" Barebone's Parliament. — Oliver Cromwell was now virtu- ally sole ruler of England, with more real power than any of the ancient kings. To keep up the appearance of a Commonwealth, he summoned another Parlia- ment, which was composed of the most ignorant religious fanatics. One of the principal orators of this Parliament was the leather-seller, Barebone, and the Par- liament was known as " Barebone's Parliament." The members of this Parlia- ment, to show their religious zeal, adopted new names, consisting of several words, and sometimes of whole sentences. Barebone himself was named " Praise-God." Other ridiculous names adopted were, "Stand-fast-on-high" Stringer, " Fight-the- good-fight-of-faith " White, "More-fruit" Fowler, "Good-reward" Smart. Bare- bone had a brother who was named, " If-Christ-had-not-died-for-you-you-had-becn- damned" Barebone. This being too lengthy to say every time his name was mentioned, he was generally called "Damned" Barebone. The whole conduct of Barebone's Parliament was most absurd; and at length, in December, 1653, the members agreeing that they had sat long enough, went, with Rouse, their speaker, at their head, to Cromwell, and voluntarily resigned their power into his hands. Cromwell, who was ashamed of their ridiculous proceedings, gladly accepted their resignations ; and being told that some of the meml>ers had determined to remain, he sent Colonel White with a body of troops to drive them from the house. The colonel, entering the hall, asked the refractory members what they were doing there. One Moyer, whom they had placed in the chair, replied, " We are seeking the Lord." "Then," said White, "you may go elsewhere; for, to my certain knowledge, the Lord has not been here these many years." The members then withdrew from the hall, and Cromwell's authority was undisputed. Cromwell " Lord-Protector of the Commonwealth of England." — A new constitution, called "The Instrument of Government," projected by General Lambert, was now adopted, by which Oliver Cromwell was entrusted with the supreme power, with the title of " Lord-Protector of the Commonwealth of Eng- land, Scotland, and Ireland." Cromwell shared the government with a Council and a Parliament ; but he was in all but in name a monarch. As Lord- Protector, Cromwell governed vigorously and successfully, and made himself respected at home and abroad; and England was never more prosperous than under his firm rule. Royalist Conspiracy — War with Spain — Conquest of Jamaica. — Several subsequent Parliaments were successively dissolved by Cromwell. The Parlia- ment of 1656 offered Cromwell a crown, but he declined the offer. In 1655, a dangerous conspiracy of the Royalists was discovered, and many of the conspira- tors were punished. During the same year, the shrewd Cardinal Mazarin, who then wielded the destinies of France, by flattering Cromwell, inducad England to take part with France in a war against Spain. Admiral Blake defeated the Span- ish fleets in the Mediterranean sea, and Admirals Penn and Venables conquered the island of Jamaica, in the West Indies, from the Spaniards. Jamaica has ever since remained in the possession of England. An English force of 6,000 men joined the French in the Netherlands ; and the fortress of Dunkirk, which the French took from the Spaniards, was given to England, as a reward for her assist- ance to France in the war. Conspiracies against Cromwell — His Fear of Assassination — His Death. — Cromwell's situation was not an enviable one. He was now equally SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 243 hated by the Royalists and the Republicans; and many plots were formed against his power and his life. His eldest daughter, Mrs. Fleetwood, was so violent a Republican that she dreaded to see her father invested with supreme power. His favorite daughter, Mrs. Claypole, was a staunch Royalist; and on her death-bed, she reproached her father for overturning the monarchy. His other daughters, Lady Franconberg and Lady Rich, were also zealous Royalists. Conspiracy after conspiracy embittered the last days of Cromwell's life. The Lord-Protector wa.s in constant fear of assassination. He wore armor under his clothes, and always carried pistols in his pockets. His countenance was gloomy, and he trusted no one. When he traveled out, he was attended by a numerous guard. He never re- turned by the same road which he went; and he did not sleep more than three nights in the same room. Cromwell was delivered from his miserable existence by a slow fever, of which he died on the 3d of September, 1658, — the anniversary of his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester, and a day which he had always regarded as the most fortunate of his life. Thus died the greatest man that Eng- land ever produced, — a great general, statesman, and ruler. Richard Cromwell Lord-Protector— His Resignation. — Richard Crom- well, Oliver's son, was proclaimed Lord-Protector of the Commonwealth of Eng- land, upon his father's death; but Richard, who had no executive abilities or firm- ness whatever, and who was of a quiet and unambitious nature, quietly resigned the Lord- Protectorship, after holding it a few months, and retired to private life. Restoration of Monarchy. — After the resignation of Richard Cromwell, Eng- land was virtually without any government, and each party endeavored to obtain the supremacy. The Rump Parliament, which Oliver Cromwell had so violently dissolved in April, 1653, reassembled, and assumed the direction of national af- fairs. But this Parliament did not possess the confidence of any party, and it was dissolved by the army commanded by General Laml^ert, who then undertook the control of public affaias. It was now the settled conviction of many that nothing but the restoration of monarchy would free England from a state of anarchy. Gen- eral Monk, who commanded the army in Scotland, and who had long hated Gen- eral Lambert, secretly formed the design of restoring the monarchy, in the person of Prince Charles, the eldest son of the late unfortunate monarch; and at once entered into a correspondence with the prince, who was then living in Holland. So well did General Monk conceal his design, that no one knew with which party he was acting, and he was enabled to march unopposed from Scotland to London. Lambert had in the meantime been imprisoned in the Tower, by his own troope, who now joined Monk. On the ist of May, 1660, Monk threw off the mask, by proposing to a new Parliament, which had just been assembled, the restoration of the monarchy. This proposal was hailed with joy by the English people, who were tired of the condition of anarchy which had prevailed since the death of Oliver Cromwell. The House of Lords hastened to reinstate itself in its former dignity. On the 8th of May (1660), Prince Charles was proclaimed King of Eng- land, Scotland, and Ireland, with the title of Charles II.; and on the 29th of the same month, — which was his birthday, — he made his triumphal entry into London, and everything was restored to its ancient footing. 244 MODERN HISTORY. THE RESTORED HOUSE OF STUART. REIGN OF CHARLES II. (A. D. 1660-168S). Character of Charles II. — Charles II. was thirty years old when he found himself so unexpectedly seated on the throne of England. He had an agreeable person, a polished address, and a cheerful and engaging demeanor. His whole deportment tended to secure favor and popularity. His excessive indolence and love of pleasure made him hate business, and leave the affairs of government to others. All that the new sovereign cared for was to live idly and jovially. First Measures and Actions of Charles II. — The first measures of the new monarch gave general satisfaction to the English nation. The Earl of Clarendon, who was highly esteemed for his virtues, was placed at the head of the Ministry ; and by his uprightness and prudence, the government was conducted for some time with justice and moderation, A general amnesty was granted to all who had taken sides against the king during the civil wars, excepting those who had been chiefly concerned in procuring the death of Charles I. Of the sixty persons who had been concerned in that act, many were dead, and others had left the country. Of those brought to trial, ten were executed as regicides. Among the number was Sir Henry Vane. They all died with firmness. Oliver Cromwell, though dead, was' regarded as a proper object of revenge. His body was torn from the grave and hung on a gibbet. The Protestant Episcopal Church w.as reestablished, and the Presbyterian clergy were again deprived of their offices. Marriage of Charles II. — War with Holland— Peace of Breda. — The English people were dissatisfied with the marriage of Charles II., in 1662, with Catharine of Braganza, a daughter of the King of Portugal, and with the sale of Dunkirk to France; but still a greater degree of discontent was manifested when the king, in 1663, involved England in a naval warwith Holland. The chief naval commanders of the English in this war were Prince Rupert and General Monk, the latter of whom had been created Duke of Albemarle, as a reward for his services in the restoration of the monarchy. The discontent of the English people and Par- liament, who were opposed to the war, obliged the king to conclude with Holland the Peace of Breda, in August, 1667, by which the Dutch colony of New Nether- land, in North America, was ceded to England, under the n.ame of New York. Great Plague and Firo in London. — In the fall of 1665, a violent plague broke out in London, and about 90,000 persons fell victims to its ravages. In Sep- tember, 1666, a great fire, which raged for three days and three nights, reduced two-thirds of the city to ashes. Eighty-nine churches, and over- 13,000 houses were destroyed. These awful calamities had no influence on King Charles II., who had already given himself up to all sorts of luxury, extravagance, and vice. Ilis favor- ites and courtiers were the most profligate and unworthy characters. Disgrace and Banishment of Clarendon — "The Cabal" Ministry, — In 1667, the Earl of Clarendon, whose virtues and integrity had made him hated by the king's licentious favorites, fell into disgrace ; and, after a trial on various frivo- lous pretenses, he was declared guilty of neglect of duty, and sentenced to banish- ment. He retired to France, where he spent the remainder of his life in writing his " History of the Rebellion." After the disgrace of Clarendon, Charles II., SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 24^ whose profligacy and debauchery increased daily, committed a series of tyrannical and violent acts. In 1667, the king entrusted the government to five of the most unprincipled men in the kingdom. These were Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale, who were together Called "The Cabal," from the initial letters of their names. "The Cabal" Ministry carried on the government entirely in accordance with the wishes of the king, regardless of the rights and hberties of the people of England. Another War with Holland — Charles II- a Pensioner of Louis XIV. — In 1672, Charles II., in utter disregard of the wishes of his subjects, began a fresh war against Holland, as an ally of Louis XIV. of France. The English king, whose pleasures were very expensive, was bribed by the French monarch to take part in the war. A secret treaty was concluded between the two sovereigns, by which Charles was to receive a secret pension from Louis. The war was carried on on the sea. The English naval commanders were Prince Rupert, Lord Sandwich, and the Duke of York, the brother of King Charles II. After the Cabal Ministry had been broken up, in 1674, by the death af Clifford and the disgrace of Ashley, men more worthy were placed at the head of affairs in England; and the great opposi- tion of the English people and Parliament forced Charles II. to renounce his alliance with the King of France and to make peace with Holland. Character of the English People During the Reign of Charles II. — Venality and corruption were now honorable among the higher classes in England. The example of the king had a most pernicious influence upon the nation. The people emulated the vices of their sovereign ; and the literature of that period which obtained any popularity was contaminated with the same vicious spirit by which English society was corrupted. Under the rigid rule of the Puritans and Cromwell, during the period of the Commonwealth, vice and immorality were checked ; but during the reign of Charles II., England was sunk in the lowest depths of dissipation and licentiousness. Contests Between King Charles II. and the Parliament. — King Charles II., unwarned by the fate of his father, strove for absolute power; and from the beginning to the end of his reign, there was a continual contest between the king and the Parliament. The efforts of Charles II. for the establishment of absolute royal power were firmly resisted by the Parliament, which was resolved upon up- holding its own privileges, and the rights and liberties of the people of England. Although Charles II. outwardly conformed to the Episcopal Church, he was believed to be a Roman Catholic at heart; and his brother, James, Duke of York, was an avowed Catholic. The more the Stuarts favored Roman Catholicism, the more firmly did the English people and Parliament adhere to Protestantism. The Test Act. — After a long struggle, the Parliament finally passed "the Test Act," which required that none but members of the Church of England and con- fessors of the Protestant faith should be admitted to seats in Parliament, or to hold military or civil offices. The Parliament, which had assembled in 1660, was dis- solved by the king in 1 668, and a new one summoned ; but the new Parliament was no more subservient to the wishes of the king than its predecessor. A new Ministry, headed by'the Earl of Shaftesbury, who had joined the popular party, now came into power. 246 MODERN HISTORY. Habeas Corpus Act. — In 1769, the Parliament passed the celebrated Habeas Corpus Act, which protected freedom of person against arbitrary arrests. According to tlie provisions of this act, no person could be lawfully detained in prison, unless he were accused of some specified offense for which he was legally subject to pun- ishment; and within three days the prisoner was to be brought before the judge, and reasons were to be shown why he was not set at liberty. The Whigs and the Tories. — During the contests between Charles II. and the Parliament originated two parties, which, with some change of principles, have continued to exist to the present day. These parties were called respectively "Whig" and " Tory," names which have ever since been borne by the two great political parties in England. The Tories denied the right of resistance to royal authority, under any circumstances whatever ; while the Whigs recognized the right to resist any infringement of the liberties of the people on the part of the king. Titus Oates. — Titus Oates, an infamous impostor, pretended to have discovered a plot, formed by the Catholics, to assassinate Charles II., bum London, massacre the Protestants, and place the Duke of York on the throne. Upon the testimony of Oates, and another miscreant named Bedloe, many innocent Catholics were punished with death (1678). "The Rye-House Plot." — In 1683, a conspiracy called "The Rye- House Plot," because the conspirators planned their schemes in a rj'e-house, contrived by some worthless characters, for the assassination of the king and the Duke of York, was taken advantage of by the court for the destruction of the leaders of the W^hig party. Lord William Russell and Algernon Sydney, two of the most worthy and respecta- ble men of the age, were falsely charged with being concerned in the plot, and were arrested, tried, and executed. The Earl of Shaftesbury fled to Holland, the P.irliament was dissolved, and from that time until his death, two years later (1685), Charles II. was as absolute a monarch as any in Europe. REIGN OF JAMES II. (A. D. 168S-1688). Accession of James II. — Monmouth's Rebellion. — On the death of King Charles II., in 1685, his brother, the Duke of York, ascended the throne of Eng- land, with the title of James II. The new sovereign was a bigoted Roman Catho- lic ; and, from the moment of his coronation, he thought of little but the restoration of popery and the establishment of absolute royal power in England. Soon after the accession of James II., the Duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II., headed a rebellion against his uncle, with the view of obtaining the crown of Eng- land for himself. The rebellion was speedily quelled, and the unfortunate Mon- mouth was beheaded. The Duke of Argyle, who had attempted an insurrection in Scotland in favor of Monmouth, was executed in Edinburgh. The adherents of Monmouth were also punished with death. The chief judge, Jeffries, passed through the country with a band of executionei-s, practicing the greatest cruelties. Attempts of James II. for the Restoration of Popery in England. — Having struck terror into the hearts of the English people by the prompt and bloody suppression of Monmouth's rebellion, King James II. fancied the way open for the rcestablishment of popery in England. The cruel Judge Jeffries was made Chan- cellor, and many of the offices were filled with Roman Catholics, in defiance of the Test Act. On one occasion, the tyrannical monarch sent six bishops to the Tower, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 247 for mildly protesting against his measures. Taxes were levied without the consent of Parliament ; and the king, having failed by corrupt means to induce the Parlia- ment to give its approval to an edict of toleration, declared that the crown possessed the right of granting a suspension of the Test Act. By so arbitrary an exercise of power, the king could have set all laws at naught. So blindly and recklessly did James II. pursue his foolish attempts to bring England under the Pope, that his Catholic friends became alarmed. Even the Pope warned the bigoted monarch not to do anything rashly. THE REVOLUTION OF 1688. Prince William of Orange— Flight of James II. to France. — The Eng- lish people for some time bore the conduct of James II. patiently, as he was old, and his two daughters, Anne and Mary, had been educated in the Church of Eng- land and were married to Protestant princes, the former to a Danish prince, and the latter to Prince William of Orange, the Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic; but when the hopes of the people for a release from the yoke of popery were dis- pelled by the birth of a Prince of Wales, in June, 1688, the people resolved upon the dethronement of James II., and many of the most prominent men in England entered into a negotiation with his son-in-law, the Prince of Orange. James, re- ceiving intimation of an intended invasion from Holland, became alarmed for the safety of his throne, when too late ; and granted many concessions. The people of England had already resolved that James II. should no longer reign ; and a declaration from the Prince of Orange, that he was coming to England, to defend liberty and Protestantism, was received with joy throughout the kingdom. On the 5th of November, 1688, William of Orange landed in England, at the head of 14,000 Dutch troops, and was everywhere welcomed by the people. The English army soon joined the invaders ; the English nobility and the whole nation abandoned James II. and turned their eyes toward the Prince of Orange ; and even the courtiers abandoned the king in his distress. When James was informed that the Princess Anne, his own daughter, had declared against him, he burst into tears and exclaimed, "God help me, my own children have forsaken me!" The unhappy monarch now hearkened to the advice of the queen and the priests, and resolved upon leaving the kingdom. After sending his wife and infant son to France, James left London, on the 1 2th of December, 1688; but he was stopped at Feversham and brought back by the people, much to the dissatisfaction of the Prince of Orange, who had prom- ised his wife that her father should receive no personal injury; and James, by the assistance of William of Orange, was enabled to escape to France. The fugitive king landed in France on the 25th of December, 1688, and proceeded to St. Ger- main, near Paris, where he was honorably received by Louis XIV., King of France, from whom, thenceforth until his death, the exiled monarch received a pension. Enthronement of William and Mary—" The Bill of Rights."— The Par- liament which now assembled declared''" that the king's flight was abdication, and decreed that the Catholic line of the House of Stuart should be forever excluded from the throne of England. The Prince of Orange and his wife were then pro- claimed joint-sovereigns, with the title of William and Mary. The new sovereigns received the English crown upon certain conditions, which were set forth in a " Bill of Rights," in which the rights and liberties of the English people and the powers 248 MODERN HISTORY. of tlic monarch were defined. The following were the most important provisions of the Bill of Rights: the king can not suspend a law or withhold its execution; he can not levy money without the consent of Parliament; the subjects have a right to petition the king; no standing army can be kept in time of peace without the consent of Parliament; elections and Parliamentary debates must be free; and Parliament must be frequently assembled. The flight and deposition of James II,, and the election of William and Mary to the throne of England, is designated "ihe Glorious Revolution of 1688." The long struggle for freedom against the en- croachments of the king, was now terminated in the triumph of the cause of the people, and ever since that time England has been essentially a free government. REIGN OF WILLIAM AND MARY (A. D. 1689-1702)- Rise of the Scotch Highlanders in favor of James II. — Massacre of Glencoe. — The English people were almost unanimous in support of William and Mary; but some of the Highland clans of Scotland refused to acknowledge the new sovereigns, and took up arms for the dethroned James II. The Viscount Dundee (Graham of Claverhouse), the leader of the rebellious Highlanders, de- feated the forces of William and Mary in the battle of Killicrankie, in 1689, but he was killed in the moment of victory. The Highlanders, on account of the loss of their chieftain, were soon reduced to submission, and were required to take an oath of allegiance to the new sovereigns. The clan of Macdonald, having failed to take the oath within the specified time, were cruelly massacred at Glencoe, by the clan of the Campbells, headed by the Earl of Breadalbane. Rise of the Irish in favor of James II. — Battle of the Boyne. — The Catholic Irish also arose against the new King and Queen of England, and drew their swords for the fallen James II. The French monarch, Louis XIV., who had espoused the cause of the deposed James II., sent troops to Ireland to as- sist the Irish insurgents. James was conveyed to the Irish coast by a French fleet. James unsuccessfully besieged the Protestant town of Londonderry, in the north of Ireland, and was opposed by King William, who came over into Ireland at the head of a large English army. On the nth of July, 1690, James was completely defeated by William in the decisive battle of the Boyne. After this misfortune, James fled to France, without making another eifort to recover his lost crown. The war in Ireland was terminated in 1691, by the defeat and death of the Irish general St. Ruth, in the battle of Aughrim, and the submission of the Irish to the government of William and Maiy. War with France — Peace of Ryswick. — The conduct of Louis XIV., in affording assistance to the dethroned James II., led to a war between England and France in 1689. The Peace of Ryswick ended this war in 1697; and since that time England has been the leading commercial and maritime power of the world. Death of Mary and William — Queen Anne — Attempts of the Stuarts. Queen Mary died in 1693; and King William III., in 1702, from the effects of a fall from his horse, and was succeeded on the throne of England by Anne, the younger daughter of James II. In 1707, a legislative union took place between Englartd and Scotland, since which time the Parliaments of the two nations have been united. When Queen Anne died, in 17 14, the Elector of Hanover ascended SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 249 the throne of England, with the title of George I. During the reigns of George I. (1714-1727) and George II. (1727-1760J, two futile attempts were made to re- store the Stuarts to the throne. WARS OF LOUIS XIV. FRANCE UNDER RICHELIEU AND MAZARIN. RICHELIEU'S ADMINISTRATION (1624-1642). Louis XIII. — Mary de Medicis. — The murdered Henry IV. was succeeded on the throne of France by his son, Louis XIII., during whose minority the queen- mother, Mary de Medicis, conducted the government as regent. As Mary reposed her confidence in her Italian favorites, who enriched themselves at the expense of the French nation, the French nobility rose in rebellion, and filled the kingdom with confusion and .anarchy. Cardinal Richelieu — Civil and Religious Wars — Capture of Rochelle. — When Louis XIII. arrived at majority, he indeed agreed to have the favorites of his mother put to death, and to have his mother removed from court ; but he bestowed his favor upon others, who were as unpopular as their predecessors had been, and the French nobles again took up arms. These disturbances were only quelled when the talented, energetic, and amljitious Cardinal Richelieu was placed at the head of the state as Prime-Minister. This great statesman governed France for eighteen years with the most absolute power. (1624-1642.) For the purpose of extending the French territory to the Rhine, and humbling the proud House of Austria, Richelieu leagued with the German Protestants in the Thirty Years' War. He defeated the Huguenots in three wars, and destroyed their fortresses. The most celebrated event of these wars was the siege and capture of Rochelle, the principal stronghold of the Huguenots. The place was obstinately defended until compelled by famine to surrender, when the Huguenots received toleration for their worship, by the Edict of Nisnies. Humbling of the French Nobles— Death of Richelieu and Louis XIII. — After the defeat of the Huguenots, the rebellious French nobles were subdued, and forced to lay down their arms. The boldest of them were banished or exe- cuted; and the queen-mother, and her son, the Duke of Orleans, who had attempted to overthrow Richelieu, were obliged to leave the kingdom, and Duke Henry of Montmorenci was executed at Toulouse. The Cinq Mars and De Thou were also put to death for conspiring against Richelieu's power. The mighty cardinal died in December, 1642; and King Louis XIII., who was not possessed of any great abilities, survived only a few months longer. MAZARIN'S ADMINISTRATION (1643-1661). Accession of Louis XIV. — Anne of Austria — Cardinal Mazarin. — Louis XIII. was succeeded on the French throne by his son, Louis XIV., under whom France become the most powerful nation in the world. During the minority of Louis XIV., who reigned seventy-two years, the government was conducted by the queen-mother, Anne of Austria, as regent. As Anne reposed her favor on the 25° MODERN HISTORY. Italian Cardinal Mazarin, whose principles and aims were the same as those of Richelieu, and appointed him Prime-Minister, the French nobility violently opposed her, and endeavored to regain their lost power and influence. •' The Wars of the Fronde." — At the head of the discontented party was Cardinal de Retz, who gained the P'rench people to the side of the nobility, and gave occasion to a four-years' civil war, known as "The Wars of the Fronde." In 1648, the citizens of Paris resisted the execution of the oppressive measures of Mazarin, which was the commencement of this civil strife. Mazarin was obliged to leave the country for awhile ; but he governed the French kingdom almost as absolutely from Cologne as he had before done from Paris. After the insurgents, under the great Cond6, had been overthrown by the royal army under Marshal Turenne, in the suburb of ijt. Antoine, in Paris, Mazarin was enabled to return to Paris and to govern with as despotic power as before. Cardinal de Retz, after being liberated from prison, was compelled to leave the country ; and Cond6 lived among the Spaniards for six years, after which he was pardoned by the king, and again received into the royal favor. War with Spain — Treaty of the Pyrenees — Death of Mazarin. — During the period of Mazarin's administration, France was engaged in a war with Spain. The seat of this war was the Spanish Netherlands. The banished Cond6, who led the Spanish armies, gained brilliant victories ; but he found an able rival in Marshal Turenne, who commanded the French forces. Mazarin induced England, then under the iron rule of Oliver Cromwell, to take part in the war as an ally of PVance; and Dunkirk, which the French had taken from the Spaniards, was given to Eng- land, as a reward for an English army of 6,000 men which had reinforced the French in the Spanish Netherlands. At length both Spain and France grew tired of the war; and in November, 1659, was concluded the Treaty of the Pyrenees, by which the infanta, Maria Theresa, daughter of King Philip IV. of Spain, was given in marriage to Louis XIV., who on his part renounced all claims to the Spanish throne for himself and his children, and pardoned Cond6 and again received hira into favor. The despotic rule of Mazarin ended with the death of that great states- man, on the 9th of March, 166 1. GOVERNMENT AND WARS OF LOUIS XIV. LOUIS XIV. AND HIS WAR AA/ITH SPAIN. Louis XIV. and His Generals and Ministers. — Upon Mazarin's death, Louis XIV. ajipointod no prime-minister, but took the government into his own hands. For fifty-four years this celebrated mou.arch reigned with the most absolute power, which he wielded in a very despotic manner. His Ministers were but passive instruments for the execution of his will. Louis XIV. was the greatest monarch of his age. His great generals, Cond6, Turenne, and Luxembourg, and the engineer Vauban, surpassed in skill the generals of all other countries. His Minister of Finance, Colbert, managed the finances of the kingdom with the greatest skill, and encour.iged all kinds of manufactures. It was owing to the economy of Colbert that the Iniilding of the Louvre, the Palace of Versailles, the Hotel des Invalides, and the construction of the Canal of Languedoc, were commenced. Louvois, Mini- ster of War, also possessed abilities necessary for the direction of great exploits. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 251 War with Spain — Triple Alliance — Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. — Louis XIV. was ambitious of military glory, and desirous for the extension of his kingdom. We have seen that, by the Treaty of the Pyrenees, in 1659, Louis renounced all claims to any portion of the Spanish dominions. This solemn renunciation he set aside; and on the death of Philp IV. of Spain, he laid claim to the whole of the Spanish Netherlands, as the husband of Philip's daughter. In 1667, a P'rench army was sent into the Spanish Netherlands, which were sulxlued in two campaigns. The other powers of Europe became alarmed; and England, Holland, and Sweden, entered into a "Triple Alliance," for the purpose of defending the Spanish mon- archy. Threatened by this formidable coalition, the French monarch found himself obliged to conclude the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which he was required to restore much of the territory which he had conquered. WAR WITH HOLLAND (1672-1679). French Invasion of Holland. — Burning with revenge toward Holland, the originator of the Triple Alliance, Louis resolved upon the subjugation of that coun- try. After purchasing the alliance of Charles II. of England and the neutrality of Sweden, Louis XIV. took the field against Holland, at the head of an army of 100,000 men, and advanced triumphantly almost to the gates of Amsterdam. Desperate Situation of Holland. — The situation of Holland was now most desperate, and it appeared llial the unfortunate republic must lose her independence. Many of the inhabitants prepared to embark on their fleet, and sail to their East India possessions. The republic implored peace, but the haughty French monarch absolutely refused. When the Grand-Pensionary of Holland, Cornelius DeWitt, proposed to surrender his country to the conquering French, he was assassinated in the streets of Amsterdam, by his enraged countrymen, and Prince William of Orange (afterwards King William III. of England) was placed at the head of the Dutch Republic, with the title of Stadlholder. Amsterdam had been secured against the French by opening the dykes, thus laying the surrounding country under water. Alliance of Spain and Germany with Holland. — Frederic William, the Great Elector of Brandenburg, came to the rescue of Holland in her critical situa- tion; and the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany and King Charles H. of Spain joined in the war against France, and sent troops to the aid of the imperiled repub- lic; while Charles II. of England was forced by the clamors of his subjects and his Parliament to make peace with the Dutch. (1674.) The War in the Spanish Netherlands and on the Rhine. — Louis XIV. was now obliged to abandon Holland; but in the Spanish Netherlands, his great generals, Conde and Turenne, fought successively against the allied Dutch, Span- ish, and German armies, under Prince William of Orange and the imperial general Montecuculi, For the purprjse of j^unishing the Elector Palatine, who had joined the enemies of France, the French ravaged the beautiful country of the Palatinate of the Rhine with fire and sword. The Elector Palatine beheld, at one time, from his castle windows at Manheim, two cities and twenty-five villages on fire. Swedish Invasion of Brandenburg — Battle of Fehrbellin. — For the pur- pose of separating the Great Elector, Frederic William, from the German imperial 252 MODERN HISTOR Y. army on the Rhine, the French monarch induced the Swedes, his allies, to invade the March of Brandenburg. Frederic William marched against the Swedish inva- ders of his dominions; and on the 28th of June, 1675, he severely defeated them in the battle of Fehrbellin, which laid the foundation of the future kingdom of Prussia. Soon afterward, Marshal Turenne was killed by a cannon ball in the battle of Salzbach. Peace of Nimeguen. — At length all the belligerents, mutually exhausted, became anxious for peace; and in 1678, a treaty of peace was concluded at Nime- guen, in Holland, by which Holland remained in possession of everything she had before the war, but Spain surrendered Franche-Comte and French Flanders to the King of France. Encroachments of Louis XIV. — Bombardment of Algiers and Genoa. ■ — Having dictated the I'eace of Nimeguen, and encouraged by his triumph, Louis XIV. committed many acts of violence and aggression, and so aroused the hostility of the greater part of Europe. • He seized on many of the neighboring dependen- cies of the Gennan Empire, and even took possession of the free city of Strasburg, in September, 168 1. Spain, Austria, and the German Empire, instead of attempt- ing to defend their possessions, concluded the treaty of Regensburg with the inso- lent Louis, by which he was allowed to retain what he had already taken. In 1683, a French fleet bombarded Algiers and compelled the pirates to beg for mercy; and in 1684, Genoa suffered a similar punishment, for refusing to permit the French monarch to establish a depot within its territory. TURKISH INVASION OF AUSTRIA. Efforts of Louis XIV. to weaken the House of Austria — Hungarian Rebellion. — Louis XIV. tried in every possible manner to weaken the power of the House of Austria. He induced the Turks to renew their invasions of the Austrian territories, and encouraged and aided the Hungarians in their insurrections against the Austrian power. The tyranny of the Emperor Leopold I. over the Protestants of Hungary produced a formidable rebellion against his authority on the part of the Hungarian people, who were led by Emmerik Tokeli, a patriotic magnate. The Austrian armies were soon driven out of Hungary by the insurgents, who re- ceived effective assistance from the French and the Turks. Turkish Invasion of Austria — Siege of Vienna — ^John Sobieski. — En- couraged by the Hungarian rebellion, a Turkish army of 300,000 men under Kara Mustapha invaded the Austrian territories, and devastated the country to the w,alls of Vienna, in 1683. The Emperor Leopold I. fled in consternation to Lintz, and the Ottoman forces laid siege to the Austrian capital. It appeared that Vienna must soon fall, but the inhabitants of the city, assisted by a small force under Rudi- ger von Stahremberg, defended the city for two months, when the heroic John Sobieski, King of Poland, who had become famous for his victories over the Turks, hastened with his araiy, at the earnest solicitations of the Emperor of Germany, to expel the besieging infidels. The German imperial army, under Prince Charles of Lorraine, joined the forces of John Sobieski. The united Polish and German troops numbered only 70,000, while the Turks numbered almost 300,000. Terrible Defeat and Rout of the Turks at Vienna by John Sobieski. — SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 253 At five o'clock in the evening of Sunday, the 12th of September, 1683, under the direction of the Polish king, a furious attack was made on the Ottoman lines be- fore Vienna; and in the space of an hour, the whole Turkish host was compelled to flee in the wildest dismay. An eclipse of the moon added to the consternation of the superstitious Turks. The Grand Vizier, observing the eclipse, exclaimed, "Look at the sky! See if God is not against us!" The Moslems in their flight abandoned all their camels, artillery, baggage, and camp equipage to the victorious Poles and Germans. This memorable and decisive victory of civilization and Christianity over barbarism and Mohammedanism marks the era of the decline of the Ottoman Empire. The intelligence of this great victory produced unbounded joy throughout Christendom, but to Louis XIV., who had been the cause of this Turkish invasion, it was unwelcome news. The Emperor of Germany, who was envious of the favor and applause with which his subjects everywhere greeted the King of Poland, treated him with the meanest ingratitude. The valiant John Sobieski died in 1696, and with his death ended the glory of Poland. Hungary Made an Hereditary Kingdom. — After the defeat of the Turks at Vienna, the Austrians reconquered Hungary, and compelled Emmerik Tokeli, the insurgent Hungarian chieftain, to flee from the country. The Emperor Leopold I. then caused the Hungarian elective constitution to be abolished, and made Hun- gary one of the hereditary possessions of the House of Hajxsburg. Coalition Against the Ottoman Porte— German Victories. — After the siege of Vienna had been raised, Germany, Poland, Russia, and Venice formed an alliance against the Ottoman Porte. Bloody battles were fought between the Ger- man and Ottoman forces, on the Danube, in the vicinity of Belgrade; and the German imperial forces, under those famous generals, Prince Charles of Lorraine, Prince Louis of Baden, and Prince Eugene of Savoy, gained brilliant victories over the Turks. The Austrians gained a great victory at Mohacz, on the 1 2th of August, 1687; Louis of Baden defeated the Turks at Salankemen, on the 19th of August, 1691; and Prince Eugene, on the llth of September, 1697, gained the battle of Zenta, in which the Turks lost 30,000 men. Peace of Karlowitz. — Finally, in 1699, the Peace of Karlowitz terminated this war gloriously for Germany and her allies. Hungary and Transylvania were left to Austria; Podolia and the Ukraine were ceded to Poland; Azov was surrendered to Russia ; and the Morea, or Southern Greece, was given up to Venice. PERSECUTION OF THE HUGUENOTS. Marriage of Louis XIV. with Madame de Maintenon — " The Dragon- nade." — The first wife of Louis XIV. having died in 1683, that monarch privately married the widow of the poet Scarron, in 1685, and conferred upon her the title of Madame de Maintenon. Colbert, who had protected the Huguenots from persecu- tion, was now dead; and Louis XIV., who was a bigoted Roman Catholic, listened to the counsels of such men as Louvois, and his father, Le Tellier, and commenced a rigorous persecution of the Huguenots. Troops were sent into the districts in- habited by Protestants; and Louvois declared that " it was the desire of the king that all who did not conform to the religion of his majesty should be treated with the greatest severity." The troops who were sent to enforce this decree being princi- 254 MODERN HISTORY. pally cavalry, the persecution was called a " Dragonnade." The unfortunate Pro- testants were treated in the most cruel manner by the troops quartered amongst them. Many were atrociously massacred; and at length the ports and frontiers of France were closed against the Huguenots, and such as attempted to escape were sent to the galleys. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes — Migration of the Huguenots. — Finally, in 1685, Louis XIV. revoked the Edict of Nantes, by which the good Henry IV. had secured toleration to the Calvinists. The Huguenot churches were destroyed ; and orders were given to take Protestant children from their parents, that they might be instructed in the Catholic faith. There was now no safety for the unfortunate victims of persecution, but in flight from their native laud. Not- withstanding all the precautions taken to prevent their escape, about half a million Huguenots succeeded in reaching Protestant countries, carrying with them, not only their wealth, but also their skill in manufactures and their habits of industry. The fugitives were welcomed in England, Holland, and Germany, which countries were benefitted by their knowledge of the manufactures which had hitherto been con- fined to France. This cruel measure of Louis XIV. gave a severer blow to the prosperity of France than all his long and expensive wars against the combined powers of Europe. 'WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF AUGSBURG (1689-1697). The League of Augsburg. — Through the efforts of Prince William of Orange, the deadly enemy of Ivous XIV., an alliance, known as " The League of Augsburg," was formed by the German Empire, Spain, and Holland, in 1686, to check the ag- gressions of the King of France. Savoy, Denmark, and Sweden, joined the league ; and the Revolution in England, in 1688, by which William of Orange ascended the English throne, placed England at the head of the coalition against France. Desolation of the Palatinate. — The French king did not wait to be attacked; but resolving to anticipate the purposes of his enemies, he sent an army of 100,000 men, under his son, the Dauphin, to invade Germany, in 1688. The beautiful dis- trict of the Palatinate of the Rhine suffered a desolation far more terrible than in the Dutch war. More than forty cities, and hundreds of flourishing villages were reduced to ashes; and the unfortunate inhabitants were driven out into the fields in the middle of winter. The important cities of Manheim, Heidelberg, Spire, Worms, and Mayence were partly burned. French Invasions — Battle of the Boyne.— French armies were sent into Spain, Italy, and the Spanish Netherlands. A French force of 6,000 men was also sent into Ireland, to assist the deposed James II. in his attempts to recover the throne of England; but this force was utterly defeated by King William III., in the decisive battle of the Boyne, on the nth of July, 1690. Success of the French Arms — Battle of LaHogue. — The French arms triumphed everywhere on the continent of Europe. In 1692, King William III., at the head of the English and Dutch forces, was defeated in the Spanish Nether- lands, by the French army under Marshal Luxembourg. In consequence of this event, the strongly fortified town of Namnr fell into the hands of the French; and in 1693, King William was defeated in the battle of Neerwinden, with the loss of SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 255 30,000 men. In Italy, the French army under Marshal Catinat defeated the Ger- man imperial forces under Prince Eugene of Savoy. In Spain and Germany also, the French had the advantage; but the French fleet under Admiral Tourville was annihilated by the English navy, off Cape LaHogue, on the 9th of May, 1692. This battle blasted the hopes of James II. being restored to the English throne, and gave to England the future supremacy of the seas. Peace of Ryswick. — At length all parties grew tired of the war; and in 1697, a treaty of Peace was signed at Ryswick, in Holland. Notwithstanding all the victories of the French amis, the terms of this peace were humiliating to Louis XIV., who was required to restore all his conquests from Spain and Germany except Strasburg, and to acknowledge the title of William III. to the throne of England. The possession of Strasburg extended the French dominions to the Rhine. The reason why Louis consented to so unfavorable a peace, was because he saw the necessity of peace to carry out his designs at the approaching vacancy of the Spanish throne. ANGLO-AMERICAN COLONIES. VIRGINIA (A. D. 1607-1776). VIRGINIA UNDER THE LONDON COMPANY (I607-1624). Sir Walter Raleigh's Unsuccessful Colonization Efforts — Virginia Named. — In 1584, the distinguished Sir Walter Raleigh, one of Queen Eliza- beth's favorites, sent two vessels under Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow to make discoveries in America. They landed on the coast of the present State of North Carolina, but soon returned to England, where they gave a very glowing descrip- tion of the country which they had discovered; and Queen Elizabeth, in considera- tion of her unmarried state, named the territory " Virginia." In 15S5 and 1586, Raleigh made unsuccessful efforts to plant colonies in Virginia. The London and Plymouth Companies — South and North Virginia. — In 1606, King James I. of England granted the territoiy between the Potomac and Cape Fear rivers, under the name of South Virginia, to an association in London, known as the London Company. At the same time, the king granted the territory now known as New England, under the name of North Virginia, to a company in the West of England, called the Plymouth Company. Settlement of Jamestown. — In 1607, one-hundred and five English emigrants, under Captain Christopher Newport, sailed up the beautiful river which they named "James," in honor of their king; and on the bank of that stream they began a settle- ment which they named " Jamestown." This was the first permanent English settlement in America. The settlers suffered greatly from cold, hunger, and the hostilities of the natives, until the famous Captain John Smith assumed the direc- tion of affairs, and, by his skillful management, restored confidence. The Legend of Smith and Pocahontas. — Captain Smith explored the country northward to the interior of the present Pennsylvania. According to a well-known story now generally discredited, Smith was taken prisoner by the Indians, whose emperor, Powhatan, determined to put him to death.; but Poca- 256 MODERN HISTORY. hontas, the daughter of Powhatan, inteiceded for the prisoner, and saved his life, whereupon Smith was released, and permitted to return to Jamestown. The " Starving Time " — Lord Delaware's Arrival — Marriage of Poca- hontas. — When Captain Smith returned to England, in 1609, the colony at Jamestown ceased to prosper, and was soon reduced by famine from five-hundred persons to sixty. The winter and spring of 1610 was long known as "The Starving Time." The remaining settlers were about to leave Virginia, when, in l6n, Ixird Delaware, who had been appointed governor of the colony, arrived from England, with emigrants and provisions, and the colonists resolved to remain. In 1613, the Indian maiden, Pocahontas, was married to a young Englishman named John Rolfe, She was then taken to England and presented at Court. First Legislative Assembly in America — Introduction of Negro-Sla- very.- — -In 1619, representative government was established in Virginia; and, on the 2Slh of June of that year, the first legislative assembly in America convened at Jamestown. In 1620, one-hundred and fifty white women were brought to Jamestown, and sold to the planters for wives, at the cost of their pass.age. During the same year (1620), a Dutch vessel loaded with negroes, ascended the James river, and sold twenty of them for slaves to the planters at Jamestown. This was the beginning of negro-slavery within the domain of the present United States. Virginia Constitution — House of Burgesses — Indian War of 1622. — Sir Francis Wyatt, who became governor of the colony in 1621, gave the Virgin- ians a written constitution which allowed them a popular legislative assembly. This was the beginning of the celebrated Virginia "House of Burgesses." The constitution vested the appointment of governor and council in the London Com- pany. In 1622, the Indians, under the leadership of Opechnncanough, Powhatan's brother and successor, massacred 350 of the Virginia colonists, and reduced eighty plantations to eight. The whites began a terrible war of revenge against the sav- ages, slaughtered many of them most unmercifully, and drove the remainder into the wilderness. VIRGINIA A ROYAL PROVINCE (1624-1776). Dissolution of the London Company — Sir \A^iIliam Berkeley — Indian War of 1644. — In 1624, King James' I., by an act of high-handed usurpation, dis- solved the London Company, and^ taking away its charter, made Virginia a royal province, but he wisely abstained from interference with the House of Burgesses. In 1641, the staunch royalist, Sir Williain Berkeley, was appointed governor of Virginia, by King Charles I., and during his administration of nearly forty yeare, the colony rapidly advanced in prosperity. In 1644, another war broke out with the Indians, still governed by Opechancanough ; and, after a struggle of two years, the power of the savages was broken, and they ceded large tracts of land to the Virginians. Governor Berkeley's Tyranny — Bacon's Rebellion — Destruction of Jamestown. — The Virginians, although democratic, sympathized with the king during the civil war in England. Wlien monarchy was restored in England, in 1660, full power was given to Governor Berkeley to restrict the liberties of the Virginians. Berkeley's tyranny produced a popular rebellion, in 1676, headed by CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. POCAHONTAS RESCUING CAPTAIN SMITH. SE VENTER NTH CENTUR V. 257 the staunch republican, Nathaniel Bacon, who assumed command of 500 mtii without the permission of Berkeley, who proclaimed the popular leader a traitor. Bacon drove Berkeley from Jamestown, and set the place on fire, and the first town founded by the English in America was reduced to ashes. Soon afterward Bacon died, and with his death ended the rebellion. The rebels were severely punished; and fines, imprisonments, and confiscations of property disgraced the remainder of Berkeley's administration. From the time of the English Revolution of 16S8, Vir- ginia was a prosperous and flourishing colony. MASSACHUSETTS (A. D. 1620-1776.) PLYMOUTH COLONY (1607-1692). Bartholomew Gosnold's Discoveries — Captain John Smith in New England. — In 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold, Raleigh's friend, explored the coast of Massachusetts bay, and discovered and named Cape Cod. He also discovered the islands of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, and a group which he named the Elizabeth Islands, in honor of his queen. In 1603 and 1606, Martin Pring visit(;d the coast of North Virginia. In 1614, the intrepid Captain John Smith explored the country between Cape Cod and the Penobscot, and named the region " N';W England." The Council of Plymouth — Emigration of English Puritans to Hol- land. — In 1616, the Plymouth Company was dissolved, and a new company was formed, which was called "The Council of Plymouth," and to which was granted the territory called New England. A few years previous to this, a company of English Puritans, who had suffered persecution in their native land, because they did not conform to the established Anglican Church, settled in Holland. They were led by the Reverend John Robinson. Failing to become reconciled to the customs and habits of the Dutch, these humble Puritans, who felt that they were only pilgrims in this world, resolved to emigrate to the wilds of America, where they might worship God in their own way. The Puritan Settlement of Plymouth in New England. — These Puritans in Holland formed a partnership with some London merchants, who furnished them with capital for their enterprise. They returned to England ; and in September, 1620, one-hundred and one of these pious men and women sailed for New England in a vessel called "the Mayflower." These "Pilgrim Fathers," as they are called, landed on a rock on the coast of Massachusetts bay, on the 21st of December, 1620. They named the place of landing "Plymouth;" and the town which they founded is the oldest in New England. In the cabin of the Mayflower, just l^efore landing, they had adopted a written constitution of government, and chosen John Carver for their governor. Several months after their landing (March 21, 1621), Governor Carver made a treaty of friendship with Massasoit, the sachem of the Wampanoag Indians. A few days after this treaty. Governor Carver died, and William Brad- ford became governor of the colony. Many of the settlers had died during the winter. Other emigrants came. In 1627, the Plymouth colonists purchased the interests of the London merchants, and became the sole proprietors of the country in which they had established themselves; and in 1634, they abolished their pure democracy, and adopted the mnr^ convenient form of representative government. 17 258 MODERN HISTORY. MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY (1C28-1776). Founding of the Puritan Colony of Massachusetts Bay — John Endi- cott. — In 162S, John Endicott and one hundred Puritan emigrants founded Salem. They had been sent from England by a company which the following year (1629) was incorporated " The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New Eng- land." In the same year the Company assigned the charter and government to the colonists. During 1629, other immigrants arrived, and settled Charlcstown. Arrival of John Winthrop — Founding of Boston and other Towns. — In 1630, a large number of Puritans from England arrived at Salem, with John "Winthrop as governor. Some of them made settlements at Dorchester, Roxbury, Watertown, Cambridge, and Lynn; while Winthrop and others settled Boston, which became the capital of the Massachusetts Bay colony and the future metrop- olis of New England. In 1634, representative government was established in the colony of Massachusetts Bay. Puritan Intolerance — Banishment of Roger Williams and Ann Hutch- inson — The Puritans, who had just suffered so much persecution in England for their religious opinions, were no sooner settled in New England than they became persecutors themselves, and allowed no toleration for difference of opinion in reli- gious or civil matters. In 1635, Roger Williams, a Puritan minister of the gospel, was banished from the M.issachusetts Bay colony, because he advocated toleration for all religious beliefs. Williams founded the colony of Rhode Island the next year. (1636.) Religious dissensions still disturbed the Massachusetts Bay colony; and in 1637, Mrs. Ann Hutchinson and the Reverend John Wheelwright, supporters of Williams, were banished. "The United Colonies of New England." — In 1643, the New England colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven, united in a confederacy for mutual protection against the French, the Dutch, and the Indians. This union, called " The United Colonies of New England," lasted more than forty years, when mutual jealousies caused its dissolution. Persecution of Quakers. — The year 1656 is noted in the history of the Massa- chusetts Bay colony for a most cruel persecution of Quakers who sought an asylum in that colony. Some were whipped, others were imprisoned, and many were put to death. Fin.ally a milder spirit prevailed, and persecution ceased. Popular Resistance to Royal Oppression. — The New Englanders, unlike- the Virginians, sympathized with the enemies of the king during the civil war in England. When mon.irchy was restored in the mother country', in 1660, an at- tempt was made to restrict the liberties of the people of New Engl.ond ; and a royal commission was appointed to govern the colony of Massachusetts Bay; but this attempt at usurpation encountered so much popular resistance that it was relin- quished, and republicanism was triumphant. King Philip's War. — In 1675, the Wampanoag prince, Metacomet, commonly known .as " King Philip," the son and successorof the good. Massasoit, commenced a war of extermination against the white people of New England. Philip's first attack was made at Swanzey, on Sunday, July 4th, 1675, and many of the whites were massacred. The whites were soon aroused, and seized their arms, while the savages desolated the English settlements on the Connecticut river. King Philip SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 259 was repulsed in an attack upon Hatfield, in October, 1675; after which he was sheltered by the Narraganscts of Rhode Island. A force of 1,500 New Englanders resented the hostile conduct of the Narraganscts by applying the torch to their wig- wams; and hundreds of Indian men, women, and children perished in the flames, and a thousand of their warriors were killed or captured. The following year (1676), the Indians were subjugated, and their great leader. King Philip, was shot by an Indian who was friendly to the whites. New England Charters Annulled — Tyrannical Rule of Sir Edmund Andres. — After James II. Iiecame King of luiglaiid, in 1685, he annulled the charter of the Massachusetts Bay colony, and appointed the infamous Sir Edmund Andros to rule all New England as Governor-General. Andros governed tyran- nically for two years; but when, in 1689, news reached Boston of the Revolution in England which drove King James II. from the throne, the Bostonians seized and imprisoned Andros, and sent him to England on a just charge of maladminis- tration in office ; and the New England colonies resumed their charters. *' Salem Witchcraft." — In 1692, the people of Massachusetts Bay were af- flicted with a great delusion, known as " The Salem Witchcraft." A general belief in sorcery prevailed; many unfortunate persons were accused of practicing witch- craft; and, during a period of six months, about twenty pers(ms were put to death, and many others were imprisoned. This frightful delusion passed away as sud- denly as it had appeared. Union of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay as One Royal Province. — In 1692, King William III. of England united the colcMiies of Plymouth, Massa- chusetts Bay, and the English settlements in Maine and New Brunswick, as one royal province, under the name of Massachusetts ; and appointed Sir William Phipps governor. NEW YORK (A. D. 1623-1776). DUTCH COLONY OF NEW NETHERLAND (1623-1664). Henry Hudson's Discoveries and Explorations. — In 1609, Ilcnry Hudson, an English navigator, then in the service of the Dutch East India Company, ex- plored the American coast from Chesapeake bay to Long Island Sound, and sailed up the beautiful river which bears his name, as far as the site of Ajliany. On this account, the Dutch claimed the territory drained by this stream. On a subsequent voyage, Hudson discovered the large bay which bears his name, in British America, and, while on his home voyage, his crew became mutinous and sent Hudson and his son in a boat adrift on the ice, and they were no more heard of. The Dutch West-India Company and the Nevv Netherland Grant. — ■ In 1614, the Dutch erected huts on Manhattan Island; and in the same year, the Dutch built a fort near the site of Albany. In 1621, the States-General of Hol- land granted great privileges of colonization to a company of Amsterdam merchants who were incorporated the Dutch West India Company. This company claimed the territory between Cape Henlopen and the Connecticut river; and named it " New Netherland." Founding of New Amsterdam and Fort Orange — Minuit and Van 26o MODERN HISTORY. Twiller. — In 1623, permanent Dutch settlements were made at New Amsterdam, on Manhattan Island, and at Fort OranAr YORK (1664-1776). English Tyranny — Dutch Capture of New York — Its Restoration to the English. — Colonel Nicolls was the first governor of the English province of New York. The Dutch colonists were disappointed in their hopes of enjoying greater political liberty under English rule, as Nicolls, and his successor, Francis Lovelace, governed most despotically. In 1673, during a war between England and Holland, a Dutch squadron captured the city of New York, but it was restored to the English by a treaty of peace the next year (1674), and Andros became governor. Charter of Liberties — Execution of Leisler and Milborne. — In 16S3, the Duke of York granted the peoj)leof New York a "Charter of Liberties," allow- ing them a popular assembly ; but when he became King of England, in 16S5, with SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 261 the title of James II., he revoked the privileges which he had granted, and made the tyrant Andros governor of New York a second time. When news reached New York of the dethronement of James II. in England and the imprisonment of Andros in Boston, Jacob Leisler, a leading merchant, with the sanction of the people of New Yoric, assumed the office of governor, until the arrival of Colonel Henry Slough- ter, the new royal governor, in 1691 ; when Leisler, and his son-in-law, Milborne, were tried and executed for high-treason. Growth of Republicanism — Vindication of the Freedom of the Press. — From the time of Leisler's death, the people of New York resisted the oppression of the royal governors sent to rule them, and republicanism constantly gained strength. In 1734, William Cosby, then governor of the province, caused John Peter Zenger, the editor of the democratic newspaper in New York, to be arrested on a charge of libel. Zenger was tried and acquitted by a jury, and the magistrates of New York city made a present to his counsel, Andrew Hamilton of Philadelphia, for his noble vindication of the freedom of the press. NEW HAMPSHIRE (A. D. 1629-1776). The Grant to Gorges and Mason — Founding of Portsmouth, Dover, and Exeter. — In 1622, the territory between the Merrimac and Kennebec rivers was granted to Sir Ferdinand Gorges and John Mason, under the name of " Laco- nia." The proprietors sent out emigrants to settle in I>aconia; and as early as 1622, fishing stations were established on the sites of Portsmouth and Dover. In 1629, the Reverend John Wheelwright and others founded the town of Exeter. The Nev/ Hampshire Grant — New Hampshire and Massachusetts. — In 1629, John Mason became sole proprietor of Laconia, and named the region "New Hampshire," after Hampshire county in England. Mason settled at Ports- mouth; and other settlements were made as far as Machias, in Maine. In 1641, New Hampshire was united with the Massachusetts Bay colony, but the two colo- nies were again separated in 1679, when New Hampshire became a royal province. In 1699, New Hampshire was reunited with Massachusetts under the same governor; but a final separation took place in 1741. MARYLAND (A. D. 1634-1776). Lord Baltimore and the Maryland Grant — Settlement of St. Mary's. — In 1622, William Clayborne erected a trading-house on Kent Island. King Charles I. of England granted the territory on both sides of Chesapeake bay, under the name of " Maryland," to Cecil Calvert, I^rd Baltimore, an English Roman Cath- olic nobleman, who desired to find a refuge in America for persecuted Roman Catholics. In 1634, nearly 200 English Roman Catholics, with Leonard Calvert, Cecil's brother, as their governor, formed a settlement at St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Potomac river. The asseml)ly met at St. Mary's, in 1635, and adopted a liberal form of government for the Maryland colony. Clayborne's Two Rebellions. — In 1635, William Clayborne, who refused to recognize Lord Baltimore's authority, commenced a rebellion against the governor of Maryland, but he was defeated and compelled to flee from the province. In 262 MODERN HISTORY. 1645, Claybornc returned and began another rebellion ; and for a time the rebels held the reins of jwwer, and Govtrnor Calvert was obliged to flee to Virginia ; but the rebellion was suppressed in 1646, and the governor returned to Maryland and resumed his authority. Toleration Act — Influx of Protestants — Disfranchisement of Catholics — Civil War. — In 1649, the Maryland assembly passed "The Toleration Act," which granted religious freetlom for all sects in Maryland; and this induced many Protestants who were pei-secuted elsewhere to settle in this Roman Catholic province. At length the intlux of Protestants was so great that they outnumbered the Catholics ; and after obtaining a majority in the assembly, they questioned the rights of the proprietor, and, with the meanest ingratitude, they disfranchised the Catholics and declared them not entitled to the protection of the laws. This outrageous proceed- ing led to a civil war in Maryland between the Catholics and the Protestants, which ended in the defeat of the Catholics and the overthrow of the proprietary govern- ment; but when monarchy was restored in England, in 1 660., Lord Baltimore recovered his rights. Maryland a Royal Province — Restoration of Proprietary Government. — The Maryland colony now prospered until 10S9, when a Protestant insurrection overthrew the proprietary government; and in 1691, King William III. of Eng- land deprived Lord Baltimore of his rights, made Mar)'land a royal province, and established the Church of England in the colony ; and Roman Catholics were dis- franchised in a province which they had founded. In 1 7 16, Maryland was re- stored to the heirs of Lord Baltimore, and it remained a proprietary province until the Revolution of 1775. CONNECTICUT (A. D. 1635-1776). Discovery of the Connecticut River by Adrian Block — The Connecticut Grant. — In 1614, Adrian Block, a Dutch navigator, discovered the Connecticut river, and sailed up that stream as far as the site of Hartford. In 1630, the Coun- cil of Plymouth granted the soil of Connecticut to the Earl of Warwick, who, the following year, granted it to Lord Say and Seal, Lord Brooke, and others. Founding of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield — Settlement of Saybrook. — In lOjj, the Dutch erected a fort at the site of Hartford, and in the same year the English under Captain Holmes established a trading-house at the site of Windsor. In 1635, emigrants from Boston settled Windsor and Wethers- field; and in 1636, other emigrants from the colony of Massachusetts Bay, led by the Reverend Thomas Hooker, founded Hartford. In 1635, John Winthrop, son of the governor of the Massachusetts Bay colony, led a company of emigrants to the mouth of the Connecticut river, where they formed a settlement, which, in honor of Lord Say and Seal and Lord Brooke, they named "Saybrook." Pequod "War — Founding of New Haven. — In 1637, a frightful war broke out iK'tween the Connecticut settlers and the Pequod Indians, the Mohcgan and Narraganset tribes uniting with the whites; and in a furious battle at the Mystic river, the savages were defeated by Captain John Miison, after their fort had been set on fire, and the tribe of the Pequods was exterminated, and their chief, Sassa- cus, tied to the Mohawks, who put him to death. In 163S, New Haven was S£ VENTEENTH CENTUR Y. 263 founded by emigrants from England, led by the Reverend John Davenport and Theophilus Eaton; and they resolved to be governed in civil matters according to the rules and principles of the IJlble. Connecticut Constitution — Union of Connecticut, Saybrook, and New Haven. — In 1639, the settlers at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield adopted a liberal constitution of government for the Connecticut colony. In 1644, the Say- brook settlement was united with Connecticut; and in 1665, the Connecticut and New Haven colonies weie united into one colony, called "Connecticut," under a charter granted to the colonists by King Charles II., three years before. Resistance to Governor Andros. — In 1675, Sir Edmund Andros, then gov- ernor of New York, atlcmpled to extend his authority over Connecticut; and for this purpose he went to Saybrook with a small naval force; but he was so firmly resisted that he relinquished the attempt. Andros and the Connecticut Charter. — In 1687, Andros, as Governor- General of all New England, succeeded in depriving all the New England colonies, excepting Connecticut, of their charters. He went to Hartford to seize the Con- necticut charter; and while the assembly was in session in the evening, the charter was laid on the table; but just as Andros attempted to take it, the lights were sud- denly extinguished, and Captain Wadsworth carried away the charter and hid it in the hollow of an oak tree, which thenceforth was called "the Charter Oak." Andros, however, governed Connecticut, until he was imprisoned in Boston, in 1689, when the Connecticut charter was taken from its hiding-place. Governor Fletcher and Captain Wadsworth. — In 1693, Governor Fletcher of New York attempted to bring Connecticut under his jurisdiction, and for that purpose he went to Hartford, where he assembled the Connecticut militia. When Fletcher proceeded to read his commission. Captain Wadsworth, the commander of the militia, commanded the drums to be beaten. "Silence," shouted Fletcher, whereupon Wadsworth stepped up and said, " Sir ! if they are interrupted again, I will make the sun shine through you in a moment !" Fletcher returned to New York in great anger. From this time Comiecticut was a prosperous colony. RHODE ISLAND (A. D. 1636-1776). Founding of Providence by Roger Williams. — The first settlement in Rhode Island was made on the Pawtucket river, by William Blackstone, a Puritan minister. When Roger Williams was banished from the colony of Massachusetts Bay, in 1635, he traveled through the wilderness, in the midst of winter; and in 1636, he founded a settlement on Narraganset bay, which, with pious feelings, he named " Providence." This was the beginning of the Rhode Island colony, which became an asylum for persecuted Christians of all sects. Settlement of Portsmouth and Newport. — In 1638, William Coddington, a nonconformist minister, and others who were banished from the colony of Mas- sachusetts Bay, founded Portsmouth, on the island which they named Rhode Island; and in the following year (1639), the settlement of Newport was commenced. First Charter of the Providence and Rhode Island Plantations- Religious Freedom. — In 1644, Roger Williams, who had gone to England for 264 MODERN HISTOR Y. that purpose, obtained from the Long Parliament a liberal charter, under which "The Providence and Rhode Island Plantations" were united as one province; and in 1647, a colonial convention, assembled at Portsmouth, adopted a democratic form of government and established the principles of perfect religious freedom in Rhode Island. Second Rhode Island Charter. — In 1663, King Charles II. of England granted to the Rhode Island and Providence Plantations a charter which left the colonists in the full enjoyment of perfect civil and religious freedom. This char- ter was suspended by the tyrant Andros in 1687, but when he was imprisoned in Boston, in 1689, it was resumed, and remained in full force as the instrument of government of the Commonwealth until 1842, when a State constitution was adopted. DELAWARE (A. D. 1638-1776). Settlement of New Sweden — Swedish Settlements on the Delaware. — Under the auspices of the Swedish West India Company, a company of Swedish emigrants, under Perter Minuit, the first governor of New Netherland, made a set- tlement on Christiana Creek, near the site of Wilmington, in the present State of Delaware, in 1638, and named the territory "New Sweden." Swedish settlements were also made on the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, in the present Pennsylvania. Conquest of New Sweden by the Dutch — Delaware and Pennsylvania. — The Dutch at New Amsterdam claimed the territory of New Sweden; and in 1655, Governor Stuyvesant of New Netherland conquered the Swedish settlements on the Delaware, and annexed New Sweden to New Netherland. The domain of New Sweden was granted to William Penn in 1682, and it became a part of Pennsylvania. The territory now known as Delaware became a separate province in 1702, with a legislature of its own, but it was united with Pennsylvania under one governor until 1776, when Delaware became an independent State. NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA (A. D. 1663-1776). NORTH CAROLINA (1663-1776). The Carolina Grant. — Between the years 1640 and 1650, emigrants from Vir- ginia settled near the mouth of the Chowan river. In 1663, King Charles II. of England granted to the Earl of Clarendon and seven associates the extensive region between Virginia and Florida, under the general name of " Carolina." The Albemarle and Clarendon Colonies. — In 1663, a number of emigrants from Virginia, with William Drummond as governor, founded Edenton, on the Chowan river. This settlement was called " The Albemarle County Colony." A representative government was adopted; and the first legislative assembly in Caro- lina convened at Edenton, in 1668. In 1665, some planters from the Barbadoes Islands, with Sir John Yeamans as governor, established, on the Cape Fear River, a settlement known as " The Clarendon County Colony." This colony was broken up several years afterward. The Fundamental Constitutions. — Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, and the philosopher John Locke prepared a constitution of government for the Caroli- SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 265 nas. This instrument, known as "The Fundamental Constitutions," or "The Grand Model," was extremely aristocratic in spirit, and utterly repugnant to the wishes of the freedom-loving settlers of the Carolinas. It could never be enforced, as every attempt to do so produced a rebellion; and after a struggle of a quarter of a century, between the colonists and the proprietors, this absurd scheme of govern- ment was finally abandoned by the proprietors, in 1695; and the cause of republi- canism was triumphant in Carolina. Rebellion in North Carolina — Administrations of Seth Sothel and John Archdale. — The attempt to enforce the Fundamental Constiuitions in tlie All)e- marle Colony (North Carolina) produced a rebellion, which resulted in the impri- sonment of thegovernor, and the temporary subversion of the proprietary government. In 1683, Seth Sothel, one of the proprietors, became governor of North Carolina; but, after a tyrannical and corrupt administration of five years, he was banished from the colony. In 1695, the good Quaker, John Archdale, became governor of both the Carolinas, and under his administration both colonies greatly prospered. Emigration to North Carolina — War with the Tuscarora Indians. — Quakers, Huguenots, and German Protestants settled in North Carolina. In 171 1, a frightful war broke out between the North Carolina settlers and the Tuscarora Indians. The Indians massacred many of the German settlers ; but the Tuscaroras were finally subdued: 1,200 of them were captured, and the remainder joined the Five Nations in New York, thus forming the league of " The Six Nations." SOUTH CAROLINA ri670-t776) The Carteret Colony — Founding of Charleston — In 1670, a company of emigrants from England, with William Sayle as their governor, settled Old Charles- ton, on the Ashley river. This is known as " The Carteret County Colony," so called in honor of Sir George Carteret, one of the proprietors of the Carolinas. In 1 680, the inhabitants of Old Charleston removed to a point between the Ashley and Cooper rivers, where they laid the foundations of the present city of Charleston. A representative government was established; and the first legislative assembly in the Carteret Colony convened at Charleston in 1682. Emigration to South Carolina — Rebellion— Sothel's and Archdale's Administrations. — Dutch emigrants, Puritans, and Huguenots settled in the Car- teret Colony (South Carolina). An effort to enforce the Fundamental Constitutions led to a rebellion in South Carolina, which resulted in the banishment of the gov- ernor, James Colleton. In 1690, the infamous Seth Sothel came to South Carolina, of which colony he became governor; but, after oppressing and plundering the colonists for two years, he was banished. Under the wise administration of John Archdale prosperity attended the colony. War with the Spaniards of Florida — War with the Yamasee Indians. — In 1702, hostilities commenced between the South Carolinians and the Spaniards of Florida. South Carolina sent an unsuccessful expedition against the Spaniards; but the Apalachian Indians, the allies of the Spaniards, were subjugated ; 800 of the Apalachians being captured, and their country taken possession of. In 1706, a combined French and Spanish fleet failed in an attack upon Charleston. In 1715, the South Carolina colonists became involved in a dangerous war with the Yamasee 266 MODERN HISTORY. liulians. Governor Craven with 1,200 men subdued the Yiunasees, and drove them into Florida. North and South Carolina, Royal Provinces. — lu 1719, the people of South Carolina rebelled ajjainst the jiroprietary government; and in 1729, the pro- prietors, wearied of the perpetual opposition, surrendered their claims to the crown, whereupon North and South Carolina became distinct royal provinces, and so remained until the great Revolution of 1775, which swept away feudalism and royalty. NEW JERSEY (A. D. 1664-1776). The New Jersey Grant — Puritan Settlement of Elizabethtown. — The Dutch established a trading post at Bergen, in 1618, and another at Fort Nassau, below the site of Camden, in 1623. The Swedes and Finns also made settlements on the Delaware. In 1664, when New Nethcrlaud was conquered by the Eng- lish, King Charles II. of England granted the territory between the Hudson and Delaware rivers to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, and named the province "New Jersey;" and in the same year (1664), some English Puritans settled Eliza- bethtown. Philip Carteret, a brother of Sir George, was made governor, and repre- sentative government was established. When, in 1 670, the proprietors of New Jei-sey demanded the jiayment of quit-rents, the colonists rose in rebellion, and drove the governor from the colony. Division into East and West Jersey — Purchase of New Jersey by Quakers. — In 1674, Lord Ucrkeley sold his interest in New Jersey to some Quakers, who founded Salem; and in 1676, the province was divided, the Quakers obtaining West Jcreey, and Carteret receiving East Jersey. In 16S2, William Penn and other Quakers purchased East Jei"sey from Carteret's heirs, and made Robert Barclay governor. New Jersey a Royal Province — New Jersey and New York. — In 16SS, King lames II. made the tyrant Andros governor of the Jerseys, from which time great confusion prevailed until 1702, when E;ist and West Jei-sey were united as one royal province, and placed under the governor of New York, but having its own legislature. In 1738, New Jersey was entirely separated from New York, and Lewis Morris became governor. PENNSYLVANIA (A. D. 1682-1776). William Penn and the Pennsylvania Grant — Settlement of Quakers in Pennsylvania. — In 1643, the Swedes made a settlement on Tinicum Island, below the site of Philadelphia. In 1677, Swedish settlements were made on the Dela- ware and Schuylkill rivers. In 1681, King Charles II. of England granted an immense territory west of the Delaw;ue river to William Penn, a Quaker, who de- sired to secure an asylum for the persecuted sect to which he belonged. The prov- ince was named "Pennsylvania," which signifies "Penn's- woods." In 1682, the territory of the present State of Delaware w;xs added to Penn's grant. In 16S2, a large company of Quakers from England arrived in Pennsylvania, founded the town of Chester, the oldest English settlement in llie colony, and organized a liber;il form of irovernment. S£ VENTEENTII CENTUR Y. 267 William Penn in Pennsylvania — Penn's Treaty with the Indians. — \\\ the fall of 1682, William Pt-im arrived in Pennsylvania, and was joyfully received by the Swedes and the English Quakers. He met the Assembly of Pennsylvania at Chester, when he established a permanent government for the colony. Under a large elm tree, on the site of Philadelphia, Penn made a treaty of friendship with the Indians, who were treated with the greatest kindness by the Quakers. The Indians who were present exclaimed, " We will live in peace with William Penn and his children as long as the sun and the moon shall endure!" They were true to their word. Not a drop of Quaker blood was ever shed by an Indian. This treaty was never sworn to and never broken. Founding of Philadelphia — Charter of Liberties. — Tiie same year (16S2), Penn laid out a capital for his new province between the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers; and named the place "Philadelphia," which means "city of brotherly love." Within a year, a hundred houses were built. In 1683, the colonial assembly met at Philadelphia, and adopted a " Charter of Liberlies." Penn's Return to England — His Second Visit to Pennsylvania. — \\\ 1684, William Penn returned to England; and in 16S9, he was deprived of his province by King William III., who suspcctetl Penn of being disloyal to his gov- ernment. Penn's province was restored to him in 1694; and in 1699, he visited Pennsylvania a second time. He granted the colonies greater privileges, and allowed Delaware to have a separate legislature. Both colonies had the same governor until the American Revolution. William Penn died ni London in 1718; and in 1776, the Peimsylvanians purchased the claims of his heirs, and the prov- ince became an independent commonwealth. Mason's and Dixon's Line. — The boundary line between I'ennsylvania and Maryland, which had long been a subject of dispute, was settled as at present, in 1 76 1, by George Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, surveyors appointed for the purpose by the King of England; and the line established by them is still called "Mason's and Dixon's Line." GEORGIA (A. D. 1733-1776). Benevolent Design — Founding of Savannah— Oglethorpe's Treaty with the Indians. — In 1743, King George II. of England granted to the jihilan- thropic James Edward Oglethorpe, a member of the English Parliament, and other benevolent individuals, "in trust for the poor," all the territory between the Sa- vannah and Altamaha rivers. Oglethorpe's plan was to offer an asylum in America to virtuous persons imprisoned for debt, and to other poor. Near the close of 1732, one-hundred and twenty of these unfortunate persons sailed from England, with Oglethorpe as their governor; and in February, 1733, they arrived in America, and founded the city of Savannah. Oglethorpe met fifty Indian chiefs, with the Creek sachem, Tomochichi, at their head, and concluded a friendly trcaly with them, obtaining a large tract of territory, which was named " Georgia," in honor of King George 11. War with the Spaniards of Florida — Georgia a Royal Province. — In 1739, a war broke out between England and Spain; and in 1740, Oglethorpe, with 2,000 Georgians, invaded the Spanish province of Florida; but after an unsuccessful 268 MODERN HISTORY. siege of St. Augustine, he returned to Georgia. In 1 742, the Spaniai-ds invaded Cieorgia; but they were defeated and driven back. Oglethorpe left Georgia forever in 1743; and ia 1 752, the trustees of the colony, wearied of their troublesome charge, sold their interests to the crown ; and Georgia became a royal province, and so continued until 1776, when it became an independent State, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. AGE OF PETER THE GREAT AND CHARLES VI. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION (A. D. 1702-1714). CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE WAR. Will of Charles II. of Spain — Archduke Charles of Austria and Duke Philip of Anjou. — After the Peace of Kyswick, in 1697, the question which chietly engaged the attention of Europe was whom the childless Charles II. of Spain, the last Spanish king of the House of Hai^sburg, and then on the brink of tlie grave, should appoint as his heir to the vast dominions of Spain. His nearest relatives were King Louis XIV. of France and the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany. Both of these powerful mon.archs were the first cousins, and both were the sons-in-law, of the Spanish sovereign; but Louis XIV. had renounced all claims to the crown of Spain by the Treaty of the Pyrenees, in 1659. Exasperated at the conduct of the Kinijs of France and England, in arranging a partition of the Spanish dominions between the sons of the claimants before his death, Charles II. appointed the young Elector of Bavaria as his heir. But this prince soon afterward died, and Kings Louis XIV. and William HI. signed a new partition treaty. Greatly irritated at the French monarch, the King of Spain acknowledged the Archduke Charles of Austria, son of the Emperor Leopold I., as his successor; but the Spanish nobles, corrupted by the gold of Louis XIV., induced Chailes II. to make a new will, by which Duke Philip of Anjou, grandson of the King of France, was appointed suc- cessor to the Spanish throne. Chai'les II. died in 1700; and after some hesitation, Louis XIV. adopted the last will. When the Duke of Anjou started for Madrid, to take possession of the throne of Spain, with the title of Philip V., Louis said to him, "There are no more Pyrenees." Coalition of Germany, England, and Holland Against France and Spain. — The Emperor Leopold I. of Germany opposed the last will of Charles II., and sent into Italy a large army under his great general, Prince Eugene of Savoy, a Frenchman by birth, but who had gained great renown in the services of the Emperor, in the wars of the Germ.an Empire ag-ainst the Ottoman Porte. In 1 701, Prince Eugene drove the French forces under M;\rshals \'elleroi and Catiiiat out of EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 269 Italy. While this petty war between France and Germany was in progress, Louis XIV., by one imprudent act, provoked a powerful combination against himself. On the death of the exiled James II., in 1701, Louis recognzed his son as King of England, with the title of James III., after having promised not to do so. This act of the French king was regarded by England as a national insult, and King William III. found his Parliament and people, who before had been averse to England's participation in a continental war, ready to second all his views. The most earnest preparations for war were now made by England. The death of William III., in 1702, produced no change in this respect, as his successor, Anne, declared her determination to adhere to the policy adopted by her predecessor. An alliance against France was immediately formed by the German Empire, England, and Holland. The Elector of Bavaria entered into an alliance with the King of France. Spain was divided: Aragon siding with the Archduke Charles, and Cas- tile with Philip of Anjou. Thus England, Holland, and the German Empire were united against France and Bavaria. Thus began " The War of the Spanish Succes- sion," which for twelve years convulsed Southern and Western Europe. In his former wars, Louis XIV. had generally triumphed over his enemies; but- during the whole course of " The War of the Spanish Succession " he suffered a continua- tion of the most calamitous defeats. He no longer displayed the vigor and energy for which he had lx;en before noted. EVENTS OF 1702 AND 1703. The War in Italy and in the Spanish Netherlands. — In Italy, during the year 1702, a French force under the Duke of Vendome gained the battle of Luzara over the Austrians. At this time, a powerful English army, under John Churchhill, Duke of Marlborough, who proved to be one of England's greatest generals, appeared in the Sjianish Netherlands, and defeated the French forces commanded by the Duke of Burgundy and Marshal Boufflers. Events in Spain and Germany. — During the year 1702, the united fleets of England and Holland were repulsed in attack upon the Spanish port of Cadiz, but they succeeded in destroying, in the harbor of Vigo, a combined French and Spanish fleet laden with the treasures of Spanish America. In the following year (1703), a French army under Marshal Villars passed the Rhine into Germany, and defeated the German imperial army commanded by Prince Louis of Baden, in the battles of Friedlingen and Hochstett. Protestant Insurrection in France — Protestant Rebellion in Hungary. — In 1703, the Protestants in the region of tfte Cevennes, maddened by religious persecution, rose against their bigoted and tyrannical king, and Louis XIV. sup- pressed the insurrection with great difficulty. The tyranny of the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany produced a rebellion of his Protestant Hungarian subjects, who, led by the valiant Count Ragotzky, resisted the Austrians until 1711, when Hungary was reduced to submission. EVENTS OF 1704. Capture of Gibraltar. — On the 4th of August, 1704, the strong rocky fortress of Gibraltar, in Southern Spain, was taken by a few English sailors under Sir George Rooke. This achievement was by far the most important to England of any during 270 MODERN HISTORY. the War of the Spanish Succession, as Gibraltar has ever since remained in her possession, and has given her the key to the Mediterranean sea. Battle of Blenheim. — The forces of Austria and the German Empire were at this time hard pressed by the French and the Bavarians. For the purpose of re- lieving them, the Duke of Marlborough, with the English army, forced his way into Bavaria, and succeeded in forming a junction with the Austrians under Prince Eugene, who had advanced from Italy. The united forces, numbering 80,000 men, won a brilliant victory, on the 13th of August (1704), near the small villages of Hochstett and Blenheim, over 80,000 French and Bavarians, under Marshals Tallard and Marsin and the Elector of Bavaria. The victorious English and Germans lost 13,000 men, while their defeated enemies lost 30,000. Marsin was made a prisoner, and all the French artillery, baggage, and camp-equipage fell into the hands of the victors. The disastrous issue of this b.ittle compelled the French to evacuate Bavaria, and to fall back to the west side of the Rhine. The Elector of B.avaria, thus aban- doned and placed under the ban of the German Empire, was obliged to retire from his dominions, and France was deprived' of all aid. Portugal Joins the Allies — An English Army in Spain. — During the year 1704, Portugal joined the coalition against France, and the Archduke Charles, with the assistance of an English army under the Earl of Peterborough, landed in Spain. EVENTS OF 170S. Operations in Italy and Spain— Joseph I., Emperor of Germany. — In Italy, in 1705, the French, under the skillful Duke of Vendome, gained many advan- tages over the Austrians, and finally inflicted a severe defeat upon Prince Eugene, at Cassano. In Spain, the English under the Earl of Peterborough took Barcelona. During the same year, the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany died, and was suc- ceeded on the imperial throne by his son, Joseph I. EVENTS OF 1706. Battle of Ramillies. — The campaign of 1706 was a glorious one for the Allies, who acquired the supremacy in the Netherlands, in Italy, and in Spain. A French army of 80,000 men under Marshal Villeroi, having advanced into the Spanish Netherlands, was disastrously defeated by the English under the Duke of Marl- borough, in the decisive battle of Ramillies, on the 23d of May, 1706. The con- sequences of this battle were that the French king lost most of his acquisitions in the S]ianish Netherlands. Battle of Turin. — The French, who thus far had been generally victorious in Italy, ^aid siege to Turin ; but Prince Eugene, with the German imperial army, advanced to the relief of the city; and on the 7th of September, 1706, he defeated the French so disastrously before the walls of the city that they were obliged to raise the siege and evacuate Italy. Thus the fruits of all former French victories in Italy were lost by the result of a single battle. In Spain, during 1706, the allied English, Dutch, and Portuguese forces, under the command of Lord Galway, took possession of Madrid. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 271 EVENTS OF 1707. Battle of Almanza. — The campaign of 1707 in a measure revived the hopes of Louis XIV. In Spain, the allied English, Dutch, and Portuguese armies, com- manded by Lord Galway, were almost annihilated in the battle of Almanza, on the 25th of April (1707,) by the French army under the Duke of Berwick, a natural son of the ill-fated James II. of England. During the same year Prince Eugene made an unsuccessful effort to take Toulon by siege. EVENTS OF 1708. Battle of Oudenarde. — The Allies still maintained their supremacy in the Spanish Netherlands. On the nth of July, 1708, the allied English and German armies, under the Duke of Marlborough, and Prince Eugene, severely defeated a large French army under the Dukes of Vendome and Burgundy, at the village of Oudenarde, on the Scheldt. Soon afterward the victors took Lille by siege, and the way to Paris stood open. EVENTS OF 1709. Louis XIV. asks for Peace. — France was now threatened with the horrors of famine. This danger, together with the exhausted state of the French finances, made Louis XIV. anxious for peace. He solicited peace with Holland, but the Dutch, remembering the insults which they had suffered from him, rejected all his proposals with disdain, and Louis found himself to continue the war, or to submit to the most humiliating conditions. Battle of Malplaquet. — The French received another severe blow in the Spanish Netherlands. In the bloody battle of Malplaquet, on the nth of Septem- ber, 1709, Marlborough and Eugene with their united armies defeated the French army of 80,000 men commanded by Marshals Villars and Boufflers. The French escaped from the field with the loss of 10,000 men, while the victorious English and Germans lost 20,000. EVENTS OF 1710. Haughty and Insulting Demands of the Allies. — In 17 10, Louis XIV. again solicited peace, offering to make great concessions to the Allies. He even offered to recognize the Archduke Charles as King of Spain, to furnish no more assistance to his grandson Philip, and even to supply the Allies with money to prosecute the war against him. But the allied powers demanded that Louis him- self should send an army into Spain to assist in driving out his grandson. This insulting demand Louis rejected with scorn, saying, "If I must continue the war, I should rather fight against my enemies than against my own grandson." The French people, who had clamored for peace, shared the indignation of their mon- arch, and were resolved not to submit to any such degrading conditions. French Victories in Spain. — Louis was somewhat encouraged by the suc- cesses of his arms in Spain during the year 17 10. The campaign opened with the victories of the Austrians under Count Stahremberg, in the battles of Saragossa and Almenara; but after\vards the entire English corps under Stanhope was captured by the Duke of Vendome, after a severe battle at Brihuega. On the loth of Decern- 2 72 MObERN HISTORY. ber (1710), Vendome defeated Stahremberg at Villaviciossa, after a bloody battle of two days. EVENTS OF 17H. Consequences of the Death of the Emperor Joseph I. of Germany. — Early in 1711, an event occurred which changed the situation of all parties. This was the death of the Emperor Joseph I. of Germany and the succession of his brother, the Archduke Charles, the competitor of Philip of Anjou, to the thrones of Austria and the German Empire. The union of the crowns of Spain and Ger- many, in the person of a prince of the House of Hapsburg, was as alarming to the other powers of Europe as the union of the crowns of Spain and France, under a prince of the House of Bourbon. Change in the English Ministry. — A change of opinion with regard to the war had taken place in England, which resulted in the expulsion of the Wigs from office and the accession to power of the Tories, who opposed the war. The Tory Ministry, at the head of which stood Lords Oxford and Bolingbroke, removed the avaricious Marlborough, who had been the most influential of the Whigs, from the chief command of the English army, and appointed in his stead the Duke of Or- mond, who had secret orders not to fight. EVENTS OF 1712, '13, '14.. Peace of Utrecht — Peace of Rastadt. — As early as January, 17 1 2, through the influence of England, conferences for peace were opened at Utrecht, in Hol- land ; but, owing to the opposition of the Dutch and German ambassadors, negotia- tions progressed very slowly. Finally, on the nth of April, 1713, a treaty of peace was agreed to by the ambassadors of France a-nd England. Holland and Germany, however, obstinately resolved to continue the war; but the decisive dci'eat of the German imperial army under Prince Eugene, by the French under Marshal Villars, in the the battle of Denain, on the 24th of July, 17 13, alarmed the Dutch so much that they also agreed to a treaty of peace with France. By the Peace of Utrecht, England received Gibraltar from Spain, and Nova Scotia and the Hudson's Bay Territory from France. The succession of Anne to the throne of England was acknowledged by France; while Philip of Anjou was recognized by England as King of Spain, on condition that the crowns of France and Spain should never be united. The war between France and the German Empire continued until the 7th of March, 1 7 14, when the Peace of Rastadt was concluded, by which the House of Austria received the Spanish Netherlands, ■ Milan, Naples, and Sicily, which were thus separated from the dominion of Spain; the Emperor of Germany recognized Philip of Anjou as King of Spain; the exiled Elector of Bavaria was to be restored to his dominions; and the new kingdom of Prussia, which had been established in 1701, was recognized. Thus after a war which had been, on the whole, disastrous to Louis XIV., that monarch obtained honorable terms of peace; and the Allied Powers were punished for their former unreasonable and insolent demands. Condition of France— Death of Louis XIV. — Louis XV. — Peace came none too soon for France, whose condition, in consequence of the long and expen- EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 273 sive wan> occasioned by the ambition of her warlike monarch, was at tliis time most deplorable. The public debt was enoniious, the nation was almost financially ruined, and the resources of the kingdom were almost exhausted ; and nothing but a long period of peace would enable the country to recuperate. Louis XIV. sank into his grave in September, 17 15, after a reign of seventy-two years, fifty-four from the expiration of the regency. As all the children and grand-children of Louis XIV. had died before him, his great-grandson was invested with the crown of France, with the title of Louis XV. During the minority of Louis XV., the talented but profli- gate Duke of Orleans acted as regent of the French kingdom. The young king was instructed in all sorts of vice; and when he assumed the government, on the expiration of the regency, in 1723, his moral depravity was equal to that of the unworthy regent. THE NORTHERN WAR (A. D. 1700-1718). Russia Under the House of Romanoff — Peter the Great. — Under the wise, peaceable, and virtuous Michael Romanoff, who ascended the throne of Rus- sia in 1613, that country enjoyed a period of prosperity. During the reign of Michael's son Alexis (1645- 1 676), the Russian Empire was extended in every direction. In 1689, Peter I., surnamed "the Great," became sole sovereign of the Russian Empire. Well did this prince deserve the title of "the Great," as he did more for the civilization and advancement of Russia than all of his predecessors and successors. Before his time Russia was a nation of barbarians, and more of an Asiatic empire than a European one. Peter the Great was one of the very few monarchs who have labored for the welfare of their subjects. Having, by extensive travels through Europe, early seen the practical advantages of civilization, he en- couraged foreign mariners, artisans, and officers to emigrate to Russia. In 1697, Peter left his dominions as a private individual, and went on a travel to other parts of Europe, where he studied such arts as he thought would be useful to his subjects. For the purpose ot better acquiring a knowledge of the art of ship-building, Petei worked as a common ship-carpenter in Holland and in England. Although Peter civilized his subjects, he could not civilize himself, and he remained a cruel barba- rian all his life. He often said that he corrected the faults of the Russian people, but not his own. He had some great vices, and was guilty of some shocking crimes, but still his name stands deservedly among the first of those sovereigns who have labored for the good of their subjects. Alliance of Russia, Poland, and Denmark, against Sweden. — When, in 1697, Charles XII., a youth eighteen years of age, became King of Sweden, the sovereigns of Russia, Poland, and Denmark considered the time favorable for wrest- ing from Sweden the provinces which she had formally conquered. Peter the Great of Russia was desirous of the possession of some of the Swedish provinces on the east side of the Baltic; Frederic Augustus, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, resolved upon seizing Livonia; and King Frederic IV. of Denmark deter- rnined to appropriate unto himself Schleswig, which belonged to the Duke of Hol- stein, a brother-in-law of the young King of Sweden. An alliance against Sweden was accordingly concluded between the Czar of Russia and the Kings of Poland and Denmark, for the purpose of obtaining the coveted provinces by force. Almost 18 274 MODERN HISTOR V. at the same time, in the year 1700, the King of Denmark carried war into the dominions of the Duke of Holstein, the King of Poland marched into Livonia and fell upon Riga, and the Czar of Russia, with 80,000 men, invaded Esthonia, and laid siege to Narva. Charles XII. of Sweden — Denmark Humbled — Peace of Travendal. — To the astonishment of all Europe, the young King of Sweden suddenly exhibited great military abilities. Indignant at the aggressive conduct of his enemies, and having determined upon carrying the war into Denmark, Charles XII. landed with an army on the island of Zealand, and laid siege to Copenhagen. The inhabitants of the Danish capital saved their city from their horrors of a bombardment by the payment of a large sum of money. Having invaded Holstein, the King of Den- mark was at this time completely hemmed in, and found that nothing but a disad- vantageous peace would save his kingdom from falling into the power of the Swedes. The Peace of Travendal was accordingly concluded between the Kings of Sweden and Denmark, by which Frederic IV. renounced his alliance with Russia and Po- land, and agreed to indemnify the Duke of Holstein. Battle of Narva. — After humbling the King of Denmark, Charles XII., at the head of 8,000 Swedish troops, marched against the Czar of Russia, who, with 80,000 men, was then besieging Narva. Although the Swedish king had but one-tenth as many men as his antagonist, he did not hesitate to attack the army of Peter the Great. Having broken the Russian intrenchments by a heavy cannonade, Charles, on the 30th of November, 1700, ordered a bayonet charge, and, under cover of a severe stonn of snow which was driving into the faces of the Russians by the wind, he assailed the enemy. The Russians were unable to stand their ground, and, after a terrible battle of three hours, their works were forced on all sides. The Russian' loss was 8,000 killed and 30,000 made prisoners. Many were drowned in the Neva by the breaking of tlie bridge. The Russians also lost all their baggage, stores, and cannon. Charles entered Neva as a conqueror, thinking that this great blow had completely broken the power of Peter the Great. The Czar, however, was not dis- couraged. He said, " I knew that the .Swedes would beat us ; but in time they will teach us to become their conquerors." After his defeat, Peter evacuated the Swedish provinces, and devoted his attention to disciplining his army. Victories of Charles XII. over the King of Poland. — Instead of following up his victory over Peter the Great, the Swedish king, after wintering at Narva, marched against King Augustus II. of Poland, who had unsuccessfully besieged Riga the previous year. After defeating the Polish king in the bloody battle of Duna, in July, 1701, and obtaining full possession of the provinces of Livonia and Courland, Charles XII. marched into Poland. The Swedish monarch entered Warsaw on the 14th of May, 1 702, and soon afterward declared that he would not grant a peace to Poland, until the Polish Diet had dethroned Augustus II. and elected another king in his place. On the 9th of July, 1702, Augustus was defeated with heavy loss by Charles, in a desperate engagement near Gliessaw, in a large plain between Warsaw and Cracow. The camp, baggage, artillery, and military chest of Augustus fell into the hands of Charles, who soon afterwards took possession of Warsaw. Peter's Conquests on the Baltic— Founding of St. Petersburg.— While Charles XII. of Sweden was conquering in Poland, his most powerful enemy, Peter EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 275 the Great of Russia, was reducing the Swedish provinces on the east side of the Baltic, and annexing them to the Russian Empire. Peter took Narva by storm, built the fortresses of Schlusselburg and Cronstadt, and caused the islands at the mouth of the Neva to be drained by serfs ; and there he laid the foundations of a city which he named St. Petersburg, and which he intended should be the capital of the Russian Empire. In 1703, Peter compelled 300,000 people from Moscow and other Russian cities to settle at St. Petersburg. He also encouraged foreigners to emigrate thither. Famine and disease soon carried 200,000 of the settlers of the new city to their graves. Yet Peter was not discouraged, but he persevered in his enterprise, and, by his liberal and enlightened policy, foreign artisans and merchants were induced to emigrate to .St. Petersburg. Dethronement of Augustus II. of Poland — Successes of Charles XII. in Poland. — In 1703, Charles XII. again defeated Augustus II. of Poland, and com- pelled him to retreat into Saxony, his hereditary dominions. Through the influence of the King of Sweden, Augustus was dethroned by the Polish Diet, in July, 1704, and Stanislaus Leczinski, voiwode of Posen, a creature of Charles XII., was elected to the throne of Poland, by a Diet surrounded by Swedish soldiers. Resolving to recover the Polish crown, Augustus returned to Poland with an army of Saxons, and took Warsaw, but was at length forced to retire. Augustus afterwards received the assistance of 60,000 Russians, whom Peter the Great had sent to expel the Swedes from Poland ; but Charles routed the different Russian divisions in succes- sion, and struck such terror into their ranks, by the rapidity of his movements, that the Russians retired into their own territories. (1706.) Invasion of Saxony by Charles XII.— Peace of Altranstadt. — In the meantime, a victory gained by the Swedes over the forces of Augustus opened to the Swedish monarch the way into Saxony. Accordingly, Charles XII. invaded the Saxon dominions of Augustus, without asking permission from the Emperor of Germany, whose attention was too much engrossed by the War of the Spanish .Suc- cession to give any heed to the movements of the King of Sweden. Notwithstand- ing the strict discipline of the Swedes, they frightfully r.ivaged the Saxon territories. Augustus had now no other alternative than to consent to such terms of peace as the conquering King of Sweden chose to dictate. Under these circumstances, the Peace of Altranstadt was concluded, on the 24th of September, 1706, on terms most humiliating to Augustus, who was required to renounce the crown of Poland for himself and his posterity, to dissolve his alliance with the Czar of Russia, and to sur- render the Livonian Patkul to the .Swedish monarch, who put him to a cruel death. Invasion of Russia by Charles XII. — In September, 1707, Charles XII., at the head of 40,000 troops, reentered Poland, where Peter the Great had been endeavoring to retrieve the affairs of Augustus. As the King of Sweden advanced, the Czar retired into his own dominions. Charles resolved to march upon Mos- cow; and. Peter, becoming alarmed at this bold movement of his antagonist, solicited peace; but Charles, who had determined to completely subdue his great rival, haughtily replied, " I will treat at Moscow." Charles now advanced into Russia, and directed his course toward Moscow. Peter destroyed the roads and des- olated the country between Poland and Moscow, so that hunger, fatigue, and constant partial actions would so weaken the Swedish army that it could not reach Moscow. Mazeppa, the Cossack Chief. — The plan of the Czar succeeded. Charles, 276 MODERN HISTORY. whose army was completely exhausted, now resolved to march southward into the Ukraine, whither he had been invited by Mazeppa, chief of the Cossacks, who had resolved to throw off his allegiance to the Czar. Peter discovered the plans of the rebellious chief and thwarted them by the execution of his associates; and Mazeppa appeared in the Swedish camp as a fugitive, rather than as a powerful ally. Swedish Misfortunes. — Charles XII. had ordered a large army from Sweden, under General Lewenhaupt,to reinfore him. While on his march to join Charles, Lewenhaupt was defeated by the Russians in three battles, with the loss of all his artillery, baggage, .and'^rovisions ; and he only succeeded in reaching the camp of Charles with a small force. The severity of the winter of 1708, 9, reduced the Swedish army to 20,000 men. At one time, 2,000 were frozen to death before the eyes of the hard-hearted Charles. Battle of Pultowa. — Notwithstanding the misfortunes and sufferings of his army, the ambitious King of Sweden was still obstinately resolved upon the con- quest of Russia. At length, Charles laid siege to the strong town of Pultowa, on the frontiers of the Ukraine. When the Czar approached, with 70,000 men, for the relief of the garrison, Charles hastened with the greater portion of his army to give battle to Peter, leaving the remainder to press the siege with vigor. On the 8th of July, 1709, was fought the great battle of Pultowa, which ended forever the splen- did career of Charles XII. of Sweden. In this battle, Peter the Great and his subjects fully proved that they had profited by the lessons of their enemies. The Swedes charged with such impetuosity that the Russian cavalry were forced back, but the Russian infantiy held their ground until the cavalry had rallied and again gone into the fight. In the meantime, the Russiaan artillery had made frightful havoc in the Swedish ranks. Having left his heavy cannon in the morasses, Charles could not contend successfully against his antagonist; and, after a terrible battle of two hours, the Swedish army was hopelessly annihilated. Having been wounded during the siege of Pultowa, Charles was carried about the field in a litter, which was shattered to pieces by a cannon-ball while the battle was raging. The Czar's hat was pierced by a musket-ball, and his favorite general, Menzikoff, had three horses shot under him. Eight-thousand Swedish troops lay dead on the san- guinary field, and 6,000 were made prisoners by the victorious Russians; and after retreating to the Dnieper, 12,000 were compelled to surrender to the pursuing Rus- sians, and the once-splendid army of Charles XII. was totally destroyed. The Swedish soldiers who were made prisoners by the Russians were dispersed over the vast Russian Empire, and not one of them ever returned to his native land. Many perished in the wilds of Siberia. Flight of Charles XII. to Turkey — New Coalition Against Sweden. — The once-conquering Charles XII. now became a helpless fugitive; and, with 300 of his guards, he fled to the Turkish town of Bender, having lost in one day all what he had gained during nine years of war. The dethroned Augustus now reentered Poland, and wrested the Polish crown from Stanislaus Leczinski; and Denmark, Poland, and Russia renewed their alliance against Sweden. The King of Prussia laid claim to certain Swedish possessions in Germany, and joined the coalition against Sweden. Peter the Great invaded the Swedish provinces on the east side of the Baltic, the King of Denmark fell upon Schleswig, and the Prus- sians seized upon Swedish Pomerania. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 277 Charles XII. Incites the Turks to a War on Russia — Russo-Turkish Treaty. — The Swedish monarch met with an honorable reception at the hands of the Turks. He lived at Bender in royal splendor as the guest of the Sultan. He did not entertain a single thought of returning to his kingdom without having first conquered Russia. Charles made use of all the means at his command to induce the Turks to make war on Russia, and at length he succeeded. A Turkish army of 200,000 men marched to the Pruth, where it was met by a Russian army under the Czar Peter. After four days of hard fighting, in July, 17 1 1, Peter and his whole army would have been killed or made prisoners had not Peter's wife, Catharine, corrupted the Turks with Russian gold, and thus brought about an honorable peace. Charles could not repress his rage at finding all his hopes for the overthrow of his great rival thus blasted. Resistance of Charles XII. to the Turkish Government. — The obstinate Charles XII. still determined to remain in Turkey, even after the Sultan had ordered him to leave (he Ottoman dominions; and the Porte found it necessary to employ forcible means to send him away. Arming his immediate attendants, about 300 in number, Charles defied a Turkish army of 26,000 men. After a fierce re- sistance, in which m.any of his attendants were killed, and the house in which he defended himself had been set on fire, Charles was made a prisoner. The Swedish monarch remained a captive in Turkey ten months longer, wasting his time in use- less obstinacy. Swedish Disasters. — In the meantime, the Swedish army under General Steinbock had defeated the Danes and the Saxons at Galesbrusch, in Mecklenburg, and burned the defenseless town of Altona, but were afterwards compelled to surrender as prisoners of war to the Czar of Russia. The Russian arms were making rapid progress in the Swedish province of Finland, and the Russian fleet gained a great victory over the Swedish navy, near the island of Aland, in the Bal- tic sea. Return of Charles XII. to Sweden. — When Charles XII. learned that the Council which governed Sweden in his absence was about to appoint his sister regent of the kingdom, and make peace with Russia and Denmark, he resolved to return to Sweden. The Swedish king left the Ottoman territories in October, 1714; and, after having travelled through Hungary and Germany, in the disguise of a peasant, he unexpectedly arrived at Stralsund, in .Swedish Pomerania. Siege and Capture of Stralsund. — At length, the allied Danish, Saxon, and Prussian armies laid siege to Stralsund. After a heroic defense on the part of the Swedes for over a year, Stralsund was surrendered to the besieging enemy, in December, 1715, whereupon the whole of Pomerania, and the island of Rugen, were taken possession of by the Prussians. Charles escaped to Sweden in a boat, and still obstinately refused to consent to a peace. Invasion of Norway by Charles XII. — Scheme of Baron Gortz, — In 1716, Charles XII. invaded Norway, for the purpose of humbling the King of Denmark for violating the Peace of Travendal. Charles soon returned to Sweden; and his attention was now occupied with the bold political schemes of his Prime- Minister, Baroti von Gortz, who was negotiating with Peter the Great for an alliance between Russia and Sweden by which these two powers might dictate law to Europe. 278 MODERN HISTORY. Siege of Fredickshall and Death of Charles XII.— In 1718, the Swedish monarch invaded Norway a second time, and laid siege to the fortress of Freder- ickshall. Here the great warrior-king found his death. While reconnoitering the works, during a terrific fire from the Danish batteries, on the night of the 30th of November, 17 18, Charles XII. was killed, whether by the bullet of an assassin, or by a grape-shot from the enemy, is a disputed point in history. Ulrica Eleanora — Peace of Nystadt. — After greatly restricting the royal power, the Swedish Senate placed Ulrica Eleanora, sister to Charles XII., on the throne of Sweden; and, in 1719, Baron von Gortz was barbarously executed. In 1 72 1, the Peace of Nystadt was concluded, by which Sweden surrendered most of her foreign possessions, in return for an indemnification in money. The Baltic provinces of Ingria, Esthonia, and Livonia were ceded to Russia ; the greater part of Pomerania to Prussia; and Schleswig and Holstein to Denmark. Russia after the Northern War. — While Sweden was almost ruined by the* mad ambition of Charles XII., Russia, under the illustrious Peter the Great, was taking her place as a leading European power. Agriculture, manufactures, and commerce were encouraged, and many useful reforms were adopted. Learning that his son Alexis intended to restore the old order of things after his father's death, Peter compelled the young prince to renounce his right to the succession to the throne, and threw him into prison, where he died. Peter the Great died in 1725, and was succeeded on the Russian throne by his wife, Catharine I. Russia made rapid strides during the reigns of Catharine I., Peter II., Anna, and Elizabeth. GENERAL AFFAIRS OF EUROPE. England and Scotland — House of Brunswick — Scotch Rebellion of 1715. — Although the crowns of England and Scotland had been united in 1603, each of the two kingdoms had its own P.arliament until 1707, when it was agreed that one Parliament for both kingdoms should thenceforth meet in London ; and England, Scotland, and Wales have ever since been known by the common desig- nation of "Great Britain." Queen Anne died in 17 14, whereupon, in accordance with "The Act of Succession," passed by the English Parliament in 1689, the Elector George of Hanover became King of Great Britain, with the title of George I.; and ever since that time, the House of Hanover, or Brunswick, has occupied the British throne. The Tories were antagonistic to the House of Brunswick ; and in 1715, some of their number in Scotl.and, headed by the Earl of Mar, took up arms for the restoration of the deposed House of Stuart to the throne. The Duke of Argyle, who espoused the cause of King George I., defeated the Scotch insurgents in the battle of Sheriff-Muir, near Dumblain, in 17 16. The Earl of Derwentwater, Mr. Foster, and Lords Kinmuir and Nithsdale, who had excited a Tory, or Jacobite, insurrection in the north of England, were also defeated and made prisoners. The leaders of this rebellion suffered the penalty of death, with the exception of Lord Nithsdale, who effected his escape from the country in a very romantic manner. The insurrection was soon suppressed both in England and Scotland. King George I. died in 1727, whereupon his son, George II., ascended the British throne. War of Venice and Austria again-st Turkey — Peace of Passarovitz. — In 1 7 14, the Ottoman Porte began a war against the Republic of Venice, for the EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 279 purpose of regaining possession of the Morea. In 171 6, Austria joined Venice in the war; and the Austrian army, under the great Prince Eugene, defeated the im- mense hosts of the Turks at I'eterwardein, in 1716, and at Belgrade, in 1717. By the Peace of Passarovitz, in 17 18, the Porte surrendered Belgrade to Austria, but Venice ceded the Morea to the Suhan. War of the Quadruple Alliance against Spain. — The intriguing efforts of the able, but unprincipled, Cardinal Alberoni, the Prime-Minister of Philip V. of Spain, for placing the Pretender, son of James II., on the throne of England ; for obtaining the regency and succession to the throne of France for the King of Spain ; and for wresting Sicily from the House of Austria, to which that island had been assigned by the treaty of Rastadt, produced, in 1717, a "Quadruple Alliance" of England, France, Holland, and Gennany, for the purpose of compelling Si)ain to observe the stipulations of the treaty of Utrecht. The Spanish fleet in the Mediter- ranean sea was defeated and destroyed by a British squadron under Admiral liyng; the Spanish troops in Sicily were defeated by the Austrians ; while a French force invaded Northern Spain and gained some successes. These events alarmed the weak and imbecile monarch of Spain, who consequently dismissed and banished his ambitious Minister and made peace, in 1718. The Mississippi Scheme. — The wars occasioned by the ambition of Louis XIV. had reduced the finances of P'rance to a most deplorable condition, and an effort undertaken to remedy the evil only hastened their entire ruin. (1720.) This remedy was the famous " Mississippi Scheme," projected by the Scotchman, John Law. The regent adopted the plan proposed by Law, who assured him that it would add enormously to the wealth and prosperity of France ; and a commercial association, called "The Mississippi Company," was organized, the profits of whose extensive trade with the French province of Louisiana, in North America, were to liquidate the whole national debt of France. Measures were taken to depreciate the value of the gold and silver coin, and the success of Law's project at first ex- ceeded all expectations. The people throughout France, with one impulse of avarice, exchanged their gold and silver for paper money; and the notes that were issued soon arose to eighty per cent, of the value of the current coin. But the bank finally failed; the gold and silver had all disappeared; the worthless paper money only remained ; and thousands of families were reduced to poverty. The popular indig- nation finally compelled Law to leave France. The South- Sea Scheme. — A project similar to the Mississippi Scheme was undertaken in England about the same time. (1720.) This project was the cele- brated " South-Sea Scheme," proposed by Sir George Blount. The plan projected by Blount was the buying-up of the entire national debt of Great Britain by a com- mercial association, styled -"The South-Sea Company," because it had been origi- nally formed to trade to the Pacific Ocean, or South Sea. This debt, which had been contracted chiefly by King William III. in carrying on his wars against France, already amounted to an enormous sum. The Ministry readily adopted the plan projected by Blount, who gave every assurance that it would be to the advantage of the nation, as well as to the South-Sea Company ; and the people throughout England, seized with an insatiable avarice, exchanged their entire fortunes for stock in the South-Sea Company. The scheme was at first successful, and the stock of the Company arose to ten times the value for which it was subscribed; but finally 28o MODERN HlSrOKY. the bubble burst, and thousands of families were involved in utter financial ruin. A storm of px)pular indignation manifested itself against the unprincipled contrivers of the scheme, and many of them were justly punished by the Parliament, with the forfeiture of all the wealth and estates which they had so dishonorably acquired. War of the Polish Succession. — On the death of Augustus II. of Poland, in 1733, the Polish Diet chose the deposed Stanislaus Leczinski to the throne of Poland; but Stanislaus was expelled from the country by the military power of Germany and Russin, and the sou of Augustus II. was elevated to the Polish throne, with the title of Augustus III. Louis XV. of France, who had married a daughter of Stanislaus, opposed the action of Germany and Russia, and thus brought about "The War of the Polish Succession." Spain and S.irdinia formed alliances with I'Vancc. In Northern Italy, the combined French and Sardinian armies de- feated the Auslrians in two bloody campaigns; while the Spanish troops under Don Carlos expelled the Auslrians from the Kingdom of Naples. The German imperial forces, under Prince Eugene, were everywhere defeated on the Rhine, and forced to retire before the advance of the French. In 1735, a treaty of jieace was signed, by which Stanislaus renounced his claims to the throne of Poland, and received in lieu the German Dukedom of Lorraine; while Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine, son-in law of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany, was to receive the Italian Duchy of Tuscany, on the approaching extinction of the famous House of Medici. On the death of Stanislaus, Lorraine was to be forever united with the French monarchy. Spain obtained the Kingdom of Naples for Don Carlos, and the leading powers confirmed the Pragmatic Sanction, which the Emperor Charles VI. had framed for the purpose of securing the pe.acable succession to his here- ditary Austrian estates to his daughter Maria Theresa. War of Russia and Austria against Turkey — Peace of Belgrade. — In 1736, the Empress Anna of Russia began a war .against the Turks. In 1737, Aus- tria took part in the war, as an ally of Russia. The Russians conquered the Crimea from the Turks, but the Austrians were defeated on the Danube, and forced to a disgraceful retreat. In 1 739, the Peace of Belgrade put an end to hostilities between Austria and Turkey, Austria surrendering lielgrade to the Turks. Peace was also soon made between Russia and the Porte. War between England and Spain. — The general tran([uility which Western •and Southern Europe had enjoyed since the Peace of Utrecht was owing to the efforts of the Prime-Ministers of England and France, Sir Robert Walpole and Car- dinal Fleury; but commercial difliculties between England and Spain led to a war between those two powers in 1739. An English naval expedition under Admiral Vernon captured the rich Spanish town of Porto BcUo, on the northern coast of South America; but in the following year (1740), Vernon's fleet, in conjunction with an English land force under General Wentworth, w.as repulsed in an attack upon Carthagena, another Spanish American town. At the same time, a British fleet under Commodore Anson sailed to the South American waters, and afterwards crossed the Pacific to China, in search of a rich Spanish galleon, which was finally captured, after which Anson completed his voyage around the globe. This Anglo- Spanish war was soon merged in that general European contest known as the War of the Austrian Succession, and was ended by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in October, 1748. ETGHTEENTH CENTURY. gg, War between Russia and Sweden — Peace of Abo. — In 1741, Sweden, whose king, Frederic, was controlled by a Selfish aristocracy, began a war against the Empress Elizabeth of Russia. After the war had continued two years, and several of the Swedish provinces on the east side of the Baltic had been conquered by the Russians, the Peace of Abo was concluded, on terms not very honorable to Sweden. (1743.) PERSIA AND INDIA. Afghan Invasion of Persia — Reign of Kouli Khan or Nadir Shah. — After the death of tiie Great Sltnh Al)bas, in 1624, Persia rajiidly declined in national greatness; and, in 1722, the country was invaded and desolated by the Afghans, who held Persia for seven wretched years, during which they destroyed a million of its population. In 1736, Kouli Khan, who had once been a camel driver, and who had risen rapidly, step by step, usurped the throne of Persia, and assumed the title of Nadir Shah. This monarch was famous for his cruelties, as well as for his vic- tories. He soon reconquered several provinces which Peter the Great of Russia, had wrested from Persia, and compelled the Turkish Sultan to cede Armenia and Georgia to him. In 1739, Nadir Shah invaded the Mogul Empire in India, took Delhi, its capital, and caused 100,000 of the inhal>itants of that city to be brutally massacred. In 1747, this bloody mc^nstcr and tyrant was assassinated by one of his own guards, after which Persia again declined in importance. Decline and Fall of the Mogul Empire in India — Battle of Panniput. — The Mogul Empire in India, under its great sovereign, Aurungzelx;, who held the crown from 1659 to 1707, had attained the zenith of its greatness and power. After the death of Aurungzelje, in 1707, the empire rapidly verged toward its fall, and soon crumbled to pieces. While the Mogul power declined, the Mahratta states were becoming the leading power in Ilindoostan, while the Afghans had estab- lished a powerful monarchy west of the Indus. The Afghans at length marched against the Mahrattas, who had advanced into the Mogul territories; and on the 7th of January, 1761, was fought the great battle of Panniput, near Delhi. Each army numbered 200,000 men. The Mahratta army was almost totally destroyed, and the victorious Afghans returned home. The power of the Mogul emperor was now at an end. AGE OF FREDERIC THE GREAT AND CATHARINE II. WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION (A. D. 1741-1748). CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE WAR. The New Kingdom of Prussia — Frederic the Great. — The Great Elector of Brandenl;urg, Frederic William, who reigned from 1640 to 1688, enlarged his dominions on all sides by conquest, freed Prussia from the supremacy of Poland, encouraged agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, and laid the foundations of a great kingdom. On the death of the Great Elector, in 1688, his son Frederic suc- ceeded to the electoral throne of Brandenburg; and at KOnigsburg, in 1 701, with 28-2 MODERN HISTORY. the consent of the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany, he was crowned the first King of Prussia, with the title of Frederic L The new kingdom was recognized by the European powers in the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt, in 1713 and 1 7 14. Fred- eric I. died in 1713, whereupon his son, the brutal and tyrannical Frederic William I., received the crown of Prussia. Frederic William I, died in 1 740, and was suc- ceeded on the Prussian throne by his son, the illustrious Frederic II., surnamed "the Great," who, by his abilities as a general and a statesman, raised Prussia to a front rank in the list of nations. Frederic II., on his accession to the throne, re- ceived a well-provided treasury, and a powerful, well organized, and slnctly-disci- plined army. Death of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany — The Pragmatic Sanction. — The Emperor Charles VI. of Germany, who had been the competitor of Philip of Anjou for the throne of Spain, died in 1 740. Having no male heirs, he had, a short time before his death, obtained, by gi^eat concessions, among which was the cession of the German Dukedom of Lorraine to France, the agreement of all the leading European powers to the famous " Pragmatic Sanction," by which he left the succession to his hereditary Austrian dominions to his only daughter, Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary, wife of Duke Francis Stephen of Lorraine. Coalition against Maria Theresa. — No sooner had the Emperor Charles VI. descended to his grave, than a host of claimants appeared for various portions of the hereditary Austrian estates, and endeavored to make good their pretensions by force of anns. The Elector of Bavaria, Charles Albert, laid claim to the heredi- tary States of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary, as a descendant of the eldest daugh- ter of the Emperor Ferdinand I.; Augustus III., Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, raised claims to Moravia; Frederic II., the young King of Prussia, revived some old pretensions of the House of Hohenzollern to Silesia ; Spain cast a longing eye on some of the Italian possessions of the House of Austria; and France, regarding the opportunitiy auspicious for the humiliation of the proud House of Hapsburg, readily violated the Pragmatic Sanction, by supporting the claims of the Elector of Bavaria to the Austrian succession. England alone at first espoused the cause of Maria Theresa, furnishing her with large subsidies, and afterwards offering her military aid; and Holland and Sardinia finally took up arms in her favor. This contest, which convulsed Europe for seven years, is known as " The War of the Austrian Succesion." EVENTS OF 1741. First Silesian War — Battle of Molvitz. — Soon after the death of the Em- peror Charles VI., Frederic II. of Prussia made a sudden irruption into Silesia, at the head of 30,000 men. Frederic speedily conquered Silesia, and offered to enter into an alliance with Maria Theresa, if she confirmed him in the possession of his new conquest; but the young Queen of Austria and Hungary declared her deter- mination to uphold the integrity of her hereditary dominions, and thus gave occa- sion to "The First Silesian War." On the loth of April, 1741, hostihties were commenced by the battle of Molvitz, in which the King of Prussia, by the skill and bravery of his two leading generals. Prince Leopold of Dessau and Marshal Schwe- rin, gained a complete victory over the Austrians; and was thus enabled to hold possession of Silesia. EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 283 French and Bavarian Invasion of Austria and Bohemia. — France having determined to support the cause of the Elector of Bavaria, a powerful French army under Marshal Belleisle marched into Germany, and, after having been joined by the Bavarians and the Saxons, invaded the Archduchy of Austria, captured Lintz, menaced Vienna, compelled Maria Theresa to flee from her capital, and then marched into Bohemia and took possession of Prague. Charles VII. Emperor of Germany. — The Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria was crowned at Lintz as Archduke of Austria, and at Prague as King of Bohemia; and, through the influence of France and Prussia, the German Electoral Princes, in the Diet at Frankfort-on-the-Main, elected him to the imperial throne of Ger- many, with the title of Charles VII. Maria Theresa and the Hungarians. — With her infant son Joseph in her arms, Maria Theresa appeared in the Diet of the Hungarian nobles at Presburg, and sympathetically appealed to them to aid her in her distressed condition. The hearts of the Hungarians were touched, and they unanimously exclaimed, " Mori- amur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa!" "We will die for our sovereign, Maria Theresa!" EVENTS OF 1742. Austrian Invasion of Bavaria. — Troops of Croats, Pandours, and Slaves, wild and warlike races of Southeran Hungary, under the conduct of Khevenhuller, and Barenklau, now flocked to the standard of Maria Theresa, and, after driving the French and the Bavarians out of the Austrian territories, entered Bavaria, and took possession of Munich on the very day that the Elector of Bavaria was crowned Emperor at Frankfort. The new Emperor was obliged to live in retirement from his hereditary Bavarian dominions, which were frightfully plundered and devastated by the Austrians and the Hungarians. Frederic's Invasion of Bohemia — Battle of Czaslau — Peace of Breslau. — In the meantime, the King of Prussia had invaded Bohemia with a powerful army; and on the i6th of May, 1742, he was fiercely attacked near Czaslau, by the Austrians under Prince Charles of Lorraine and Field-Marshal Konigseg. By the irresistible impetuosity of the Prussian cavalry, under Field-Marshal Buddenbrock, and a dashing charge by the Prussian infantry, headed by Frederic in person, the Austrians were repulsed with heavy loss. This victory gave Frederic full possession of Silesia. On the 28th of July, 1742, Frederic concluded with Maria Theresa the Peace of Breslau, by which he was left in possession of Silesia. Bohemia Recovered from the French — Belleisle's Retreat Through Germany. — After the Peace of Breslau with the King of Prussia, the Austrians recovered the greater part of Bohemia from the French. The French army under Marshal Belleisle was besieged in Prague, and at length compelled to evacuate that city and retreat in the midst of winter to Eger, and thence through Germany to the Rhine, after immense losses, only 13,000 men of Belleisle's once-splendid army surviving. EVENTS OF 1743. Alliance of England with Maria Theresa — Battle of Dettingen. — In 1743, England began to take an active part in the war against France, as an ally 284 MODERN HISTORY. of Maria Theresa. An English army of 40,000 men, under King George II. and the Earl of Stair, having advanced into Germany, was attacked by a French army of 60,000 men, under Marshal de Noailles, at the village of Dettingen, near Aschaf- fenburg. Brought by the excellent arrangements of the French marshal into a perilous position, where advance or retreat was impossible, without being exposed to attack at the greatest disadvantage, the whole English army with the king would have become prisoners to the French but for the impetuosity of one of the French commanders, who attacked the English through a narrow defile, where his troops, becoming entangled, were fiercely assailed by the Earl of Stair, and all the plans of Noailles were disconcerted. A general engagement ensued, and the French were disastrously defeated and compelled to retreat. The English, however, ne- glected to follow up their victory. EVENTS OF 1744. Invasion of the Netherlands by Louis XV. — Austrian Invasion of Alsace. — In 1744, a French army, commanded by King Lx>uis XV. in person, invaded the Austrian Netherlands and captured several towns; but in the midst of his victorious career, the King of France was obliged to return, to defend his own dominions against the Austrians, who, under Prince Charles of Lorraine, crossed the Rhine and conquered the greater portion of Alsace. The Austrians were, however, soon recalled to operate against the King of Prussia, who had again taken up arms against Maria Theresa. Second Silesian War — Frederic's Second Invasion of Bohemia. — Fear- ing that Maria Theresa, encouraged by her successes against the French and the Bavarians, would make an attempt to reconquer Silesia, Frederic II. of Prussia commenced "The Second Silesian War" by invading Bohemia with 70,000 troops. In September (1744), Frederic laid siege to Prague, which was soon compelled to surrender, with its garrison of 18,000 Austrian troops. Frederic was, however, soon compelled to retreat, with the loss of 20,000 men, as the promised diversion of the French on the side of the Rhine was prevented by the illness of Louis XV. at Metz. EVENTS OF 1743, '46, '47, '48. Death of the Emperor Charles VII. — Francis I. Emperor of Germany. — The Emperor Charles VII. of Germany died on the 20th of January, 1745; and his son, Maximilian Joseph, who succeeded him as Elector of Bavaria, made peace with Maria Theresa, renouncing all cl.iims to the Austrian dominions. Maria Theresa's husband, Francis of Lorraine, was elected Emperor of Germany, with the title of Francis I. Although the original cause of the war was now removed, the national hatred which animated England and France prevented the restoration of a general peace. Battles of Hohenfriedberg, Sorr, and Kesselsdorf — Peace of Dresden. — In the meantime, the Austrians, under the able Field-Marshal Traun, had recon- quered Silesia from the Prussians. But the Prussians soon regained the supremacy by some splendid triumphs: on the 3d of June, 1745, Frederic II. won a brilliant victory over the Austrians among the hills of Hohenfriedberg; a Prussian force under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick gained a victory at Sorr; and Prince Leo- EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 285 pold of Dessau, with Prussian troops, defeated the Saxons, who were now the aUies of the Austriaas, in a bloody engagement at Kesselsdorf; and the King of Prussia entered Dresden, the Saxon capital, in triumph. The Second Silesian War was ended by the Peace of Dresden, by which Maria Theresa consented to leave Silesia in the possession of Frederic, who in turn recognized her husband as Emperor. The War in the Austrian Netherlands— Battles of Fontenoy, Raucoux, and Laffeld. — The Austrian Netheriands were now the theatre of some severe struggles on the part of the French against the united armies of England, Holland, and Austria. On the 30th of April, 1745, was fought the great battle of Fontenoy, in which the combined English, Dutch, and Austrian forces, commanded by the Duke of Cumberland, son of George II. of England, were thoroughly defeated, with the loss of 7,000 men, by the French army, numbering 50,000 men, under the com- mand of Marshal Saxe, a natural son of Augustus III. of Poland. The French were also victorious in the battle of Raucoux, in 1746, and in the battle of Laffeld, in 1747; and the campaign there terminated with the expulsion of the Austrians, and their Dutch and English allies, from the Austrian Netherlands. Campaign in Italy — Expulsion of the French and the Spaniards. — While the military events just related were occurring in Germany and in the Austrian Netherlands, bloody conflicts were taking place in Italy, between the armies of France, Spain, and Naples, on the one side, and the forces of Austria and Sardinia on the other. In 1746, the Austrians and Sardinians won the battle of Piacenza over the French and the Spaniards, who, after a bloody campaign the following year, were entirely driven from Italy. Scotch Rebellion of 1745 — Battles of Preston-Pans, Falkirk, and Cul- loden Moor. — In 1745, Prince Charies Edward, "The Young Pretender," grand- son of James II., encouraged by the defeat of the English at Fontenoy, resolved to attempt the restoration of his family to the throne of Great Britain. He sailed from France in a French vessel, and, after landing in Scotland, was joined by some of the Highland clans. The Pretender took possession of Edinburgh, on the i6th of September; and, on the 21st of the same month, he defeated the Government forces under Sir John Cope in the battle of Preston-Pans, and proclaimed his father King of Scotland, with the title of James VIII. Elated by success, the Pretender marched into England, took the town of Carlisle, and advanced to within a hundred miles of London, creating the greatest consternation throughout the kingdom; but he was soon obliged to retreat into Scotland. The Pretender was again victorious over the Royal forces under General Hawley, at Falkirk, on the 13th of January, 1746; but in the memorable battle of Culloden Moor, near Inverness, on the i6th of April, 1746, the Pretender was hopelessly defeated by the Royal army under the Duke of Cumberland, and there his cause and that of the Stuart family received its death-blow. The English tarnished the glory of their victory by acts of cruelty, and by a savage desolation of the country around Culloden. After a series of ro- mantic adventures and narrow escapes. Prince Charles Edward reached France in safety. Many of his adherents were punished with death, and hundreds were banished to America. The War in America — Capture of Louisburg. — The war between England and France extended to America. On the 28th of June, 1745, after a siege of one 286 MODERN HISTORY. month, the strong French fortress of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton, was surrendered to a British fleet under Admiral Warren and an English colonial land force under General William Pepperell. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. — The War of the Austrian Succession was closed by the Peace of Aix-Ia-Chajielle, in October, 1748, on the basis of a mutual resti- tution of all conquests made during the war. France recognized the succession of the House of Brunswick to the throne of Great Britain ; and Maria Theresa was confirmed in the sovereignty of all the hereditary Austrian territories, except Silesia, which remained with the King of Prussia. THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR (A. D. 1756-1763). CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE "WAR. Disputes Between France and England — Colonies in North America. - -The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle proved to be nothing more than a hollow truce. Many of the questions at issue between France and England were left unsettled, and thus grounds were furnished for a renewal of hostilities. The limits of the English colony of Nova Scotia, in North America, the right claimed by the French to connect their settlements in Louisiana and Canada by a line of forts in the rear of the English colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America, and the desire of both nations to obtain a political preponderance in India, all led to protracted dis- putes which soon resulted in another war. In 1754, hostilities broke out between the English and French colonists in North America, although the two mother- countries did not formally declare war against each other until M.ay, 1756. In 1755, an English force under General Monckton reduced the French forts in Nova Scotia, but the English general Braddock was defeated and killed in an ex- pedition against Fort DuQuesne, and his army was only saved from total destruction by the valor and prudence of Colonel George Washington, who commanded the English colonial forces. Relations of Austria and Prussia — The Province of Silesia. — It was very evident that Austria and Prussia could not long remain at peace, as the Empress Maria Theresa, who could not forget the loss of Silesia, was determined to recover that province. She spent the eight years after the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in forming alliances with the other courts of Europe against the great Frederic II. of Prussia, for the purpose of realizing her determination. Coalition against Frederic the Great. — The two causes of dispute already mentioned had no direct connection with each other, yet mutual interests led to the formation of alliances. The strangest feature of all was the alliance of Austria and France, nations that had been enemies for two centuries; and the coalition of Prussia and England, nations that had hitherto appeared extremely jealous of each other. This change of policy on the part of France was brought about by Madame Pompadour, the favorite mistress of the dissolute monarch, Louis XV., who, capti- vated by a flattering letter from the Empress Maria Theresa, and angry at the sar- casm which the King of Prussia had uttered against her, was easily won to the side of the Austrian empress. The profligate empress, Elizabeth of Russia, affronted at the sarcastic manner in which Frederic spoke of her, was easily induced by her prime-minister, Bestucheff, to conclude an alliance with Maria Theresa against EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 287 Prussia. Augustus III., Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, who was also offended at Frederic's sarcasm, formed an alliance with the Austrian empress- queen. Sweden, through the influence of the French court, joined the coalition against the Prussian monarch. Thus Austria, France, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden were united against Prussia and England. The English carried on a successful war against the French on the ocean, in North America, and in the East and West Indies ; but they could give lillle effective aid to the Prussian king against the powerful ene- mies who threatened to wrest from him a large portion of his dominions, and reduce him to the condition of an Elector of Brandenburg. But the great military ability of Frederic, and the splendid discipline of the Prussian army, enabled Prussia to come forth from the gigantic struggle powerful and victorious. EVENTS OF 1736. Frederic's Invasion of Saxony — Battle of Lowositz — Surrender of the Saxons. — The King of Prussia did not wait to be attacked; but, resolving to sur- prise his enemies by an unexpected blow, he was first in the field. In Aug;ust, 1756, he suddenly burst into Saxony, with an army of 70,000 men, took possession of Leipsic, Wittenberg, and Dresden, and blockaded the Saxon army, which had established a strongly-fortified camp at Pirna, on the Elbe. At the head of only 25,000 men, Frederic the Great, in the battle of Lowositz, defeated 50,000 Austrians under General Brown, who were marching to the relief of the Saxons; after which he compelled the Saxon forces, reduced by hunger to 14,000 men, to surrender themselves prisoners of war, and forced them into the Prussian service. The Elector Augustus III. now abandoned Saxony, and retired into Poland, where he remained until the end of the war. Thus Frederic the Great conquered Saxony in his first campaign in the Seven Years' War. Disasters to the English. — While the Prussians were thus victorious in the campaign of 1756, their allies, the English, were not so fortunate. The island of Minorca, in the Mediterranean sea, was captured by a French force, after a gallant defense on the part of the English ; and in North America, the French general Montcalm crossed Lake Ontario from Canada, and captured the English fort and garrison at Oswego. EVENTS OF 1757. The Immense Armies of Frederic's Enemies. — The enemies of Frederic the Great assembled immense armies for the campaign of 1757; a Russian army of 130,000 men entered Prussia on the east; a Swedish force of 20,000 men wa.s preparing to march into the Prussian province Of Pomerania; 80,000 French troops were advancing from the west; and 180,000 Austrians were in the field. Battle of Prague. — After some maneuvering by which he completely deceived the Austrians, the King of Prussia began the campaign of 1757 by invading Bohe- mia. On the 6jth of May, at the head of 70,000 men, Frederic attacked 75,000 Austrians at Prague. The assaults of the Prussians were at first repulsed, and the old Prussian marshal Schwerin fell fighting at the head of his regiment; but the fall of the brave Austrian marshal Brown finally decided the battle, which ended in a glorious victory for the Prussians. Frederic, however, purchased his triumph at a heavy cost, as 12,500 of his brave troops lay dead or wounded on the field of battle. 288 MODERN HIS TOR Y. Battle of Kolin. — Seeking to follow up his victory at Prague, Frederic the Great, on the i8th of June (1757), attacked the Austrians under Count Daun, who occupied a strong position at Kolin. After a bloody battle, in which the Austrians at first gave way, the Prussian king was so badly defeated that he was obliged to raise the siege of Prague, and evacuate Bohemia as speedily as possible. Desperate Situation of Frederic the Great. — The disastrous result of the battle of Kolin deprived Frederic the Great of the fruits of his former victories, and it seemed as though he must fall before the overwhelming power of his numer- ous enemies, who now threatened him on all sides. His English and Hanoverian allies, under the Duke of Cumberland, after having been defeated by the French at Hastenbach, were compelled, by the disgraceful convention of Closterseven, to lay down their arms, thus leaving the French at liberty to operate against Frederic in Saxony. A Russian army of 100,000 men, under Apraxin, invaded Prussia on the east, defeated 24,000 Prussians under Lehwald, and advanced against Frederic; 20,000 Swedish troops entered Pomerania, and advanced toward the Prussian capital; and an Austrian army invaded Silesia and besieged Schweidnitz, while another Austrian force made its way through Lusatia, and laid Berlin under contri- bution. Battle of Rosbach. — In his desperate situation Frederic the Great saw that he must strike a decisive blow in order to save himself from utter ruin. He accord- ingly marched into Saxony, for the purpose of expelling the French from that coun- try. With only 25,000 men, Frederic occupied a height at the little village of Rosbach, where he was soon confronted by 70,000 French and Austrian troops, under the Prince of Soubise, a favorite of Madame Pompadour. The object of the French and their Austrian allies was to see whether the King of Prussia would venture to attack them. They resolved to surround Frederic, take him and his whole army prisoners, and thus put an end to the war at once. At length, at two o'clock in the afternoon of the 5th of November (1757), Frederic gave his orders to attack, and immediately his troops fell so suddenly and irresistibly, and with such rapidity of movement, upon the enemy that in less than half an hour the French and their allies fled from the field in dismay; and Frederic won a glorious victory. Some of the French troops fled into the middle of Germany, while many did not stop in their flight until they had crossed the Rhine. On this memorable field Frederic lost only 515 men in killed and wounded. He took 7,000 prisoners, among whom were eleven generals. He invited the most distinguished of his prisoners to sup with him, and, after expressing his regret at not being able to afibrd them a better entertainment, he said, " Gentlemen, I did not expect you soon, nor in such large numbers." Battle of Leuthen. — By his victor)' at Rosbach, Frederic the Great recovered the whole of Saxony. He next marched into Silesia, which province had been taken possession of by a large Austrian army under Prince Charles of Lorraine. On the 5th of December, 1757, exactly one month after the battle of Rosbach, Frederic, with only 30,000 men, met 90,000 Austrians under Charles of Lorraine, at Leuthen. Frederic immediately took possession of some heights near by, which masked the movements of his troops; and then deceiving the Austrians by a false attack upon their right wing, he suddenly turned and attacked their left so fiercely EIGHTEENTH CENTUR V. 289 that it was routed before the right could render it any assistance ; and, after a con- flict of three hours, Frederic won one of the most brilliant victories of modern times. The entire Prussian loss was only 5,000 men, while the Austrian loss was over 28,000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners. English Assistance to Frederic the Great. — The brilliant achievements of Frederic the Great at Rosbach and Leuthen created the greatest enthusiasm in England for the King of Prussia and his army; and the English Government, then under the direction of the great statesman, the elder William Pitt, agreed to furnish liberal subsidies to Frederic, and to send another army into Germany. While the war was thas raging fiercely in Europe, the English experienced another misfortune in North America, the French general Montcalm having captured Fort William Henry, in the province of New York. EVENTS OF 17S8. Movements of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. — The campaign of 1758 was commenced by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, who, through the influence of the King of Prussia, was appointed to the command of the English and Hanoverian army. With only 30,000 men, Ferdinand drove the French army of 90,000 men across the Rhine, early in the spring, and routed them at Crefeld with heavy loss. Battle of Zorndorf. — After some important movements against the Austriaas in Silesia and Moravia, Frederic the Great marched against the Russians, who were perpetrating the most barbarous atrocities in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, sparing neither age nor sex. On the 24th of August (1758), Frederic, at the head of 30,000 men, met 60,000 Russians under Fermor, near the village of Zorndorf, not far from Frankfort-on-the-Oder. Here was fought one of the bloodiest battles of the Seven Years' War. It began at nine o'clock in the morning, and ended at ten in the evening, when 19,000 Russians and 1 1,000 Prussians lay dead or wounded on the sanguinary field. Frederic was victorious, and the Russians were obliged to evacuate the Prussian dominions and retreat into Poland. Battle of Hochkirchen. — After the battle of Zorndorf, Frederic the Great marched into Saxony, to the assistance of his brother Henry, who was hard pressed by the Austrians. On the 14th of October, Frederic was surprised and disastrously defeated at Hochkirchen, by the Austrians under Count Daun. In this bloody engagement Frederic lost all his artillery and baggage. Frederic in Silesia and Saxony. — The King of Prussia was not discouraged by his disaster at Hochkirchen. Daun was foiled in all attempts to follow up his victory; and Frederic again expelled the Austrians from Silesia, and then returned to Saxony, and, after compelling Daun to raise the sieges of Dresden and Lei;Kic, drove him into Bohemia. English Successes in North America. — In 1758, success gleamed upon the English arms in North America, where three important posts were wrested from the French. After a siege of more than a month, the French fortress of LouLsburg, on the island of Cape Breton, surrendered to the English under General Amherst, on the 26th of July ; Fort Du Quesne was evacuated by its French garrison, on the approach of an English force under General John Forbes ; and Fort Frontenac, at the foot of Lake Ontario, in Canada, was captured by an English force under Colo- 19 2 go MODERN HISTORY. nel Bradstrcet; hut the English general Ahercromhie was rcpulscfl in an attack upon the fortress of T icondcroga, on the western border of Lake Champlain. EVENTS OF 17B9. Battle of Kunersdorf. — At the commencement of the campaign of 1759, the Auslrians overran Saxony and threatened Berlin; the Russians under SollikofT defeated the Prussian detachments on the Oder, menaced Silesia, and at length effected a junction with the Austrians under Laudon. Frederic the Great was in a most perilous situation. In the midst of thc-se accumulating dangers, he resolved upon striking an effective blow. He at length set his army in motion; and, on the 1 2th of August, 1759, with only 50,000 men, he attacked the united Austrian and Russian armies under Laudon and Soltikoff, numbering together 100,000 men, at Kunersdorf, not far from Frankfort-on-the-Oder. Frederic was at first successful, and the enemy were driven from the field; but the stubborn Russians rallied and renewed the fight; and a terrific charge of the Austrian cavalry, headed by Laudon in person, put the entire Prassian army to rout. This disaster was a grievous blow to Frederic the Great. The Prussian loss was more than 18,000 men, and the total Austrian and Russian loss amounted to almost 16,000 men. Berlin was in danger of falling into the hands of the enemy, and Frederic's cause seemed ruined; but, instead of following up their victory, the Austrian and Ru-ssian generals, who were jealous of each other, spent so much time in quarreling that the King of Prussia was enabled to collect another army ; and Berlin was again safe. Disasters to Prussian Detachments. — At this unfortunate period of his military career, P'rederic the Great was constantly receiving intelligence of defeats sustained by his detachments ; and his situation was extremely dangerous. One of the Prussian generals was defeated at Maxen ; and another at Meissen; and Dresden fell into the hands of the Austrians. Operations of Prince Ferdinand of Brnnswick — Battle of Minden. — While Frederic the Great was so unfortunate during the year 1759, his English and Hanoverian allies, under their able commander. Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, were conducting a successful campaign against the French. Altough Ferdinand was beaten, on the 13th of April, in the battle of Bergen, near Frankfort-on-the- Main, he defeated the French so badly in a sanguinary Ijattlc at Minden, on the 1st of August, that they were obliged to abandon Hanover and Westphalia, and make a hasty retreat across the Rhine. In the battle of Minden the P'rench lost 8,000 men. English Conquests in North America— Capture of Quebec— While the war w.as thus raging in EuroiJC in 1759, conquest shone upon the British arms in North America, where the power of the French was irreparably broken. Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point, on the western coast of Lake Champlain, were evac- uated by their French garrisons, on the approach of an English force under General Amherst, in July; after a siege of more than a month, Fort Niagara was captured by an English force under General William Johnson; and finally, on the 13th of September, the English under General Wolfe, who had besieged Quebec for several months, scaled the Heights of Abraham, near that city, attack£d the French army under Montcalm, and, after a desperate battle, in which both Wolfe and Montcalm E[GJITEENTII CENTURY. 291 were mortally wounded, the French were hopelessly defeated; and on the 1 8th (September, 1759), the city of Quebec was surrendered to the victorious English. EVENTS OF 1760. Prussian Disasters. — The campaign of 1760 opened most disastrously for the King of Prussia. His general, Fourjuet, after gallantly maintaining himself for some time in Silesia agaiast a superior Austrian force under Laudon, was defeated on the 24th of June, at Landshut, with the loss of 8,000 men, either slain or made prisoners. Frederic himself afterwards besieged Dresden, but he was obliged to retire, on the approach of Laudon, with a strong Aastrian force, for the relief of the garrison. Laudon, however, failed to wrest. Breslau from the PriLssiaas by siege. Battle of Liegnitz. — Frederic now marched into .Silesia, to recover that prov- ince from the Austriaas. While the Austrians and Russians, in number 180,000, were preparing to surround the King of Prussia, and his complete overthrow ap- peared certain, he suddenly and furioasly assailed the astonished Laudon, at the head of the Austrian detachment, at Liegnitz, on the l6th of August. Laudon's force was terribly defeated, with the loss of 10,000 men in killed and wounded, before the reinforcement under Daun could come to the scene of action. Both Laudon and Daun fled to the Katzbach, and Frederic the Great was again master of Silesia; but Berlin was taken possession of by Austrian and Russian troops, and the hereditary dominions of Frederic were plundered and devastated. Battle of Torgau. — Frederic next marched into Saxony, with the view of expelling the Austrians from that country. On the 3d of November, he fiercely attacked the intrenched position of the Austrians under Daun, at Torgau. After a day of the most frightful carnage, Frederic gained a complete victory, but at the cost of 14,000 of his gallant troops, who lay dead on the field of battle. The con- sequence of this battle was that all of Saxony, except Dresden, was again in the hands of the King of Prussia; and the Aastrian, Russian, and Swedish forces were obliged to evacuate the Pntssian dominions. The War in North America — Conquest of Canada by the English. — The year 1760 was signalized by the total subversion of French power in North America. In April of that year, the French made an attempt to recover Quebec, and trjtally defeated the English in the battle of .Sillery, near that city, on the 28th of April; but the attempt to recover the city failed; and on the 8th of .September (1760), Montreal, the la.sc stronghold of the French in North America, surrendered to the English general Murray, and, with the fall of that post, the conquest of Canada by the English was complete. '• Family Compact " of the Bourbons. — Ferdinand VL of Spain died in 1759, and was succeeded by his son, Charles IlL, who departed from the peaceful policy of his predecessor by signing v/ith the French court the famous " Family Compact," which bound the two reigning tjranches of the House of Bourbon to assist each other against the gigantic power of Great Britain. The result of this alliance was to subject Spain to a series of disasters similar to those suffered by France. 292 MODERN HISTORY. EVENTS OF 1761, '62, '63. Campaign of 1761 — Peaceful Disposition of England. — The campaign of 1 761, which was distinguished by no important battle, was disastrous to Frederic the Great. The Austrians under Laudon captured Schweidnitz, and regained pos- session of Silesia, wliile the Russians overpowered the Prussian detachments in Pomerania. While the King of Prussia was struggling against the united power of Austria, France, Russia, and Sweden on the Continent of Europe, his powerful ally. Great Britain, was triumphant over the French and the Spaniards on the ocean, and in the East and West Indies. Belleisle, on the very coast of France, was cap- tured by the British navy ; and Pondicherry, the capital of the French possessions in India, surrendered to the English. Cuba and the Philippine Islands were taken from the Spaniards by powerful British naval armaments. The English people had now grown extremely tired of the war in Germany; and after the accession of George III. to the British throne, in October, 1760, the English Government, under the direction of the Earl of Bute, had shown itself ardently anxious for peace, even at the cost of abandoning the cause of the King of Prussia. Death of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia — Alliance of Russia and Prussia. — It now appeared that Frederic the Great must fall before the over- whelming power of Austria and Russia; but in January, 1762, the Empress Eliza- beth of Russia, Frederic's implacable enemy, died, and was succeeded by Peter III., who ardently admired the talents and courage of Frederic, and who immediately concluded a treaty of peace and alliance with the Prussian warrior-king, and sent Russian troops to the assistance of the Prussians. Successes of Frederic the Great in 1762 — Neutrality of Catharrne II. of Russia. — Encouraged by the happy circumstances in which he so suddenly and unexpectedly found himself, the King of Prussia made the Austrians feel the effects of his vengeance by reentering Silesia, defeating Daun at Buckeredorf, and recap- turing Schweidnitz, which again gave him possession of Silesia. Frederic next invaded Bohemia, destroyed the Austrian magazines at Prague, burned the city of Eger, and terribly ravaged the country. A Spanish army invaded Portugal, the ally of England; but was driven back by an English force which had been sent to the assistance of the Portuguese. The Czar Peter III. had been deposed in January, 1 762, by his wicked wife, who then made herself sole sovereign of Russia, with the title of Catharine II. The unfortunate Peter soon afterward died in prison, supposed to have been assassinated at the instigation of Catharine. The new Em- press immediately renounced the alliance with Frederic the Great, declared herself neutral with respect to the war in Germany, and recalled the Russian armies from Prussia. Sweden had already made peace with Prussia. Peace of Paris— Peace of Hubertsburg. — On the loth of February, 1763, England, France, Spain, and Portugal concluded treaties of peace at Paris, by which they agreed to observe neutrality with regard to the war between Austria and Prussia. The terms of the Peace of Paris were most hun^iliating to France. Nova Scotia, Canada, and other French possessions in North America were surrendered to Great Britain. Louisiana was ceded to Spain, in consideration of the losses sus- tained by that power in the war. Spain ceded Florida to England, in exchange for Cuba, which had been captured by the British navy. Austria and Prussia, thus CATHARINE II. OF RUSSIA. FREDERIC THE GREAT. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 293 left to continue the war themselves, soon agreed to a treaty of peace, which was signed at Hubertsburg, on the 2 1st of February, 1763, leaving the province of Silesia, for which so much blood had been shed, in the possession of Frederic the Great. Thus England and Prussia came forth victorious from a long struggle against the combined Powers of Europe. Result of the War — Decay of the German Empire — Elevation of Prussia. — By the result of this war, France, weakened and exhausted, had sunk far below the commanding position which she had formerly occupied, and her pres- tige was gone; while Great Britain took her place as the leading commercial and naval power of the world. The German Empire had long been a rotten structure, and the Peace of Hubertsburg made its weakness clearly manifest. About three- hundred and fifty states, of which the Empire was composed, exercised the rights of sovereignty, and were almost independent of the Emperor, whose authority over the different Princes of the Empire was little more than nominal. While the German Empire was thus in a decaying condition, the young Kingdom of Prussia, under its illustrious sovereign, Frederic the Great, had already taken its place as one of the leading Powers of Europe. During the twenty-four years of Frederic's reign after the Seven Years' War, Prussia enjoyed the greatest prosperity. PARTITIONS OF POLAND AND RUSSO-TURKISH WARS (A. D. 1768-1795). The Empress Catharine II. of Russia. — Wliile France, under her profligate monarch, Louis XV., was declining in national power and greatness, and while Prussia, under the illustrious Frederic the Great, had attained a leading position among the great powers of the earth, Russia, under her great Empress, Catharine II., exercised a preponderant influence in Eastern Europe. The two great objects of Catharine's ambition were the tottering Republic of Poland and the declining Ottoman Empire; and her whole political policy was one of aggression and terri- torial aggrandizement. Catharine II. devoted considerable attention to measures for the civilization of her subjects, and founded many schools and academies. In her private character the Empress was dissolute and immoral; she left the govern- ment of her Empire to her favorites, the chief of whom was Potemkin the Taurian; and the court of St. Petersburg was as much distinguished for its luxury, immorality, and debauchery as was that of Versailles. Decline of Poland — Stanislaus Poniatowski. — The Republic of Poland was becoming weaker and weaker every day. The decline of this nation was attributable to its internal dissensions, in consequence of its elective constitution. Every election for King was a scene of the greatest contention and the most vio- lent proceedings. On the death of Augustus III., in 1764, the Polish nobles, through the influence, and at the dictation, of Russia's great Empress, elected Stan- islaus Poniatowski King of Poland. The Polish Dissidents. — It was about this time that the Dissidents, as all Pol- ish Protestants and adherents of the Greek Church were called, petitioned the Polish Diet for the restoration of the civil and religious privileges of which they had been deprived by the Diets of 1717 and 1733. The Roman Catholic majority in the Diet, through the influence of the Polish clergy, rejected the petition, where- 294 MODERN nisroR V. ujjori the Dissidents formed a league known as "The Confederation of Radovi," and, with the aid of Russia, they determined to obtain the desired privileges by force. Civil War in Poland. — The Diet of Poland was compelled by Russian troops to concede to the Dissidents the rights which they demanded; whereupon the Polish Catholics formed " The Confederation of Bar," in opposition to that of Radovi, for the purpose of again depriving the Dissidents of their civil and religious rights, and liberating Poland from Russian supremacy. A bloody civil war ensued between the two Confederations. With the assistance of a Russian army, the Confederation of Radovi came forth triumphant. Bar and Cracow, the stnmgholds of the liar confederates, were carried by a.ssault. The defeated forces fled into the Turkisli territories, closely pursued by the victorious Russians. (1768.) War Between Russia and Turkey. — The violation of Turkish territory by the Russians, in the pursuit of the defeated and retreating Poles, caused the Ottoman Porte to declare war against Russia; and for six years (1768-1774), a sanguinary land and naval war raged between the Turks and the Russians. After achieving two great victories, the Russians under Romanzoff conquered the Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia; and in 1770, the Turkish town of Bender was taken by storm. Bloody battles were fought between the Russians and the Turks in the Morca, or Southern Greece, on the coast of which a Turkish fleet was destroyed by fire. (1771)- First Partition of Poland. — Convinced of the weakness of Poland, and anxiou.s for an increase of their own rcs])ective territories, the neighboring powers resolved to divide a portion of the Polish Republic among themselves. After a personal inter- view between Joseph II. of Austria and Frederic the Great of Prussia, and a visit of Prince Henry of Prussia to St. Petersburg, a treaty of partition was agreed upon by Austria, Prussia, and Russia (August 5, 1772), by which these three powers seized those portions of Poland adjoining their own dominions. The Polish Diet pro- tested before the whole world against this iniquitous scheme, — this most audacious violation of the rights of nations. Surrounded and threatened by Russian troops, the Diet at length yielded to force, and consented to the dismemberment of Poland. Thus the Polish provinces watered by the Vistula were taken by Prussia; Galjcia was seized by Austria; and the territories of the Dnieper were absorbed by Russia. Peace of Kudschuck Kainardsche. — The war between Russia and Turkey was terminated in 1774, I'y the Peace of Kudschuck Kainardsche, by the terms of which the right of passage through the Dardanelles was conceded to Russia, and the Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia were placed under Russian protection. Pugatscheff's Rebellion — Migration of the Kalmuck Tartars. — In 1774, a formidable rebellion against the Empress Catharine II., headed by PugaLscheff, a Don Cossack, broke out in the region of the Volga; but the revolt was speedily suppressed, and PugaLscheff was beheaded in Moscow, in 1775. In 1782, the Kal- muck Tartars, 500,000 in number, affronted at the Rus-sian Empress, abandoned their homes in European Russia, and, wandering eastward several thousand miles, settled themselves in the dominions of the Emperor of China. Russian Conquest of the Crimea. — Russian ambition was not satisfied with the defeat of the Turks. In 1783, the Russian forces under Potemkin conquered EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 295 the Nogai Tartars of the Crimea, and annexed that country, with other territories on the Black Sea, under the name of Tauris, to Russia. War of Russia and Austria against Turkey. — The evident design of the Empress Catharine II. of ex{x:lling the Turks from Europe, and founding a new Christian empire, with Constantinople for its capital, and a member of the imperial House of Romanoff for its prince, and the aggressive conduct of Russia in the region of the Black Sea, alarmed the Ottoman Porte ; and another bloody land and naval war broke out between Russia and Turkey in 1787, and lasted five years. Joseph lI. of Austria participated in the war, as an ally of the Russian Empress. The Austrian forces under Laudon defeated the Turks on the Danube, and sub- dued portions of Servia and Wallachia; while, at the same time, conquest shone upon the Russian arms. In December, 1788, the Russians under Poternkin took the strong city of Oczakow, after a furious assault, in which many lives were sacri- ficed; and in December, 1790, a Russian army under the cruel .Suwarrow carried by storm the fortress of Ismail, and caused 20,ocx> Turks to be put to the sword. War between Sweden and Russia. — England and Prussia assumed a me- nacing atltitude toward Russia, in consequence of her aggressive policy, and the success of her arms against the Turks; and in 1788, King Gustavus III. of Sweden formed an alliance with the Sultan, and began a land and naval war against Russia. After sustaining several defeats, the .Swedes gained a great naval victory in the Baltic sea; but Catharine II. succeeded in making an equitable peace with Sweden, in 1790. The able Gustavus III. had aroased the discontents of his subjects Ijy his war with Russia; and in 1792, he was assassinated at a ma.squerade, by Ankar- strom, one of hLs former guard-officers. Peace of Jassy. — The Empress of Rassia closed her second war with the Turks by the Peace of Jassy, in January, 1792, by which the Porte ceded the terri- tories of the Dniester to Russia. Peace had previously been made between Aus- tria and Turkey. New Polish Constitution. — Poland was at this time endeavoring to free her- self from Rassian domination. With the support of Prussia, the Poles dissolved " The Perpetual Council," which the Rassians had established at Warsaw to rule the Polish Republic. In 1791, a new constitution was adopted, by which Poland was changed from an elective kingdom to an hereditary monarchy with two legis- lative chambers. The Polish king took an oath to oh^erve and defend this con- stitution, which was applauded by all Europe, with the exception of Rassia. War of the Poles against Russia — Defeat of Kosciuszko. — A party of Polish nobles, who were dissatisfied with the new constitution, formed "The Con- federation of Targowicz," for the purpose of restoring the old elective coastitution. This party received the aid of the Russian Empress, who immediately sent an arrny into Poland. Prussia, which had just been in alliance with the Polish patriots, now sided with Russia in the contest, on the ground tliat the principles of French republicanism were embodied in the new Polish constitution. The illus- trious Thaddeus Kosciuszko, who had nobly fought for freedom in America, became the chief of the patriot party, and led the Polish arrny against the Rassians, by v/hom he was defeated at Dubienka, on the 17th of July, 1792. The Polish king, now becoming alarmed, renounced hostilities against Rassia, and joined the • 296 MODERN HISTORY. Confederation of Targowicz. The gallant Polish patriots, whose efforts were para- lyzed by the cowardice and irresolution of their king, fled from their country, burn- ing wirli wrath against their Russian oppressors. Second Partition of Poland. — In 1793, Russia and Prussia determined upon a second partition of Poland, assigning as a reason that the principles of the French revolutionists were fast gaining ground in that country. The Polish Diet, which resolutely, but vainly, opposed itself to the new treaty of partition, was surrounded by Russian troops, who violently carried off the boldest speakers. A second division of the Polish Republic then followed, between Russia and Prussia. The Eastern Polish provinces of Volhynia, Podolia, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Little Poland were taken by Russia : Great Poland and Dantzic went to Prussia. War of the Poles Against Russia and Prussia — Defeat of Kosciuszko. — The stolen provinces were immediately occupied by Russian and Prussian troops. Iglestrom, the Russian ambassador at Warsaw, was the virtual ruler of Poland. A conspiracy was formed, in the spring of 1794, by the Polish patriots, for the purpose of reconquering the lost territories, and restoring the constitutional government. Kosciuszko and the emigrant Poles returned to their country, and placed themselves at the head of the patriot party. Iglestrom's palace at Warsaw was burned to the ground, the Russian troops who occupied Warsaw were made prisoners or put to death, and four of the Polish supporters of Russian supremacy perished on the scaffold. The Prussian forces which had advanced against Warsaw were driven back by the Poles under Kosciuszko, Dombrowski, and Joseph Poniatowski, the king's nephew. The Empress Catharine IL was determined to crush the Polish rising, and a large Russian army under Suwarrow soon appeared in Poland. .In a sanguinary engagement at Macziewice, on the loth of October, 1794, Kosciuszko was defeated by the Russians, and, falling wounded from his horse, with the excla- mation, "The end of Poland!" was made a prisoner. Praga was taken by storm by Suwarrow, on the 4th of November, 1794, and 12,000 defenseless persons were killed, or drowned in the Vistula. Warsaw was forced to surrender to the victorious Russians, and King Stanislaus Poniatowski was compelled to abdicate the throne of Poland. He took up his residence in St. Petersburg, where he was supported by a pension from the Russian government, until his death, which occured in 1798. Third Partition of Poland. — A partition of what remained of the Republic of Poland, between Austria, Russia, and Prussia, took place in 1795. Austria obtained the Southern part of the Republic with Cracow ; Prussia took the territory west of the Vistula with Warsaw ; and Russia seized the remainder. Thus the once-powerful Poland ceased to exist, as an independent power, — a victim to its own internal dissensions, and to the rapacity of its neighbors. Kosciuszko was re- leased by the Emperor Paul, Catharine's successor, and he died in Switzerland in 181 7. His remains were conveyed to Cracow. GENERAL AFFAIRS IN EUROPE. Party Contests in England — ^John Wilkes. — The Seven Years' War left England oppressed with a heavy debt, and consequently burdened the English peo- ple with the most oppressive taxes. Party spirit was extremely violent, and the king- dom, at one time, appeared to be on the verge of civil war. King George II. died EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 297 m October, 1760, and was succeeded on the British throne by his grandson, George III., who dismissed the \Vhigs from office, and placed the government of the British Empireiin the hands of the Tories, with the Earl of Bute as Prime-Minis- ter. Heavy duties on certain articles of home manufacture created a universal ferment throughout Great Britain, which resulted in the resignation of the Earl of Bute, and the elevation of George Grenville, also a Tory, to the head of the British Government. But Mr. Grenville was as unpopular as his predecessor had been, and one of the first acts of his administration was the arrest and prosecution of John Wilkes, editor of " The North Briton," and a member of the House of Commons, for asserting in his journal that the King's speech to the Parliament con- tained a falsehood. The judges of the Court of Common Pleas decided that the commitment of Mr. Wilkes was illegal, and that his privileges as a member of Parliament had been infringed. Wilkes was afterwards outlawed by the House of Commons, for failing to appear to answer the charges against him ; but subsequently this sentence of outlawry was reversed, and Wilkes was four times chosen to Par- liament, by the Electors of the County of Middlesex, but the House of Commons as often rejected him. Conquest of Corsica by France. — The island of Corsica, which belonged to the Repubhc of Genoa, had for many years been engaged in a war for its independ- ence. The insurgent Corsicans, led by the gallant Paschal Paoli, defeated every attempt of the Genoese to reduce them to submission. When the Genoese became convinced that they could not restore their authority in the revolted island they sold Corsica to France. Paoli bravely resisted the French, and, after being forced to yield, he retired to England; and Corsica came into the possession of France in 1769. War of the Bavarian Succession. — The attempt of the Emperor Joseph H. of Germany, upon the death of the Elector Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria, in 1777, to enlarge the hereditary Austrian dominions by the acquisition of a large portion of Bavaria and the Palatinate, aroused the jealousy of Frederic the Great, who sent an army into Bohemia, and the result was a short contest between Austria and Prussia known as "The War of the Bavarian Succession." After a few slight skir- mishes, peace was concluded, Joseph H. relinquishing his ambitious designs. (1779.) The Gordon or "No-Popery" Riots in London. — Several laws passed by the British Parliament in 1780, removing political disabilities on Catholics, produced the most shameful riots in some of the leading cities of Great Britain, particularly in Edinburgh and London. In June, 1780, an immense mob, aroused by the fana- tical Lord George Gordon, assembled in St. George's Fields, London, and held control of the city for several days, during which the greatest outrages were f)erpe- trated, and Roman Catholic chapels, the prisons of Newgate, the king's bench, and the fleet were burned. The riot was only suppressed when the military were called out, and after 250 of the mob had been killed or wounded. Alliance of German Princes. — After the death of his mother, Maria Theresa, in 1780, Joseph II. made another attempt to acquire Bavaria and the Palatinate; but the King of Prussia frustrated the designs of the Emperor by establishing an "Alliance of German Princes." Before this princely alliance could produce any important result, Frederic the Great died at Potsdam in May, 1786, and was suc- ceeded by his son, Frederic William II. 298 MODERN JIIS'J'ORY. Rebellion in Holland.— In 1784, a democratic insurrection l^rokc out in Hol- land aj^ainst the Sladllioldci's authority. Tiie rebellion continued for several years, and order was only restored in 1787, i)y an army which had Ijcen sent to llic Stadlholder's assistance by Kiii^ l'"redcric William II. of I'russia, Ijrotlier to (lie .Sladtholder's wife. Reforms of the Emperor Joseph II. — Jcjseph II., who uj)on tlie death of his lallier, i'rancis I., in 17^15, became ICmperor of Germany, and upon that of liis niolluT, M.uia 'I'licresa, in 1780, became sovereign of the hereditary Austrian ti:rri- toiies, unany had ineddietl in the disputes and wars between the native j^rinces of Ilindoostan, with the view of ultimately establishing its supremacy in that quarter of the globe. In 1756, .Surajah Dowlah, a native prince, declared war against the Company, and, after a vigorous siege, took Calcutta, with its garrison of 146 English trooi>s. No sooner had the garrison surrendered, than they were crowded into a narrow prison, eigh- teen feet square, called "The Black Hole of Calcutta," where all but twenty died before the Ajllowing morning. Colonel Clive — Battle of Plassey. — Calcutta was rccaj^lurcd in 1757, by an English force, under Colonel Clive, who had rapidly risen, by the force of his own talents, from the humble j)(jsiti(m of clerk of the Company, to the position of com- mander-in-chief of its forces. The rich city of Hoogly was captured and i)lun- dered by an expedition sent by Clive. The power of Surajah Dowlah was thoroughly broken by Colonel Clive, in the celebrated battle of I'lassey, fought on the 23d of June, 1757, and the ICast-India Company gained the ascendancy in .Southern India. First War with Hyder All. — In 1767, the East-Inrlia C(;)ii])any became in- volved in a war with Hyder All, who had raised himself, by his abilities, from an ol/icure condition, to the throne of Mysore, a iKjwerful kingdom in .Southern Ilin- doostan, which he had enlarged by conquests in all directions. The Company was obliged to consent to a peace in 1769. Second War with Hyder Ali — Battle of Cuddalore. — In 17H0, Hyder Ali renewed hostilities against the East-India Company, and spread 'lesolation through a large portion of their territories. An English force was entirely cut to jjieces by Tippoo .Saib, the valiant son of Hyder Ali; but afterwards, Hyder Ali, himself, was completely defeated by a body of ICnglish troops under Sir I-lyre Coole, at Cuddalore. In 1782, Hyder Ali died, and was succeeded on the throne of Mysore, by his son, Tijjijoo Saib, who continued the war against the Company until 1784, when a treaty of peace was made. War with Tippoo Saib — Capture of Bangalore — Battle at Seringapa- tam. — In 1790, another war broke out between Tijjpoo Saib and the lOast India Comjjany. In i79i,Iyord Cornwallis, then Governor-General of British India, laid siege to Bangalore, which he finally took by storm. In 1792, Ef^rd Cornwallis thorougnly defeated Tippoo Saib in front of Seringapatarn, the capital of his kingdom. .Soon afterward, a treaty of peace was concluded, by which the Ea:it-India Company obtained a large increase of territory. Last War with Tippoo Saib —Fall of Seringapatarn and Death of Tip- poo Saib.— In the early part of 1799, Tippoo Saib renewed the war against the Qjmpany, for the purpose of expelling the English from India. The IJiglish forces laid siege to .Seringapatarn, which they carried by assault, on the 4th of May, 1799. The valiant Tippoo Saib was slain in the conflict, and his kingdom was annexed to the territories of the East-India Company. War with the Mahrattas — Battle of Assay'e. — In 1803, the CV^mpany was involved in a war with the Mahrattas. The ICnglish, under Sir Arthur Wellesley 300 MODERN HISTORY. afterward the great Duke of Wellington, defeated the Mahrattas in the battle of Assayd. Delhi and Agra were carried by storm, and the war ended in the pros- tration of the Mahratta power before the supremacy of the English East-India Company. ANGLO-FRENCH COLONIAL WARS. FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN NORTH AMERICA. French Explorations in North America — Founding of Acadia by De Monts. — While the English were colonizing the Atlantic coast of North America, from New England to Georgia, the French were exploring and settling the valley of the St. Lawrence, the shores of the Great Lakes, and the valley of the Mississippi. In 1605, the Huguenot De Monts founded the first permanent French settlement in North America, at Port Royal (now Annapolis), in Nova Scotia, giving the territory, now known as Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, the name "Acadia." Founding of Quebec by Samuel Champlain — The Hurons and Al- gonquins. — In 1608, Samuel Champlain, a Frenchman, founded the city of Quebec, on the vSt. Lawrence river; and in the following year (1609), he discovered the beautiful lake, between the present States of Vermont and New York, which bears his name. Champlain and his followers allied themselves with the Huron and Algonquin Indians, and defeated their foes, the Five Nations of New York. Thenceforth the Five Nations were the firm friends of the English and the bitter enemies of the French. Explorations of the Mississippi by James Marquette and Louis Joliet — By LaSalle. — In 1679, James Marquette, a French Jesuit, and Louis Joliet, a French Canadian, entered the Mississippi river from the Wisconsin, and, in two birch-bark canoes, sailed down the great river to a point below the mouth of the Arkansas. In 1682, Robert de LaSalle, a French Canadian officer, after exploring the shores of the Great Lakes, entered the Mississippi from the Illinois, and sailed up the mighty stream almost to its source, and then down to its mouth, and naming the entire Mississippi valley, "Louisiana," in honor of his king, Louis XIV., claimed that extensive region for France. French Settlements in the Mississippi Valley. — In the latter part of the seventeenth century, and in the beginning of the eighteenth, the French made settlements on the banks of the Mississippi river, on the shores of the Great Lakes, and on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Kaskaskia, in the present State of Illinois, was founded in 1683; Detroit, in Michigan, in 1701 ; and Vincennes, in Indiana, in 1705. In 1699, a company of French colonists, headed by Lemoine d'Iberville, a French Canadian, settled Biloxi, in the present State of Mississippi; and in 1703, most of the settlers of Biloxi founded the city of Mobile, in the present Alabama. Louisiana under Anthony Crozat — Under the Mississippi Company. — In 1712, Louisiana was leased, for a staled period, to Anthony Crozat, a wealthy French merchant, under whose auspices was built Fort Rosalie, — the beginning of the present city of Natchez, in Mississippi. In 1717, Crozat relinquished his lease; and Louisiana was for fifteen years under the control of the Mississippi Company, EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 301 which the Scotchman, John Law, had organized in France. Bienville, the governor sent to Louisiana by this Company, founded New Orleans, in 17 18. War with the Natchez Indians— War with the Chickasaws.— In 1729, the Natchez Lidians, exasperated at the threatened encroachments of the French, fell upon the French settlement at P'ort Rosalie, massacred the men, and carried the women into captivity. In revenge for this outrage, a body of French troops almost exterminated the Natchez, the following year. (1730.) A few years later, the French made two unsuccessful attempts to subjugate the warlike Chickasaws, another powerful Indian tribe. The French built a chain of forts between Mont- real and New Orleans, the most important of which were Detroit, erected in 170I; Niagara, in 1726; and Crown Point, in 1730. KING WILLIAM'S WAR (A. D. 1689-1697). Both Parties Aided by the Indians. — The war that broke out between Eng- land and France in 1689, extended to the English and French colonies in North America, and is known in American history as " King William's War," because it occurred during the reign of William III. in England. The Indians of Canada and Acadia aided the French, while the Five Nations, of New York, a.ssisted the English. Attack on Dover — Destruction of Schenectady. — In July, 1690, the town of Dover, in New Hampshire, was attacked by the French and their Indian allies; and in February, 1 690, Schenectady, in New York, was burned, and sixty of its inhabitants were massacred, by the French and the Indians. New England Expeditions against the French — Peace of Ryswick. — In May, 1690, the New England colonies sent a naval expedition, under Sir Wil- liam I'hipps, which plundered the French colony of Acadia. The same year, a land expedition, under a son of Governor Winthrop, of Connecticut, proceeded to attack Montreal, while a naval force, under Sir William Phipps, was sent against Quebec. Both expeditions were failures. The people of New England suffered terribly from the attacks of the French and their savage allies, until the Peace of Ryswick was concluded between England and France, in 1697. QUEEN ANNE'S WAR ^A. D. 1702-1713). Desolation of English Settlements — Deerfield Burned. — In 1702, a war broke out between England and P'rance, which extended to the colonies of those nations in North America. This war, called in Europe "The War of the Spanish Succession," is known in American history as "Queen Anne's War," so called because it happened during the reign of Queen Anne in Eagland. The French and Indians again spread desolation among the English settlements. Deerfield, in Ma.ssachusetts, was burned, and its inhabitants were massacred by the savages and their French allies. Conquest of Acadia — Expeditions against Quebec — Peace of Utrecht. — In 1 7 10, a fleet from England, aided by a land force from New England, cap- tured Port Royal, in Acadia. Port Royal was named Annapolis, and Acadia be- came an English province, under the name of Nova Scotia, or New Scotland. In 302 MODERN HISTOR V. 171 1, a fleet and army from England, under Sir Ilovenden Walker, assisted by New Englanders, the whole expedition consisting of 5,000 men, proceeded against Quebec. The vessels were wrecked at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and i,oco men perished. The expedition was abandoned, and the Peace of Utrecht was con- cluded between England and France, in 1 7 13. KING GEORGE'S WAR (A, D. 1744-1748). Siege and Capture of Louisburg. — In 1744, another war began between England and F"rance, known in Europe as " The War of the Austrian Succession," but in American history as " King George's War," because it took place while George II. was King of Great Britain. The principal event of this war in America was the capture of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton. In April, 1745, Gov ernor Shirley, of Massachusetts, sent an army, under General William Pepperell, against this fortress, on account of its strength called " The Gibraltar of America." The army, in conjunction with a British fleet under Admiral Warren, laid siege to the fortress late in May, and on the 28ih of June (1745), Louisburg and the island of Cape Breton were surrendered to the English. D'Anville's Attempt to Recover Louisburg — Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. — In 1746, the French sent a powerful fleet, under the Duke d'Anville, to retake Louisburg. The greater part of this fleet was destroyed by storms, and the enter- prise was abandoned. The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, concluded between England and France in 1748, put an end to the war. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (A. D. 1754-1763). CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE WAR. English and French Colonial Possessions in North America. — The three wars between the English and the French in North America, the accounts of which we have just considered, had their origin in the European disputes of France and England. The fourth and last war, and the one which ended in the overthrow of the French power in North America, originated in disputes about the bounda- ries between the French and English colonial possessions. After the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, the French built forts in the rear of the English colonies, for the purpose of confining the English to the country east of the Alleghany mountains. The Ohio Company. — In 1749, the King of Great Britain granted 600,000 acres of land on the south side of the Ohio river to an association of English and Virginia speculators, called "The Ohio Company." The surveyors and traders sent out by the Company were made prisoners by the French. This aggressive conduct led to open hostilities. Washington's Mission. — The French under St. Pierre built three forts in North-western Pennsylvania: one at Presque Isle, now Erie; another at La Boeuf, now Waterford ; and a third at the site of the present town of Franklin. Governor Dinwiddle, of Virginia, sent George Washington, a young Virginian, twenty-one years of age, with a remonstrance to St. Pierre, the French commander. St. Pierre, who said that he acted under the orders of Du Quesne, Governor of Canada, refused EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 303 to withdraw his troops from the domain of the Ohio Company, as requested by Dinwiddie. EVENTS OF 1734. Battle of the Great Meadows. — When it was known in Virginia that St. Pierre refused to withdraw his troops from the territory granted to the Ohio Company, a body of Virginians under Major George Washington was sent to expel the invaders. W^ashington moved toward the Ohio, and in the present Fayette county, in Penn- sylvania, he built Fort Necessity. On the 28th of May, 1754, he defeated the French and killed their leader, Jumonville, in the battle of the Great Meadows. This was the first bloodshed in the long and distressing French and Indian War. Capitulation of Fort Necessity. — Already the French had seized a fort which the English had been engaged in building at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, and named it " Fort Du Quesne," in honor of the Governor of Canada. Washington was at length besieged by the French at Fort Necessity. On the 4th of July, 1754, he surrendered to the French, who allowed him and all his troops to march back to Virginia. Colonial Congress at Albany. — On the day of the capitulation of Fort Necessity (July 4, 1754), a congress composed of delegates from six of the Anglo- American colonies, convened at Albany, in the province of New York, for the purpose of devising measures for protection against the encroachments of the French. A plan of union drawn up by Dr. Benjamin Franklin was rejected both by the home government and the colonial assemblies. EVENTS OF 173S. Braddbck, Commander-in-Chief — Plan of the Campaign. — In 1755, Edward Braddock, a distinguished Irish officer, was sent to America as commander- in-chief of the English forces there. Three expeditions against the French were projected: one was to proceed against the French forts in Nova Scotia; another under Braddock was to drive the French from Fort Du Quesne; and a third under Governor Shirley of Massachusetts was to move against Fort Niagara. Capture of French Forts in Nova Scotia. — An English force of 3,000 men, under General Winslow, landed at the head of the Bay of Fundy, in June, 1755, where they were joined by 300 regulars, under Colonel Monckton, who assumed the chief command. The expedition took Fort Beausejour from the French, on the 1 6th of June, and Fort Gaspereau on the 17th. The English disgraced them- selves by their cruel treatment of the Acadians, many of whom they sent away and distributed among the English colonists. Defeat and Death of Braddock. — In June, 1755, General Braddock, with 2,000 men, marched against the French at Fort Du Quesne. On the 9th of July, when within twelve miles of Fort Du Quesne, the English were attacked by the French and the Indians. Braddock was killed, and his troops were completely defeated. Of all the mounted officers on the side of the English, Major Washing- ton alone remained unhurt. After the fall of Braddock, Washington assumed the command of the English troops, and conducted them back to Virginia. Thus, the expedition against Fort Du Quesne was a total failure. 304 MODERN HISTORY. Failure of Shirley's Expedition. — The expedition under Shirley against Fort Niagara was also a complete failure. The expedition went only as far as Oswego, where Shirley built a new fort ; and storms, sickness, and desertions of his Indian allies, caused him to abandon the object of the expedition. Johnson's Expedition — Battle of Lake George. — In August, 1755, an English army under Sir William Johnson marched against Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which the French had erected on the Western shores of Lake Cham- plain. A part of Johnson's force, under Colonel Williams, was defeated, on the 8th of September, by the French under Baron Dieskau. After this fight, in which Williams was killed, Dieskau moved forward and fought with Johnson the battle of Lake George. In this battle, Dieskau was defeated, wounded, and taken pris- oner. After the battle, Johnson built Fort William Henry, and garrisoned it, as well as Fort Edward, with some of his troops, after which he returned to Albany, and dispersed his army, EVENTS OF 1756. Declaration of War — Lord Loudon Commander-in-chief. — In May, 1756, England declared war against France, and formed an alliance with Frederic the Great of Prussia, in his war with France, Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony; and thus arose the great "Seven Years' War." The inefficient Lord Loudon was sent to America to take the chief command of the English forces there. Montcalm's Capture of Oswego — Battle of Kittanning. — In August, 1756, the Marquis de Montcalm, with a body of French and Indians, crossed Lake Ontario from Canada, and captured the English forts at Oswego, with 1,400 pris- oners. The only thing accomplished by the English in 1756, was the chastisement of the Indians in Western Pennsylvania. On the 8th of September, Colonel John Armstrong fell upon the savages at Kittanning, their chief town on the Alleghany river, killed their principal chiefs, and destroyed the village. EVENTS OF 17S7. Surrender of Fort William Henry to Montcalm. — In Northern New York, a force of French and Indians, under Montcalm, marched against Fort Wil- liam Henry, in August, 1757. Colonel Monro, who commanded the small English force which garrisoned the fort, called upon General Webb, the English commander at Fort Edward, for assistance. The cowardly Webb refused any aid, and the gal- lant Monro was compelled to surrender, after a brave defense. After their surrender, the English troops were allowed to march out with the honors of war, but no sooner had they left the fort, under a promise of protection, than despite the eflforts of Montcalm to prevent it, many of them were massacred by the Indians in the French army. Montcalm expressed great sorrow at this sad occurence. William Pitt, Prime-Minister of England — General Abercrombie. — In the summer of 1757, William Pitt, the ablest stateman in England, was placed at the head of the British Government. Energy and forecast marked every move- ment of Mr. Pitt's administration, and from this time until its close, the war was favorable to the English, who, after a series of brilliant successes, were finally enabled to effect the permanent conquest of the French American possessions. In EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 305 1757, General Abercrombie was sent to America, to take the chief command of the English forces there, EVENTS OF 17S8. Siege and Capture of Louisburg. — Early in July, 1758, Generals Amherst and Wolfe, with English troops, and Admiral Boscawen, with a British squadron, laid siege to Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton. After a vigorous siege, Louisburg, and the island of Cape Breton, were surrendered to the English, on the 26th of July. (1758.) Unsuccessful Attack on Ticonderoga — Capture of Fort Frontena;. — At the beginning of July, 1758, an English force of 15,000 men, under General Abercrombie, moved against Ticonderoga. On the 6th, a part of this force, under Lord Howe, defeated the French, but Lord Howe was among the slain. Aber- crombie continued his advance, and attacked Ticonderoga on the 8th of July, but met with a disastrous repulse. He then fell back, and abandoned the object of the expedition. On the 27th of August (1758), Fort Frontenac, on the site of the pres- ent city of Kingston, in Canada, was captured by Colonel Bradstreet, at the head of an English force, which had been sent out for that purpose by Abercrombie. Capture of Fort DuQuesne. — In 1758, an English force, under General John Forbes, proceeded against Fort Du Quesne. When within fifty miles of the fort, a council of war decided to abandon the enterprise; but when prisoners, who were brought in at this moment, gave every assurance that the garrison of Fort Du Quesne was weak, it was resolved to move forward. A part of the expedition, under Major Grant, had been defeated by the French and Indians, on the 21st of September. Washington and his Virginians led the advance against Fort Du Quesne. The French evacuated the fort on the approach of the English, and fled down the Ohio in boats; and late in November, the English flag waved over Fort Du Quesne, the name of which was changed to Fort Pitt, in honor of the great English statesman. The flourishing city of Pittsburg now occupies the site of the fort, EVENTS OF 1759. Plan of the Campaign. — The English planned three expeditions for the cam- paign of 1759: one, under Generals Prideaux and Johnson, was to attempt the capture of Fort Niagara; another, under Lord Amherst, was to take possession of Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point; and a third, under General James Wolfe, was designed for the reduction of Quebec, the strongest French fortress in America, Capture of Fort Niagara. — In July, 1759, the English, under Generals Pri- deaux and Johnson, commenced the siege of Fort Niagara. On the 15th, Prideaux was killed by the bursting of a mortar; and the command of the English army devolved upon Johnson, who continued the siege until the 25th, when the French surrendered the fort. Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. — On the approach of the Eng- lish army under Lord Amherst, in July (1759), Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point were evacuated by their French garrisons, and those strong pcets were imme- diately taken possession of by the English, 3o6 • MODERN HISTOR V. Wolfe's Expedition— Battle of Quebec — Surrender of Quebec. — In June, 1759, an English force of 8,000 men, under General Wolfe, arrived before Quebec. For two months, the English besieged the city, and destroyed a large part of it by means of hot shot. On the 31st of July, in the midst of a terrific thunder storm, a portion of the English army, under Colonel Monckton, fought with the French the battle of Montmorenci. At length, a council of war was held by the English offi- cers, and it was resolved to storm the French camp. Accordingly, on the night of the I2th of September (1759), the English army, led by Wolfe in person, scaled the Heights of Abraham, in the rear of Quebec; and on the morning of the 13th, a furious battle ensued. The commanders of both armies, Wolfe and Montcalm, were slain; and in the city of Quebec stands a fine monument to their memory. The French were completely defeated; and on the i8lh (September, 1759), Quebec was surrendered to the English. EVENTS OF 1760. Attempt of the French to Recover Quebec — Battle of Sillery. — In the spring of 1760, a French force under M. Levi, Montcalm's successor, attempted to recover Quebec, and defeated the English army commanded by General Murray, in the bloody battle of Sillery, three miles below Quebec, on the 28th of April (1760). The English fell back to Quebec, where they were besieged ; but the French, be- coming alarmed at the supposed approach of a large English fleet, hastily abandoned the siege and. retired. Surrender of Montreal — Conquest of Canada by the English. — On the 8th of September, 1760, Montreal, the last stronghold of the French in America, surrendered to the English army under General Murray, who had collected 18,000 men for the reduction of the city. With the fall of Montreal, the conquest of Canada by the English was completed. EVENTS OF 1761, '62, '63. Peace of Paris — North America under the Anglo-Saxon Race. — On the 10th of February, 1763, a treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, between Eng- land, France, and Spain. France surrendered to Great Britain all her possessions in North America east of the Alleghany mountains and north of the latitude of Iberville river. Spain ceded the Floridas to Great Britain. Thus closed a most important war, — a war which assigned North American forever to the Anglo-Saxon race. War with the Cherokee Indians — Pontiac's War. — In 1759, the Chero- kee Indians in Georgia began a war against the white people of Georgia and the Carolinas. After a war of two years, the Indians were subdued by Colonel Grant. In 1763, Pontiac, a famous Ottowa chief, secretly formed a confederacy of Indian tribes, to expel the English from the country west of the Alleghany mountains. Within a fortnight, this sagacious chief seized all the English posts west of the AUe- ghanies, except Detroit, Niagara, and Fort Pitt. The Indians were soon subdued, and, in 1765, Pontiac was killed, by an Illinois Indian, on the Mississippi river. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN MAROIIIC; DF I A FAVFTTF EIGIJTEENTII CENTURY. 307 WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1775-1783). Causes of the American Revolution — Tyranny of Great Britain — I5y the French and Indian War, England, as we have seen, had secured a vast cin])irc in North America. The fairest portion of this colonial empire she was destined soon to lose, on account of her stupid folly and her ungenerous treatment of her colo- nial suljjects. The French and Indian War had oppressed England with an enor- mous debt, and to relieve her subjects at home, her Ministry and Tarliament under took the scheme of taxing her North American colonies. The colonists denied the right of Parliament to tax them, as they were not represented in th.it body;- Ijut the Ministry and Parliament foolishly and obstinately persisted in their schemes. In 1765, the famous Stamp Act was passed, but it met with such violent opi)Osition in English America that it was repealed in the following year; but other equally obnoxious measures were passed by Parliament, and the military were called into requisition to enforce the submission of the colonists. Taxes were lexied on various articles imported into the colonies, and the Americans burned with mdignation against their oppressors. The democratic spirit which had always ])revailed among the Anglo-Americans made them impatient with every appearance of political oppression. Rebellion of the Americans — Lexington and Bunker's Hill — Invasion of Canada. — The Americans, exasperated at the oppressive measures of the British Ministry and Parliament, finally rose in armed rebellion against the authority of the mother country, and resolved to defend their liberties at all hazards. The first blood in the War of the American Revolution was shed at Lexington and Con- cord, Massachusetts, April 19th, 1775, when the liritish troops made an attack upon the Minute-men, as they were called. The battle of Bunker's Hill, June 17th, of the same year, opened the war in dead earnest. The royal governors of the various colonies were expelled by the colonists, and all royal authority was re- pudiated. The Americans seized Ticonderoga, May loth, 1775, invaded Canada in September, and seized Montreal; but were disa-strously defeated in an assault upon Quebec, on the last day of the year 1775 ; and in the following year, were entirely driven out of Canada. Declaration of American Independence — England's Foreign Relations. — As Great Britain was making gigantic efforts to crush tlie rebellion against her authority in North America, having hired 17,000 Hessians from Germany to con- quer the Americans, and having passed new oppressive measures, sentiments of political independence spread among the Americans; and on the 4th of July, 1776, the American Congress declared the Anglo-American colonies free and independent States, under the name of "The United States of America." We will now proceed to give an account of the part which European nations bore in the war, and avoid repetition by referring the reader to another portion of the book for a detailed account of the American events of the war. The French nation, still smarting under the defeats and humiliations which she had suffered in the preceding war, waited for a favorable opportunity to assist the Americans in their struggle for in- dependence. From the beginning, the French people had sympathized with the revolted colonists, and prominent individuals in France, such as the young Marquis de Lafayette, volunteered in the cause of American liberty. The other nations of 308 MODERN HISTORY. Europe, jealous of Englaiul's maritime power, secretly wished for the success of the colonists. War between England and France. — The surrender of the British army under General Ikirjjoyne to tlie American army under General Gates, on the 17th of October, 1777, encouragcil the French court to espouse the cause of the strug- gliiifj patriots; and accordin}:;ly, on the 6th of February, 1778, France formed an alliance with the United States, and recoench entered Venice; and, after having lasted for more than a thousand years, the Venetian Republic ceased to exist as an independent power. Definitive Peace of Campo Formic — The Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics. — On the 17th of October, 1797, the Definitive Peace of Campo Formio was concluded between France and Austria. By this peace, a great part of North- ern Italy was formed into " The Cisalpine Republic," and virtually became a dependency of France. Venice and Dalmatia were bestowed on the House of Austria, in exchange for the Austrian Netherlands, which were ceded to France. A short time afterward, Genoa was erected into "The Ligurian Republic," and was virtually under the control of France. The Eighteenth Fructidor. — France was at this time distracted by the con- tests of parlies. So great a reaction had taken place among the French people that the advocates of monarchy secured the election of their candidates to the Legisla- tive Councils by large majorities, in May, 1797. The Councils immediately de- nounced the policy of the Directory, and manifested a disposition to overthrow the republican constitution and reestablish monarchy. The Republicans in the Direc- tory became alarmed for the security of their power, and applied for assistance to Bonaparte, who accordingly sent 12,000 troops under Augereau to Paris. On the 1 8th Fructidor (4th of September), Augereau surrounded the Tuileries with his troops, and gave orders for the arrest of the Royalist members of the Councils; whereupon eleven members of the Council of Ancients, and forty-two of the Coun- cil of Five Hundred, among whom was Pichegru, and two of the Directors, Carnot and Berthelemy, were sentenced to banishment. The Royalist elections were then annulled, the returned Emigrants were banished, and many newspapers were sup- pressed. Thus the expressed will of the French people was set aside by military usurpation. This is known as " The Revolution of the Eighteenth Fructidor." EVENTS OF 1798. Establishment of the Roman and Parthenopeian Republics. — During the suppression of a Republican riot in Rome by the papal troops, the French gen- eral Duphot was killed. The French Government, seizing upon this as a pretext, sent a force under General Berthier to Rome. The Pope was deprived of his tem- poral power, and a Roman Republic was established, in February, 1798. Ferdi- nand., King of Naples, persuaded by his wife, Caroline, sent an army under the Austrian general Mack to Rome, and the French were expelled from that city; but a few days afterward, led by General Championnet, they returned, and, after driv- ing the Neapolitan troops out of Rome, they marched into Naples. The frightened 328 MODERN HISTOR V. Ferdinand and his court fled to Sicily; and, in January, 1799, Naples was converted into " The Parthenopeian Republic," after a three days' slaughter of the lazzaroni, who had resisted the French. Switzerland Converted into the Helvetic Republic— The French inter- fered in the dissensions in Swilzerlantl, in 179S. The j)cople of Vaud, who had taken up arms for the purpose of liberating themselves from the domination of the Bernese, called upon the French for assistance, whereupon General Brune, with French troops, marched into Berne. Canton after canton was forced to yield to the French; and Switzerland, under the name of "The Helvetic Republic," was virtually placed under the supremacy of France. Threatened Invasion of England. — In the beginning of 1798, the French Directory tlireatened an invasion of England, the only country then at war with France. An army of 150,000 men, under the name of "The Army of England," under the command of Bonaparte, the youthful conqueror of Italy, was assembled along the French side of the English Channel. Bonaparte's Expedition to Egypt. — The invasion of England was not at- tempted, but an expedition was fitted out for the conquest of Egypt, a province of the Ottoman Empire, notwithstanding a state of peace existed between France and Turkey. The command of this expedition was given to Bonaparte, who intended to strike at the British possessions in India, after effecting the conquest of Egypt. Bonaparte, with the expedition, consisting of 40,000 land troops and 10,000 seamen, sailed from Toulon on the 19th of May, 1798; and, after taking the island of Malta by treachery from the Knights of St. John, the French landed before Alexandria, on the 1st of July. That city was carried by storm and given up to plunder. Battle of the Pyramids. — On the 6th of July, Bonaparte left Alexandria, and with 30,000 of his troops he advanced toward Cairo, greatly annoyed on the way by the Mameluke horsemen. On the 2 1st (July, 1798), he arrived before the in- trenched camp of 20,000 Mamelukes under Mourad Bey, near the famous Pyramids. Eight thousand Mameluke horsemen advanced to attack the French troops, when Bonaparte exclaimed, " Soldiers, from yonder Pyramids, forty centuries look down upon you !" and the conflict commenced. The French, who were formed into squares, easily repulsed the impetuous assaults of the Mamelukes, who rode up to the bayonets of their enemies, and threw their pistols at the heads of the French grenadiers. When the Mameluke cavalry were driven back, the French took by storm the camp of their enemy, with all their baggage and cannon ; and the battle of the Pyramids ended in a complete victory for Bonaparte, who had lost less than 200 men in the engagement. Hundreds of the enemy perished in the Nile; Mourad Bey, and a small remnant of his Mamelukes, fled into Upper Egypt j Cairo surren- dered ; and the conquest of Lower Egypt was accomplished. Battle of the Nile. — In the meantime, a powerful English fleet, under Admiral Nelson, had been cruising in the Mediterranean sea, in search of the French fleet. On the 1st of August (1798), Nelson discovered the French fleet, under Admiral Brueyes, anchored in the bay of Aboukir. At about sunset, Nelson attacked the French ships. A fierce battle ensued, which continued until dawn the next morn- ing. The thunders of the explosion of the French ship L'Orient, of 120 guns, which occurred about midnight, shook every vessel in both fleets, and for a moment there EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 329 was a pause in the deadly conflict. The French admiral perished with the explo- sion. The battle of the Nile, as this engagement is called, was one of the most terrific naval engagements on record, and it resulted in a complete victory for the English. Only a few of the French vessels escaped, the rest all being destroyed or taken by the English. By this disaster. Napoleon and his army were cut off from all resources from France. A fonnidable insurrection in Cairo against the French, on the 21st of October, was suppressed, after 6,000 Mohammedans had lost their lives. Second Coalition against the French Republic. — The French Republic by her victories over her enemies, had establislied six sister republics. These were the Batavian, Helvetic, Cisalpine, Ligurian, Roman, and Parthenopeian Republics, — all established with forms of government similar to that of France. The aggres- sive conduct of the French in Switzerland, Rome, and Naples, induced Austria and Russia to unite with England in a coalition against the French Republic. Turkey, exasperated at the unprincipled occupation of Egypt, also declared war against France. EVENTS OF 1799. Success of the Austrians in Germany. — The coalition commenced hostil- ities against the French simultaneously, in the spring of 1799, in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and the Netherlands. In Germany, fortune was averse to the French. On the 25th of March, the Austrians, under the Archduke Charles, defeated the French army at Stockach. On the 28th of April, the French ambassadors, after leaving the congress of Rastadt, were attacked and murdered by Austrian hussars. The French Directory took advantage of this barbarous deed to excite the French people to vengeance, and a new French army of 200,000 men was raised. Success of the Austrians and Russians in Italy. — In Italy also, the French were unsuccessful. The Russians, under the veteran marshal Suwarrow, defeated Moreau at Cassano, and Macdonald at Trebia, celebrated as the place of one of Hannibal's victories. Finally Suwarrow, by the defeat and death of Joubert in the three days' bloody battle of Novi, effected the conquest of the Cisalpine Republic. The disasters to the French in Northern Italy were followed by the overthrow of the Parthenopeian and Roman Republics. After the French had evacuated Naples, Cardinal Ruffo, at the head of the enraged lazzaroni, took the city by storm; and King Ferdinand and his court returned from Sicily, and resumed their authority in Naples. The Republicans of Naples suffered a frightful punishment. Hundreds were massacred by the lazzaroni, and many were imprisoned. The Roman Republic was also subverted, and Pope Pius VI. was restored to his former power. The Russians in Switzerland — Battle of Zurich. — After completing the conquest of Italy, Suwarrow crossed the Alps, in the midst of almost insurmount- able difficulties, into Switzerland, for the purpose of expelling the French from that country; but, the Austrians failing to properly support their allies, the Russians were defeated by the French, under Massena, at Zurich, on the 26th of September, after a bloody battle of two days. Zurich was taken by the French; and Suwar- row, and the remnant of the defeated Russian army, retired across the icy Grisons, and returned to their own country, where the aged marshal soon afterward died. Defeat of the English in Holland. — The attempt of the English to drive the 33© MODERN HISTOR Y. French from Hollaud, and restore to the Stadtholder his authority, resulted in a disastrous failure. The incompetent English general, the Duke of York, having been defeated by the French, under General Brune, at Berghen, concluded with the French a disgraceful convention, by which he was allowed to retire with his army, leaving the Russians alone to oppose the French. The selfish conduct of the English and the Austrians, so exasperated the Emperor Paul of Russia, that he withdrew from the coalition, made peace with France, and became the bitter enemy of Great Britain. Bonaparte's Syrian Expedition. — Although cut off from his resources by the loss of his fleet, Bonaparte still resolved to pursue his conquests in the East. Upper Egypt was conquered by a French division under General Desaix, who marched beyond the ruins of Thebes. Leaving i6,000 men to hold that country in subjugation, Bonaparte, with 14,000 men, in February, 1799, proceeded to Syria, where the Turks were assembling a large army to oppose him. On the 6th of March, Jaffa, the ancient Joppa, was taken by Napoleon, after a furious assault, and 4,000 of its defenders were put to death after they had surrendered. This cruel act is an inerasable stain upon the character of the youthful conqueror of Italy and Egypt. Siege of Acre. — On the i6lh of March (1799), Bonaparte appeared before Acre, which was garrisoned by a strong Turkish force, under the Pacha of Syria, who was aided in the defense of the city by an English squadron, under Sir Sydney Smith. After a siege of two months, during which seventeen desperate attempts to take the town by storm were defeated, Bonaparte abandoned the siege, and left the town in the possession of its defenders. Battle of Mount Tabor. — In the meantime, while the siege of Acre was in progress, the Turks were assembling immense hosts for the purpose of overwhelm- ing the French. WTiile General Kleber, with a small French force, was on his march to attack the enemy's camp on the Jordan, he was met by 30,000 Turks at Mount Tabor. Kleber, who had formed his little band into squares, successfully held out against the overwhelming numbers of the enemy for six hours, and when Bonaparte appeared with his troops for the relief of his subordinate, the Turks fled in dismay, and dispersed, leaving their camp and all their baggage and stores in the hands of the victorious French. Another Turkish force was defeated and dis- persed at Nazareth, by a French force under Junot. Napoleon's Return to Egypt — Battle of Aboukir. — Napoleon reached Egypt, on his return from Syria, on the ist of June, 1799. On the nth of July, a Turkish army of 18,000 men, landed at Aboukir bay, whither it had been conveyed by an English squadron, commanded by Sir Sydney Smith. Napoleon, on hearing of this, left Cairo, and on the 25th of July, he attacked and completely destroyed the Turkish army, which had already established a strongly-fortified camp at Aboukir. The greater portion of the Turkish troops were killed, wounded, drowned in the bay of Aboukir, or made prisoners. Napoleon's Return to France. — Shortly after his brilliant victory at Aboukir, Napoleon received intelligence, through some newspapers, of the disasters to the French arms in Italy, and he resolved upon immediately setting out on his return to France. Leaving his army in Egypt under the command of Kleber, he secretly NINETEENTH CENTURY. 331 embarked for France. After a long voyage, in which he was in constant danger of being captured by British cruisers, Bonaparte arrived at Frejus, on the Southern coast of France, on the 9th of October; and on the 1 8th, he reached Paris, where he met with a most enthusiastic reception. The Eighteenth Brumaire. — No sooner had Bonaparte arrived in Paris, than he entered into a scheme with Sieyes, one of the Directors, and others, for the overthrow of the Directory, which had fallen into contempt. He first secured the support of the officers and troops in Paris, and obtained from the Council of Ancients the command of the National Guard and all the troops in Paris, and a decree for the transfer of the sittings of the two Legislative Councils to St. Cloud. The Directors and the Council of Ancients were easily induced to resign their authority. On the iSth Brumaire (9th of November), Napoleon entered the hall of the Coun- cil of Five Hundred, and endeavored to secure the consent of the members of that body to his plans, but finding himself threatened and reproached by the members, who, seeing the grenadiers at the doors with fixed bayonets, cried, " Outlaw him ! Down with the Dictator!" he retired from the hall, where the greatest tumult was raging. Napoleon and his brother, Lucien Bonaparte, who was president of the Council of P"ive Hundred, harangued the troops; and Joachim Murat, by order of Napoleon, entered the hall with his grenadiers, and compelled the members to flee out of the doors and windows. Thus the constitution was overthrown, and military usurpation triumphant. This is known as "The Revolution of the l8th Brumaire." Napoleon Bonaparte now took the government of France into his own hands. NINETEENTH CENTURY. GOVERNMENT AND WARS OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (A. D. 1799-1815). NAPOLEON FIRST CONSUL OF THE FRENCH RE- PUBLIC (DEC. 13, 1799-DEC. 2, 1804). EVENTS OF 1800. The Consular Constitution. — We have seen that, by the overthrow of the Directory, on the 1 8th Brumaire, Napoleon Bonaparte took the government of France into his own hands. On the 13th of December, 1799, a new constitution was proclaimed for France, by which the executive power was vested in three con- suls, who were to be elected for ten years. "The First Consul," as Napoleon was called, possessed all the powers of a monarch. The other two consuls, Lebrun and Cambaceres, were the advisers of the First Consul. Talleyrand was appointed Minister of the Interior, and Fouche Minister of Police. There was a Senate, whose duty was to select persons for the Legislature. The legislative power was 332 MODERN HISTORY. entrusted to a Tribunate of one hundred members, who were to discuss the pro- posals of the Government, and the Legislative Bodies, which had the right only of approving or rejecting these proposals. Peace Propositions. — Bonaparte, after securing the chief authority in France, proposed peace to England and Austria, the only nations then at war with France. Both powers refused to treat until the Bourbons should be restored to the throne of Fiance, and the most energetic preparations were made on both sides for a vigor- ous prosecution of the war. Events in Germany and Italy. — A French army of 130,000 men, under Morcau, advanced into Germany, gained several victories, and compelled the Aus- trians to a hasty retreat. Another French army in Italy, under Massena, was com- pelled to surrender to the Austrians at Genoa. Bonaparte's Passage Over the Great St. Bernard. — On hearing of the surrender of Messena, Bonaparte started for Italy, at the head of 50,000 troops. He crossed the Alps at the difficult pass of Great St. Bernard. Difficulties almost insurmountable presented themselves. Precipices, ravines, and eternal snows, •seemed to forbid a passage; but the army followed a narrow path, known to no living creature but the chamois and the hunter. The artillery was taken apart, and the pieces were placed in the hollow trunks of trees, which were drawn across the mountains by the soldiers. The troops were encouraged by the music of the bands, and where the ascent was most difficult the drums beat a charge. The Austrians were completely surprised when Napoleon's army suddenly appeared on the Italian plains. Battles of Montebello and Marengo. — On the 9th of June, iSoo, a part of the French army, under General Lannes, defeated the Austrians at Montebello; and on the 14th (June, 1800), Napoleon, at the head of 20,000 men, encountered 30,000 Austrians, under General Melas, at the village of Marengo. The P'rench were at first driven back, but the obstinate resistance of Desaix, who had just arrived from Egypt, and the charge of the brave Kellerman, changed the result, and the battle ended in the complete overthrow of the Austrian army. Among the killed on the side of the French was the heroic General Desaix. The result of the French victory was that hostilities were suspended. Macdonald's Passage of the Splugen. — In November, iSoo, Marshal Macdonald, with 15,000 French troops, crossed the Alps into Italy, at the difficult pass of the Splugen, thus increasing the French forces in Italy to 100,000 men. Battle of Hohenlinden. — When the negotiations for peace between France and England failed, the armistice between France and Austria terminated, and an Austrian army of 80,000 men, under the Archduke John, which had advanced into Bavaria, was defeated by the French army under Moreau, in the celebrated battle of Hohenlinden, on the night of the 3d of December, 1800, and driven towar^ Vienna. On the 25th, an armistice was concluded. Attempted Assassination of Bonaparte. — Plots for the assassination of Bonaparte were undertaken, both by the Republicans and by the Royalists. On the 25th of December, 1800, while he was crossing a narrow street in Paris, a cask, filled with powder, called "The Infernal Machine," exploded, and killed several persons, but the First Consul escaped unhurt. NINETEENTH CENTURY. 3^3 EVENTS OF 1801. Peace of Luneville. — The battles of Marengo and Ilohenlinden completely Ijroke the power of Austria, so that nothing remained for the Emperor but to accept such terms as France chose to dictate; and on the 9th of February, 1801, a treaty of peace, signed at Luneville, put an end to the war between France and Austria; and England was the only country that remained at war with France. Maritime League against England. — Through the influence of Napoleon, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and Prussia, had been induced, late in the year 1800, to enter into a league against the maritime power of England. The Emperor Paul of Russia, the bitter enemy of England, was the head and soul of this league. Paul had already laid an embargo on British vessels in Russian ports, while the Danish Government had ordered its vessels to resist " the right of search" claimed by the English. Battle of Copenhagen. — After unsuccessful attempts at negotiation with the hostile powers which formed the league, the English Government sent a powerful naval expedition, under Lord Nelson and Sir Hyde Parker, to the Baltic. On the 2d of April, 1801, the British fleet appeared before Copenhagen, when it was furi- ously attacked by the Danish fleet. A bloody naval battle of four hours ensued, resulting in the defeat of the Danes, with the loss of 6,000 men, while the English lost only 1,200. In speaking of this battle, Nelson said, "I have been in one hun- dred and one engagements, but the battle of Copenhagen was the most terrible of them all." Dissolution of the Maritime League. -^Nelson was preparing to attack the Russian fleet, when he received intelligence that the Emperor Paul had been assas- sinated at St. Petersburg, on the night of the 24th of March, 1 801, by a band of Russian nobles, who had entered into a conspiracy for the jjuqjose. Paul's son, Alexander L, who was immediately proclaimed Emperor, declared himself the friend of Great Britain, and abandoned the hostile league. Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden, followed the example of Russia, and thus the league fell to pieces. Threatened Invasion of England. — Bonaparte now threatened an invasion of England from Boulogne. Large bodies of troops were moved to this point, with the ostensible object of being transported to the English coast. The British Gov- ernment made energetic preparations to resist the threatened invasion. Lord Nelson was sent with a powerful fleet against Boulogne. Bonaparte, convinced of the hopelessness of success, abandoned the enterprise. Expulsion of the French from Egypt. — General Kleber, whom Napoleon had left in command of the French army in P^gypt, was assassinated by a fanatical Mohammedan, and his army was defeated, on the 2ist of March, 180I, by the Eng- lish force under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, who lost his life in the moment of victory. yhe French surrendered on condition of being allowed to return home, and their whole force was conveyed to France in English vessels. EVENTS OF 1802. Peace of Amiens. — As the French were now driven out of Egypt, and the island of Malta had been recaptured by a British squadron, nothing remained to contend for between England and France; and, to the great joy of both nations, a 334 MODERN HISTORY. treaty of peace was signed at Amiens, on the 27th of March, 1802. By the terms of this treaty, England was required to restore Malta to the Knights of St. John, and the Cape of Good Hope to the Dutch. Bonaparte's Reforms — The Concordat — The Legion of Honor.— All Europe now enjoyed a short interval of peace, and Napoleon directed his attention to the establishment of order and the security of his authority in France. On the l8th of September, 1801, he had made a treaty, called " The Concordat," with the Pope, for the reestablishment of religion in France. He established a Polytechnic School, for the education of young men in the sciences. He summoned the most eminent lawyers in France to arrange the Code Napoleon. The construction of roads, bridges, and canals, was commenced, and the Emigrants were invited to return to their native land. In 1802, Napoleon was elected First Consul of the French Republic for life. A new order of nobility, founded on individual merit, and known as "The Legion of Honor," was instituted. Bonaparte's Conduct toward Holland and Switzerland. — The conduct of Napoleon toward the weaker powers of Europe was extremely arbitrary and unjust. The Batavian and Helvetic Republics were entirely under his control. He effected a political change in the Helvetic Republic, and when the Swiss peo- ple opposed his usurpation, he sent Ney with an army of 20,000 men against them, and all resistance was soon at an end. England vainly remonstrated against this outrage. Revolt of St. Domingo. — The island of St. Domingo, or Hayti, the largest and most imjiortant of the French possessions in the West Indies, was in a state of rebellion. The negroes, headed by Toussaint Louverture, had taken up arms against their white masters, massacred many of them, and established the independ- ence of the island. Bonaparte sent his brother-in-law, Leclerc, with an army of 35,000 men, to restore the French authority in the island. Toussaint Louverture was treacherously seized, and carried a prisoner to France, where he died. The insurrection was then quelled, but when the French attempted to reestablish slavery, the negroes again rebelled, killed nearly all the French troops, and established themselves as an independent nation, adopting a republican form of government. France acknowledged the independence of St. Domingo in 1825. EVENTS OF 1803. Renewal of the War between England and France. — ^The Peace of Amiens proved to be nothing more than a mere susiiension of arms. The arbitrary conduct of Bonaparte toward Holland, Switzerland, and Italy, aroused the jealousy of the English, who accordingly refused to give up Malta, Eg}'pt, and the Cape of Good Hoi)e, as stipulated by the treaty of Amiens. The violent denunciations of Bonaparte by the English press, and the insulting treatment of Lord Whitworth, the British ambassador at Paris, widened the breach between England and France. In May, 1803, the English cabinet issued letters of marque, and decreed an embargo on all French vessels in British ports. Napoleon retaliated by ordering all British subjects then in France, between the ages of sixteen and sixty years, to be seized and imprisoned. Conquest of Hanover. — A French force under Mortier soon overran and NINETEENTH CENTURY. 335 conquered Hanover, the hereditary possession of the King of Great Britain ; and, in utter disregard of neutral rights, all Northern Germany was occupied by French troops. A French army was also sent against the kingdom of Naples. Threatened Invasion of England. — Napoleon was again making immense preparations for an invasion of England. The French, Dutch, and Spanish fleets were to assist in the project; and large bodies of land troops were again assembled at Boulogne, for the ostensible purpose of making a descent upon the English coast. After considerable boasting, the project entertained was abandoned. EVENTS OF 1804. Conspiracies against Bonaparte — Execution of the Duke d' Enghien. — In the early part of 1804, a conspiracy against the authority of Bonaparte, in which Generals Moreau and Pichegru, and George Cadoudal, a Vendean chief, were implicated, was discovered. Moreau was allowed to retire into voluntary exile in America; Pichegru died a violent death in prison; and George Cadoudal was guillotined. Napoleon, suspecting that the young Duke d' Enghien, a kinsman of the late royal family of France, was engaged in a plot for his assassination, caused the young prince, who was then living in the neutral territory of Baden, to be arrested and brought to Vincennes. After a trial by a court-martial, in which all the forms of justice were disregarded, the Duke was sentenced to death in the night, and immediately shot in the ditches of the castle-yard of Vincennes. This horrible crime is the greatest blot upon the character of Bonaparte. War between England and Spain. — The British Government, believing that Spain had secretly united with France, in hostility to England, caused several of the Spanish treasure ships, while on their home voyage from South America, to be seized, in the fall of 1804, without a previous declaration of war. The Spanish Government, upon hearing of this hasty and unjustifiable act, was so exasperated that it immediately declared war against England, and entered into a close alliance with France. (December, 1804.) / NAPOLEON, EMPEROR OF THE FRENCH. (DECEMBER 2, 1804-APRIL 6, 1814.) EVENTS OF 1804. Napoleon, "Emperor of the French." — On the i8th of May, 1804, the servile French Senate created Napoleon "Emperor of the French;" and on the 2d of December of the same year, he was crowned in the Church of Notre Dame, in Paris, by Pope Pius VII., who had been induced to come to the French capital for that purpose. EVENTS OF 1803. Napoleon, King of Italy. — On the 26th of May, 1805, Napoleon was crowned King of Italy at Milan. The iron crown of Charlemagne was brought forward for the occasion ; and Napoleon, placing it on his head, uttered the words, " God has given it to me; beware of touching it." Eugene Beauhamais, Napoleon's step-son, was appointed viceroy of the Kingdom of Italy. 336 MODERN HISTOR V. New Coalition Against France. — The alarm created by the usurpations of Napoleon in Germany, Holland, Italy, and Switzerland, and the influence of Eng- lish gold, induced Austria, Russia, and Sweden, to unite in a coalition with England against France. Capitulation of Ulm. — With the greatest promptitude, Napoleon assembled an army on the Rhine, marched eastward for. the purpose of driving the Austrians out of Bavaria, which they had invaded in utter disregard of neutral rights. On the 20th of October (1805), he compelled General Mack and 35,000 Austrian troops, who composed the garrison of Ulm, to Kay down their arms. Mack was afterwards court-martialed, and deprived of his command, by order of the Austrian Government. Battle of Trafalgar. — On the day after Mack's disgraceful capitulation at Ulm (October 21, 1805), a bloody naval battle occurred off Cape Trafalgar, on the South-western coast of Spain, in which the combined French and Spanish fleets, under Villeneuve and Gravina, were annihilated by the English fleet, under Lord Nelson and Admiral Collingwood. Most of the P'rench and Spanish vessels were captured by the English. The victorj' of the English was dearly purchased, as the heroic Lord Nelson, their greatest naval commander, was slain in the engagement. Battles of Dirnstein and Austerlitz. — Proceeding in his victorious career, Napoleon defeated the Russians, under Kutusoff and Bagration, at Dirnstein, on the nth of November, and on the 13th he entered Vienna. He then pursued the Austrian forces into the province of Moravia ; and on the 2d of December, he defeated the combined Austrian and Russian armies, in the celebrated battle of Austerlitz. This was the most brilliant of ail Napoleon's victories. The Austrian and Russian Emperors, who had witnessed the battle from a neighboring eminence, fled in constern.ation when they saw that their armies were beaten. Peace of Presburg. — Nothing now remained for the Emperor of Austria but to accept such terms of peace as Napoleon chose to dictate ; and on the 26th of December, 1805, the Peace of Presburg was signed, by which the war between France and Austria was terminated. The Emperor of Russia immediately retired with his army to his own dominions. Hanover was bestowed on the King of Prussia, as a reward for his neutrality in the war. The failure of the coalition against France produced such eff"ect upon the mind of Mr. Pitt, the English Prime-Minister, as to hurry him to an early grave. EVENTS OF 1806. Joseph Bonaparte, King of Naples, and Louis, King of Holland. — In February, 1806, Napoleon sent an army to take possession of Naples, because the Neapolitan king, Ferdinand, and his queen, Caroline, had received a force of Eng- lish and Russians in their capital. Ferdinand and his court fled to Sicily, and Napoleon conferred the crown of Naples on his brother, Joseph Bonaparte. Louis Bonaparte, another of Napoleon's brothers, was made King of Holland. The Confederation of the Rhine — End of the German Empire. — Napo- leon formed various territories in Germany into dukedoms, which he bestowed on his leading marshals ; and fourteen princes in .Southern and Western Germany formed " The Confederation of the Rhine," and acknowledged Napoleon as their NINETEENTH CENTURY. 33 y head, with the title of "Protector." Francis II. now renounced thetitleof Emperor of Germany, and assumed the title of Emperor of Austria. This was the end of the German Empire, which had existed for icx36 years. War with Prussia. — Causes were now at work which soon ripened into a war between France and Prussia. The Prussian king was exasperated at the violation of Prussian territory by the French during their war with Austria, and was deeply mortified when Napoleon prevented the forming of a North German Confederation in opposition to the Confederation of the Rhine. When Napoleon, who was at this time negotiating for peace with Great Britain, proposed to restore Hanover to the King of that country, the indignation of the Prussian cabinet was aroused to such a degree that war with France was resolved upon immediately. (August, 1806.) Battles of Saalfeld, Jena, and Auerstadt. — The Prussians soon poured into Saxony. Napoleon, with his usual promptitude, marched against the Prussians with a gigantic force. The first enga^ment occuiTed at Saalfeld, where Prince Louis of Prussia was defeated and killed, on the loth of October (1806). On the 14th of the same month (October, 1806), Napoleon, with 100,000 men, annihilated 100,000 Prussians in the great battle of Jena. On the same day, a French force, under Marshal Davoust, wasted a Prussian force in the battle of Auerstadt. In these two battles, the French lost 20,000 men, and the Prussians 40,000. The gallant Duke of Brunswick, the Prussian commander, was mortally wounded at Auerstadt. Surrender of Prussian Fortresses. — The battles of Jena and Auerstadt placed the Prussian monarchy prostrate before the power of Napoleon. On the 25th of October, 1806, Marshal Davoust, with a portion of the French army, entered Berlin, the Prussian capital, in triumph. The Prussian fortresses quickly fell into the hands of the French. The Prince of Hohenlohe, with 17,000 men, surrendered to the French at Prenzlow. King Frederic William III. fled to Konigsburg, whence he vainly endeavored to obtain peace. " The Continental System." — In November, 1806, Napoleon issued a series of decrees at Berlin, declaring all the ports of the British Islands to be in a state of blockade, and excluding British manufactures from the ports of Continental Europe; thus estaVilishing what was known as "The Continental System." Movements against the Russians — Battle of Pultusk. — The King of Prussia in his distress solicited the aid of the Emperor Alexander of Russia, who sent a powerful army under Benningsen to unite with the Prussians. The region of the Vistula and Oder was deluged with blood ; and the Russians were driven into Poland by the French, who occupied Warsaw on the 30th of November; but the Russians had the advantage in the battle of Pultusk, on the 26th of December. EVENTS OF 1807. Battle of Eylau. — On the 8th of February, 1807, a sanguinary, but indecisive battle was fought at Eylau, in East Prussia, between 100,000 French troops under Napoleon, and the same number of Russians under Benningsen. Each army lost 20,000 men, and both were so weakened that military operations were suspended for several months. Fall of Dantzic. — On the 24th of May (1807), the strongly-fortified Prussian 22 228 MODERN HISTORY. town of Danlzic, on the Baltic coast, was surrendered, with its garrison of 17,000 men under Kalkrcuth, and 900 cannon, to the French under Marshal Lefebvre, after a vigorous siege. Battles of Hielsberg and Friedland. — At length the campaign between the main armies ojiened; and on the 5th of June, 30,000 French troops were disas- trously repulsed in an attack upon the strong Russian position at Hielsberg. On the 14th of June, the anniversary of the battle of Marengo, the Russian army under Benningsen was severely defeated by Napoleon, in the great battle of Friedland, and compelled to retreat to the banks of the Niemen. Peace of Tilsit. — Hostilities were now suspended, and the French and Russian Emperors met on a raft in the middle of the Niemen, where negotiations were opened, which ended in the Peace of Tilsit, signed on the 7th of July, 1807. Prussia was partitioned: the Eastern portion, which had once fonned a part of the kingdom of Poland, was erected into the Grand-Ditchy of Warsaw, and bestowed on the Elector of Saxony, who was in alliance with Napoleon ; out of the Western jwrtion was formed the Kingdom of Westphalia, which was conferred on Jerome Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother. The King of Prussia was left in possession of scarcely half his dominions, and even these would have been taken from him had it not been for the generous intercession of the Emperor Alexander in his behalf. The Emperor of Russia agreed to aid Napoleon in his designs for the destruction of the com- merce of Great Britain, by the exclusion of British manufactures from the Russian dominions. The Swedish War. — Although Russia and Prussia concluded peace with France, the eccentric Gustavus IV., King of Sweden, obstinately continued the war, and held fast to his alliance with Great Britain. Russia, which by the Peace of Tilsit became the ally of France, now declared war against Sweden ; and a Russian army invaded the Swedish province of Finland, and captured the towns of Helsingfors and Sweaborg, while the French captured Stralsund and the island of Rugen. This war continued for several years. England and Denmark — Bombardment of Copenhagen. — England, alarmed at the united efforts of France and Russia against her commerce, and fear- ing that Napoleon would compel Denmark to aid in shutting up the Baltic against British vessels, sent a powerful fleet under Admiral Lord Gambler, conveying 20,000 land troops, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, to Copenhagen, for the purpose of obtain- ing possession of the Danish fleet as a pledge until the close of the war. As the Danish Government refused to surrender its fleet, a four days' bombardment of Coijenhagen by the British army and navy followed (September 2-5, 1807), re- ducing a great part of the town to ashes, when the Danish fleet was surrendered. This outrageous and unprovoked attack of a strong power upon a weaker one ex- cited universal indignation throughout Europe. Denmark, greatly exasperated, formed an alliance with Russia and France, and declared war against England and Sweden. Usurpation of the Throne of Portugal. — Napoleon was now determined to ■deprive England of her commerce with Portugal, and, for the accomplishment of this object, he negotiated with the weak and disssolute court of Spain. The ignorant and wicked Godoy, who was the Prime-Minister of Spain, and who had NINETEENTH CENTURY. 33^ received the title of "Prince of Peace," was promised a principality in Portugal, as his reward for his aid in the unprincipled scheme of the French Emperor. When the Prince-Regent of Portugal refused to renounce his alliance with England and close the Portuguese ports against British vessels. Napoleon published a decree declaring that "the House of Braganza had ceased to reign;" and a French army under Junot was sent to take possession of Portugal. The cowardly royal family of Portugal, instead of offering any resistance to the invaders of their dominions, fled in English vessels to Rio Janiero, the capital of the Portuguese colony of Brazil, in South America. On the 30th of November (1807), three days after the Por- tuguese court had left the shores of their European dominions, the French army occupied Lisbon, the Portuguese capital, without resistance. EVENTS OF 1808. Dethronement of the King of Spain. — The wretched condition of Spain under the weak monarch, Charles IV., and his wicked queen and her unprincipled and ignorant favorite, Godoy, " The Prince of Peace," had made that kingdom con- temptible in the eyes of all nations. Godoy, as well as the king and the queen, was unpopular with the Spanish people, and when he proposed to remove the royal family to South America, a violent insurrection broke out, which deprived Godoy of his power, and compelled Charles IV. to abdicate his throne in favor of his son Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias, who was immediately hailed as king by the Spanish people. The weak Charles invoked the aid of the French Emperor in his behalf, and declared that his abdication was an involuntary act. By a series cJf intrigues, Napoleon induced Charles and Ferdinand to refer their disputes to his decision, and enticed them along with Godoy and the queen to Bayonne. Napoleon having the whole royal family of Spain in his power, kept them close prisoners, compelled both Charles and Ferdinand to abdicate, and declared that the dynasty of the Bour- bons should no longer reign in Spain. Napoleon named his brother, Joseph Bona- parte, King of Spain, while Joachim Murat, his brother-in-law, received the crown of the kingdom of Naples. Beginning of the Peninsular War. — The Spanish people arose almost unani- mously against the usurpation of Napoleon, and resolved that none but their lawful sovereign should reign over them. A fierce insurrection against the French broke out in Madrid, and 600 of Murat's troops were put to death. Murat succeeded in quelling the insurrection, but disgraced his name by a bloody massacre of the insur- gents. Provisional juntas were formed in many of the chief cities of the Spanish kingdom, for the purpose of conducting affairs; armies were raised for the defense of the country; and a fierce guerrilla war was commenced against the French invaders. Spanish Successes — Dupont's Capitulation of Baylen.— The Spanish patriots were at first victorious in their struggle against the usurpers of their govern- ment. A French fleet at Cadiz, blockaded by a Brtiish fleet, was compelled to surrender; Marshal Moncey, with 8,000 French troops, was repulsed in an assault upon Valencia ; Saragossa was bravely defended by a Spanish force under the gal- lant Palafox; and finally, on the 20th of July (1808), the French general Dupont and 20,000 men were compelled to lay down their arms at Baylen, to the Spaniards under the brave Castanos; and Joseph Bonaparte, who had entered Madrid on that 340 MODERN HISTORY. very day, was soon obliged to flee, and the French were driven across the Ebro, into the North-eastern part of the Spanish peninsula. Events in Portugal — Battle of Vimiera — Convention of Cintra. — The Portuguese people also rose in insurrection against the French invaders of their coun- try, and a Provisional Junta was established at Oporto. An English army, under Sir Arthur Welleslcy, which had been sent to a.ssist the Portuguese, defeated the French army under Junot at Vimiera, on the 2ist of August, 1808. On the follow- ing day (August 22, 1808), the Convention of Cintra was concluded between Junot and the English general Dalrymple, by which the French agreed to evacuate Por- tugal, on condition of being conveyed to France in English vessels. Napoleon in Spain — Defeats of the Spaniards. — The many reverses of the French arms in the Spanish ]icninsul;x induced Na[)()leon to cross the Pyrenees at the head of 180,000 men, in the early part of November, 1808, to recover what had been lost. The Spanish patriots now suffered several disasters: at Reynosa, the French under Marshal Victor defeated the Spaniards under Ulake; at Burgos, Marshal Soult, with French troops, overthrew the Spanish Count de Belvedere; and at Tudela, Marshal Lannes, with another French force, beat the Spaniards under Palafox and Castanos. On the 4th of December, Napoleon entered Madrid in triumph. EVENTS OF 1809. Battle of Corunna. — A British army, under Sir John Moore, which was march- ing to the aid of the Spaniards, was compelled to make a hasty retreat to Corunna, on the North-eastern coast of Spain, where, while preparing to embark, it was attacked, on the i6th of January, 1809, by the French under Marshal Soult. The French were repulsed and compelled to retreat; but the gallant Sir John Moore fell mortally wounded by a cannon-ball from the enemy while animating his troops. He soon expired, and was buried by torchlight, on the ramparts of Corunna. Fall of Saragossa — Battle of Talavera. — On the 20th of February (1809), the city of Saragossa, alnn^sl reduced to a heap of ruins, fell into the hands of the French, and Palafox, the heroic commander of the Spanish force which had garri- soned the city, was conveyed a prisoner to France. At length, the English army under Sir Arthur Wellesley, after driving the French from Portugal, advanced into Spain, and, on the 26th of July, gained a glorious victory over the French, in the battle of Talavera. Seville was taken by the French, but Cadiz, the seat of the Grand National junta, was successfully defended against evciy attack. War with Austria — Battles of Eckmuhl and Aspern. — The Emperor of Austria, subsidized by British gold, and encouraged by the militaiy ardor of his subjects, began a war against France in the beginning of April, 1809. Large bodies of Austrian troops, which were marched into Bavaria and Italy, threatened to overwhclnj the scattered detachijients of Napoleon's army. Napoleon suddenly appeared in Bavaria, on the 17th of April, and assumed the command of the French forces assembled there. On the 22d of April (1809), after four days of sanguinary encounters at Abensberg and Eckmuhl, Napoleon totally annihilated the Austrian anny under the Archduke Charles. Napoleon entered Vienna on the 13th of May, but he was repulsed in the battles of Aspern and Eslingen, on the 21st and 22d of of May. (1809.) During these two days the French lost 12,000 men in killed and NINETEENTH CENTURY. ^41 wounded. Among the mortally wounded on the side of the French was the brave Marshal Lannes, who had both legs shot off. Battle of Wagram — Peace of Vienna. — On the 5th of July (1809), Napo- leon gained a victory in the battle of Wagram, not far from Vienna, which placed the Austrian Empire at his mercy. The truce of Znaym soon followed; andean the 14th of October (1809), the Peace of Vienna was concluded, at the palace of Schoenbrunn, by which Austria was obliged to relinquish territory containing 3,000,000 inhabitants. Tyrolese Revolt. — While the war between the French and the Austrians, of which uc have just spoken, was in progress, the brave inhabitants of the mountain- ous country called the Tyrol, rose in insurrection against the King of Bavaria, under whose dominion their country had l>een placed Ijy the Peace of Presburg, in 1805. The Tyrolese mountaineers, headed by Andreas Hofer, resisted the Pavar- ians successfully; and it was only after two large French armies had been sent against the insurgents that the revolt was suppressed, and the Tyrol again brought under the authority of Bavaria. The gallant Hofer was afterwards shot in Mantua, for attempting to excite a second revolt. Napoleon's Quarrel with Pope Pius VII. — A quarrel now arose between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII. When the Pojie refused to lay an embargo on British vessels in the ports of the States of the Church, and form an alliance with France, Napoleon annexed a part of the papal territory to the French Empire. When, during the last war between France and Austria, the Pope sided with the Austrians, Napo- leon declared the Pope's temporal power at an end. The Holy P'ather, intensely exasperated, fulminated an excommunication against the French Emperor, where- upon he was seized and carried to France, where he remained a prisoner until the beginning of 1814. Revolution in Sweden. — In the North of Europe, the Swedish war still con- tinued, and the forces of Denmark, France, and Russia, reduced the Swedish king- dom to great distress. The Swedish people were anxious for peace, and as their eccentric king, Gustavus IV., obstinately persisted in his determination to continue the war, he was dethroned by the Swedish Diet, and his uncle, the Duke of Suder- mania, was raised to the Swedish throne, with the title of Charles XIII. The Peace of P'rederickshamn was then concluded, by which Sweden ceded the province of P'inland to Russia. EVENTS OF 1810. Napoleon Marries Maria Louisa. — For reasons of state, Napoleon was now to ally himself with one of the oldest and most illustrious of the royal families of liurope. After having, on the 15th of December, 1809, obtained a divorce from Josephine, to whom he was tenderly attached, he married the Archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor I'rancis of Austria, early in 1810. The nuptials were celebrated,with great pomp, on the 22d of April, i8io. Napoleon's marriage with Maria Louisa seemed to strengthen his power, but it was really the cause of his fall, as the other powers of Europe feared that, secured by the Austrian alliance, he would attempt to bring all Europe under his sway. Holland Annexed to the French Empire.— When Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland, relaxed the severity of the blockade of the ports of his dominions, and 342 MODERN HIS TOR Y. permitted the importation of English goods, he was deprived of his crown by his brother, the Emperor, and his kingdom, together with the greater part of Northern Germany, was annexed to the French Empire. Bernadotte Elected Crown Prince of Sweden.— The Prince of Augusten- burg, the heir of Charles XIII. of Sweden, suddenly died, whereupon the Swedish Diet chose Charles John Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's generals. Crown Prince of Sweden, and successor of Charles XIII. to the Swedish throne. Napoleon very reluctantly yielded his consent to this choice. On the death of Charles XIII., m i8i8, Bernadotte ascended the throne of Sweden, which he held until his death, in the year 1844. The War in the Spanish Peninsula — Retreat to Torres Vedras. — The war was still raging in the Spanish peninsula, and Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had just been created Lord Wellington, was in chief command of the English, Spanish, and Portuguese amiies. On the loth of July, 1810, the Spaniards were compelled to surrender the strong fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo to the French army under Mar- shal Massena; but the English under Wellington repulsed an attack by Massena at Busaco, on the 27th of September (1810). Wellington, acting on the defensive, then retreated to the strong lines of Torres Vedras, which covered Lisbon. Mas- sena, wasting some time in useless assaults upon these impregnable lines, was at length obliged to retrace his steps. (November, 18 10.) KVENTS OF 1811. The Peninsular War — Spanish Guerrilla Parties. — The Peninsular War was continued with vigor on both sides throughout the year 181 1, and the French forces were greatly harassed by the Spanish guerrilla parties. On the loth of March (1811), the strong Spanish fortress of Badajoz surrendered to the French under Marshal Soult ; but on the 1 6th of May, Soult was defeated in the battle of Albuera, by the allied English, Spanish, and Portuguese forces, under the command of Mar- shal Beresford. The future of Napoleon's great empire seemed to be secured by the birth, in March, 181 1, of a son, who received the title of "King of Rome." EVENTS OF 1812. The Peninsular War — Battle of Salamanca — Wellington's Retreat, — The events in the .Spanish peninsula during the year 1 81 2 were generally unfavor- able to the French arms. The last important French victory in the peninsula was the capture of the city of Valencia by Marshal Suchet, on the 9th of January, 1S12. The English army under Wellington captured Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, early in the year. At length, on the 22d of June (i8i2),wxs fought the important battle of Salamanca, in which the English, commanded by Wellington, gained a brilliant victory over the French army under Marshal Marmont ; and Joseph Bonaparte fled from Madrid, which was then occupied by the British army ; but when the French forces in the peninsula were concentrated, Wellington again retreated to Portugal, where he remained until the following year. Causes which Led to a War with Russia. — We have already seen that, by the Peace of Tilsit, in 1 807, the French and Russian Emperors became friends and allies, and that they united in the maritime war against England. It soon became NINETEENTH CENTURY. 343 evident that this friendship could not be permanent, and the unconcern which Alexander exhibited in the war against Austria, in 1809, increased the growing coldness between him and Napoleon. P'rom the moment of Napoleon's alliance with the House of Austria, Alexander perceived that it would be impossible to avoid hostilities with Napoleon; and in i8ii,the diplomacy between the French and Russian cabinets began to assume a most angry character. The measures of Napoleon for destroying the trade of Great Britain, and the closing of the Russian ports against British vessels, had inflicted great injury upon Russian commeice. The complaints of the Russian merchants induced Alexander to open the ports' of his dominions to British vessels upon certain conditions; and a heavy tariff was laid upon French goods. These proceedings provoked the anger of the French Emperor. The aggrandizement of Napoleon in Central Europe, and the annexa- tion of the possessions of the Duke of Oldenburg, a near relative of Alexander, to the French Empire, destroyed the last tie of friendship between the two Emperors, and, in the spring of 1812, both began to prepare earnestly for war. Preparations of Russia. — The Russian Emperor fonned alliances with Eng- land and Sweden, and, through the mediation of the British Government, he con- cluded the Peace of Bucharest with the Turks, with whom the Russians had been at war almost constantly since the year 1806. The Russian forces, under Barclay de Tolly, Prince Bagration, and other generals, which were assembled in Poland and the Western Russian provinces, amounted to 300,000 men; but the mighty army which Napoleon assembled for the subjugation of the Russian Empire was almost twice as large. Princely Assemblage at Dresden — Napoleon's " Grand Army." — On the l6th of May, 1812, Napoleon held a meeting with the Emperor of Austria, the Kings of Prussia, Naples, Westphalia, and Wurtemburg, and the Princes of the Confederation of the Rhine, at Dresden. After this grand assemblage of princes had lasted ten days. Napoleon went to assume the command of " The Grand Army," which he had assembled in Poland for the invasion of Russia. Napoleon had concluded a treaty with Austria, by which that power agreed to furnish him with 30,000 men, under the command of Prince Schwartzenberg, and Prussia, by a sim- ilar treaty, agreed to furnish him with 20,000 men. "The Grand Anny" now numbered more than 500,000 men, and was comjxtsed of French, Austrians, Prus- sians, Germans, Italians, and Poles. Of this immense host, 80,000 were cavalry. The whole number of horses belonging to the army amounted to almost 190,000. Invasion of Russia. — On the 22d of June, 1812, Napoleon issued a declara- tion of war against Russia; and on the 24th, he crossed the Niemen, and invaded the Russian dominions. The Russians, in accordance with the plan of their gen- erals, avoided battles, retreated before the advancing French forces, and laid waste the country through which they passed, so that the French army might find no sub- sistence from it. Napoleon, with the main body of the Grand Army, pursued the retreating Russians, and reached Wilna on the 28lh, where he remained until the middle of August, when he continued his advance toward Moscow, in pursuit of the retreating Russians. Already the effects of the destructive policy of the Rus- sians began to be felt in the French army, as 25,000 sick and dying men filled the hospitals, .and 10,000 dead horses strewed the road to Wilna, and 125 pieces of artillery had been abandoned. 344 MODERN HISTORY. Battle of Smolensko. — At Smolensko, on the 17th of August, 30,000 Russians made a stand against the French. Three furious assaults upon this strongly-forti- fied town were repulsed by the Russians; but during the night, the inhabitants set fire to the town, which was soon reduced to ashes, and fled with the army. Barclay de Tolly and Kutusoff. — The Russians continued to retreat toward Moscow, pursued by the French. The mode of warfare pursued by the Russian general, Barclay de Tolly, was not approved by his soldiers, who were anxious fo) a battle with the invaders of their country. For this reason, the Emperor Alexander removed Barclay de Tolly, and appointed General Kutusoff, who had distinguished himself m the war with Turkey which had just closed, to the chief command of the Russian army. Battle of Borodino. — On the 7th of September, Kutusoff risked a battle with Napoleon at Borodino, on the Moskwa, in the hope of saving Moscow. In the morning when this sanguinary engagement began, each army numbered 130,000 men. The battle had commenced at six o'clock in the morning, and when night put an end to its horrors, 90,000 men lay dead and wounded on the field. The result of the battle was that the Russians were obliged to resume their retreat, and the French were enabled to continue their advance in the direction of Moscow. Napoleon's Entry into Moscow. — At length, on the 14th of September (181 2), the French army came in sight of the great city of Moscow, and beheld its lofty steeples and copper domes glittering in the sun. When the city burst upon his gaze, Napoleon exclaimed, " Behold ! yonder is the celebrated city of the Czars!" The French troops rushed forward, and entered Moscow on the same day, but they were astonished to find it deserted by its 300,000 inhabitants. Only a few of the rabble remained in the city. Napoleon took up his residence in the Kremlin, or ancient palace of the Czars. Burning of Moscow. — Before Moscow had been abandoned by its inhabitants. Count Rostopschin, the Russian governor, had taken measures to burn the city after the French should enter. Accordingly, on the night of the i6th (September, 1812), a vast fire was seen to emanate from the easteni part of the city. Fires soon broke out in all quarters of the city; and in a few hours the holy city of the Russians was wrapt in flames. The city had been set on fire by the 20,000 convicts whom Ros- topschin, before leaving the city, had liberated for the purpose. No means were at hand for extinguishing the fire, as the fountains had been destroyed, the fire-engines carried off, and the water-pipes cut, before the inhabitants had left the city. For four days, the fire continued to rage unabated, reducing the greater part of the city to ashes. When the fire had reached the Kremlin, Napoleon abandoned that edifice, and took up his abode in the imperial castle of Petrowski, three miles from the city. He returned on the 19th, and took up his quarters in that part of the Kremlin which had escaped the ravages of the fire. Napoleon's Evacuation of Moscow — Destruction of the Kremlin. — The destruction of Moscow deprived the French army of winter-quarters; the Rus- sian armies, which were now vastly superior to the French, threatened to cut off all communication with France; and the Russian Emperor rejected all Napoleon's proposals for peace. In this critical situation. Napoleon found himself obliged to order a retreat to Poland; and on the 19th of October (1812), Moscow was evacu- NINETEENTH CENTURY. 345 ated by the Frencn army. Napoleon, however, left a division of 8,000 men under Marshal Mortier to superintend the evacuation of the city. For several days, Mor- tier and his brave little band defended themselves in the Kremlin against their Russian assailants, when, on the 22d, they abandoned the city to join Napoleon. Before leaving Moscow, barrels of gunpowder had been placed under various parts of the Kremlin, which were lighted by means of a fuse. No sooner had the Rus- sians entered the Kremlin, than that venerable edifice was blown into the air, and pieces of timber, rocks, broken weapons, pieces of cannon, and mutilated bodie? were thrown in every direction. The thunders of the explosion awoke Napoleon and his troops, thirty miles distant. Mortier and his little band reached the main army in safety. Battle of Malo-Yaraslevetz. — On the 24th of October, a portion of the French army, under Murat, after a succession of stubborn engagements, defeated the Russians at Malo-Yaraslevetz, and remained masters of the town. This was a useless victory for the French, who soon found themselves obliged to retreat as rapidly as possible, by the very route which their advance had exhausted. Disastrous Retreat of the French Army. — The horrors of this retreat of the French army exceeded anything recorded in the annals of war. The Russians . sent out their Cossacks, under Platoff, who greatly annoyed the French rear, and cut off French straggling parties, while the main divisions of the Russian army pursued the retreating French troops, and forced them to contest every inch of ground. The French army was encumbered with its sick and dying. On the 6th of November, an enemy far more terrible than the bullets of the Russians, or the lances of the Cossacks, made its appearance. This enemy was a Russian winter of unusual severity. The thermometer sank to eighteen degrees below zero, and the cold wind howled furiously over the vast steppes. The French army was becoming weaker and weaker by the casualities of battle, and by fatigue, hunger, and cold. The roads were strewed with dead and dying men and horses. The starving troops fell upon the dead and dying horses, and devoured their flesh like famished dogs; and many who had remained with the dying embers of the bivouac fire, fell asleep to wake no more. All discipline was gone, and all the heavy artillery was abandoned to the pursuing Russians. The Pursuing Russian Armies. — The main Russian army, under Kutusoff, numbering 100,000 men, advanced by a route parallel to that of the French army, while another army, under Wittgenstein, pressed upon the French rear, and Platoff's Cossacks harrassed the retreating troops, and cut off such as were so unfortunate as to stray from their ranks. On the 9th of November, Napoleon and his wearied troops reached Smolensko, where they rested until the 15th, when the disastrous retreat was renewed. The French rear-guard, under Marshal Ney, was almost totally destroyed. Battles of Krasnoi — Ney's Passage of the Dnieper. — In the battles of Krasnoi, on the i6th, 17th, and i8th of November, the French lost 30,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Ney's fortunate, but dangerous, passage of the frozen Dnieper, was one of the most daring feats recorded in history. The troops crossed the thin ice in safety, but the wagons containing the sick and wounded sank, amid the shrieks of the unfortunate sufferers. 346 MODERN HISTORY. The Terrible Passage of the Beresina. — The most honible of this series of horrors was the passage of the Beresina. While the French were passing over the bridges, the enemy under Wittgenstein and Platoff appeared, and opened a heavy attack upon them. One of the bridges, unable to bear the weight of the crowd upon it, broke, thus precipitating into the stream thousands, whose dying shrieks were heard loud above the roar of the Russian cannon and the cheers of the Cossacks. Many who attempted to cross over the other bridge were swept off by the Russian artillery, or thrown over in the confusion by their comrades. The following spring, when the ice melted, 36,000 dead bodies were found in the chan- nel of the Beresina. Destruction of the Grand Army. — The mournful disaster just related com- pleted the destruction of Napoleon's Grand Army. When the remnants of the French army reached the Niemen, the rear guard, under Marshal Ney, was reduced to thirty men. The veteran marshal, bearing a musket, and pointing it at the pur- suing enemy, was the last of the Grand Army that left the Russian territory. Napo- leon had already left the army on the 5th of December, and started in a sledge for Paris, where he arrived on the i8th. In this disastrous campaign, the losses of Napoleon were as follows: 125,000 men killed in battle; 132,000 died from cold, hunger, and fatigue; and 193,000 made prisoners by the Russians. The total loss was 450,000 men. EVENTS OF 1813. The Peninsular War — Battle of Vittoria — Expulsion of the French. — Late in May, 1S13, Lord Wellington reentered Spain, and, on the 21st of June, he annihilated the French forces, under Marshal Jourdain and Joseph Bonaparte, in the decisive battle of Vittoria. The result of this battle was that the French were compelled to evacuate th^e 'entire Spanish peninsula, and to retire into their own territories, before the close of the year. After reducing the strong fortresses of St. Sebastian and Pampeluna, Wellington pursued the retreating French across the Pyrenees, into their own territory; and on the loth of November (1813), he de- feated the French forces, commanded by Marshal Soult, on the Nivelle. Moral Effect of the Russian Disaster. — The moral effect of the Russian disaster was a far more serious misfortune to Napoleon than the loss of his great army; as it destroyed the belief in his invincibility, and consequently encouraged the subject nations to throw off the supremacy before which they had been com- pelled to bow, and to assert their former dignity and independence. It proved to be, as Talleyrand called it, "The beginning of the end." War Spirit of Prussia — Alliance of Prussia, Russia, and Sweden. — Prussia was the first of the powers which had suffered from the insolence of the great conqueror, to take advantage of the great misfortune which had befallen him. As early as December, 1812, the Prussian general Yorck, who had commanded under the Frencn marshal Macdonald in the Russian campaign, had entered into an agreement witn the Russian marshal Diebitsch to cease from hostilities against Russia. Although the conduct of Yorck was at first disapproved by the Prussian Government, the patriotic war spirit of the Prussian people was every day becoming more manifest. At length, on the 3d of February, 1813, Prussia concluded an alliance with Russia and Sweden, and declared war against the French Emperor- NINETEENTH CENTURY. 347 The greatest enthusiasm pervaded all classes of the Prussian people on this action of their government, and noble and peasant offered their services in the cause of their countrj''s liberation from foreign domination. Invasion of Germany by Napoleon. — In the meantime, Napoleon had raised a new army of 350,000 men, and in the month of April, 1813, he marched this immense force into Germany. Frederic Augustus, King of Saxony, through fear of the French Emperor, held fast to his alliance with France, and Saxony became the theatre of hostilities. Battles of Lutzen and Bautzen. — On the 2d of May, 1813, Napoleon gained a victory over the allied Russian and Prussian armies at Lutzen, after a terrific con- flict, in which the Prussian general Schamhorst, and the French marshal Bessieres, were slain. After a desperate engagement at Bautzen, on the 20th (May, 1813), Napoleon was again victorious, but the brave French marshal Duroc was killed. Congress at Prague — Austria Joins the Allies. — Through the mediation of Austria, an armistice was soon agreed upon between the belligerent parties, and a Congress composed of ambassadors of the several powers was convened at Prague, to consider terms of peace. As Napoleon absolutely refused to restore the inde- pendence of Germany, the armistice terminated on the loth of August, when the Emperor of Austria joined the allies, and declared war against his son-in-law. Battle of Dresden. — Hostilities were now resumed with vigor; and on the 26th and 27th of August, Napoleon defeated the combined Austrian, Russian, and Prussian forces in the battle of Dresden. In this battle. General Moreau, who had been called from America by the Emperor of Russia, was mortally wounded. Battles of Katzbach, Culm, Gros-Beeren, and Dennewitz. — The advan- tages which Napoleon might have secured by his victory at Dresden were lost by the defeats sustained by his generals at other points, ^fk the 26th of August, the Prussians under Blucher defeated Macdonald on the Katzbach, in Silesia. On the 30th of the same month, Vandamme, with 10,000 French troops, finding himself surrounded by the allied Austrian, Russian and Prussian armies, was compelled to surrender at Culm, in North-western Bohemia, after a bloody battle of two days. On the 23d of August, a French division, under General Oudinot, was defeated at Gros-Beeren, near Berlin, by the Prussians and Swedes under the command of the Crown Prince of Sweden. On the 6th of September, Marshal Ney was badly beaten at Dennewitz, not far from Wittenberg, by the Prussian and Swedish forces. Concentration of the Allied Armies. — Bavaria now concluded the Treaty of Ried with Austria, and the princes of the Confederation of the Rhine were begin- ning to join the allies. In the beginning of October, the Russians under Barclay de Tolly and Benningsen, the Prussians under Blucher, the Swedes under Bema- dotte, and the Austrians under Prince Schwartzenberg, were concentrated in the vicinity of Leipsic. The allied armies, thus united, numbered 300,000 men, and were all placed under the command of the Austrian general. Prince Schwartzen- berg. To oppose this immense host, Napoleon had only 200,000 troops. Battle of Leipsic. — On the i6th, 17th and iSthof October, 18 13,-was fought the teirible battle of Leipsic, in which half a million of men were engaged in the work of death. The carnage was frightful. The French troops resisted the a.ssaults of the enemy with great bravery, but the superiority of the allies in numerical strength 348 MODERN HIS TOR V. prevailed, and Napoleon was in the end defeated with heavy loss. Napoleon was obliged to order a retreat; and on the morning of the 19th, the French army aban- doned Leipsic, which was then taken possession of by the allies. The Saxon troops now turned their artillery against the retreating French army, and joined the allies. The order for the destruction of the Elster bridge, over the Elbe, at Leipsic, had been executed so hastily that 30,000 French troops, unable to cross, were compelled to surrender to the enemy. The brave Pole, Poniatowski, who had fought bravely in the French army, was drowned while attempting to cross. Hasty Retreat of the French to the Rhine. — The French now made a hasty retreat toward the Rhine. The Austro-Bavarian army under General Wrede, attempting to intercept the retreat of the French army, met with a defeat at Hanau; but the retreat now became a rapid flight, and it was with great difficulty that Napoleon was enabled to cross the Rhine with his shattered army. Consequences of Napoleon's Defeat. — The consequences of the battle of Leipsic, and the defeat of Napoleon, were the dissolution of the Confederation of the Rhine, the restoration of the Elector of Hesse-Cassel, and the Dukes of Bruns- wick and Oldenburg to their governments, and the downfall of the Kingdom of Westphalia, — events which followed in rapid succession. Baden and Wurtemburg entered into treaties with Austria, and joined their forces to those of the allies. Holland also revolted against the French Emperor, and reestablished its independ- ence. The King of Denmark, who had firmly adhered to his alliance with Napo- leon, was compelled to cede Norway to Sweden by the Peace of Kiel, early in January, 1814. Misfortunes to the French in Italy. — Fortune was also averse to the French in Italy, where the viceroy, Eugene Beauharnais, was defeated by the Austrians under General Hiller. Mkrat, King of Naples, and brother-in-law to Napoleon, entered into a secret alliance with Austria, early in 1814, for the expulsion of the French from Italy. Early in 18 14, Pope Pius VII. was restored to his authority in Rome. EVENTS OF 1814. Invasion of France by the Allies, — As Napoleon refused to agree to a peace by surrendering any of the countries which he had conquered, and had raised a new army of 300,000 men, the allied monarchs determined upon his dethronement, and with this view they ordered their armies to cross the Rhine. France was now to be invaded on all sides, and the evils and humiliations which she had inflicted upon other nations were to be retaliated upon herself. On the ist of January, 1814, Blucher, with the Silesian army, consisting of Prussians and Russians, crossed the Rhine, between Manheim and Coblentz; while Prince Schwartzenberg, with the Allied Grand Army of 100,000 men, composed chiefly of Austrians, advanced into France through Switzerland. Another army, consisting of Prussians under Bulow, and Russians under Winzengerode, invaded France by way of Holland, and soon united with the Silesian army. Wellington, with the English army, after driving the French from the Spanish peninsula, pursued them across the Pyrenees, into their own territories, captured Bayonne, and a portion of his forces under Marshal Beres- ford took Bordeaux, where the Bourbons were proclaimed by the people. Battles of Brienne and La Rothiere — Victories of Napoleon. — Blucher NINETEENTH CENTURY. 345 and Schwartzenberg united their armies in Champagne, and, after fighting with Napoleon the indecisive battle of Brienne, on the 27lh of January, 1814, gained a victory in the battle of La Rothiere, on the 1st of February. But the allied armies again separated; and the French Emperor, whose great military talents again shone forth in all their brilliancy, inflicted severe defeats upon Blucher at Champaubert» Montmirail, Chateau-Thierry, and Vauchamps. He then suddenly fell upon and defeated Schwartzenberg at Montereau; and on the night of the 23d of February, the French bombarded Troyes, and compelled the Allies to evacuate the town. Napoleon afterwards unsuccessfully attacked .Soissons. Blucher fought with the French the battle of Craonne, on the 7th of March, and the battle of Laon, on the 9th of the same month. Napoleon afterwards attacked Rheims, which he com- pelled the Russians to evacuate. The French were defeated in the battle of Arcis, on the 20th of March. Unsuccessful Negotiations for Peace. — Flushed with his successes. Napo- leon suddenly broke off the negotiations for peace, which had just been opened at Chatillon, and thus hastened his speedy ruin. Had he listened to the reasonable terms offered by the allied powers, he might have remained on the throne of France. Capture of Paris by the Allies. — For the purpose of frightening the allies into a retreat into Germany, Napoleon, by a bold march, placed his army in their rear. The allies, seeing the way to Paris open, marched upon the city and took the heights of Montmartre, which covered the capital. Joseph Bonaparte, to whom Napoleon had entrusted the defense of the capital, retired with the Empress Maria Louisa and the regency to Blois; and on the 31st of March, 1814, Marshals Mor- tier and Marmont, perceiving the folly of any further resistance, surrendered Paris to the enemy; and on the same day, the Emperor of Russia and the King of Prussia entered that proud capital. A provisional government was now formed, at the head of which was Talleyrand, who had deserted the cause of Napoleon, and who now devoted himself to the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne of France. Abdication of Napoleon — Battle of Toulouse. — On the 2d of April, 1814, Napoleon was formally deposed by the French Senate, and, after vainly endeavor- ing to secure the crown of France to his son, he signed, on the 6th of April, 1814, the unconditional abdication of the thrones of France and Italy. On the loth of April, 1 8 14, a few days after the abdication of Napoleon, the English army, under Wellington, won a brilliant victory at Toulouse, over the French army commanded by Marshal Soult. A few days after the battle, news of the capture of Paris and the fall of Napoleon reached both armies, and hostilities were suspended. Napoleon sent to Elba. — On the nth of April, 1814, Napoleon agreed to a treaty with the allies at Fontainbleau, by which he received the sovereignty of the little island of Elba, in the Mediterranean sea, and an income of 2,000,000 francs. On the 20th of April (1814), Napoleon ordered the Imperial Guard to be assem- bled in the court-yard of Fontainbleau, and, amid the tears of the gallant veterans, he took leave of them with a sad heart. He then started for Elba, where he arrived on the 4th of May, 18 14. Louis XVIII. — First Peace of Paris. — The Count of Provence, brother of Louis XVI., returning from his long exile, entered Paris on the 3d of May, 1814, 350 MODERN HISTORY. and was received with demonstrations of joy by the inhabitants. lie was now seated on the throne of France, with the title of Louis XVIII. He was required to jj;overn according to a constitution, called " The Charter," by which the powers of the king were limited, and the rights of the French people defined and secured. On the 30th of May, 1814, a treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, between France and the allied powers, by which the boundaries of France were restricted to what they had been in 1792; and the general tranquillity of Europe appeared to be secured. THE RESTORED BOURBONS AND THE HUNDRED DAYS (1814-1815). Impolitic Conduct of the Bourbons. — The Bourbons were no sooner restored to the throne of France, than they endeavored to reestablish the state of things which existed before the Revolution, and their imprudent and iniiwlitic conduct excited the Honapartists and the Republicans against thcin. The tri-colored cockade was displaced by the white ensign of the Uourbons, and the memory of the Republic and of the Empire was, as much as possii)le, obliterated. The stipulated pension which was to be jiaid to Napoleon was also withheld. These and other causes led to the formation of i)lots for the restoration of Napoleon to power. The majority of the French people felt deeply the humiliation of living under a king forced upon them by foreign bayonets, and longed for that Emperor under whose banners their armies had so often been led to battle and to victory. Congress at Vienna. — A Congress composed of ambassadors of the allied powers hail assembled at Vienna, on the 25th of September, 1814, for the settle- ment of European affairs. Divisions arose in the Congress on the question of the rearrangement of the conquered countries; but when the astounding intelligence that Napoleon had left Elba, and had landejects the Constitution of 1812. The Liberals abused their power by hasty innovations, and by persecutions of the priests and the supporters of the Apostolic party. Overthrowr of the Cortes Constitution by a French Army. — It was re- solved by the members of the Holy Alliance, in a Congress at Verona, to suppress the Spanish Constitution by violence; and in 1823, a French army of 100,000 men, 356 MODERN HISTORY. under the Duke of Angouleme, entered Spain. The French invaders marched through the country to Cadiz, overcame all opposition on the part of the Spanish Lib- erals, and effected the overthrow of the Cortes Constitution, aud the reestablishmeiit of the absolute power of the king. P'rom this time, until his death, in 1833, Ferdi- nand VII. governed despotically, REVOLUTION IN PORTUGAL (1821-1834). Popular Insurrection — Establishment of a Liberal Constitution. — Por- tugal, as well as Spain, was torn by internal commotions. The Portuguese people were dissatisfied because the royal family did not return from Brazil after the ter- mination of the Peninsular War; and popular insurrections in Lisbon and Oporto, in August, 1820, resulted in the establishment of a liberal constitution, modeled after that of Spain. In 1822, the Portuguese colony of Brazil became an inde- pendent Empire. Overthrow of the Portuguese Constitution — Donna Maria da Gloria. — The Portuguese Constitution was overthrown in 1S23, by the Apostolic party, which was composed of the clergy and the aristocracy, with the supporters of Don Miguel, the king's brother, at their head. King John VI. died in 1826, and was succeeded on the throne of Portugal by his son, Don Pedro, Emperor of Brazil. Don Pedro, however, soon resigned the crown of Portugal to his infant daughter, Donna Maria da Gloria, appointed his brother, Don Miguel, regent of the kmgdom, and granted the Portuguese a liberal constitution. Usurpation of Don Miguel — Civil War — Defeat of Don Miguel. — In 1829, Don Miguel, with the support of the Apostolic party, suppressed the Portu- guese Constitution, and caused himself to be proclaimed King of Portugal. In 1832, Don Pedro, who had been compelled, the previous year, to abdicate his crown in Brazil, in favor of his son, Don Pedro II., returned to Portugal, to defend the rights of his daughter. The constitutional party rallied to the support of Don Pedro; and, in 1834, after a bloody civil war of two years, during which Don Pedro was aided by England and France, the usurper, Don Miguel, was forced to renounce his preten- sions, and to leave the kingdom ; whereupon the constitution, which had been sup- pressed by the usurper, was reestablished. REVOLUTION IN NAPLES (1820). Tyranny of King Ferdinand of Naples. — After the fall of Napoleon I. and the expulsion of the French from Italy, Ferdinand, the former King of Naples, was restored to his throne. From the time of his restoration to the Neapolitan throne, Ferdinand exercised a most unmitigated oppression over his subjects. Popular Insurrection in Naples — A Liberal Constitution Granted. — At length, in July, 1820, the Carbonari, an influential political society, excited a popu- lar insurrection in the Kingdom of Naples; and the tyrannical Ferdinand was compelled to grant his subjects a constitution similar in its character to the Spanish Cortes Constitution of 1S12. Intervention of the Holy Alliance — Overthrov/ of the Constitution. — In October of the same year (1820), the three crowned heads who formed the Holy Alliance held a conference at Tropp.au, in Austrian Silesia, where, at the instiga- NINETEENTH CENTURY. 35 y tion of Prince Mctternich, the Austrian Prime-Minister, they resolved to suppress the Neapolitan constitution by force of arms. King Ferdinand, of Naples, who, by invitation, met the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, at Laybach, in January, 1821, agreed to the projwsal; and accordingly, an Austrian army of 43,000 men marched into Naples, and, after several insignificant conflicts, dispersed the revolutionary forces; vv'hereupon King Ferdinand abolished the constitution which he had granted, and resumed his former despotic power. REVOLUTION IN PIEDMONT (1821). Insurrection in Piedmont — Abdication of Victor Emmanuel. — In March, 1821, a military and popular insurrection broke out in Piedmont, against the absolute rule of King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia. On the 13th (March, 1821), Victor Emmanuel abdicated the throne of Sardinia, in favor of his brother, Charles Felix; and a liberal constitution was also established in Sardinia. End of the Piedmontese Constitution. — An Austrian army soon entered Piedmont to suppress the constitution. The revolutionists were defeated at Novara, and the Austrian forces occupied the cities of Turin and Alessandria. The Pied- montese constitution was overthronw, and absolute monarchy was reestablished in the kingdom of Sardinia. THE GREEK REVOLUTION (1821-1829). EVENTS OF 1821. Proclamation of Alexander Ypsilanti. — Greece had been conquered by the Turks in 1481. For three centuries and a half, the tyrannical rule of the Turks had been quietly submitted to by the Greeks; but on the 7lh of March, 1821, Alexander Ypsilanti, a Greek, then serving as a general in the Russian army, proclaimed, from Moldavia, the independence of Greece, and, at the same time, assured his coun- trymen of the assistance of Russia, in their approaching struggle for liberty. But the influence of Prince Metternich, who, at the Congress of Laybach, opposed giving countenance to any revolt against legitimate authority, prevented the Czar Alexan- der from giving any support to the Greeks, although he was at heart in sympathy with them. Revolution in the Morea. — Soon after the proclamation of Ypsilanti, an insur- rection against Turkish authority broke out in the village of Suda, in the Morea. The movement rapidly spread over the whole peninsula; and the insurgents declared that their purpose was to defend Christianity and civilization against Mohamme- danism and barbarism. Cruelty of the Turks — Murder of the Patriarch of Constantinople. — The rage of the Turks against the insurgent Greeks knew no bounds; and many of the Greek clergy, including the gray-haired Patriarch of Constantinople, the supreme head of the Greek Church, were put to death. Most of the Greek families in Constantinople fell victims to the savage rage of the infuriated Turks, and others were driven into exile. Annihilation of the Sacred Band, and Flight of Alexander Ypsilanti. — The Sacred Band of the Greeks in Wallachia, under the leadership of Alexander 358 MODERN HISTORY. Ypsilanti, was annihilated by the Turks, in the sanguinary battle of Dragaschan, on the 19th of June, 1821. The Greeks, like their ancestors at Thermopylae, fought with the courage of desperation. Ypsilanti fled into the Austrian dominions, where he was seized and kept a prisoner for years. Capture of Tripolitza by the Greeks — Cassandra taken by the Turks. — In August, 1 82 1, the Greeks captured Navarino; and in October following, the strong fortress of Tripolitza, where they put 8000 Turks to the sword. On the 5th and 6th of September (1821), the Greek general Ulysses defeated a large Turkish force, near the famous pass of ThermopyliE. The peninsula of Cassandra was after- wards taken by the Turks, who put 3000 Greeks to the sword, and carried many women and children into slavery. EVKNTS OF 1822. Greek Congress at Epidaurus — A Provisional Government. — In the beginning of 1822, a Greek Congress assembled at Epidaurus. On the 13th of January, a provisional constitution was proclaimed; and on the 27th of the same month, a manifesto was issued, announcing the union of the Greeks under a central government, under the presidency of Alexander Mavrocordato. The Greek leaders often quarreled among themselves, but, notwithstanding this, fortune was, in general, on the side of the struggling patriots, until the summer of 1825. Desolation of Scio by the Turks. — In March, 1822, the inhabitants of the beautiful island of Scio rose in revolt, and put the Turkish garrison to the sword. In April, a force of Asiatic Turks spread over Scio, plundering and massacring the inhabitants, and reducing the beautiful island to a desert. Thirty thousand Sciots were put to the sword; and many women and children were sold into slavery. Soon afterward, 1 50 Greek villages in Macedonia were destroyed, and many of the inhabitants were put to the sword. Barbarous Warfare — Success of the Greek Fire-ships. — The war was carried on by both parties in the most barbarous manner. Thousands of Greeks were put to the sword by the enraged Turks, and when the Greeks had the oppor- tunity, they took a bloody revenge on their cruel foes. Many of the Turkish vessels were blown up by the Greek fire-ships. On the 12th of December, 1822, the strong Turkish fortress of Napoli de Romania surrendered to the Greeks, after a furious assault. EVENTS OF 1823. Victory and Death of Marco Bozzaris — Lord Byron. — On the 20th of August, 1823, a Turkish army of 100,000 men was met and defeated by 500 Greeks, under the heroic Suliot leader, Marco Bozzaris, who was killed in the moment of victory. The last words of this valiant patriot were, " Could a Suliot leader die a nobler death?" Popular sympathy for the struggling Greeks was strongly manifested in France, England, and the United States; and many private individuals went from those countries to aid the patriots in their struggle for free- dom. Among those who went to Greece from England was the illustrious poet, Lord Byron, who died at Missolonghi, on the 19th of April, 1824. NINETEENTH CENTURY. 3^9 EVENTS OF 1824 AND 1823. Fall of Ipsara — Desolation of the Morea by Ibrahim Pacha. — During the year 1824, the Turks reduced the strongly-fortified rocky island of Ipsara; but after 2,000 Turks had entered the last fort, the Greeks blew it up, and perished •with their foes. In 1825, Ibrahim Pacha, son of the celebrated Mehemet Ali, Pacha of Egypt, whom the Sultan had induced to assist in the suppression of the Grecian rebellion, landed in the Morea, with 25,000 Egyptian troops, and spread desolation throughout the whole peninsula. Ibrahim Pacha captured Navarino ; but the Turks were defeated, for the third time, at Missolonghi. EVENTS OF 1826. Siege and Fall of Missolonghi. — In the latter part of 1825, Ibrahim Pacha, with 25,000 men, laid siege to Missolonghi. After many fierce assaults had been gallantly repulsed by the Greeks, Missolonghi fell into the hands of Ibrahim Pacha, on the 22d of April, 1826. The Greek garrison of 1,800 men cut their way through the lines of the besiegers, and fled to Athens. Many of the inhabitants fled from the city when the victorious foe entered, but some were pursued and captured; and those who remained in the city, about 1,000 in number, mostly old men, women, and children, blew themselves up in the mines, rather than fall into the hands of the enemy. EVENTS OF 1827. Intervention of England, France, and Russia — Battle of Navarino. — The heroic conduct of those Greeks who voluntarily perished at Missolonghi, and the continued devastations of Ibrahim Pacha in the Morea, aroused the European governments from their lethargy; and, at the proposal of the great statesman. Can- ning, who then wielded the destinies of Great Britain, a treaty of alliance was con- cluded, at London, on the 6lh of July, 1827, between England, France, and Russia, by which these three powers agreed to secure for the Greeks their liberty. To enforce this treaty, a combined English, French, and Russian fleet, under the com- mand of the English admiral, Sir Edward Codrington, was sent to the Grecian waters. The refusal of Ibrahim Pacha to evacuate the Morea occasioned the battle of Navarino, on the 20th of October, 1827, in which the allied fleet totally anni- hilated the Turko-Egyptian fleet. EVENTS OF 1828. ■War between Russia and Turkey — Evacuation of the Morea. — The destruction of his fleet enraged more than it alarmed the Sultan, who still obsti- nately refused to give the Greeks their liberty, and who behaved in so insolent a manner toward the allied powers that Russia declared war against him. In May, 1828, a Russian army of 150,000 men, under Count Wittgenstein, invaded the Otto- man dominions in Europe, and by the early part of July, had taken seven strong fortresses, among which were Brahilov, Silistria, and Varna; while in Asiatic Turkey, the Russians under General Paskiewitsch were everywhere victorious. In the meantime, Ibrahim Pacha had been compelled by the French fleet to evacuate the Morea, and to restore to his Greek prisoners their freedom; and Count John Capo d'lstria was chosen President of the Grecian States. 360 MODERN HISTOR Y. EVENTS OF 1829. Declaration of the Allied Powers — Advance of the Russians — Peace of Adrianople. — la January, 1S29, the Sultan received a protocol from the three allied powers, declaring that they took Greece under their own protection, and that they would consider another Turkish invasion of Greece as an attack upon themselves. This declaration, together with the rapid progress of the Russian forces, under the command of Field- Marshal Diebitsch, who had forced the passes of the Balkan mountains, and, on the 20th of August, 1829, captured Adrianople, the second city of the Turkish Empire, seriously alarmed the Sultan ; and, on the 24th of September, 1829, the Peace of Adrianople was concluded between Russia and Turkey, by which the Ottoman Porte acknowledged the independence of Greece, and agreed to indemnify Russia for her expenses in the war. EVENTS OF 1831-1833. Assassination of Count John Capo d' Istria — Otho, King of Greece. — During the Revolution, the Greek leaders often quarrelled among themselves; and in 1 83 1, the Greek President, Count John Capo d' Istria, who, by his selection of bad advisers, had made himself unpopular, was assassinated, as he was about to enter a church. The three allied powers, England, France, and Russia, having determined to erect Greece into a constitutional monarchy, the crown was bestowed on Otho, a prince of the royal house of Bavaria, who arrived at Nauplia in 1 833, and reigned as King of Greece, until he was hurled from the throne by the Revolution of 1862. EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS OF 1830 AND 1831. FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1830. Charles X. — Charles X., on his accession to the throne of France, in 1824 declared his intention of confirming the constitutional charter that had been granted to the Fren(^ people at the time of the First Bourbon Restoration, in 1814. But Charles, entertaining a bitter hatred against the principles of the Revolution, and under the influence of the most bigoted priests, labored for the establishment of an absolute monarchy, on the principles of the ancient despotism. Of the Bourbons, it was said, that during their long exile, " they had learned nothing and forgotten nothing;" and Charles soon proved that he had not forgotten that his ancestors had exercised absolute power, nor had he learned that such power was dangerous to exercise. Unpopular Ministers were appointed, the freedom of the press was re- stricted, the National Guard was dissolved, and severe measures were adopted for dispersing popular assemblies. Ultra-Royalist Ministry of Polignac. — In August, 1829, the Liberal Minis- try, which had been forced upon the king by the voice of public opinion, was dis- missed ; and an Ultra-Royalist Cabinet, with Prince Jules de Polignac at its head, was appointed. This new Ministry endeavored to strengthen the royal power, and was extremely unpopular with the French people, who accused Polignac and his colleagues of a design for the subversion of popular liberty, and the reestablislnnent of the ancient despotism; but Polignac blindly persevered in his arbitrary schemes. The Speech from the Throne, March 2d, 1830 — Dissolution of the NINETEENTH CENTURY. 361 Chambers. — At the opening of the French Chambers, on the 2d of March, 1830, the speech from the throne clearly announced the king's determination to overcome by force any obstacles that might be thrown in the way of his government, and contained a threat to deprive the French people of the rights granted them by the Charter. There was a large majority against the Ministry in the Chamber of Depu- ties, and that body returned a frank reply to the royal speech, declaring that a con- currence did not exist between the views of the Government and the wishes of the people. The king, declaring his intention to support his Ministers, prorogued the Chambers; and on the 17th of May, a royal ordinance declared them dissolved, and ordered elections for a new Chamber. War with Algiers — Capture of Algiers. — In the meantime, the king and his Ministers, with the view of overcoming their unpopularity by gratifying the pas- sion of the French people for military glory, declared war against Algiers, the Dey having refused to pay long-standing claims of French citizens, and having insulted the honor of France by striking the PVench Consul. A naval expedition, consisting of ninety-Beven vessels, carrying more than 40,000 troops, sailed from Toulon, on the loth of May, 1830, and on the 14th reached the African shores. The city of Algiers was captured on the 5th of July (1830), with trifling loss on the part of the French. The Dey fled to Italy, and his treasures fell into the hands of the con- querors. Increase of the Liberal Majority in the Chamber of Deputies. — The news of the capture of Algiers occasioned much rejoicing in France, but did nothing toward gaining popularity for the Ministry, public feeling being too decided to be thus easily affected. The elections for a new Chamber of Deputies resulted in giving the Liberals a much larger majority than they had in the Chamber lately dissolved The Three Royal Ordinances of July 26th, 1830 — Disturbance^in Paris. — The Ministry now resolved to set the popular will at defiance by measures directly subversive of the constitutional charter; and, on the morning of the 26lh of July, 1830, three royal ordinances were issued; — the first dissolving the newly-elected Chamber of Deputies, the second arbitrarily altering the mode of election, and rtie third suspending the freedom of the press. To all who were acquainted with the popular feeling, it was apparent that these arbitrary measures, so subversive of popular rights, could only be executed by force, and yet no preparations had been made for this. So blind and infatuated were the king and his Ministers, that they did not dream of any resistance on the part of the people. The king went on a hunting excursion, and the Prince de Polignac gave a splendid dinner to his col- leagues. In the evening, mobs collected in Paris, lamps were demolished, the windows of Prince de Polignac's hotel were broken, and cries of " Down with the Ministry!" and "The Charter forever!" were heard. Commencement of the Revolution, July 27th, 1830. — On the morning of the 27th (July, 1830J, in defiance of the royal ordinance suspending the liberty of the press, the conductors of the Liberal journals in Paris printed and distributed their papers as usual ; but their types were soon seized and their presses broken by the police. Marshal Marmont, who was placed in chief command of the Govern- ment troops, endeavored to assist the police in preserving order, and the Ministry declared Paris in a state of siege. The streets were kept clear by the guards for the greater part of the day; and Marshal Marmont wrote to the king that quiet was 362 MODERN HISTORY. restored; but during the night, the citizens demolished the lamps, procured arms, and barricaded the streets with paving stones torn up for the purpose. Street Fighting on July 28th — Appearance of the Tri-color. — On the morning of July 28th, the streets of Paris were filled with armed citizens, who raised the glorious tri-colored flag in every direction. They carried with trifling loss the detached guard-houses, the arsenal, and the powder magazine. At nine o'clock, the tri-color was seeen to wave from the spire of the Church of Notre Dame, and at eleven from the central tower of the Hotel de Ville. Carriages and omnibuses were thrown on the sides of the streets, to obstruct the passage of the troops. The troops were exposed to a severe fire from the windows, barricades, and street cor- ners. Tiles and stones were hurled upon them from the tops of houses ; while oil and boiling water were showered upon them from the windows. The king and his Ministers and Marshal Marmont were greatly surprised when they discovered that what they had at first considered merely a riot had assumed the formidable aspect of a revolution. During the night, the pavements were torn up, and the trees in the Boulevards cut down, to raise obstructions for the passage of the troops. July 29th — General Lafayette and the National Guard — Triumph of the People. — The contest was renewed with terrible fury on the morning of July 29th; and General Lafayette appeared among the insurgents, and assumed the command of the National Guard. At noon, several regiments of the line deserted to the people. Thus reinforced, the mob stormed the Louvre and the Tuileries, from the windows of which they opened a tremendous fire upon the Swiss and royal guards. The brave defenders of the throne, unable to make any further resistance to the populace, succeeded only with great difTiculty in effecting a retreat ; and, at three o'clock in the afternoon, the Paris Revolution of July ended in the complete fftumph of the people. The Ministers now resigned their offices, and the king signed an order for the repeal of the obnoxious ordinances ; but it was too late. The Parisians had already resolved that Charles X. should no longer reign. The Deputies to the new Chambers in Paris organized a provisional government, and decreed that the National Guard should be reorganized, and placed under the command of that consistent friend of rational freedom, the Marquis de Lafayette. Abdication and Flight of Charles X. — On the 31st of July (1830), Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, son of Philip Egalite, accepted the office of Lieutenant- General of the French kingdom. On the 2d of August, Charles X. formally abdi- cated the throne of France, and his son, the Dauphin, resigned his rights in favor of the king's infant grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux. No attention was paid to these proceedings. The Paris mob prepared to march in thousands to Rambouillet, to which place Charles had retired ; but he did not wait for their coming. Recol- lecting too well the awful period of 17S9, when another Paris mob marched to Versailles, he fled to England, and for a time took up his residence in Holyrood palace, near Edinburgh. He afterwards went to Germany, and died at Goritz, in Austria, in November, 1836. Louis Philippe, " King of the French." — In the meantime, the newly elected French Chambers assembled in Paris, and, after some debate, it was determined that the Government of France should remain a limited monarchy; and the crown was conferred on the Duke of Orleans, who, on the 9th of August, 1 830, took the oath to support the constitutional charter, and ascended the throne of France, with NINETEENTH CENTURY. 363 the title of " Louis Philippe I., King of the French." Louis Philippe owed his elevation chiefly to the venerable Lafayette, who, believing the French people still unfit for a republic, preferred " a throne surrounded with republican institutions." Presenting the new citizen-king to the people, in front of the Chambers, Lafayette exclaimed, " Now we have the best of republics!" THE BELGIAN REVOLUTION (18SO). Consequences of the Paris Revolution of July. — The Paris Revolution of July, 1830, occasioned a violent shock throughout Europe, and gave the death- blow to the Holy Alliance. Revolutionary movements occurred in Belgium, Poland, Germany, and Italy, which alarmed absolute monarchs, and threatened consequences fatal to the general tranquillity of Europe. The Union of Holland and Belgium — Dutch Oppression of the Bel- gians. — The effects of the July Revolution of Paris first displayed themselves in Belgium. The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, in utter disregard of differences in language, religion, and interests, had united Holland and Belgium into one mon- archy, designated "The Kingdom of the Netherlands," under the government of a prince of the House of Orange or Nassau. From the time of the incorporation of Belgium with H olland, the Belgians suffered the most unmitigated oppression from the Dutch king; and the Hollanders endeavored to force their own language, laws, and religion upon the Belgians. The Protestant courts were entrusted with the supervision of the education of the Catholic youth in Belgium. When the Belgian press denounced the conduct of the Dutch Government, the writers were fined, im- prisoned, or banished from the country. The alliance of the Belgian Liberal party with the Catholic Ultramontane party was designated by the Dutch king, in his speech from the throne, as " infamous." Insurrection of Brussels — Declaration of Belgian Independence. — Thinking the opportunity favorable, and encouraged by the success of the Paris Revolution of July, the people of Brussels rose in insuiTCCtion, on the 25th of August, 1830, and, after an obstinate struggle of four days, expelled the Dutch authorities and garrison from the city. The movement spread rapidly, and in a short time, the whole of Belgium was in revolt against the authority of the King of Holland. The Dutch were repulsed in an attack upon Brussels, and the Belgian insurgents pro- ceeded against Antwerp, to drive the Dutch from that city. Thereupon the Dutch general Chass6 retired into the citadel with his troops, and cannonaded the town for several hours, thus destroying an immense amount of valuable property. This pro- ceeding caused much exasperation in Belgium; and, on the 14th of October (1830), the Belgian National Congress declared the independence of Belgium, and the exclusion of the House of Orange from the Belgian throne. European Conference in London — Separation of Belgium from Hol- land. — While the war between the Dutch and the Belgians was in progress, the representatives of the five great powers — Great Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia — held a conference in London, where, after long diplomatic negotiation, it was determined to separate Belgium from Holland. Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, " King of the Belgians." — Prince Leo- pold of Saxe-Coburg, a relative of the English royal family, and who was shortly 364 MODERN HISTORY. afterwards married to a daughter of Louis Philippe, King of the French, received the crown of Belgium, with the title of "Leopold L, King of the Belgians." The King of Holland vainly attempted to subdue the Belgians, who were now aided by England and France. On the 24th of December, 1832, the Dutch army which had held possession of Antwerp was compelled to surrender to the French army under Marshal Gerard. Leopold granted his subjects a liberal constitution, and the sepa- ration of the Church from the State. Since her separation from Holland, Belgium has prosperced wonderfully in every branch of industry and social improvement. POLISH INSURRECTION OF 1830, 1831. The Kingdom of Poland— The Archduke Constantine— Russian Ty- ranny. — The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, erected Poland into a kingdom, with a Diet and a constitution of its own ; but the sovereign power of the kingdom was vested in the Czar of Russia, under the title of " King of Poland." The Poles were soon disappointed in the hopes which they had entertained that the Emperor Alex- ander would protect them in the enjoyment of the rights and privileges granted them by the new constitution. Before long, the principal oflices in Poland were filled with Russians; the article of the new constitution granting freedom of the press was annulled; and publicity of debate in the Polish Diet was abolished. On the death of the Emperor Alexander L, in 1S25, and the accession of his brother Nicholas to the throne of Russia, the nominal administration of affairs in Poland was intrusted to a Pole ; but all the real power was invested in the Archduke Con- stantine, the brother of the emperor-king. Constantine was an unscrupulous tyrant. His despotic and cruel course revived the old spirit of Polish freedom and nation- ality; and the successful revolutions in France and Belgium, in 1830, urged the Poles to a rebellion against the Russian power. Secret organizations were formed, Vk'hose object was to bring about the restoration of Polish independence, and the re- union, under one government, of those portions of Poland which had been absorbed by Austria, Russia, and Prussia. Insurrection at Warsaw.— On the evening of the 29th of November, 1830, the students of the Cadet School, at Warsaw, attempted to seize Constantine, while another party summoned the people to arais. Constantine escaped from Poland, after a severe conflict, in which several hundred of his guards were killed. The insurgents forced the arsenal at Warsaw, and before the close of the day, 40,000 men were in arms. Tiie insurgent Poles established a provisional government, with Adam Czartoryski, General Chlopiki, and others, at its head; and great enthusiasm prevailed in the Polish capital. Russian Invasion of Poland — Polish Successes. — The provisional govern- ment at Warsaw appointed Chlopiki dictator, and the Polish Diet, which was hastily assembled, invested Prince Radzivil with absolute power; but the Polish aristocracy, alarmed at the violence of the republican and democratic clubs at Warsaw, opposed every attempt to excite a popular war. The Diet pronounced the deposition of the princely House of Romanoff in Poland; and, on the 5th of February, 1831, after two months of unsuccessful attempts at negotiation, the Czar Nicholas rejecting all terms but unconditional submission on the part of the Poles, a Russian army of 200,000 men, under the command of Field-Marshal Diebitsch, appeared in Poland. An indecisive action occurred on the 5th (February, 1831); and on the 25th, ades- NINETEENTH CENTURY. 365 perate engagement occurred between 40,000 Poles, under Prince Radzivil, and 100,000 Russians, and when the shades of night closed the combat, the dead bodies of 10,000 Russians covered the sanguinary field. On the night of the 31st of March (1831), the Polish army, under General Skrzynecki, fought and routed 20,000 Rus- sians. The Poles rapidly followed up their advantages, and before the close of April, the Russian forces were driven out of Poland. Battle of Ostrolenka. — After concentrating his forces at Minsk, Skrzynecki crossed the Bug, and advanced to Ostrolenka, where his army, led by General Bern, encountered an army of 60,000 Russians, on the 26th of May. The carnage was frightful. No quarter was given by either party. The Poles were defeated with the loss of 5000 men. The victorious Russians also lost heavily, and three of their generals were among the slain. Dissensions among the Poles. — Owing to the dissensions among the Polish leaders, the insurrection rapidly declined in strength after the battle of Ostrolenka. In June, both Field-Marshal Diebitsch and the Archduke Constantine met with sudden deaths. The populace of Warsaw ascribed the failure of the revolution to treachery on the part of the aristocracy, thirty of whom were sacrificed to the popular fury. The Polish dictator, Czartoryski, the successor of Chlopiki, fled in terror to General Dembinski's camp, whereupon the Polish Diet invested Krukowiecki with the supreme power. Fall of Warsaw. — At length, a Russian army of 100,000 men, under the com- mand of General Paskiewitsch, advanced on Warsaw. At Wola, the ancient place of the election of the Polish kings, the attacks of the Russians were repulsed. On the 6th of September, 183 1, after two days of furious assaults, during which 20,000 Russians and 10,000 Poles laid down their lives, the cowardly dictator, Kruko- wiecki, surrendered Warsaw and Praga to Paskiewitsch. The main body of the Polish army retreated from Warsaw, and soon afterward dispersed. Submission of Poland — Flight and Exile of Polish Leaders. — The fall of Warsaw was the death-blow to the insurrection, and unfortunate Poland again groaned under the iron heel of Russian despotism. Many of the Polish insurgents retired into voluntary exile in foreign lands; and thousands of those who remained and fell into the hands of the Russians, including generals, soldiers, and nobles, were consigned to the dungeons and mines of Siberia. Incorporation of Poland with the Russian Empire. — Poland was deprived of her Constitution, her Diet, and her State Council, by the "Organic Statute," and incorporated with the Russian Empire, with a separate government and adminis- tration of justice; and Polish nationality and independence seemed extinguished. INSURRECTIONS IN GERMANY AND ITALV (1831). The Germanic Confederation — Insurrections in Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse-Cassel. — The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, united the Germanic states into one league entitled "The Germanic Confederation." The German portions of the great Austrian and Prussian monarchies were embraced in this confederation. The affairs of the confederation were managed by a Diet composed of representa- tives of the states of Germany. In this Diet the representative of Austria presided. The Paris revolution of July also occasioned some revolutionary movements in 366 MODERN HISTORY, Germany. The insurrections which took place in Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse- Cassel, in 1831, resulted in the establishment of liberal constitutions in those states. In Brunswick, the constitution was improved, after the expulsion of the despotic Duke Charles, and the assumption of the government of the Duchy by his brother. Insurrections in Italy Suppressed by the Austrians — French Coup de Main. — The success of the July Revolution of Paris roused the liberals in Italy to action, but their efforts resulted in defeat. Insurrections which broke out in Bologna, Parma, and Modena, were suppressed by Austrian troops, and the regents who had been expelled from the latter two states were restored to their governments. In the Papal States, the bandits and convicts who were employed in keeping down the revolutionists, conducted themselves in so shameful a manner, that the Austrian troops marched into that section to protect the country against its own soldiers. To prevent the Austrians from establishing their own supremacy in the Papal territory> the French, by a " Coup de Main," seized upon Ancona, which they held for several years. A band of refugees, under the Polish general Ramorino, made an unsuc- cessful attempt upon Sardinia, from Switzerland, with the view of exciting all Italy to revolution. ENGLISH REFORMS (1828-1832). Reign of George IV. — Abolition of the Test Act — Catholic Emancipa- tion Act. — King George III., who during the last ten years of his life was an imbecile, died in January, 1820, after a reign of sixty years, — the longest reign in the annals of England, — and left his crown to his prodigate son, George IV., who had acted as Prince Regent during his father's imbecility. During the whole of the reign of George IV., the British nation was agitated by the question of reform in the representation in Parliament. The then-nominal disabilities imposed upon Non-conformists, were removed by the abolition of the Test Act by Parlia- ment, in 1828. The Catholic Emancipation Act, which allowed Roman Catholics, to sit in Parliament, was passed in 1829. Accession of William IV. — The Wellington Ministry — The Grey Min- istry. — King George IV. died in June, 1 830; and his brother, the Duke of Clarence, succeeded to the throne of Great Britain, with the title of William IV. On the accession of William IV. the British Government was in the hands of the Tory party, with the great Duke of Wellington as Prime-Minister. As public sen- timent in Great Britain was in favor of reform in the constitution of Parliament the Tory Ministry of Lord Wellington was obliged to resign, the same year, and a Whig Ministry, under Lord Grey, came into power. Defeat of Lord John Russell's Reform Bill — Dissolution of Parlia- ment. — On the 1st of March, 1831, Lord John Russell presented a measure of reform in Parliament. After some stormy debates, the bill passed the House of Commons on a second reading, but was lost on a third reading. The Ministry then dissolved Parliament, and ordered new election's to better ascertain the sense of the nation. The result of the elections was that the friends of reform were returned to seats in Parliament by all the large constituencies. First Rejection of the Reform Bill by the House of Lords— Great Riots. — The new Parliament was opened on the 14th of June, 1831. The reform QUEEN VICTORIA. NINETEENTH CENTURY. jgy bill was passed by the House of Commons, but was rejected by the House of Lords. The consequences of this action of the House of Lords were great riots in London, Nottingham, Derby, and Bristol. In Bristol, much property was destroyed, and many lives were sacrificed ; but the chief rioters were arrested, tried, convicted, and executed. Second Rejection of the Reform Bill by the Lords — Course of the People. — Lord John Russell again brought forward a reform bill in Parliament, on the 1 2th of December, 1 83 1. The bill passed the House of Commons, on the 23d of March, 1832, but was again defeated in the House of Lords. On the refusal of the king to create a number of peers sufficient to secure the passage of the mea- sure, the Ministry of Earl Grey resigned. The people formed political unions, refused payment of taxes, and demanded the reinstatement of Earl Grey's Cabinet. The king accordingly reinstated Earl Grey's Ministry, and created enough new peers to insure the passage of the Reform Bill through the House of Lords. Passage of the Reform Bill — Triumph of the Cause of Freedom. — The Lords who were opposed to the Reform Bill, left their seats in Parliament when the measure was again introduced. The bill was passed through both Houses, and received the royal assent on the 7th of June, 1832. By this bloodless revolution and triumph of the cause of popular freedom, the right of suffrage was extended to half a million additional voters; and the middle classes of English society were invested with supreme political power in the British Empire. In 1833, Parlia- ment passed an act abolishing slaveiy in the British West-India Islands. Accession of Queen Victoria — England and Hanover — Victoria's Mar- riage. — In June, 1837, King William IV. died, and was succeeded on the British throne by his niece, Alexandra Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, and grand- daughter of George III. One result of the accession of a female to the throne of Great Britain was the separation of the crov/ns of England and Hanover, after a union of more than a century. The Salic Law prevailing in Hanover, the Duke of Cumberland, Queen Victoria's uncle, ascended the throne of that German king- dom. In February, 1840, her majesty. Queen Victoria, was married to a German prince, Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Since the accession of Queen Victoria, the British Empire has enjoyed unrivaled prosperity. SPANISH CIVIL WAR OF 1833-39. Tyranny of King Ferdinand VII.— Abolition of the Salic Law in Spain. — King Ferdinand VII. of Spain, during whose reign the Spanish-American colonies erected themselves into independent republics, after a long and bloody struggle with the mother country, ruled in the most despotic manner, suppressing every germ of constitutional freedom. For the purpose of securing the succession to the Spanish throne to his daughter Isabella, to the exclusion of his younger brother, Don Carlos, Ferdinand VII., abolished the Salic Law, which had prevailed in all Bourbon kingdoms. Civil War in Spain — Restoration of the Cortes Constitution of 1812. — W^hen Ferdinand VII. died, in 1833, and his daughter, Isabella II., succeeded to the throne of Spain, the Carlists, as the adherents of Don Carlos were called, who were numerous in the North of Spain, took up arms, and involved the Spanish king- 368 MODERN HISTOR Y. dom in civil war. For the purpose of sccurin<:j tlie lilicral party in Spain to the support of the young queen, thequecn-molher, Maria Christina, who acted as regent (hiring licr daughter's minority, restored the Cortes Constitution of iSi2. Defeat of the Carlists — Capitulation of Moreto and End of the Civil War. — The friends of ahsolute monarchy siiled with Don Carlos. Many hloody battles were fought; and the queen-mother received aid from England and France. After the civil war had lasted six years, and about 300,000 lives had been sacrificed, the Carlists were subdued. In August, 1S40, General Espartero comix;lled the Carlist general Maroto to lay down his arms by capitulation ; and thus brought about the general pacification of the Spanish kingdom. Espartero and the Queen-Mother — Insurrections in Spain. — General Espartero quarrelled with the queen-mother soon after the close of the civil war, and after removing her from the regency, in 1841, he obtained control of the Gov- ernment; but was overthrown in 1843, by General Narvaez, and obliged to seek refuge in England, whereupon the (pieen-mother recovered her lost authority. In 1853, a rebellion bn^>ke out in Spain in consequence of the despotic measures of the Government; and in 1854, an insurrection in Madrid compelled the queen-mother to flee, whereupon a provisional government under Espartero was formed; but Queen Isabella II. afterwards secured control of the Government. DISSENSIONS IN THE TURKO-EGYPTIAN EMPIRE. Mehemet Ali, Pacha of Egypt — Massacre of the Mamelukes — Con- quests of Mehemet Ali. — Mehemet Ali, who became Pacha of Egypt in 1805, ami who VuUy establislied his power by his treacherous massacre of the Mameluke chiefs in iSil, did much for the advancement and prosperity of Eg)'pt. In 1S18, Mehemet Ali subdued the Wahawbees, a Moiiammedan sect in Arabia; in 1819 and 1S20, he conquered Nul)ia, Sennaar, Kordofan, and Dongola; and in 1824, he sent his son, Ibrahim Pacha, with an army to aid the Sultan, his master, in suppressing the Greek Revolution. Mehemet Ali's First Rebellion against the Sultan — Russian Inter- vention.— In 1 83 1, Mehemet Ali rebelled against his mx^ter, the Sultan o{ Turkey ; and his son, Ibrahim Pacha, invaded Syria, took Acre by siege, and marched in a rapid course of victories toward Constantinople; and the Ottoman Empire was only saved from destruction by the timely intervention of the Czar Nicholas of Russia in behalf of the Sultan, in 1 831. Mehemet Ali's Second Rebellion — European Aid to the Sultan. — In 1839, Mehemet Ali again took up arms against the Sultan. Ibrahim Pacha again in- vaded Syria and defeated the Ottoman forces; but England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia came to the Sultan's rescue. The British navy bombarded and took Beyrout and Acre; and in 1S41, the rebellious Pacha of Egypt was forced to accept a peace which left the province of Syria in the Sultan's possession. GROWTH OF THE ANGLO-INDIAN EMPIRE. England's Opium War with China — Treaty of Nankin. — The seizure and destruction, by the Chinese authorities, of large quantities of opium smuggled into NINE TEE NTH CENTUR V. 369 Chinese cities by British merchants, led to a war between Enj^Iand and China, at the close of 1839. The Chinese were thoroughly humbled ; their great cities, Amoy, Canton, and Ningpo, were taken; and by the treaty of Nankin, on the 29th of August, 1842, China was re(iuired to pay to England twenty-one million pounds sterling for the expenses of the war; to cede the island of Hong-Kong to Great Britain; and to open five of her principal ports to the commerce of Christendom. The Afghanistan War — Disastrous Retreat of the Anglo-Indian Army. — The British Empire in India has been gjreatly enlarged during the present cen- tury. The English East-India Company acquired additional territories by a suc- cessful war against the Burmese, in 1824 and 1825; and in 1839, under the erroneous impression that Russia intended to attack England's Indian Empire, an Anglo-Indian army was marched into Afghanistan. The invading army took Can- dahar, entered Cabul, the Afghan capital, deposed Dost Mohammed, the reigning Afghan sovereign, and raised Shah .Soojah to the Afghan throne. On the 2d of November, 1841, a fierce rebellion, headed by Akbar Khan, son of the deposed Dost Mohammed, broke out at Cabul. The British ministers and many of the military commanders were put to death. Shah Soojah was dethroned, and Dost Mohammed was raised to the Afghan throne. Finding themselves in the midst of a hostile people, the English made a disastrous retreat. The British troops and camp-followers, women and children, numbering 26,000 persons, were nearly all killed, or made captives. In the following year (1842), an Anglo-Indian army, under General Pollock, marched into Afghanistan, gained some victories, and then retired. War with the Ameers of Scinde — Battle of Hyderabad — Annexation of Scinde. — The treacherous conduct of the Ameers of Scinde toward the Eng- lish, brought an Anglo-Indian army, under Sir Charles Napier, into their territory. The Ameers were defeated in the bloody battle of Hyderabad; and the result of the short contest was the annexation of their territory, Scinde, to the British Empire in India. Mahratta War — Battles of Maharajpore and Punniar — Annexation of Gwalior. — During the year 1843, the Mahrattas, who had also taken up arms against the English, were defeated in the battles of Maharajpore and Punniar, and their territory, Gwalior, was annexed to the English-Indian territories. First Sikh War — Battle of Moodkee — Battles of Ferozeshah, Aliwal, and Sobraon. — In 1844, tiie Sikhs in the Punjab began a war against the East- India Company. The English defeated the Sikhs in the bloody battles of Feroz- eshah, Aliwal, and Sobraon, In the battle of .Sobraon, the Sikhs lost 10,000 men in killed and wounded, and the English over 2,000 men. Peace was made in December, 1846. Second Sikh War— Battles of Chenah, Chillianwallah, and Goojerat — Annexation of the Punjab. — Another war broke out between the English and the Sikhs in 1848. The Sikhs were defeated in the battles of Chenah, Chillian- wallah,. and Goojerat, in consequence of which their territory, the Punjab, was annexed to the British-Indian Empire, in 1849. 24 370 MODERN HISTORY. EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-49. FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848. Peaceful Reign of Louis Philippe — Attempts of Louis Napoleon Bona- parte. — Uiuicr Louis niili])pe, the Citizen-Kiiij^, llic French natiiin pvospered, .iml, with the exception of the seventeen years' war with the Arab tribes of Algiers, remained at peace with all the world. Insurrections which broke out in Paris and Lyons, in the early part of this reign, were easily suppressed. In October, 1836, Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the great Emperor Napoleon I., attempted to raise an insurrection at Strasburg, to overthrow the government of Louis Philippe. In August, 1840, Louis Napoleon landed at Boulogne, and made another atteni])t to excite an insurrection in France, but he was seized and impris- oned for several years. In 1840, the remains of the great Napoleon were brought from St. Helena to Paris, and placed in the Hotel des Invalides. By the surrender of the indefatigable Arab chieftain, Abdel-Kailer, in 1847, the conquest of Algiers by the French was accomjilished. Character of Louis Philippe's Government. — Louis Philippe received his main support from the bourgeoisie, or middle class, and was opposed by the Ultra- Republicans, and also by the Legitimists, or adherents of the elder branch of the Bourbons. As Louis Philippe grew old, he became ambitious, and set about schemes for the aggrandizement of his family, and the establishment of a dynasty founded upon the principles of the ancient despotism. He practically ignored the constitu- tional charter by corrupting both branches of the French legislature. With won- derful good fortune, Louis Philippe escaped eight attempts at assassination ; that by means of the " infernal machine," contrived by the Corsican Fieschi, resulting in the death of forty-two persons near the king. The Ministry of M. Guizot. — In 1840, the Ministry of M. Thiers gave place to a new C'alMuet, at the head of which was M. Guizot. The government of M. Guizot was characterized by pride, tyranny, and a series of encroachments on the liberties of the French people. The etforts of M. Guizot were directed chiefly to the strengthening of the royal prerogative. Guizot persevered in his despotic policy, until the latent fires of popular disaffection broke forth in the Paris Revolution of February, 184S, which cost Louis Philippe his throne. Reform Banquets Forbidden by the Government. — During the latter part of 1S47, and in the beginning of 1S4S, numerous reform banquets were held in different ]wrts of France. Arrangements were made for the holding of one in one of the arrondissemcnts of Paris, on the 22d of February, 1848, Washington's birth-day; but the Ministry issued a proclamation forbidding it, and made preparations to sup- press it by military force if it were attempted. The Chambers of Deputies, then in session, warmly discussed the arbitrary measures of the Government, and the oppo- ^sition members resolved upon the impeachment of the Ministers. Commencement of the Revolution, February 22d, 1848. — The reform banquet arranged for the 22d of February, 1848, was not held ; but, on the morning of 4hat day, large crowds collected in Paris, blocked up the avenues leading to the legislative Ci\ambers, and made offensive demonstrations before the house of M. 'Guizot. About noon, a large crowd assembled in front of the Church of the Made- NINETEENril CENTURY. 371 leine, but were easily dispersed by the troops. In the evening, disturbances began in the French capital: gunsmiths' shops were broken open; lamps were extin- guished; barricades were erected ; guards were attacked ; and the streets were filled with soldiers. In the Chambers, Odillon Barrot moved an impeachment of the Prime- .Minister. Street Fighting on February 23d — Dismissal of the Guizot Cabinet. — On the morning of February 23d, the streets of Paris were filled with large crowds of people, barricades were erected, and some fighting occurred between the people and the troops, in which several persons were killed. In obedience to the request of the National Guards, who fraternized with the people, the king dismissed the Ministry of M. Guizot, and called on Count Mold to form a new Cabinet. This action of the king produced a lull ; but the wanton discharge of musketry upon a large crowd, l>y the guards assembled before M. Guizot's hotel, by which fifty-two persons were killed and wounded, again excited the fury of the populace, who paraded through the streets with a bier covered with dead bodies, crying " To arms !" "Down with the assassins!" "Down with Louis Philippe!" "Down with the Bourbons !" February 24th — Abdication of Louis Philippe — France a Republic. — On the mrjrning <.A February 24th, the whole city of Paris was in possession of the people. At the Chateau d' Eau, a large stone building in front of the Palais Royal, a severe fight occurred between the people and the municipal guards, and the chateau was demolished by fire. The mob then marched to the Tuileries, and demanded the abdication of the king. Louis Philippe signed an abdication in favor of his grandson, the young Count of Paris, but the Chambers would not accept the young prince, and Louis Philippe and his family fled to Neuilly, from which place they made their escape to England. The royal furniture was thrown out of the windows of the Tuileries and burned, the wines in the royal cellars were disiril)uted among the multitude, the throne was carried through the streets, and finally burned on the Place de la Bastile, and the royal carriages were burned at the Chateau d' Eau. Overwhelmed by the mob, and amid the greatest confusion and shouts of "Vive la Republique!" the sturdy republican, Dupont de 1' Eure, was carried to the chair in the Chamber of Deputies, where a provisional government was proclaimed, consisting of the following persons: M. Lamartine, Emanuel Arago, Ledru Rollin, Gamier Pages, Dupont de 1' Eure, Lamoriciere, Cavaignac, and De- coutrias. The Provisional Government was installed at the Hotel de Ville, and proclaimed The Second French Republic. The Chamber of Peers was immedi- ately abolished. The poet, M. Lamartine, was the master-spirit of the new govern- ment. Every citizen of France was made an elector, and twenty-five years of age constituted elegibility for office; the penally of death for political offences was im- mediately abolished; and all slaves on territory subject to France were declared free. Doings of France's New Rulers — National Workshops. — On the 4th of March, 1.S48, the victims of the Revolution of I-'eliruary were solemnly interred, in the presence of nearly half a million of people, at the foot of a monument erected to the memory of the victims of the Revolution of July, 1830. France's new rulers directed their first efforts to the reestablishment of order; and many grievences of which the people complained were removed. Fetes, parades, and illuminations were given daily for the public amusement. But the spirit of anarchy and restless- 372 MODERN HISTORY. ness was now rife for another insurrection. As the Revolution had been the work of the laboring classes, efforts were now taken by the Provisional Government to bettor their condition. National workshops were established in Paris, where the idle coiilil (ind employment. Attempted Revolutionary Risings. — The Modcr.itc and Red Republicans had united to overturn the throne of Louis IMiiiippe, but no sooner had the Rcjiub- lic been jiroclaimcd than the animosity between those two parties broke forth anew; and when the Reds perceived that the control of ])ul)lic alTairs was in the hands of the Moderate party, they began to conspire for another revolution. The first open opposition to the Provisional Government was made on the i6th of April (1848), the ol)ject of the movement being the overthrow of the Provisional Government, and the establishment of a Committee of Safety for the direction of public affairs. This movement, and a rising of the various clubs of Paris, were easily suppressed. Bloody riots occurred on the 23d and 24th of April (1848), the tlays for the election of members for a permanent National Assembly. A French National Assembly. — The elections throughout France rcsultetl in large majorities for the Moderate Republicans; and on the 5th of May (184S), the newly-elected National Assembly met in Paris, and organized with the election of M. IJuchez as president. On the following day (May 6, 1848), the members of the Provisional Government submitted their reports to the National Assembly and resigned their powers. On the loth, the National Assembly appointed M. Eman- uel Arago, (larnier Pages, M. Marie, M. Lamartine, and Ledrii Rollin, an execu- tive committee to act in place of the Provincial Government. Communist Insurrection of May 15th. — On the 15th of May, 1848, an immense mob assembled in the streets of Paris, proceeded to the hall of the National Assembly, drove out the meml)ers, and proclaimed Socialism and Communism, the imposition of taxes upon the riclr for the benefit of the poor, and the restoration of the guillotine. The mob also declared that France should send an army to Poland to drive the Russian troops from that country, and a heavy tax was levied on the rich to carry on the war {ox Poland. The mob also appointed an executive government composed of the Communist leaders, M. Barbes, Blancjui, Flocon, Cal)et, Alljert, Raspail, and Louis Blanc. This movement would iloubtlcss have resulted in the most serious consec|uences, had not the National Guard declared for the National Assembly, dispersed the mob at the point of the bayonet, and restored order. The Communist leaders, lilaiupii, Barbes, Rasjiail, Sobrier, and Albert, were arrested and imprisoned. The Great Communist Rebellion of June. — The insurrection of May islh was i)nly a prelude to the great Communist Rebellion of June. Fearing another demonstration on an extensive scale, the Government made the necessary pre])ara- tions to meet it. 'Finding the burdens imposed upon the national treasury too heavy to I)e borne, the Government, in June, resolved upon the discharge of the immense army of workmen, more than 100,000 in number, uselessly employed in Paris at the public expense. This alarmed the workmen, who immediately organized lor another desperate struggle, for the purpose of bringing about the realization in practice of the absuni theoiy of Communism and Socialism, — a community of goods and manners. The party of law and order, which controlled the National Assem- NINETEENTH CENTURY. 373 bly, were resolved upon the complete annihilation of the Communist faction in the event of another appeal to arms. On the 22d of June (1848), a deputation of fiv(? delegates, appointed by the workmen, called on M. Marie, the Prime-Minister of the Republic. After a short conference, the deputation returned to the workmen, assurin<( them that they had nothing to expect from the Government. This was the signal for riotous demonstrations. Large crowds collected, in the evening, at the Hotel de Ville, the Place de la Bastile, and other important points, crying for the downfall of the Repu])lic, and the elevation of Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte to the throne of France. On the following morning, June 23d, it was found that the rioters had made considerable progress, and thrown up barricades in various jiortions of the city. The principal insurgent barricades were in the Rue St. Denist Rue du Faubourg St. Uenis, Rue Villeneuve Bourbon, Rue de Clcry, and near the Porte St. Denis and the Porte St. Martin. The Government appointed General Cavaignac, then Minister of War, commander-in-chief of all the troops in Paris. The barricades near the Porte St. Denis were carried at the point of the bayonet. The insurgents there were aided by boys, and even by women, who appeared on the barricades, waving flags and other emblems. On the 24th, the National Assembly declared Paris in a state of siege, and appointed General Cavaignac dictator. A heavy musketry and artillery fire continued during the greater part of the day, and before evening, the rebellion was suppressed on the left bank of the Seine, but a sanguinary struggle took place at the Clos St. Lazarre, on the right bank. The con- flict raged with great fury during the 25th. The Government troops numljercd 300,000 men, and the insurgents 120,000. A terriijle struggle raged at the Pantheon, where the rebel barricades were captured, after frightful carnage. In the evening of this day, occurred one of the saddest events in this unhappy civil war. Monseig- ncur Afire, Archbishop of Paris, appeared at the Place de la Bastile, for the lauda- ble purpose of bringing about a pacification. On the appearance of the noble prelate, both parties, for a while, ceased firing, fiut suddenly recommenced, and the venerable Archbishop received a mortal wound, and expired on the morning of the 27th. On the morning of the 26th, the struggle was renewed with terrible fierceness, the principal scenes of action being the Faubourg St. Antoine, the Place Maubert, and the vicinity of the Pantheon. At noon, the insurgents at the Faubourg St. Antoine surrendered, but the other places were stormed, and the insurgent gar- risons of each were killed or captured. The insurgent barricade at the corner of the Rue de la Roquette was attacked by the Government troops, under General Lamoriciere, after having carried all the rebel barricades in the Faubourg du Tem- ple. From the Place de le Bastile, Lamoriciere's troops bombarded and cannon- aded the insurgent works, when the falling of shells on some of the adjoining houses, several of which were set on fire, so frightened the insurgents that they fled out of the city. Thus ended the great Rebellion of the Paris Communists, in June, 1848. Never before had Paris witnessed such slaughter as during these four sanguinary days. The number of killed and wounded is not definitely known, but 25,000 is not probably a very high estimate. One-fourth of the city was ruined. Several days were occupied in burying the dead, and in repairing the damage inflicted on the city. On the 29th (June, 1848), General Cavaignac resigned his dictatorship into the hands of the National Assembly, and that body then appointed him Chief- Executive of France. 374 MODERN HISTORY. A New Constitution — Louis Napoleon Elected President of France.— On the 4th of November, 1848, the French National Assembly, by a vote of 739 in favor, and 30 in opposition, adopted a Constitution, giving France a republican form of government, with one Legislative Assembly, and vesting the executive power in a President, to be elected by universal suffrage, for a term of four years. The candidates for the Presidency were General Cavaignac, General Changarnier, M. Lamartine, Raspail, Ledru Kollin, Louis Blanc, and Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte. To the surprise of all, the Presidential election resulted in the choice of Louis Napoleon, by a clear majority of 3,556,400 against all the other candidates combined. The President-elect was sworn into office on the 20th of December, 1848, in the presence of the Assembly, by M. Marrast, President of that body. REVOLUTIONS IN GERMANY, AUSTRIA, AND PRUSSIA. Consequences of the Paris Revolution of February. — The Revolution of February, 1S48, in Paris, was the signal for general popular risings in Germany, Italy, and Hungary, which countries had long been disturbed by pcjiitical and social agitation; and concessions which had been vainly demanded for thirty years by the Liberal party in Germany, were now extorted from every German ruler within three weeks. Popular Movements in Baden, Bavaria, Hanover, Saxony, and Wur- temberg. — On the 29th of Fcliruaiy, 1S4S, dc]nitations from every town in the Grand-Duchy of Baden demanded of the Grand- Duke freedom of the press, trial by jury, the right of the people to bear arms and to meet in public, and a popular legislative assembly for all Germany, by the side of the Federal Diet at Frankfort-on- the-Main. On the 2d of March, the Grand-Duke yielded to all these demands, ap- pointed a Ministry from the Liberal party, and adopted other conciliatory measures. Popular movements of a similar character took place in other parts of Germany. King Louis of Bavaria, after being forced to grant to his subjects the reforms which they had demanded, abdicated his throne in favor of the Crown-Prince Maximilian. The Kings of Hanover, Saxony, and Wurtemburg, granted to their subjects the concessions which they had demanded. In Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, and other German States, the leaders of the popular party were called to the Ministry, and many beneficent reforms were introduced; but the popular movement assumed such formidable proportions that insurrection and revolution were entered upon in many portions of Germany. In many localities, the peasants drove away the stewards, and destroyed the land and tithe registers, and the seats of the landlords. The Vienna Revolution of March. — When the Diet of Lower Austria was opened at Vienna, on the l3lhof March, 1848, a large concourse of people, headed by the students of the University, proceeded to the hall in which the Diet assembled, and demanded a constitution, liberty of the press, a National Guard, trial by jury, and religious liberty. The order for the people to disperse not being obeyed, the Arch- duke Albert ordered the troops to fire into the crowd. A great number were killed and wounded, and the exasperation of the excited populace obliged the Austrian Emperor to order the soldiers to withdraw. The arsenal was opened to the people by the city guards, who declared for the popular cause. The Ministry of Prince Metternich was overthrown, and in a few days the Emperor Ferdinand yielded to all the demands of the people. Lawlessness soon prevailed in the Austrian capital, NINE TEE NTH CENTUR V. 3 ye and the result of the liberty of the press was a disgraceful daily literature. Riots and insurrections were of frequent occurrence. On the i8th of May, the Emperor and his court retired to Innspruck, in the Tyrol, but, at the request of the people, he returned to the capital in August, when the students and the democratic clubs ruled Vienna in the most despotic manner. The March Revolution of Berlin. — On the 17th of March, 1848, the King of I'russia granted freetlom of the ]ircss, but the people of Berlin also demanded the withdrawal of the soldiers from the capital, and the formation of a National Guard. Crowds assembled in the streets, in front of the royal palace, where, on the i8lh of March, a terrible conflict commenced, and only terminated on the after- noon of the 19th, after having raged for fourteen hours. The barricades which had been erected by the people were removed by the troops, who were then ordered by the king to withdraw. The Ministrj' was dismissed, a militia and guard for the palace were formed, and an unconditional amnesty was granted by the king, Fred- eric William IV., who now placed himself at the head of the popular movement in Germany. A few weeks later, a constituent National Assembly, elected by universal suffrage, undertook the task of framing a representative constitution for the Prussian kingdom. Revolt of Schleswig-Holstein against Denmark. — When, in consequence of the Paris February Revolution, a powerful movement was communicated to the other European States, the German Duchies of Schleswig and Ilolstein, which were under the government of the King of Denmark, resolved to assert their independ- ence by force of arms. The Duchies estaljlished a provisional government, and, on the 26th of March, 1848, declared their independence of the King of Denmark. A bloody war ensued between the King of Denmark and the Duchies. The Schles- wig-HoIsteiners were aided by Prussian and other German volunteers, and the Danes were driven from Schleswig. The threatening attitude assumed by England and Russia, in consequence of the distressing effect of this war upon the maritime trade of Northern Europe, induced Prussia to conclude the Truce of Malmo with the King of Denmark, and hostilities were for some time suspended. The German Parliament. — In the beginning of April (1848), the German Parliament assembled by its own authority, in the Free City of Frankfort-on-the- Main. This Parliament laid down the principle of popular sovereignty, and pre- pared the way for the convocation of a freely-elected National Assembly, which should be charged with the task of framing a constitution for a free and united Germany. Republican Insurrection in Baden. — A jiarty headed by Hecker, Struve, and others, was striving for a German republic ; and a republican insurrection broke out in Baden, but the movement was speedily crushed, and the leaders were obliged to flee. The German National Assembly. — On the i8th of May, 1848, the German National Assembly, which was chosen to frame a constitution for the German nation, convened in the Church of St. Paul, in Frankfort-on-the-Main. The Assembly immediately set aside the Diet, and established a new central power, and resolved upon the choice of an irresponsible regent, who was to surround himself with a responsible ministry. 3^6 MODERN HISTORY. Slavic Insurrection in Prague — Siege and Fall of Prague. — The Bohe- mians, a Slavic race, had applied to tlie Knipcror of Austria for a constitution which would render their relations with the Austrian Empire the same as those of the Hungarians. Representatives from all the Slavic nations of the Empire assembled in a Congress at Prague, in June, 1848. During the session of this Congress, the people of Prague demanded of Prince Windischgratz the removal of the troops from the city, and the furnishing of arms to the people; and when this demand was not complied with, the people rose in insurrection. After dreadful fighting in the streets of Prague, for a whole week, during which the city was also bombarded from the neighboring heights, the city suiTcndered to Prince Windischgratz, on the 17th of June. The Slavic Congress was broken up, and the insurrection was quelled. Archduke John of Austria Chosen Regent of Germany. — On the 29th of June, 1848, the Archduke John of Austria was chosen Regent of Germany, by the National Assembly, at Frankfort-on-the-Main; and, on the lith of July, he received from the hands of the president of the Federal Diet, the power exercised by that body. Republican Insurrection at Frankfort-on-the-Main. — On the i8th of September, 1848, a revolutionary rising occurred at Frankfort-on-the-Main, the object of which was to disperse the German National Assembly, and to bring about the establishment of a German republic. After a bloody street-fight, the insurrec- tion was crushed by the Federal troops; but two members of the National Assem- bly, Auerswald and Lichnowsky, were murdered by the mob in the Bornheimer wood. The October Revolution of Vienna — Siege and Fall of Vienna. — The Croats and other Slavonic races of Hungary had taken up arms against the Mag- yars, and were supported in their revolt by the Austrian Government. The Magyars were highly incensed at the course of the Imperial Government; and, on the 3d of October, 1848, the imperial commissioner, Lamberg, was murdered by an enraged mob, on the bridge of Buda-Pesth. The Austrian troops were im- mediately ordered to march into Hungary; but the democrats of Vienna, who were in sympathy with the M.agj'ars, excited another revolution in the Austrian capital. Count Latour, Minister of W.ar, was murdered by the excited mob, and the Minis- try was overthrown. (October 6, 1S48.) The Emperor of Austria fled to Olmutz, in Moravia; and at his command, Prince Windischgratz marched against the rebel- lious capital. After besieging Vienna for three weeks, the imperial army, under Windischgratz, opened a furious assault on the city, on the 29th of October; and, after a heroic defence, the city surrendered on the 31st. The conquered capital was placed under marti.1l law; and several of the revolutionary leaders, among whom was Robert Blum, a member of the German National Assembly, were pun- ished with death. The Imperial Government then adopted a conciliatory course; and, on the 2d of December, 184S, the Emperor Ferdinand abdicated the throne, and w.as succeeded by his nephew, Francis Joseph. Dissolution of the Prussian National Assembly. — For some time, the popular unions ruled in Berlin; and noisy rioters, excited by public orators, and by placards on the walls, constantly surrounded the Prussian constituent National NINETEENTH CENTURY. 377 Assembly, and exercised an influence upon the deliberations of that body by intimi- dation. The King of Prussia resolved to put an end to such proceedings, and the new Ministry of Count Brandenburg adjourned the sitting of the Assembly to the town of Brandenburg. Some of the members continued their sittings in Berlin, but were soon driven out by the troops ; and when the Assembly declared the levying of taxes illegal it was dissolved. At the same time, the Prussian Government pro- claimed a liberal constitution, which was to be submitted for ratification to a new elective assembly with two chamijcrs. Rejection of the New Imperial Constitution by the King of Prussia. — In March, 1849, the German constituent National Assembly adopted a constitution which united the German States into a confederacy, with an hereditary emperor, and a legislative assembly consisting of two branches, one of which should be com- posed of representatives of the Government, and the other of deputies chosen by the German people. The Assembly, by a large vote, offered the dignity of " Em- peror of Germany" to the King of Prussia, upon condition of his accepting the new imperial constitution in all its details; but Frederic William IV. decisively rejected the new constitution and the imperial dignity. When the Prussian Assem- bly of Estates recommended the acceptance of the constitution and the imperial dignity by the king, as the desire of the German people, the first chamber was pro- rogued, and the second dissolved ; and the elective law was so changed that the right of universal suffrage was to give place to an election arranged upon the three tax-paying classes. Revolutionary Risings in Germany. — The consequences of the Prussian king's rejection of the imperial constitution were fresh commotions in various parts of Germany; and formidable insurrections and bloody street-fights occurred in Saxony, Rhenish Bavaria, and Rhenish Prussia. The republican party was gradually gaining power in the German National Assembly ; but the revolution- ary movement in Germany was speedily suppressed by the Prussian army. Prussian troops crushed the popular risings in Elberfeld, Dusseldorf, and other places; and, after a barricade street-fight of six days in Dresden, Prussian troops restored the authority of the King of .Saxony. Republican Insurrection in Baden. — A mutiny of the garrison in the fortress of Rastadt, and an insurrection at Carlesruhe, compelled the Grand-Duke of Baden to take flight, whereupon the control of public affairs in the Grand-Duchy came into the hands of the democrats and republicans. At the Grand-Duke's call for assistance, Prussian troops marched into Baden ; and, after several engagements, in which the insurgent troops, under the Polish adventurer, Mierolawski, were defeated, the insurrection was thoroughly crushed, and the Grand-Duke's authority was fully restored. Some of the revolutionary leaders were shot, but others saved themselves by fleeing into republican countries. In the meantime, the German National Assembly, which was now entirely controlled by the republicans, the con- servative members having resigned their seats, had removed its sittings to Stuttgart, in the kingdom of Wurtemburg, but the Wurtemburg Government soon forced the members to leave the kingdom. Renewal of the War in Schleswig-Holstein. — Hostilities between the King of Denmark and the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein broke out afresh in 378 MODERN HISTORY. March, 1849. On the 5th of April, the Danish ship-of-the-line, "Christian VIII.," was sunk by German troops, and the Danish frigate " Getion" was compelled to surrender. The triumphant Germans soon laid siege to Frederica, but they were afterwards driven back by the Danes. An armistice was concluded in July, 1849, and in the following year (1850), a treaty of peace was signed by which the sove reignty of the German Duchies of Schleswig and Ilolstein remained in the hands of the King of Denmark. Austrian and Prussian Constitutions. — We have already alluded to the abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand of Austria, and the accession of his nephew. The new Emperor, Francis Joseph, dissolved the Austrian constituent Diet at Kremsier; and, on the 4th of March, 1849, ^^ proclaimed a constitution for the Austrian Empire. A new constitution went into operation in Prussia, on the 6lh of February, 1850, since which time Prussia has been a constitutional monarchy. REVOLUTIONS IN ITALY. Revolt of Sicily Against Naples. — For many years, there had existed in Italy a party seeking to secure to Italy national unity, independence, and a constitutional government; and the Paris February Revolution was the signal for the leaders of this party to attempt to cany out their schemes. In January, 1848, the people of the island of Sicily rose in revolt against their sovereign, Fertlinand, King of Naples, established a provisional government, and asserted their independence. A bloody war ensued between the Sicilians and the Neapolitans. Ferdinand was forced to grant the people of Naples a liberal constitution; but, in consequence of Ferdinand's viola- tion of his liberal promises, an insurrection broke out in the city of Naples, in May, 1848, and the king gave up his capital to be plundered and sacked by the lazzaroni, who brutally massacred many of the inhabitants. Ferdinand vigorously prosecuted the war against the revolted Sicilians. Messina surrendered to the Neapolitans, after a fierce bombardment of two days; the Sicilians were defeated in a furious battle at Catania; and Palermo yielded to the arms of the Neapolitans, after a short resistance. With the fall of Palermo, King Ferdinand of Naples recovered his authority throughout Sicily, after which he overthrew by violence the constitution in Naples, which he had granted in a moment of necessity. Popular Insurrections in Austrian Italy. — For several years, there had been much political agitation in those portions of Italy subject to Austria, — namely, Lom- bardy and Venetia. The Paris Revolution of February aroused the Italians, and finally, the Vienna Revolution of March precipitated the climax in Austrian Italy. On the 1 8th of March, 1848, the people of Milan, on receiving intelligence of the March Revolution of Vienna, flocked to the government-house, and demanded the release of all political prisoners, and the formation of a National Guard. The Austrian troops fired, whereupon the mob raised the cry of "Evviva Italia!" and rushing forward, overpowered the guard. A discharge of musketry on the people, by the military, occasioned a general rising; and, after a barricade street-fight of five days, the Austrian troops were driven from the city. At the same time, popular risings occurred at Parma and Pavia, and resulted in the expulsion of the Austrian garrisons from those places ; and all Lombardy and Venetia was in open rebellion against the Austrian power. NINETEENTH CENTURY. 379 War Between Austria and Sardinia— An Armistice. — On the 23d of March, 1848, Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, issued a proclamation in favor of Italian nationality, and marched with an army into Lombardy, to assist the insurgents there to drive out the Austrians. The delays of Charles Albert gave the Austrian Field-Marshal, Radetzky, time to concentrate his forces and to receive reinforce- ments. The Sardinian king gained victories over the Austrians at Peschiera and Goito, and captured Rivoli; but, while he was employed in the siege of Mantua, the Austrians, under Radetzky, defeated the Sardinians at La Corona, after a des- perate conflict. After defeating the King of Sardinia in a bloody battle at Custozza, on the 25lh of July, and in another at Bussolongo, on the 26th, Field-Marshal Radetzky soon reconquered Milan, and reduced the whole of Lombardy to submis- sion. King Charles Albert concluded an armistice with the Austrians, and then retired into his own dominions. Revolution in Rome and Flight of Pope Pius IX. — A Roman Republic. — In June, 1846, Cardinal Mastai was chosen to fill the chair of St. Peter, with the title of Pius IX. The new Pope was at first a zealous political reformer, and the liberal course pursued by him at once aroused a spirit of republicanism and nation- ality throughout the whole of Italy. Pius IX. granted his subjects freedom of the press, improved the administration of justice, and gave the city of Rome a liberal municipal government ; but the liberal movement soon became too powerful for the weak Pontiff to control. The Roman people at length outstripped Pius IX. in the matter of reform ; and the promise of the Pope to grant a constitutional govern- ment to the Pontifical State did not satisfy his subjects. The appointment of Count Rossi, an avowed antagonist of the liberal movement, to the head of the Ministry, excited the indignation of the Roman people, who thus became convinced that a reaction had taken place in the mind of the Pope. On the 15th of November, 18481 Rossi was assassinated on the steps of the Assembly House. A popular rising en- sued ; a mob proceeded to the Pope's palace, and, after a short conflict with the Papal-guards, forced the Pope to appoint a popular Ministry. On the 23d (Novem- ber, 1848), the Pope fled from Rome, and retired to Gaeta, in the kingdom of Naples. On the 9th of February, 1849, a popularly chosen National Assembly declared the Pope's temporal power at an end, and that the form of government for the Roman State should be a pure democracy, with the title of " The Roman Republic." A Triumvirate was chosen to exercise executive duties; and, at the head of the new government was the able, energetic, and eloquent Joseph Mazzini. The commander of the volunteers was the ardent republican, Joseph Garibaldi. Renev/al of the Austro-Sardinian War — Abdication of Charles Albert. — Urged on by the Italian republicans, King Charles Albert, of Sardinia, declared his armistice with Austria at an end on the 20th of March, 1849, and, on the same day, his kingdom was invaded by the Austrian army under Field-Marshal Radetzky. After a spirited campaign of four days, on the Ticino and near Novara, Sardinia lay prostrate before the power of Austria; and, on the evening of the 23d (March, 1849), Charles Albert abdicated the throne of Sardinia in favor of his .son, Victor Emmanuel, and immediately retired to Portugal, where he shortly afterward died of a broken heart. On the 25th of March (1849), Victor Emmanuel concluded a treaty of peace with Austria, by which Sardinia was required to pay fifteen millions of dollars, as indemnity for the expenses of Austria in the war. 3So MODF.R.V HISTORY. Siege and Capture of Rome by a French Army. — Aftfr waiting nnxiously scvoral months for tlic Roman jwoplc to recall him, ro]->c Tins IX. apjK'alcd to the Roman Catholic powcre for assistance to restore his temporal ]X)\vcr. In response to tliis appeal, Republican France sent an army of 4,000 men, under General Oudi- not, against Rome. The Roman repuhlicans made earnest preparations for defense. The Roman National Assend)ly declared itself iiermanent, and Maz/.ini made liery addresses to the peojile. When the French troops arrived before Rome, on the .^oih of April, iS }(), they found the Roman volunteers, un; many furious .assaults, and a rejjular bombardment, Rome surrendered to the besiejjinj^ French, on the 3d of July, 1S49. CeneraHiaribaldi and the popu- lar leaders escaped to Fnjjland and the United States ; and the Pope was restored to his former power, umler the protection of foreij^n bayonets. Thenceforth Pope Pius 1\. was a most zealous friend of absolutism, and a bitter antaj^onist to all lilvci.il nuweuTents. Siep;e and Fall of Venice. — While victory shone ujion the Austrian arms ia Lombardy ami Piedmont, an .Vustrian army was en<;ajjed in the siejje of Venice, which, in March, 1848, had revolted ajjainst Austrian rule, and proclaimed "The Rei>ul)lic of St. Mark." Under the able re|iublican leailer, Manini, Venice main- tained its indepcnilence for nearly a year and a half. After a siege of many months, during which much jiropcrfy had been destroyed, and all her provisions had been exhausted, Venice surrendered to Field- Marslial Radet/ky, on the 25lh of August, l84<); and, with the fall of that gallant city, the aulluirily of Austria was reestab- lished throughout Lombardy and Venetia. HUNGARIAN REBEl-I-lON OF 18A8, '49. The Austrian Emperor's Concessions to the Hungarians. — Just after the Vienna Revolution of March, 184S, a deputation from llimgary, headed by Louis Kossuth, appeared in Vienna, and asked for the Hungarian kingdom the royal assent to a series of acts jiasssed by the Hungarian Diet, providing for the annual meeting of that body; the union of Transylvania with Hungary; the organization of a Hungarian National Guanl; ciiualily of taxation for all classes; religious toler- ation; iiherly of the press; and a separate ministry for Hungary. These acts were ai'vi'irovcd by the lunperor-King, who, on the 1 nli of Ajiril, 1S48, jiersonally con- lirmed them in the Hungarian Diet, convened at Pesth, the cajiital of Hungary. These concessions were hailed with joy by the Hungarians. Slavic Revolt Against Hungary. — The Croates and the other Slavic races under the lluni;.\rian government, jealous of the ascendency of the Magyars, .and ilemanding their independence of Hungarian rule, took U]i arms against the Mag- yai"S. The Croates were encouraged in their rebellion by the Austrian Ciovernment, and Austrian armies were sent to their assistance. The Servians, a Slavonic race, who had also revolted against the Hungarian government. laid waste the MagA'ar villages, and committed the greatest atrocities on the defenseless jwpulation. The Hungarian war actually opened on the 12th of June, 1848, when the Mag^'ars bombarded Karlowitz, the Servian metrojwlis. The Servians in the Ottoman territories hastened to the aiil of their brethren in the Austrian diiminions; and NINKrEKNTJI CENTUKY. 3«' llie Miif^yars were ohli^cd to lake refuge in the fortress of I'elerwardcin. Tlie whole Servian population in the Uariat then arose aj^ainst tlie Magyars, and iicjstili- ties hclween the contending races raged with great fury. Austria Supports the Slavic Rebellion. — (Jn the 29th of June, 1848, the Imperial (](;vernnieijl at Vienna announced Austria's intention to openly support Ihe Slavic races in their revolt against IVIagyar rule; and it soon ajjpearetJ that the liinperor Ferdinand, after the su])pression of the rebellion against Austrian authority in Northern Italy, was resolved to cleprive the Magyars of the privileges which he Iiafl recently grantecl to them. Convinced tliat the rights of Hungary must be defended by force of arms, the Hungarian Diet rescjived to raise an army of 200,000 men. Jcllachich's Invasion of Hungary. —In Hk; meantime, a united Austrian and Croatian force, under the command of Jellachich, the ban or governor of Croatia, had invaded Hungary and advanced toward I'esth; but the Magyars, aroused by the eloquent and i)atriotic appeals of I.ouis Kossuth, one of the ablest of their leaders, soon re]ndserl the invaders, comjielled J(;llachich to flee, and, (jn the 5th of October, 184.S, capturcl the (Jr')alian rear-guard, consisting rjf lo.fXX) men. Abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand and the Accession of Francis Joseph. — Wearied of the contentions in the various parts of his di;ininions, the Austrian Emperor, Ferdinand, abdicated his throne, on the 2d of December, 1848, and was succeeded by his nephew, Francis Joseph. As the new Km]jeror did not take the retpiisitc oath to sui)j)ort the constitution, laws, and liberilies of Hungary, the Magyars refused to acknowledge him as their sovereign. Hungarian Preparations for the Struggle.— All the efforts of the Magyars for a peaceful settlement of difficulties were unsuccessful, as the Austrian (Govern- ment was resolved upon flepriving Hungary of her rights. The Magyars therefore made the most vigijrous exertions for defense; manufactories of arms and ammuni- tion were established, the peasants of Hungary flew to arms, and the most intense enthusiasm was manifested. Austrian and Croatian Invasion of Hungary — Capture of Pesth. "In December, 1848, the Austrian army, under Windischgrat/, entered Hungary from the west; and, on the 5th of January, 1849, I'esth fell into the hands of the Austrian and Croatian forces, under Windischgrat/- and Jellachich. Kossuth and the Hun- garian Ministry and Diet retired to Debri;c/.in, in the Northern part of Hungary. Fall of Eszeck — Operations in Transylvania. — On the 30th of January 1849, 'he Magyars lost the strong fortress of ICszeck, in Slavonia, which was sur- rendered to the imperialists, with its garrison of 5000 men. About the same time, General iJeni, a I'(;le, who was at the head of an army of 10,000 Magyars, was driven from 'i'ransylvania, tiie Saxons and Wallachs, who inhabit that province, having joined the Austrians; but the warlike Szecklers of .S(nithern Hungary having risen in favor of the Magyars, I5em returned to Transylvania, defeated the Austrians and Russians who opposed him, took Kronstadt and Hermanstadt, and then jjassed into- the lianat, and captured Temeswar, its capital. Concentration of the Magyar Forces — Battle of Kapolna.— At the begin- ning of February, 1849, Kossuth api>ointed General Dembinski, also a Pole, to the chief command of the Magyar forces. Dembinski concentrated the Hungarian 382 MODERN HISTORY. nrniies in the upper part of tlie valley of the Theiss, to meet the advancing Austrians under \Vin(Iisciij;rat/.. On the 26lh and aytli of February (1849), a bloody battle was fought between 40,000 Magyars and 60,000 Austrians at Kapolna, where, in consc([uence of the inactivity of the Hungarian general Gorgey, the imperialists were victorious. Gorgey's Victories over the Austrians — Siege and Capture of Buda. — At length, dorgey was entrusted with the chief coniniand of the Hungarian armies, Dembinski having resigned tliat post a few days after the battle of Kapolna. After fourteen ilays of territic hand-to-hand figliting, commencing with the battle of Szol- nok, on tlie 27lh of March, and ending witli the capture of Waitzen by Gorgey, on the 9th of April, the Magyars recovered I'esth, relieved Koniorn, and utterly routed the imperialists. t)n the 17th of April, the chief command of the Austrian armies was assigned to liaron Welden. On the iSth (April, 1849), Welden was defeated at Szonz; and on the 19th, the Austrian reserve, under Wohlgemuth, was annihil- ated at Nagy Sarlo. The Austrians were severely repulsed in several attempts to carry by storm the strong fortress of Komorn; and Welden was compelled to re- treat toward Vienna. Instead of following up his successes by threatening the Austrian capital, as urged by Kossuth, (jorgey laid siege to the strong fortress of liuila, opposite Pesth. Gorgey carried Huda by storm, on the 2 1st of May, but the siege involved a delay fatal to the cause of Hungary, and saved Vienna, anil proba- bly the Austrian Empire. The imperial forces were now completely ilriven out of Hungary, and the hrst campaign ended in the triumph of the Magyars. An Imperial Constitution — Hungarian Declaration of Independence. — On the 4th of March, 1S49, the Emjieror Francis Jose]>h proclaimed a constitu- tion for the Austrian Empire, by which Hungary w.xs to be incorporated with Austria. The Austrian Government also solicited the aid of Russia to crush the Hungarian rebellion. The Hungarian Diet at Debreczin, convinced of the impos- sibility of a reconciliation with Austria, took a decisive step, on the 14th of April, 1S49, by declaring the independence of Hungary; and Louis Kossuth was ap- pointed Governor of Hungary, with almost absolute powers. On the 12th of May, the Emperor of Austria issued a proclamation to the Magyars, announcing the inter- vei\tion of Russia, and ordering them to lay down their arms. Russian Aid to Austria — Austrian and Russian Invasion of Hungary. — In response to Austria's application for Russian assistance in subduing the Mag- yar insurgents, the Czar Nicholas sent an army of 160,000 men, under the command of Prince Paskiewitsch, to invade Hungary on the northeast. At the same time, the Austrians were preparing to reenter Hungary on the west; and by the istof June, 400,000 hostile troops were on the Hungarian frontiers. On the 30th of May, the brutal Haron Haynau was invested with the chief command of the Austrian armies. At about the same time, early in June, Haynau, with 5000 Austrians, entered Hun- gary at Presburg; Paskiewitsch, with 90,000 Russians, crossed the Galieian frontier, and invaded Hungary on the northeast; an Austro-Russian army of 25,000 men entered Transylvania; and JelJachich, with his Croats, advanced into the Magyar territory from the south. Successes of the Austrians and Russians — Retreat of Bern and Dem- binski. — Now opened the second campaign in the Hungarian war, — the campaign NINETERNTIf CENTURY. 383 which resulted in the sul)ju|^atii;n of the Iliinj^arian insurfjeiits. After a gallant resistance, IJcm was driven from 'I'ransylvania, by the overwhelming forces of the Ku-ssians; Pa-skiewlLsch, with the main Russian army, entered JJeljrctziri on the 7th of July, and Pesth on the nth, and comiielled iJemhinski to retreat south- ward into the Hanet; and Jellachich, after sufferin}^ a severe defeat near Ilegyes, marched up the Theiss with his Croats, to form a junction with the Austrian^ und'^' Ilaynau. Battle of Komorn — Retreat of Gcirgey. — Ilaynau, who ha'l in the nieanlirne advanced from I'resljurg with the main Austrian army, was defeated hy fiorgey, near Komorn, on the nth of July. From Komorn, fJSrgey retreated eastward tr> Tokay, and thence southward to Arad, which place he reached on the 8th (jf August. On the 19th of July, Ilaynau entered J'esth, and then went in pursuit of fiorgey. The cruellies of Ilaynau fluring his whole career in Hungary reflected disgrace upon his memory, and acf)uired for him the well-merited title of " Hungary's Hangman." Grand Sortie from Komorn — Battle of Temeswar. — While Haynau was marching sf)Uthward in pursuit of the retreating Gorgey, an event occurred far in his rear which created serious alarm among the Austrians. On the 3d of Ausust, the garrison of Komorn, under Oeneral Klajjka, made a grand sortie from the fortress, utterly routed the Austrians in that vicinity, and opened tlie road to Vienna. On the 8th (August, 1849), after four days fighting with the Austrians, Dembinski was severely wounded, whereupon the command of his armies devolved on liem, who, on the following day (August 9, 1849), engaged the Austrian and Croatian forces, under Haynau and Jellachich, at Temeswar, where, after a sanguinary con- flict, in which Bern was covered with wounds, the army which he commanded wa.s thoroughly annihilated, Gijrgey, although within a short distance of the jjlacc where he was fighting, having neglected to come to his assistance. Gbrgey Made Dictator — His Treacherous Surrender. — The disasters to the Hungarian arms were in a great measure owing to the dissensions and want of concert among the Polish and Magyar generals; and GQrgey, with whom the grati- fication of personal ambition was a primary consideration, was striving for alwolutc power. At the request of Gdrgey, and at the solicitation of his friends, Kossuth, on the loth of August (1849), dissolved the provisional government, and appointed the ambitious general dictator. Giirgey had long been suspected of treachery to the cause of Hungary, and he had repeatedly disobeyed the orders of the provisional government. It now appeared that he had for some time been engaged in a trea- sonable correspondence with the enemies of his country, and he immediately made use of his absolute power to ruin the cause of Hungarian independence. fJn the I3lh of August, 1849, Gfjrgey surrendered, without any conditions, his entire army of 35,000 men, to the Russian general Rudiger, at Villagos. Submission of Hungary — Flight of Hungarian Leaders. — The treacher- ous surrender of Gorgey paralyzed all the efforts of the .Magyars, the various Hun- garian detachmens laid down their arms, and Hungary lay powerless before the despot power of Austria. Kossuth, Pem, Dembinski, and many others of the patriot leaders, fled into the Ottoman dominions, and the Sultan of Turkey nobly refused to deliver them up, at the demands of the Austrian Government. Pern re- ceived a command in the Turkish army. In 1850, Kossuth left Turkey, and visited 384 MODERN HISTORY. Engliind and the United Slates, in which countries his noble cflbrts in the cause of Hungarian freedom excited universal sympathy. Surrender of Komorn — Execution of Hungarian Leaders. — On the 29 !i of September, 1849, Komorn surrendered to the iVustrians on favorable comlitions, and, with the fall of that im[>ortant fortress, all military opposition to Austrian poivcr in Ilunj^ary ceased. To the everlastinji; infamy of the Austrian Government, thir- teen Ilunj^arian generals and staff-officers were executed at Arad, on the 6th of October, 1849. Many of the Ilunj^arian civil leailei^s met the same fate. A large number of the inferior ofhcei-s were imprisoned in fortresses, some for a tenn of years, and others for life; and no less than 70,000 Hungarians who had engaged in the rebellion were compelled to serve in the Austrian army. THE LATEST WARS AND REVOLUTIONS. THE COUP D'ETAT OF LOUIS NAPOLEON (1851). Parties in the French National Assembly. — Upon assuming the office of President of the French Republic, Louis Napoleon publicly avowed the principles of his government to be strictly republican. The different parties In the French National Assembly were the Legitimists, or adherents of the ehler branch of the Bourbons; the Orleanists, who desired the placing of the heir of Louis Philippe upon the throne of France; the Bonapartists, or Imperialists, who desired the resto- ration of the French Empire ; the Red Republicans, and the Moderate Republicans, or friends of the existing constitution. Disagreement between the President and the National Assembly. — From the beginning, there was a lack of harmony between the executive and legis- lative branches of the Government, the National Assembly having no fliith in the republican professions of the President. The Assembly restricted the right of suf- frage and the freedom of the press, and in many other ways encroached upon the rights of the French people. In 1849, a French army, under General Oudinot, was sent to Rome, to overthrow the Republic which had been established there. The French constitution of 1848 provided for its revision by the National Assembly during the last year of the Presidential term, and it also made the IVesident ineligi- ble to reelection before an interval of four years. Louis Napoleon desired to have it revised and so altered as to render him eligible to reelection; but the Assembly, by a large vote, in 1851, refused to revise it. The President, in his message, in November, 1S51, advised the Assembly to extend the right of suffrage; but the Assembly rejected a proposition for that purix)se, and soon afterwards a proposition was offered threatening the President with impeachment if he should seek a reelec- tion contrary to the provisions of the constitution. The Coup d' Etat. — The breach between the President and the National As- >embly was rapidly widening; and finally, Louis Napoleon determined to crush, at one blow, all opposition to his will, by a bold stroke of state policy. About tive o'clock in the morning of the 2d of December, 1S51, the principal streets o( Paris were occupied by troops; and the leading members of the Assembly, and the chief military leaders, whom Louis Napoleon knew were opposed to his ambitious schemes, ■<'="'" •^^^'^^ NAPOLEON III. NINETEENTH CENTURY. 38s were seized in their beds, and shut up in prison. M. Thiers and Generals Cavaig- nac, Changarnier, and Lamoriciere, and other prominent characters, were arrested by detachments of police, assisted by the guards, and were imprisoned in the chateau of Vincennes. At the dawn of day, the Parisians were surprised to find the walls every- where covered with placards containing the following decree : " In the name of the French people, the President of the Repuijlic decrees : i. The National Assenil)Iy is dissolved: 2. Universal suffrage is reestablished; the law of 31st of May is repealed: 3. The French people, are convoked in their communes, from the 14th to the 31st of December: 4. The state of siege is decreed in the whole of the first military division : 5. The Council of State is dissolved : The Minister of the Interior is charged with the execution of this decree. — Louis Napoleon Bonaparte." During the day, some of the members of the National Assembly met at the residence of M. Daru, declared the President guilty of trexson, and decreed his deposition ; but no sooner had they signed the decree, than they were seized by the military, and conducted to prison. None of the journals but those that supported the President were permitted to be printed and distributed. This bold act of usurpation, dignified by the title " The Coup d' Etat," was completely successful ; the republican constitution was over- thrown, and Louis Napoleon was a monarch in all but in name. Unsuccessful Resistance to the Usurpation. — On the 2d of December, no resistance was made to the President's usurpation; but about ten o'clock on the morning of the 3d, M. Baudin, a representative of the people, appeared at the head of a mob in the Rue St. Antoine, but the arrival of the military restored order, and M. Baudin and two other representatives were punished with death. On the fol- lowing day (December 4, 1851), barricades were erected in many of the streets of Paris ; but at noon, large bodies of troops swept the Boulevards, fired upon the buildings, killed many innocent people, and put an end to all resistance before night. The troops gave no quarter to the insurgents, and more than 2000 persons were killed. In the eastern departments of France, the rural population rose in great strength against the usurpation; but the army remaining faithful to the President, the insurrection was suppressed in a few days. Louis Napoleon Elected President for Ten Years. — On Saturday and Sunday, December 20th and 21st, elections were held throughout France, the question submitted to the nation being whether or not Louis Napoleon should hold the office of President ten years longer, with the power of forming a new constitu- tion for France, on the basis of universal suffrage. No other candidate was allowed to be named. The army voted first, and, as was to be expected, its vote was nearly unanimous in favor of Louis Napoleon; and the entire majority in favor of the lengthened Presidential term was 6,761,659 votes. On New Year's Day, 1852, the result of the election was celebrated in the French capital with all possible mag- nificence: seventy rounds of artillery were fired at the Invalides, at ten o'clock in the forenoon; the Te Deum was sung at noon, in the Church of Notre Dame, the President himself being present; and a splendid banquet was given at the Tuilcries, at which 400 persons participated. Nevv Constitution. — On the 14th of January, 1S52, the new constitution pro- posed tjy Louis Napoleon was decreed. The constitution entrusted the executive authority to Louis Napoleon for ten years, and clothed him with almost absolute power. The legislative power was vested in a Senate, composed of the most gifted 25 386 MODERN HISTORY. men in France; a Council of State, to originate and enact laws ; and a Corps Leg- ishitif, chosen by universal suflrage, to discuss and enact laws. Louis Napoleon Made " Emperor of the French." — The great end of all Louis Napoleon's ambition was the restoration of the French Empire. By means of newspaper agents and a mercenary press, the President prepared the minds of the French people to pronounce at the ballot-box in favor of or against the reestab- lishment of the imperial throne. The election resulted in a majority of 7,611,035 votes in favor of imperialism; and on the 2d of December, 1S52, Louis Napoleon was formally proclaimed " Emperor of the French," with the title of Napoleon IIL Thus ended the Second French Republic; and thus was established the Second French Empire, under Qiarles Louis Napoleon Bonapai"te, the son of Louis Bona- parte and Hortense Beauharnais. A large number of persons who had actively opposed Louis Napoleon's assumption of imperial power were arrested on the charge of treason, and imprisoned or banished to Algeria or Cayenne. Marriage of Napoleon IIL — The new Emperor's next movement was the consumtn.uion of a marriage for the perpetuation of his dynasty; and, as all his proposals to foreign courts for the negotiation of a match were rejected, he selected for his bride, Eugenie de Montijo, Countess of Teba, a Spanish lady, who was not related to any reigning family. On the 2d of January, 1853, the announcement of the approaching nuptials was made to the French Senate. On the 29th of the same month, the civil marriage was celebrated at the Tuileries; and on the 30th, the religious ceremonies were celebrated with great pomp, in the Church of Notre Dame. THE CRIMEAN WAR (A. D. 1853-1856). The Guardianship of the Holy Places — The Czar's Demand. — For a long time, a dispute with regard to the Holy Places .it Jerusalem had raged .it Con- stantinople, between the Greek and Romish Churches, Russia supporting the claims of the Greek, and France those of the Romish Church. Early in 1853, a dispute arose between Russia and Turkey, which threatened to disturb the peace of Europe. The Emperor Nicholas of Russia claimed the right to exercise a protectorate over the Greek Christians in the Ottoman dominions. This demand was justly regarded as incompatible with the dignity of the Sultan as an independent sovereign; and, by the advice of the English and French ministers at Constantinople, the demands of the Czar were rejected, and his extravagant pretensions denied, but the Sultan, by a "hatti sheriff," confirmed all the privileges of his Christian subjects. Russian Invasion of Turkey — War Between Russia and Turkey. — Im- mediately after the demand of the Russian autocrat had been rejected by the C)ttoman Porte, 60,000 Russian troops inv.ided the Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia. The Saltan demanded the evacuation of his dominions, threaten- ing, in case of a refusal, a declaration of war. The fleets of France and England were ordered to the Dardanelles, while England, France, Austria, and Prussia vainly endeavored to bring about an adjustment of the dispute by negoti.ition. The arrogance of Russia prevented a peaceful solution of the difficulty ; and, on the 5th of October, 1853, the Turkish Government declared war against Russia. On the 14th (October, 1853), the fleets of Great Britain and France, at the request of the Sultan, p.assed the Dardanelles. NINETEENTH CENTURY. -87 Turkish Victories on the Danube — Battle of Sinope. — In the latter part of October, 1853, the Turkish forces crossed the Danube, for the purpose of expel- ling the Russians from the Ottoman territories. Under the command of their skill- ful general, Omar Pacha, the Turks won many splendid victories. On the 13th of November (1853), the Turkish fleet at Sinope, on the southern coast of the Black Sea, was suddenly and unexpectedly attacked and destroyed by the Russian fleet. Before the close of the year, the British and French fleets were ordered into the Black Sea, to protect the Turks. Alliance of England, France, and Turkey — Advance of the Russians. — As the Czar Nicholas still rejected all proposals for an amicable settlement of the dispute, England and France, closely in alliance with Turkey, declared war against Russia, at the close of March, 1854; but Austria and Prussia remained neutral. An allied English and French army of 90,000 men, under Lord R.iglan and Mar- shal St. Arnaud, was sent to the assistance of the Turks, and a powerful Anglo- French naval armament, under Sir Charles Napier, was dispatched to the Baltic sea. The Russians, under Prince Gortschakoff, their commander-in-chief, crossed the Danuljc, the Ottoman forces retreating in good order before the invaders. Bombardment of Odessa — Siege of Silistria— Expulsion of the Rus- sians. — On the 22(1 of April, 1854, the allied I'jiglish and French fleets bombarded the Russian commercial town of Odessa, on the Black Sea. During the summer, the Turks, under Mussa Pacha, successfully defended Silistria against 90,000 Rus- sians under Prince Paskiewitsch, and finally comix;lIed ihem to raise the siege, and evacuate the Turkish dominions. Allied Expedition to the Crimea — Battle of Alma — Siege of Sevasto- pol. — In September, 1854, an expedition, composed of English, French, and Turkish troops, landed at Eupatoria, in the peninsula of the Crimea, and, on the 20th of that month, gained a brilliant victory over the Russians at Alma. A few days after- ward, Marshal St. Arnaud died, and the command of the French army was assigned to General Canrobert. The siege of Sevastopol commenced on the 1 7th of October, 1854, when the allies opened their first bombardment on the town. Battle of Balaklava. — The Russians sent large reinforcements to their army in the Crimea, for the purpose of compelling the allies to evacuate the peninsula. On the 25th of October, 1854, occurred the famous battle of Balaklava, in which the English Light Cavalry Brigade of 600 men was almost totally destroyed, in a reckless charge upon the strong Russian position. Battle of Inkermann. — Large bodies of Russian troops continued to pour into the Crimea, for the purpose of relieving the beleaguered fortress of Sevastopol; and on the 5th of November, 1854, was fought the bloody battle of Inkermann, in which 8000 English troops held their ground firmly against 50,000 Russians for seven hours, when the appearance of a French force of 6000 men under General Bosquet soon decided the battle against the Russians, who were driven with heavy loss into the fortress of Sevastopol. Death of the Czar Nicholas— Peace Conference— Sardinia Joins the Allies. — On the 2d of March, 1855, the Emperor Nicholas died, and was succeeded on the Russian throne by his son, Alexander II., who declared his resolution of adhering to the policy of his father. A conference composed of representatives of 388 MODERN HISTORY. Er7land, France, Turkey, and Russia, was held at Vienna, in the spring of 1855, for the purpose of bringing about a peace; but, as Russia rejected the demand of the allied powers, that the war-vessels of all nations should be excluded from the Black Sea, the efforts for peace failed ; and Sardinia joined the allied powers in their war against Russia. Siege of Sevastopol. — In the meantime, hostilities were prosecuted with vigor in the Crimean peninsula. On the 17th of February, 1855, the Russians assaulted the intrenched camp of the Turks at Eupatoria, but were repulsed, after a fierce en- gagement. A severe battle between the Russians and the French occurred on the 22d of March (1855), in which the Russians lost over 2000 men, and the French 600 men. The second bombardment of Sevastopol commenced on the 9th of April, and continued for several days. The incompetent Canrobert was superseded in the command of the French forces by the able and energetic General Pelissier. The third bombardment of Sevastopol, which commenced on the 6th of June, resulted in giving the French possession of the Mamelon, while the English captured the Round Tower. On the iSth of June (the anniversary of the battle of Waterloo), the French assailed the Malakoff Tower, while the English, at the same time, stormed the Redan. Both attacks were repulsed. On the 28th (June, 1855), Lord Raglan died, and was succeeded in the command of the English forces by General Simp- son. On the 1 6th of August, 60,000 Russians were repulsed in an assault upon the French and the Sardinians at Tchernaya. Attack on Sweaborg. — Wliile the events just related were occurring in the Crimean peninsula, hostilities were being prosecuted in other quarters. On the 9th of August, 1855, the combined English and French fleet in the Baltic, under Sir Charles Napier, commenced an attack upon Sweaborg, which was continued until the 17th, without effecting any important result. Fall of Sevastopol. — On the 5th of September, 1855, commenced the fourth bombardment of Sevastopol. On the 8th, the French captured the Malakoff, after a furious assault, but, at the same time, the English were repulsed in an attack upon the Redan. The fall of the Malakoff rendered a further defense of the place use- less; and on the 9th (September, 1855), the Russians evacuated the southern side of Sevastopol, and left the town and the harbor in the possession of the allies. Capture of Kinburn — Turkish Victory at the Ingour. — On the 15th of October, 1855, General Bazaine, with 15,000 French and 4000 English troops, from the allied army in the Crimea, landed at Kinburn, and captured that post, after a fierce bombardment. Late in November, the Turks, under Omar Pacha, achieved a glorious victory at the river Ingour, when they forced a passage over the stream, and compelled the Russians to evacuate their position and retreat to Kutais. The War in Asiatic Turkey — Capture of Kars. — Important events occurred in Asiatic Turkey. On the 29th of September, 1855, the Turkish forces, under the command of the English general Williams, repulsed an attack of the Russians upon the town of Kars, and the place was defended successfully until the 28th of Novem- ber (1855), when the Turkish garrison was compelled to surrender, and the town fell into the hands of the Russians. Peace of Paris. — Early in 1856, an armistice was proclaimed, and soon after- ward, the plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, France, Sardinia, Turkey, and Russia, NINETEENTH CENTURY. 389 assembled in Paris ; and a treaty of peace was agreed upon, on Sunday, ^tach 30th, 1856. By this treaty, the Russian forts and arsenals on the Black Sea were destroyed; Russia was to renounce all interference in the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire; the vessels of all nations were to have the right to navigate the Danube; the Christian subjects of the Sultan were to be secured in certain privi- leges; and the Russian fortress of Nicolaieff was to be dismantled. The eagle's quill mounted with gold and gems, with whicli the treaty was signed, was presented to the Empress Eugenie of France. Thus closed the Crimean War, in which more than one million of men perished. THE SEPOY MUTINY IN BRITISH INDIA (1857-1859). England's Wars with Persia and China — The Mutiny of the Sepoys. — In less than a year after the termination of her war with Russia, England became involved in wars with Persia and China. The war with Persia lasted only a few months, but the contest with China was not closed before the autumn of i860. The English and their allies, the French, completely humbled the Chinese, whose chief cities, Canton and Pekin, were taken, and the Chinese Emperor fled in consterna- tion from his capital. By the Treaty of Tien-tsin, in October, i860, the Chinese were obliged to allow a British minister to reside at Pekin. But a struggle of far greater magnitude than the Persian and Chinese wars employed the military strength of the British Empire — namely, the war produced by the mutiny of the Sepoys, or Hindoos in the military service of the East-India Company. Discontent of the Mohammedans of India — The Bengal Army. — For a long time, the Mohammedans of India had been dissatisfied with their subordinate position. When, in 1849, Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General of British India, compelled the titular king of Delhi to exchange the fortress of Delhi for the royal palace of the Kootub, the hatred of the Delhi Mohammedans against the British Government was increased. When the Kingdom of Oude was annexed to the British Indian Empire, many of the Sepoys comprising the Bengal army who were natives of Oude were aroused to the highest pitch of indignation ; and they suc- ceeded in uniting all the Mohammedan sects in India, with the view of freeing themselves from British power. The Enfield Rifles and the Greased Cartridges. —Circumstances soon occurred which favored the cause of the Mohammedans of India. It had been rumored among the Hindoos that the British Government had resolved to compel all its subjects to embrace the Christian religion, and abolish the distinctions of caste which prevail among the Hindoos. Early in 1857, the East-India Company armed its Hindoo soldiers with the Enfield rifles, for which cartridges greased with pig's and cow's fat were used. The Hindoos are forbidden by their religion to taste animal food; and, as the ends of the greased cartridges must be bitten off, the Sepoys believed that by using them they would become defiled, lose their caste, and be bound to adopt the religion of their masters. Mohammedan emissaries secretly aroused the dissatisfaction of the Hindoos, for the advancement of their own rebel- lious schemes. Mutiny of the Bengal Army. — During the month of April, 1857, many of the regiments composed of Sepoys in the Bengal army manifested a mutinous spirit. 390 MODERN HISTORY. The 19th and 34th regiments, the Oude irregular infantry, and a part of the 3d Light Cavalry at Meerut, were the first to rise in rebellion. Other Sepoy regiments followed their example, and before long, the whole Hindoo portion of the Bengal army, about 120,000 men, stood in armed opposition to the British Government. The rebellion was purely a mutiny, and not a popular insurrection. Massacre of Delhi. — On the nth of May (1857), a party of mutineers from Meerut fiendislily massacred all the English residents at Delhi; but a small Eng- lish force, under the gallant Lieutenant Willoughby, blew up the arsenal, to prevent It from falling into the hands of the rebels. Massacre of Cawnpore. — At Cawnpore, 300 English troops under Sir Hugh Wheeler, and 500 women and children, were attacked and besieged by a body of mutineers under Nena Sahib, a Mahratta prince. When Nena Sahib found that he could not take the place by force, he oflered the gaiTison and the women and children a safe passage to Allahabad, if they would evacuate Cawnpore ; but no sooner had they emliarked on boats in the river, than they were fired upon by the treacherous mutineers, and many of their number were killed. One-hundred and fifty who had surrendered were put to death, and the women and children were massacred soon afterward. Siege of Lucknow. — At Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence, at the head of an English force, defeated a large body of rebel Sepoys, but he was afterwards besieged in the residency at that place, and was mortally wounded in a sally, at the beginning of July. (1857.) Excitement in England — English Troops sent to India. — The greatest excitement prevailed in England on the arrival of intelligence of the mutiny of the hitherto loyal Bengal army and the fiendish atrocities perpetrated by the mutineers. Within four months, 30,000 troops were sent from Great Britain to India, for the suppression of the Sepoy rebellion and the full restoration of British authority in Hindoostan ; and Sir Colin Campbell was sent to take the chief command of the British forces in India. General Havelock's Victories over Nena Sahib on the Ganges. — General Havelock, with British and loyal Hindoo troops, marched to the relief of the English garrison, under Sir Hugh Wheeler, at Cawnpore. He reached that pl.ice after marching 126 miles and fighting four engagements with the mutineers, and after Nena Sahib had treacherously massacred the women and children, as already stated. When Havelock approached Cawnpore, Nena Sahib and his insur- gent band tied ; but they were pui-sued, and defeated eight times, on the banks of the Ganges, by the force under Havelock. The Sepoy regiments at Dinapore mutinied on the 25th of July (1857), and having fled from the station, they were pursued and defeated by Major Eyre, of the Bengal artillery. Siege and Fall of Delhi. — In the Latter part of August, 1857, the British force before Delhi, which had quietly watched the insurgents who had held pos- session of that famous city, was reinforced by English and Sikh troops; and on the 25th (August, 1S57), the mutineers were defeated at Nujuffghur with heavy loss. On the 7th of September, the British commenced besieging Delhi with vigor. The whole British force did not exceed 4,000 men. On the 14th of September, Gen- eral Wilson, the British commander, divided his army into four columns. Two of NINETEENTH CENTURY. 391 these columns carried the Cashmere and Water bastions by storm, on the same day. The Cashmere gate was blown up, when the third column joined the other two in the assault; and before the close of the day, the British were masters of a consider- able portion of the city. The fourth column was repulsed in an attack upon the city. On the 15th (September, 1857), the British shelled the palace and battered the magazine; and on the i6lh, a British storming party rushed forward, where- upon the insurgent artillerymen fled in dismay, leaving the British in possession of six pieces of cannon. On the 17th and 1 8th, the British gained several important advantages ; and after several more assaults, the mutineers entirely evacuated the city of Delhi, which came into the military possession of the English on the 20th of September. (1857.) A great part of the town was laid in ruins and filled with corpses, and numbers of captured mutineers were i)ut to a cruel death. Siege of Lucknow — Battle of Mungarwar — Relief of Lucknow. — Since June, 1S57, a large body of English troops and women and children had been besieged in the residency at Lucknow, by 50,000 insurgents. While marching to their relief. General Havelock defeated 40,000 insurgents, in the battle of Mungar- war, on the 2ist of September. (1857.) After a forced march of four days, Havelock and his troops appeared at Eucknow, on the 25th of September, and relieved the brave garrison. After severe fighting, the rebel Sepoys were repulsed in all their assaults; but they still continued the siege with vigor. On the 12th of November (1857), Sir Colin Campbell arrived at Lucknow, with a strong English force, and took the garrison, along with the women and children, to Cawnpore. Insurgent Attack on Cawnpore — Siege and Capture of Lucknow. — In December, 1857, Cawnpore was attacked by 25,000 rebel Sepoys, but the timely arrival of the British force, under Sir Colin Campbell, saved the place, and obliged the mutineers to retire, after a severe engagement. Soon afterward. Sir Colin Camp- bell laid siege to Lucknow, which place, after a vigorous siege, fell into the hands of the British on the 17th of March, 1858. Siege and Capture of Gwalior — Close of the Sepoy Rebellion. — After the fall of Lucknow, Gwalior became the stronghold of the Sepoy rebellion ; but in June, 1858, that strong place was compelled to yield to the British arms; after which the war assumed a guerrilla character, and small bands roamed over various parts of India until the close of 1859, when peace was fully restored, and British authority was completely reestablished in India. The active power of the rebellion had passed away with the fall of Gwalior, in the summer of 1858; and soon after that event, the Governor-General, Lord Canning, ordered a public thanksgiving for the overthrow of the rebellion, and the restoration of peace to British India. Many of the vanquished rebels were put to death in a most barbarous manner. A very important result of the mutiny was the transfer, in the summer of 1858, of the government of British India from the East India Company to the English crown. THE ITALIAN WAR (1859). Attempted Assassination of Napoleon III. — In January, 1858, while the Emperor Napoleon III. was passing the Italian opera-house in Paris, three hollow projectiles were aimed at his person, killing and wounding a number of persons. 392 MODERN HISTORY. The Italian refugee, Orsini, who made this attempt at regicide, was punished with death. Warlike Threat of Napoleon III. — During the reception of foreign ministers, at his palace, on New Year's Day, 1859, the Emperor Napoleon III., in speaking to the Austrian ambassador to France about the affairs of Italy, made some remarks which were regarded by all who heard them as implying a threat of war; and it soon appeared that France was arming on an extensive scale. A marriage was negotiated between Prince Napoleon, the Emperor's cousin, and the Princess Clotilda, daughter of Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, who was an avowed opponent of Austria with respect to the question of Italian independence; and events indicated the speedy approach of war. Demands of Austria for the Disarmament of Sardinia. — The King of Sardinia, supported by France, was now making earnest preparations for war. Austria demanded that Sardinia should immediately disarm. Great Britain and Russia endeavored to avert hostilities by negotiation; but Austria's demand for the immediate disarmament of Sardinia was opposed by the other powers. Austria then proposed that all the powers should disarm. This was agreed to by Russia, Prussia, England, France, and Sardinia; but the proposition that the Italian States should be represented in a congress of the Five Great Powers was opposed by Austria, which still insisted on the immediate disannament of Sardinia. This demand was still objected to by the other powers; and, as Austria would not recede from the position which she had taken, all hopes for an amicable settlement of the difficulty were dispelled. Sardinia's Rejection of Austria's Ultimatum — Austrian Invasion of Sardinia. — ^In the latter part of April, 1859, Austria sent to Sardinia an ultima- tum, demanding the immediate disbandment of her Italian volunteers, allowing only three days for a reply, and threatening war in case of a rejection of the demand. The King of Sardinia rejected the Austrian ultimatum ; and the Chambers, which he immediately summoned, conferred upon him dictatorial powers. On the 26th of April (1859), the Austrian army, in three divisions, numbering together 120,000 men, crossed the Ticino, and invaded Sardinia. French Troops Sent to Italy — Napoleon III. Goes to Italy. — When intelligence of the Austrian invasion of Sardinia reached France, a manifesto pre- pared by the French Emperor was presented in the Corps Legislatif, declaring that France would stand by Sardinia. Large bodies of French troops were now pushed foward into Italy with the utmost haste; and, on the loth of May, the Emperor Napoleon III., leaving the Government of France in the hands of the Empress Eugenie as regent, left Paris to take command of the French troops in person. On the 1 2th (May, 1859), he reached Genoa, where he met with a most enthusiastic reception. Battle of Montebello. — After having exhausted the country which they had invaded, the Austrians fell back slowly toward Lombardy. The first battle of the Italian war was fought on the 20th of May, 1859, at Montebello — the same place where, on the 9th of June, 1800, the French, under General Lannes, defeated the Austrians. After desperate fighting, the Austrians were defeated, with considerable loss. The French, who were commanded by General Forey, lost less than 700 NINETEENTH CENTURY. 393 men in killed and wounded. Among the killed on the side of the French was General Beuret. On the following day (May 21, 1859), a slight engagement oc- curred between the Austrians and the left wing of the allied army under General Cialdini. Italian and French Invasion of Lombardy — Defeats of the Austrians. — A body of Italian volunteers, under General Garibaldi, invaded Lombardy and captured Varese, where they repulsed an attack of the Austrians, on the 26th of May. After a fierce conflict on the 27th, the Italians took possession of Como, the Austrians retreating to Camerletta, where they were again defeated, and compelled to continue their retreat. On the 29th of May, the Emperor Francis Joseph, of Austria, left Vienna for the seat of war, and arrived at Verona on the 31st. On the 29th, the Sardinians crossed the Sesia, and forced the Austrian works at Palestro, capturing two pieces of artillery, and some small arms and prisoners. On the 31st, 25,000 Austrians were severely repulsed in an attempt to recover Palestro. On the 1st of June, a French force, under General Niel, expelled the Austrians from Novara, after an insignificant conflict. The Emperor of the French entered Novara at five o'clock in the evening of the same day, meeting with an enthusiastic reception. Battle of Magenta — Proclamations of Napoleon and Victor Emman- uel. — On the 4th of June, 1859, was fought the great battle of Magenta, in which 100,000 French and Sardinians, under General MacMahon, were engaged. The Austrians were defeated, with the loss of 27,000 men in killed, wounded, and pris- oners. After the battle, the Emperor of the French and the King of Sardinia entered Milan, where they were welcomed with the warmest enthusiasm. Napo- leon III. published a proclamation to the Italian people, declaring his intention of securing to Italy nationality and independence; and Victor Emmanuel issued a proclamation to the people of Lombardy, declaring that country united with Sardinia. Battles of Melegnano and Solferino. — On the 8th of June, occurred the battle of Melegnano, which lasted nine hours, and in which 30,000 Austrians were engaged. The Austrians were defeated, with the loss of 3200 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. On the 24th of June (1859), was fought the famous battle of Solferino, in which the contending forces on each side numbered about 140,000 men, and in which the Emperor Napoleon III. and King Victor Emmanuel commanded their troops in person. This sanguinary conflict raged from five o'clock in the morning until late in the afternoon, and resulted in the utter defeat of the Austrians, who were compelled to make a hasty retreat. Peace of Villa Franca. — An armistice was agreed to on the 8th of July, 1859; and on the lith of the same month, a treaty of peace was signed at Villa Franca, between the Emperors of France and Austria. The treaty was concluded on the following basis: the formation of an Italian Confederation, under the honorary pre- sidency of the Pope ; the cession of Lombardy by Austria to France, in trust for Sardinia; and Venetia, although retained by Austria, to constitute an integral part of the Italian Confederation. The King of Sardinia was dissatisfied with this treaty, and his' Prime Minister, Count Cavour, immediately resigned. The Emperor Napo- leon III. now left Italy, and arrived at his palace of St. Cloud on the 17th of July. A definitive treaty of peace was agreed upon at Zurich, in November, 1859. In a 394 MODERN HISTORY. war with Anam (1858-1862), France obtained by conquest a large portioti of Cochin- China. ITALIAN REVOLUTION OF 1860-1861. Garibaldi's Invasions of Sicily and Naples — Revolution in Naples. — Important events occurred in Italy in i860 — events which resulted in the unification of Italy. General Garibaldi, with a band of Italian volunteers, landed in Sicily, and proclaimed himself Dictator for the King of Sardinia. Garibaldi carried Palermo by storm, defeated the forces of Francis II., King of Naples, and then invading the main-land of the Kingdom of Naples, completely overthrew the Neapolitan anny, and compelled the King of Naples to flee from his dominions. After the flight of Francis II., Victor Emmanuel entered Naples, and was acknowledged king. Establishment of the Kingdom of Italy — Victor Emmanuel King. — • In 1 86 1, all the Italian States, excepting the Austrian province of Venetia, the Re- public of San Marino, and the Papal dominions, were consolidated into one great State, designated " The Kingdom of Italy," the crown of which was bestowed on King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia. GREEK REVOLUTION OF 1862. Misrule of King Otho. — For a long time, the Greek people had suffered under the misrule of King Otho. Oppression followed oppression. The greater part of the uncultivated lands became the property of the crown. The peasants were re- quired to pay a heavy land-tax, and manufactures were discouraged. The public money was squandered by the extravagant court; and the corrupt Ministry succeeded by bribes in having the Legislative Chambers filled with the supporters of the crown. Tyrannical Measures of King Otho. — The growing discontent of the Greek people compelled King Otho to call on Canaris to form a new Ministry ; but when Canaris presented to the king a memorial asking for the dissolution of the fraudu- lently-elected Chambers, the formation of a national guard, and the abolition of the censorship of the press, he was dismissed, and the corrupt Ministry remained in power. Insurrections of Nauplia and Syra — Flight and Abdication of Otho. — Soon afterward. King Otho caused more than 1000 of the popular party to be im- prisoned, on a charge of plotting against the Government. The result of this out- rageous act was the breaking out of a revolt at Nauplia, on the 12th of February, 1862. The city of Nauplia was besieged by the Government troops, and the insur- gents were forced to surrender on the 20th of April (1862). An amnesty was granted to all but nineteen of the insurgents ; but this amnesty was afterwards vio- lated, and many of the insurgents were thrown into prison. Another insurrection against the king had in the meantime broken out in the island of Syra. The Syrans were defeated in the naval battle of Thermia, but still they refused to submit. During the summer, the spirit of opposition to the Government manifested itself throughout Greece, while the tyranny of the king continually increased. Convicts were liberated from the prisons to plunder and keep down the people; and the NINETEENTH CENTURY. 3pe press was prohibited from publishing the sentiments of the people. The opposition to King Otho became so great that he was obliged to abdicate his throne, on the 30th of October, 1862, and to leave Greece a few days afterward. A provisional government, under Demetrius Bulgaris, was immediately installed ; and in the fol- lowmg year (1863), Prince George, of Denmark, was raised to the throne of Greece, with, the title of George I., King of the Hellenes. POLISH INSURRECTION OF 1862-3-4. Tyrannical Proceedings of the Russians at Warsaw. — The Poles who had assembled at Warsaw on the 15th of October, 1861, to celebrate the memory of Kosciuszko, were prevented from doing so by the Russian authorities, who, the day before, had declared the city in a state of siege, and stationed large bodies of troops in the streets. The people nevertheless assembled in the churches peaceably, and when the churches were filled, the soldiers ordered them to disperse. As the Poles refused to obey, the Russian soldiers, by order of their commander, carried more than 2000 of them to the Citadel. These tyrannical proceedings were followed by the arrest, imprisonment, banishment, and condemnation to death of the most promi- nent Poles. Attempted Assassination of the Archduke Constantine. — In the summer of 1862, attempts were made by the Poles in Warsaw to assassinate the Archduke Constantine, Lieutenant of Poland, and brother of the Czar Alexander II. The Archduke and Count Wialopolski were severely wounded, but the assassins were arrested, condemned, and executed. Military Conscription — Polish Insurrection and Its Suppression. — In November, 1862, the Russian Government determined to put the citizens of the towns in Poland who had manifested any opposition to its authority, into the Russian army as common soldiers, and to send them to perform military service in Siberia. This harsh measure roused the Poles to a spirit of resistance; and a general insur- rection against Russian authority commenced throughout Poland. Small bands of insurgent Poles engaged in numerous conflicts with the Russian troops without decisive results. The revolt never arose above the character of a guerrilla war. This Polish rebellion at one time threatened complications dangerous to the general peace of Europe. England, France, Austria, and Sweden, sympathized with the Poles, and asked of the Russian Emperor the amelioration of their condition. The insurrection continued for upwards of a year, and it was with great difficulty that the Russian Government was enabled to suppress the rebellion in the summer of 1864. The Czar adopted harsh measures against the unfortunate Poles, many of whom were imprisoned, banished, or executed. RUSSIAN SERF EMANCIPATION (1863). Russian Conquest of Circassia — The Russian Serfs. — Russia enlarged her vast dominions by the conquest of Circassia, in 1859, after a sanguinary struggle of thirty years, during which the Circassian tribes, led by the valiant and heroic warrior-prophet, Schamyl, defied all the efforts of the Russians, and fought bravely for their independence. The attention of the Russian Government was not wholly 396 MODERN HISTORY. absorbed by schemes of conquest and territorial aggrandizement; and the Czar Alexander II. immortalized his name by the emancipation of all the serfs or slaves in the Russian dominions. Of the thirty- eight millions of serfs in the Russian Empire at that time, sixteen millions were the property of the Russian crown. They were bought and sold with the lands on which they lived, and their condition was in all respects very degraded. Emancipation of the Serfs. — In Februar)-, 1861, the Czar issued a decree, promising the emancipation of the serfs two years after that date. In accordance with this decree, the Russian serfs received their freedom in Februar}', 1863; and measures were taken for their improvement. THE SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN WAR (1864). The Danish and Schleswig-Holstein Succession. — A Congress of Euro- pean Powers, assembled at London, in 1852, settled the succession to the throne of Denmark, and to the German Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, upon Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg. On the death of King Christian VIII. of Denmark, in November, 1863, Prince Christian succeeded to the throne of Denmark and to the sovereignty of the German Duchies of Schles- wig and Holstein ; but the succession to the Duchies was claimed by Prince Frederic of Augustenburg, whose rights had been disregarded by the London Con- gress of European Powers. The people of Schleswig and Holstein, mostly Ger- mans, for the most part sided with the Prince of Augustenburg, who also had the sympathies of the whole German nation. German- Federal, Austrian, and Prussian Armies in Holstein. — In Janu- ary, 1864, the Diet of the Germanic Confederation sent an army into Schleswig and Holstein, to support the claims of Prince Frederic of Augustenburg, and to prevent the incorporation of those German Duchies with the Kingdom of Denmark; while Austria and Prussia, acting independently of the Federal Diet, also sent armies into the Duchies; and a war ensued between Denmark and the German Powers. First Campaign — Capture of Doppel. — On the 4th of February, 1864, hos- tilities between the Danes and the Germans commenced at Missunde. The war was prosecuted with vigor on the part of the Germans, and, after a spirited cam- paign, the Danes were defeated. The most important event of the first campaign was the capture of Doppel by the Prussians, on the i8th of April, 1864. Although her army was defeated, Denmark still refused to accept peace by relinquishing the sovereignty of the German Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein; and Austria and Prussia undertook a second campaign to force Denmark to terms. Second Campaign — Capture of Alsen. — The Danish army still gallantly resisted, but in vain. The Austrians and Prussians were again victorious. The island of Alsen was captured by the Prussians, under Prince Frederic Charles, on the 9th of July, 1864, after a sanguinary struggle. Active hostilities had lasted five months, and Denmark was now obliged to accept peace on such terms as Austria, Prussia, and the Germanic Confederation chose to dictate. Peace of Vienna. — On the 30th of October, 1864, a treaty of peace was con- cluded at Vienna, between Denmark and the German powers, by which King NINETEENTH CENTURY. 397 Christian VIII. of Denmark relinquished all claims to the sovereignty of the Ger- man Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. THE SEVEN WEEKS' WAR (1866) The Schleswig-Holstein Controversy Between Austria and Prussia. — A dispute between Austria and Prussia conceming the sovereignty of the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which those two great powers had wrested from Den- mark in 1864, led to a short, but fierce and decisive, war, in the summer of 1866. Austria seemed disposed to support the claims of Prince Frederic of Augustenburg to the sovereignty of the Duchies; but, in October, 1865, Prussia declared that, according to the late treaty with Denmark, the sovereignty of the two Duchies had been yielded to Austria and Prussia jointly. Prussia considered the favor of Austria for Prince Frederic of Augustenburg as indicating antagonism to the joint sover- eignty of Austria and Prussia over the Duchies. Arming of Austria and Prussia — Alliance of Prussia and Italy. — In the early part of 1866, Austria placed her army on a war-footing; and Prussia, suspect- ing the designs of Austria, began to arm in her defense. Austria pretended that her militarj- preparations were with the view of protecting the Jews in Bohemia from persecution. The smaller German States endeavored to have the difficulty between the two great powers settled by the process of Austragal Judgment, as provided for in the eleventh article of the Federal Pact; but Prussia insisted on a reorganization of the Germanic Confederation. At length, both Austria and Prussia agreed to disarm; but in the meantime, Prussia had entered into an offensive and defensive alliance with Italy ; and both Austria and Prussia continued their arma- ments. Demand of Prussia — Prussian Troops sent into Holstein. — The discus- sions of Prussia's demand for a reorganization of the Germanic Diet rendered an amicable adjustment of the dispute still more difficult; and at length, Prussia declared that if her demand were not complied with by the Diet, she would seek redress through some other source. The Austrian governor of Holstein had received orders to summon the Estates of the Duchy to consider their political rela- tions. Prussia considered this as a violation of the stipulations of the treaty of 1864; and Count von Bismarck, the Prussian Prime-Minister, dispatched a military force into Holstein, and the Austrians withdrew from the Duchy. Mobilization of the German-Federal Army — Declaration of War. — A motion for the mobilization of the German-Federal army was, through the influence of Austria, adopted by the Federal Diet; whereupon Prussia declared the Diet dis- solved, on account of the violation of the Germanic Constitution, withdrew from the Germanic Confederation, and called upon the German States to unite with her under a new constitution. On the 1 8th of June, 1866, Italy and Prussia formally and conjointly declared war against Austria, and immediately set their armies in motion. Flight of the King of Saxony — Surrender of the Hanoverian Army. — Prussian troops had already occupied Hesse- Cassel, Hanover, and Saxony, because; those States refused to unite with Prussia in a new confederation. The King of Saxony fled into Bohemia, destroying the bridges and tearing up the railroads 398 MODERN HISTORY. behind him. Prussia vainly attempted a reconciliation with Hanover. Although successful in an action with the Prussians, the Hanoverian army, not receiving the expected assistance of the Bavarians, was obliged to surrender to the Prussians, whose numbers were continually increasing. Prussian Victories over the Bavarian and Federal-German Armies, — The Bavarians, being several times disastrously defeated by the Prussians, were obliged to retire behind the Main. The Prussians next defeated the Federal- German army at Aschaffenburg, and forced it to retire beyond the Main, where it effected a junction with the defeated Bavarians. Operations in Italy — Battle of Custozza — Naval Battle of Lissa. — The Italian armies were at this time contending against the Austrians in Northern Italy. On the 24th of June (1866), was fought the battle of Custozza, in which the Italians were defeated and compelled to retreat. In July, the Italian army invaded Venetia, and forced the Austrians to fall back. General Garibaldi, with 12,000 Italians, was in the passes of the Tyrol, to the left of the main Italian army. The Italian right wing compelled the Austrians to retreat beyond Trent, in the Tyrol. The Italian right pursued the Austrians in their retreat through Venelia. While these movements were taking place on land, the Italian navy was defeated off the island of Lissa, by the Austrian fleet under Admiral Tegethoff. Prussian Invasion of Bohemia. — In the meantime, the Prussians were con- ducting a i)rilliant campaign against the Austrians in Bohemia. Three large Prus- sian armies, numbering together more than 200,000 men, had been assembled in June, 1866, for the invasion of the Austrian province of Bohemia. The 1st Prus- sian army, under Prince Frederic Charles, the nephew of King William of Prussia, advanced into Bohemia from Saxony ; the 3d Prussian army, under General von Bitterfeld, joined the ist Prussian army in Bohemia, before the close of June; and the two combined forced the Austrians to fall back. In the meantime, the 2d Prus- sian army, under the command of the Crown-Prince Frederic William of Prussia, passed the frontiers of Silesia, and advancing into Bohemia, defeated the Austrians on the 27th of June. (1866.) Battle of Sadowa. — After brilliant maneuvering, and a series of conflicts, in which the Prussians captured 15,000 prisoners and twenty-four pieces of artillery, the 1st and 3d Prussian armies became engaged with 200,000 Austrians, under Field-Marshal Benedek, at nine o'clock in the morning of the 3d of July, 1866, at the little village of Sadowa, near Koniggratz. The Prussians had held their ground firmly against the superior force of the Austrians, when the arrival of the Crown-Prince with the 2d Prussian army, at one o'clock in the afternoon, decided the battle against the Austrians, who, after fighting bravely, were defeated with the loss of 40,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and 174 pieces of cannon. The victorious Prussians lost 20,000 men. Peace of Prague. — After the battle of Sadowa, the shattered Austrian forces retreated to Olmutz, in Moravia, pursued by the Prussians, who gained another vic- tory on the 22d of July. (1S66.) The Austrian Government, seriously alarmed at the rapid advance of the triumphant Prussians, was now anxious for peace ; and, through the mediation of France, an armistice was concluded on the 26th of July. On the 2jd of August (1866), a treaty of peace was signed at Prague, by the GLADSTONE. DISRAELI. NINETEENTH CENTURY. 399 plenipotentiaries of Austria and Prussia. By this treaty, Austria ceded Venetia to Italy, and consented to the formation of a new German Confcileration, from which she was to be excluded; and the entire sovereignty of the Duchies of Schlcswig and Holstcin was surrendered to Prussia. Prussian Treaties with Other German States — Peace of Vienna. — Prus- sia concluded treaties of peace, on advantageous terms for herself, with Wurtem- berg, Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt. An armistice had been jiroclaimed between Austria and Italy; and, on the 3d of October, 1866, a treaty of peace be- tween these two powers was signed at Vienna, Austria surrendering Venetia to Italy. A confederation of North German States, with Prussia at its head, was established; and Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt became independent sov- ereign states. ENGLISH REFORMS (1867-1869). The Russell Ministry — Rejection of the Reform Bill. — For some time, England had been agitated by the question of a more popular representation in Parliament. A reform bill, brought forward by the Ministry of Earl Russell, was, after much discussion, rejected by Parliament, on the 1 8th of June, 1 866. This result produced much excitement and dissatisfaction throughout England. Immense reform demonstrations were made in various parts of the kingdom, and in some of the principal cities serious riots occurred. The Derby Cabinet — Passage of the Reform Bill — 'War with Abyssinia. — The Whig Ministry of Earl Russell was succeeded by a Tory Cabinet, at the head of which was Earl Derby. The Derby Ministry proposed very liberal measures of reform, which occupied the attention of Parliament for several months; and a reform bill greatly extending the right of suffrage by diminishing the pro- perty qualification of voters for members of Parliament, was finally passed by both Houses of Parliament, in August, 1867; and on the 15th of that month, it received the royal assent. The chief event connected with the foreign policy of England during Lord Derby's Administration was the advance of an expedition, under General Robert Napier, into Abyssinia, late in 1867; and the Abyssinian king, Theodore, who had refused to release his English captives, was defeated and killed in April, 1868. The Disraeli Administration — Reform Bill for Ireland. — In May, 1868, Earl Derby was succeeded as Prime-Minister of Great Britain by Mr. Disraeli, the chief leader of the Tory party in the House of Commons. A reform bill for Ireland, proposed by Mr. Gladstone, one of the Whig leaders in the House of Commons, was passed. The disestablishment of the Church of England in Ireland was now agitated by the English Liberal party, headed by John Bright and William E. Gladstone. In August, 1868, the Ministry dissolved Parliament and ordered new elections, in order to test the sense of the nation. The Gladstone Ministry— Disestablishment of the Irish Church. — The Parliamentary elections in November, 1868, resulted in overwhelming majorities for the candidates of the Liberal party, in consequence of which Mr. Disraeli and his colleagues resigned, early in December (1868); and a W^hig Ministry, with Mr. Gladstone at its head, came into power. The great measure of Gladstone's 400 MODERN HISTORY. Administration was the disestablishment of the Anglican Church in Ireland. A disestaWishment hill, which encountered the most strenuous opposition on the part of the aristocratic Tories in the House of Lords, w;\s finally passed in August, lS6g, and received the royal assent on the 26th of that month. The Irish land bill, which was designed to better the condition of the tenant population of Ire- land, was also passed and approved by the sovereign. Thus were removed just causes of complaint on the part of the people of Ireland. SPANISH REVOLUTION OF 1S68. Spain's Wars with Morocco, Peru, and Chili — Tyranny of Queen Is- abella II. — The most prominent events in the recent histor)' of Spain were the successful war against Morocco, in 1S59 and lfln6; the sending of the allied Eng- lish, French, and Spanish expedition against Mexico, in December, 1S61; and the war against Peru and Chili, in 1S64 and 1S65. The dissolute and tjT.mnical con- duct of Queen Isabella II. made her detested by her subjects. Unsuccessful insur- rections against her authority occurred at different times, and for several years, Spain was in a disturbed condition. Spanish Revolution of September, 1868 — Flight of Queen Isabella II. — Isabell.i's extr.ivagance and profusion to her favorites jiroduccd a growing discontent throughout the Spanish kingdom; and about the middle of September, 1S6S, while the queen w.is at San Sebastian, on her w.ay to visit the Emperor Napoleon III., an insurrection, headed by Genenxls Prim and Serrano, broke out. The revolt soon extended throughout the whole Tiingdom, and all the important towns declared against the queen. The army and navy joined the insurgents, who soon took pos- session of Madrid. The authority of Queen Isabella II. was now at an end, and she fled to France; and a Central Provision.al Junta was formed to conduct public affairs. A bloody insurrection .ag-ainst Spanish authority now broke out in the island of Cuba, and continued several years. A Constituent Cortes — A New Constitution — Serrano, Regent. — In November, 1S6S, elections for a Constituent Cortes were held in S^xiin. This Cortes assembled soon afterwards, and, after long deliberation, adopted a new monarchical constitution, on the 1st of June, iS6q; and General Serrano was apix)inlod regent of the Spanish kingdom, until a king should be cliosen. General Prim was placed at the head of the Ministiy. Carlist and Republican Insurrections. — In August, iS69,an insurrection of the C;\rlists broke out in the north-eastern part of Spain, but it was promptly sup- pressed by the Government troops. A Republican insurrection in the following month (September, 1S69), was .also crushed, after the cities of Valencia and Sara- gossa, where the Republicans had determined to make a desperate stand, were taken, at"ter furious assaults and san^inan,' lighting in the streets. The Duke of Aosta Elected King of Spain. — On the 17th of November, 1S70, the Spanish Cortes, by a vote of 191 .against 120, elected the Duke of Aosta, son of King Victor Emmanuel of Italy, King of Spain, with the title of Amadeus I. In the beginning of Tiinu.arj-, 1S71, the newly-elected king made his entrance into Madrid, and took the oath to support the new constitution of the Spanish nation. NINETEENTH CENTURY. 40 X Assassination of General Prim. — Strong opposition to the new king was manifested by the Spanish Rcpul)licans, and also by the CarHsts; and General Prim, the ablest of Spanish statesmen, was bitterly hated by the Republicans, many of whom regarded him as the chief obstacle in the way of the establishment of a Span- ish Republic. As General Prim was returning from the Cortes, on the night of the 27th of December, 1870, eight shots were fired at his carriage, by a party of assas- sins in the streets. The General was wounded in three places, and died on the 31st. The death of Prim produced a profoimd sensation of grief in Madrid, and thr;nigh- out Spain ; and great popular indignation was manifested against the assassins. The Cortes adopted a resolution in honor of the memory of the great statesman, declaring that the deceased deserved well of his country, and placed his family under the protection of the Spanish nation. /j|v THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1870-1871). Candidature of Prince Leopold of HohenzoUern-Sigmaringen. — At the beginning of July, 1870, General Prim, the Prime-Minister of Spain, with the con- sent of Serrano, the Regent of that country, invited Prince Leopold, of Ilohenzol- lern-Sigmaringen, a German prince, to become a candidate for the vacant throne of Spain. Regarding the candidature of this prince as a menace to France on the part of Spain and Prussia, the French Government violently opposed the project; and the Duke de Gramont, the French Minister of Foreign Aflairs, immediately informed the Governments of Spain and Prussia that PYance would not consent to the election of a Prussian prince to the throne of Spain. Diplomatic Note to Prussia — Reply to France. — On the 5th of July, Emile Ollivier, the French Prime-Minister, held a consultation with the Duke de Gramont and Senor Olozaga, the Spanish ambassador at Paris, and the result was a sharp diplomatic note to Baron Werther, the Prussian ambassador to France. Immedi- ately after receiving the note. Baron Werther started for Ems, to meet the King of Prussia. General Prim refused to abandon the candidacy of the Prince of Ilohen- zollern until the Spanish Cortes should have decided on the question; and the Prussian Government, in reply to the diplomatic note from the PVench Cabinet, stated that Prussia did nothing toward obtaining the offer of the Spanish crown for Prince Leopold, that the consent of the King of Prussia to its acceptance would be given after the Spanish Cortes had acted on the question, and that if the Cortes should choose the prince to the vacant throne Prussia would support him. Course of Spain and Prussia.— At a Council of Ministers in Madrid, the course of General Prim was unanimously approved, and the candidature of the Prince of HohenzoUern was accepted. It was believed in Paris that Prim and the Count von Bismarck, the shrewd and unprincipled Prime-Minister of Prussia, had for some time been secretly intriguing for the elevation of the Prince of Hohenzollern to the Spanish throne. Spain denied that she was influenced by Prussia in regard to the candidacy of the Prince of Hohenzollern ; and Prussia declared herself innocent of all political intrigue, and asserted that she had no right nor inclination to dictate to Spain, or to the Prince of Hohenzollern. England, Austria, and Russia, made vain efforts for the preservation of peace. Military Preparations of France. — France was now making the most earnest 26 402 MODERN HISTORY. militaiy preparations, and the Garde Mobile and the Garde Nationalc were put upon a war-footing. The greatest activity prevailed at Toulon, Cherbourg, and other French ports ; and troops were being rapidly moved eastward toward the Rhine. The Imperial Guards were placed under the command of Marshal Bazaine; and Marshal MacMahon was ordered home from Algeria, to take command of the French army which was to operate on the Rhine. Marehal Canrobert and Generals Failly and Frossard were also appointed to important commands. Formal Withdrawal of Prince Leopold — Demand of France. — On the 1 2th of July (1S70), Prince Leopold, of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, declining to be the cause of a European war, formally withdrew as a candidate for the Spanish throne. Not satisfied with the conduct of the King of Prussia in sanctioning the withdrawal of the candidacy of Prince Leopoldas head of the Hohenzollern family, the French Government demanded that he should do it as King of Prussia. But King William declined to do this, as he regarded such a step as inconsistent with the dignity to which Prussia was entitled as one of the first class powers of the world. Prussian troofis were now also hurried to the Rhine. Dismissal of the French Ambassador — Declaration of War. — On the 14th of July (1S70), Count Benedetti, the French ambassador to Prussia, demanded an audience of King William, at Ems, for the purpose of securing the perpetual renunciation of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as a candidate for the throne of Spain ; but as tlie king refused to receive him he started for Paiis ; and on the following day (July isth, 1S70), the French Corps Legislatif declared war against Prussia. The Prussian Armies. — Both the French and the Prussian people were enthu- siastic in support of their respective governments. All the German States rallied to the aid of Prussia, and the immediate mobilization of the whole Prussian army was ordered. The Crown-Piince Frederic William of Prussia was placed in com- mand of the South German armies, while his cousin. Prince Frederic Charles, was apjxiinted to take command of the forces of North Germany. Although King William of Prussia was the nominal commander-in-chief of the German armies, the direction of the military operations of Germany was in the hands of the skillful general. Count von Moltke. After concentrating between Mayence and Coblentz, the Prussian forces were moved to the French frontier. The French Armies. — After concentrating in the vicinity of Nancy, Metz, and Thionville, the French forces were moved forward to the German frontier. In the latter part of July, the Emperor Napoleon III. left Paris for the seat of war, and took the chief command of the French armies. The principal French armies were the Armv of the Moselle, under Marshal Bazaine, in the neighborhood of Metz and Thionville, and the Army of the Rhine, under Marshal MacMahon, in the vicinity of Strasburg. There was also a large army of reserves, under Marshal Canrobert, at Chalons-sur-Marne. Numerical Strength of the Belligerent Forces — Skirmish at Saar- bracken. — Toward the end of July, the German troops, 700,000 in number, occu- pied a line along tlie French frontier, extending from the Moselle to the Rhine. The French troops, 350,000 in number, were assembled at various points along the frontier, directly opposite the Prussian line. Skirmishes occurred at Saarbrucken, LEOPOLD. FREDERICK WILLIAM, THE CROWN PRINCE. NINETEEN7YI CENTURY. 403 on the 30th of July and on the 1st of August, in which the French were repulsed, but on the 2d of August, the town was captured Vjy the French, after a sharp fight. Battle of Weissenbourg — Advance of the Prussian Line. — On the 4th of August, the frontier town of Weissenbourg was captured by a part of the Prus- sian army under the Crown- Prince Frederic William, after a spirited eng,igement, in which the French General Douay was killed, and 800 French troops^ were made prisoners by the Prussians. The Prussian victory at Weissenbourg was followed by a general advance of the whole Prussian line into France, and the Count von Moltke immediately assumed an offensive attitude. Battle of Woerth — Battle of Forbach. — On the 6th of August was fought the battle of Woerth or Froschwiller, in which the Crown-Prince of Prussia, with a large lorce of Prussians and Bavarians, defeated the French under Marshal MacMahon, separated them from the remainder of the French army, and made 4,000 of them prisoners. The total French loss was 1 1,000 men, and the Prussian loss 3,500. On the very day of the battle of Woerth (August 6, 1870), the Prussiaa right, under General von Steinmetz, recaptured Saarbrucken, carried the heights of Spicheren after a severe struggle, and completely defeated the French under Gen- eral Frossard in the battle of Forbach, and afterwards compelled them to evacuate Forbach, St. Avoid, and Thionville, and took 8,000 of them prisoners. The whole French line fell back on Metz, followed by the Prussians. Consternation and Indignation in Paris. — When intelligence of the defeats of the French arms at Weissenbourg, Woerth, and Forljach reached Paris, the inhabi- tants of that proud capital manifested the most intense indignation, and the greatest excitement and consternation prevailed ; and it was feared that a sudden revolution would take pLace, and result in the overthrow of the Bonaparte dynasty. Advance of the Prussians in France. — The Prussian right and centre, under General von Steinmetz and Prince Frederic Charles, now advanced on Metz, and 60,000 South German troops, under General von Werder, laid siege to Strasburg. At the same time, the Prussian left, under the Crown-Prince, followed the 'shat- tered forces of Marshal MacMahon, in the direction of Nancy. On the 13th of August MacMahon evacuated Nancy, which was immediately taken possession of by the victorious forces of the Crown-Prince, MacMahon retreating to Chalons-sur- Marne. Movements near Metz — Battles of Courcelles, Vionville, and Grave- lotte. — After the ist and 2d Prussian armies had reached the Moselle, the French army, under Marshal Bazaine, at Metz, attempted to retreat from that strong fortress, on the 14th of August, Lut was met and defeated at Courcelles, by the ist Prussian army, under General von Steinmetz, and driven back with heavy loss. On the fol- lowing day (August 15, 1870), the ist Prussian army crossed the Moselle between Metz and Thionville, to cut off Bazaine's retreat to Paris by the northern road to Verdun, while the 2d Prussian army, which had already passed the Moselle south of Metz, seized the southern road. On the i6th, a fierce and bloody battle was fought at Vionville, between Metz and Verdun, in which the French were defeated by the 2d Prussian army under Prince Frederic Charles. Bazaine's army was now in a perilous situation. On the 17th, the Prussians hurried the remainder of their corps across the Moselle for the final struggle. On the i8th (August, 1870), oc- 404 MODERN HISTOR Y. curred the sanguinarj' battle of Gravelotte or Rezonville, west of Metz, which raged for nine hours, and in which Marshal Bazaine's army was again most disastrously defeated. The carnage of both sides was frightful. The battle-field and neighbor- ing villages were strewn with dead. During this week of battles, the French lost 50,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. The victorious Prussians also lost heavily. Thus every attempt at retreat which Bazaine made was defeated. He was now blockaded in the vicinity of Metz, with no hope whatever of extricating himself from his perilous position. All communication between him and Paris was severed, and an attempt to move in any direction would result in another disastrous defeat of his army. Advance of the Crown-Prince of Prussia toward Paris. — WTiile the ist and 2d Prussian armies, under General von Steinmetz and Prince Frederic Charles, ■were holdmg Bazaine fast at Metz, the Crown-Prince of Prussia, with the 3d Prus- sian army, 200,000 strong, having passed Metz on the south, was rapidly advancing toward Paris by way of Chalons-sur-Mame, MacMahon with his defeated and shat- tered forces retreating before him. King William at length removed his head- quarters from the Prussian armies near Metz to Bar-le-Duc, and then accompanied the Crown-Prince on his march toward Paris. In the meantime, a sharp conflict occurred at Verdun, between a French detachment and 10,000 German troops under the command of the Crown- Prince of Saxony; and Vitry-le-Francais was captured by the Prussians, after a spirited engagement. Battles of Beaumont and Sedan. — At length, when MacMahon, after having evacuated Chalons-sur-Marne, on the 23€l of August, and after being reinforced, attempted to fly to the relief of Bazaine near Metz, the Prussian Crown-Prince, suddenly relinquishing his march toward the French capital, followed his antagonist northward, toward the frontier of Belgium. MacMahon's army was also threatened by the forces of Prince Frederic Charles. There was heavy skirmishing on the 28th and 29th of August, between the armies of MacMahon and the Crown-Prince. On the 30th (August, 1870), MacMahon made a movement toward Montmedy, but his army was attacked at Beaumont, and, after a tremendous conflict, utterly defeated and driven across the Meuse, toward the Belgian frontier, by the Prussian forces under the Crown-Prince. The Prussians captured twelve cannon and thousands of prisoners. During the night, both the French and Prussian armies received large reinforcements ;' and on the following day (August 31, 1 870), the battle was renewed, and, after the most desperate fighting, the French were again disastrously defeated, and driven to Sedan. At daylight on the ist of September, 1870, MacMahon's army, which was now reinforced, occupied a strong elevated position around the fortified town of Sedan, near the Belgian frontier. About 5 o'clock in the morning, the Prussians commenced the great battle of Sedan by simultaneous attacks on the French front and left flank. During a great part of the forenoon, the fighting was confined mainly to the artillery of both armies; but at length, the firing of musketry became quite lively. About noon, the Prussian infantry made a furious attempt to break the French centre, but after the most desperate fighting they were repulsed. Afterwards, a simultaneous movement was made along the whole line of the Prus- sians, their infantry charging the French guns. After the French cuirassiers had failed in a charge on the Prussian skirmishers at the La Givonne hills, the French infantry made a desperate assault, but they also met with a disastrous repulse. At NINETEENTH CENTURY. 405 three o'clock, the French lipe, which had thus far gallantly withstood the Prussian assaults, wavered, and soon afterward broke. The battle now became a rout. The victorious Prussians hotly pursued the French troops, who, leaving everything be- hind them, were fleeing in dismay from the field, and throwing away their arms. The pursuing Prussians used the bayonet with terrible effect, as they were deter- mined to cut off the French retreat toward Belgium. Night put an end to the rout and pursuit, and the broken hosts of the French army took refuge in the fortress of Sedan. The Prussians had won a brilliant victory, but at the cost of 30,000 men in killed and wounded. The defeated French army had lost 20,000 men. On the 31st of August and the 1st of September (1870), Marshal Bazaine made another desperate effort to escape from Metz, but he was again defeated by Prince Frederic Charles, and driven back into the fortress. Surrender of MacMahon's Army — Surrender of Napoleon III. — On the 2d of September, 1870, the French army under Marshal MacMahon, then number- ing 120,000 men, and being entirely surrounded at Sedan, without any hope of escape whatever, was surrendered prisoners of war to King William of Prussia, by General Wimpffen, instead of Marshal MacMahon, who was severely wounded. The Emperor Napoleon III., who had been with MacMahon at Sedan, but who then held no command in the army, surrendered himself a prisoner to King William. In his letter to the King of Prussia, proposing surrender, the French Emperor said, "As I cannot die at the head of my army, I come to lay my sword at the feet of your majesty." The King of Prussia treated his imperial captive with great courtesy and generosity, and allotted to him the chateau of Wilhelmshohe, near Cassel, for a residence during his captivity in Germany. Thus, five weeks after the commence- ment of hostilities at Saarbrucken, the military power of France was thoroughly broken. The imperial career of Napoleon III. had now ended, and the Second French Empire had received its death-blow. The Paris Revolution of September — France Proclaimed a Republic. — When intelligence of the capitulation of MacMahon's army at Sedan and the surrender of the Emperor spread through Paris, the excitement of the people of that city became almost indescribable. The streets were filled with excited crowds, who demanded the dethronement of the Bonaparte dynasty and the establishment of a new French Republic. A stormy scene took place in the Corps Legislatif. On Sunday, September 4th, 1870, the French capital was in revolution. The pop- ular agitation gradually became greater, and at length unparalleled excitement pre- vailed throughout the city. The Place de la Concorde was one mass of human beings, and the Boulevards were impassable, on account of the immense crowds assembled there. The National Guards, however, succeeded in preserving order. The soldiers and National Guards fraternized with the people, singing the "Mar- seillaise" and wildly shouting "Vive la Republique!" The Corps Legislatif was surrounded by hundreds and thousands of excited Parisians, who demanded the deposition of the Bonapartes and the establishment of a republic. The Senate was suppressed, and the Corps Legislatif dissolved, after proclaiming, by a unani- nious vote, that the Bonaparte dynasty had forfeited the crown of France. The Republican members of the Corps Legislatif then proceeded to the Hotel de Ville, where they proclaimed France a Republic. A Provisional Government, entitled "The Government of National Defense," was then formed, consisting of eleven 4o6 MODERN HISTORY. persons, — namely, Emanuel Arago, Emanuel Cremieux,Jules Favre, Jules Ferry, Jules Simon, Leon Gambetta, Gamier Pages, Ernest Picard, Henri Rochefort, Glais Bizoin, and Eugene Pelletan, all representatives of Paris. The Parisians were wild with joy, at the dethronement of the Emperor, and the inauguration of the new Republic. They embraced each other and wept for joy. The Paris mob, which again ruled supreme, was destroying in spite and fury. All signs having imperial arms and medals were torn down. The mob invaded the great palace of the Tuil- eries, tore down the throne, destroyed everything marked with the imperial insignia, and carried away and cast into the river Seine, all the busts, statues, and pictures of the Bonaparte family. On the following day (September 5, 1870), the Provisional Government issued a proclamation, announcing that a Republic had been proclaimed at the Hotel de Ville. The Provisional Government also decreed that the Corps Legislatif was dissolved and the Senate abolished, and accorded full amnesty for all political crimes and offenses against the Empire. This sudden and remarkable revolution was accomplished without the sacrifice of a single life. The greatest enthusiasm prevailed throughout France, and the people of the departments every- where accepted the Republic. The Empress Eugenie had fled from Paris and gone to England. The Government of the Unites States promptly recognized the new French Republic. Advance of the Germans on Paris. — After the surrender of MacMahon's army and of the Emperor Napoleon at Sedan, the Crown Princes of Prussia and Saxony, accompanied by King William, the Count von Moltke, and the Count von Bismarck, marched against Paris, at the head of 400,000 German troops. The for- tified town of L-ion surrendered to the Prussians on the loth of September, but the citadel was treacherously blown up, killing several hundred French and German soldiers. The immense German armies, upon their arrival before Paris, about the middle of September, prepared for the prosecution of a vigorous siege of that great capital. Unsuccessful Attempts at Peace. — After the establishment of the Govern- ment of National Defense in Paris, on the 4th of September, energetic efforts on the part of France were made for peace with Germany. The distinguished Jules Favre, the new French Minister of Foreign Affairs, visited Count von Bismarck, and endeavored to procure a cessation of hostilities and the conclusion of a treaty of peace. Favre offered many humiliating concessions to Germany; but Bis- marck's harsh demand that the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine should be ceded to Germany, and the non-existence of a permanent government in P>ance, rendered the efforts at peace abortive; and thus this sanguinary war was left to continue. Siege and Capture of Strasburg. — Soon after the German armies had entered France, 60,000 South German troops, under General von Werder, invested Stras- burg, the chief city of the French province of Alsace, which was garrisoned by about 20,000 French troops, under General Uhrich. Although the city suffered heavily from the fierce bombardments which the besieging Germans opened upon it, being often on fire in different places and a great part of it destroyed, the garri- son held out heroically for two months, refusing repeated demands for surrender, and making many desperate sorties. Finally, on the 27th of September (1870), after the garrison and the inhabitants had suffered from famine, and any further NINETEENTH CENTURY. 407 defense being impossible, General Uhrich surrendered the city of Strasburg and its garrison, then consisting of 17,000 men, to General von Werder, The city was immediately occcpied by the conquering Germans, and placed under German rule. Investment and Siege of Paris. — On the i6th of September (1870), the German armies, half a million strong, began the investment of Paris, and, on the same day, the city was declared in a state of siege. The headquarters of King William were established at Ferrieres, of the Crown- Prince of Prussia at Versailles, and of the Crown-Prince of Saxony at Grand Tremblay. The French capital was garrisoned by about 230,000 troops, under the command of General Trochu. The Parisians were determined to defend their city to the last extremity, resolving to emulate Metz and Strasburg. Before the siege had commenced, the city had been supplied with immense stores of provisions. Paris, surrounded by a strong wall (the enciente), and by numerous fortifications, vi'as impregnable to attack, and could only be conquered by starvation. The principal forts defending the city, — namely Valerien, d' Issy, Vanvres, Montrouge, Bicetre, Noisy, and Rosny, — were strongly garrisoned. Numerous engagements of an unimportant character occurred around Paris, during the latter part of September and throughout October. On the 30th of September, a severe conflict took place between the French troops of the line and the Prussians, resulting in the repulse of the French, who took refuge behind the forts. On the 22d of October, Paris was completely surrounded by the German army of investment, about 300,000 strong, and the German military authorities per- mitted no person whatever to enter or leave the beleaguered capital. All commu- nication between Paris and the outside world was cut off, except by means of bal- loons. Before Paris had been completely surrounded by the besieging Gennans, some of the members of the French Provisional Government established themselves at Tours, while the others remained in the besieged capital. Communication between Paris and Tours was kept up by the dangerous service of balloons. German Victories at Orleans. — In the meantime, a new French army of more than 100,000 men had been formed on the Loire. A portion of this army was defeated by a German force, under General Von Der Tann, near Orleans, on the lolh of October. The French fled in disorder, leaving 10,000 prisoners in the hands of the victorious Germans. On the 12th of October, the French Army of the Loire was defeated at Orleans, after nine hours' fighting. The Prussians look Orleans by storm, and captured 10,000 prisoners. Capture of Soissons. — On the 17th of October, Soissons capitulated to the Germans commanded by the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, after an obstinate contest of four days, and the most sanguinary fighting in the streets, no quarter being shown to the wounded, the women from the houses hurling missiles upon the heads of the Germans, and much of the city being destroyed. Bazaine's Surrender of Metz. — After many unsuccessful sorties, and when famine had begun to threaten the army and citizens of Metz with its horrors. Mar- shal Bazaine surrendered the city of Metz, one of the most strongly-fortified places in the world, together with his army, then consisting of 173,000 men, and all his artillery, small arms, and ammunition, to Prince Frederic Charles, on the 27th of October. This disgraceful capitulation produced the most intense indignation throughout France. Bazaine, who had never recognized the Republic, was sus- pected of treachery by his countrymen; and the Government of National Defense 4o8 MODERN HISTOR V ordered the arrest of the Marshal wherever found in France. King William created the Crown-Prince of Prussia and Prince Frederic Charles Field-Marshals. This was the first instance of any such dignity being conferred upon any prince of the House of Hohenzollem. Failure of Renewed Attempts at Peace. — In the latter part of October and in the beginning of November (1870), in consequence of the fall of Metz, renewed efforts were made on the part of France for peace. Bismarck's firm refusal to consent to an armistice on any other basis than the cession of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany, and his rejection of the proposition for the revictualling of Paris as a condition of the proposed armistice, rendered all efforts at an annistice, as the fore- runner of a treaty of peace, fruitless, and both parties determined upon the con- tinuation of the terrible struggle. Victories of the French Army of the Loire near Orleans. — After the German victories near and at Orleans, in October, the French Army of the Loire was gradually augmenting in numerical strength. On the 9th of November, after a severe battle of two days, the Army of the Loire, 150,000 strong, under the com- mand of General d'Aurelles de Paladines, inflicted a disastrous defeat on the German force commanded by General Von Der Tann, near Orleans, and recap- tured that city. The German loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, was 12,000 men. Following up his victory, Paladines again defeated Von Der Tann at Arthe- nay, the next day (November 10, 1870). The defeated and shattered forces of Von Der Tann retreated hastily in the direction of Paris. Operations at Dijon — Capture of Thionville — Battle of Amiens. — On the loth of November, the town of Dijon, in Eastern PVance, which had in the meantime fallen into the hands of the Prussians, was recaptured by the French Army of the East; but on the 1 6th of the same month (November, 1870), Dijon was reoccupied by the Prussians in heavy force. On the 25th of November, Thion- ville surrendered to the Prussians, after a fierce bombardment, by which a great part of that town was reduced to ashes. Two days later (November 27, 1870), a French force was badly beaten at Amiens, by the Prussians, under General Man- teuffel, and driven toward Arras with severe loss. Defeats of the French Army of the Loire near Orleans. — On the 28th of November, after five days' fighting, in the vicinity of Orleans, between the French Army of the Loire, and the Germans, under Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg, the design of Paladines to advance to the relief of Paris was frustrated. On the 4th of December, after four days' heavy fighting near Orleans, the Army of the Loire suffered a disastrous defeat from the German armies, commanded by Prince Frederic Charles and the Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg. The Germans took 10,000 prisoners and reoccupied Orleans, which had been evacuated by the French. The Army of the Loire retreated southward, toward Blois, closely pursued by the vic- torious forces of Prince Frederic Charles. On the loth of December, after three days' fighting in the vicinity of Meung, eleven miles south-west of Orleans, the ^rmy of the Loire was defeated by the Germans, under the Grand-Duke of Meck- lenburg. On the 14th of December, after four days' more fighting around Beau- gency, the Army of the Loire retired to Blois and Tours. General d'Aurelles de Paladines now resigned his command, and retired to his estate. The French Pro- visional Government had already left Tours, and been installed at Bordeaux. COUNT VON BISMARCK. EMPEROR WILLIAM. NINETEENTH CENTURY. 409 Grand Sorties from Paris. — On the 28th, 29th, and 30th of November (1870), General Trochu made sorties from Paris on a large scale, but his assaults were re- pulsed by the Germans, and his troops were driven behind the fortifications of the city. On the 2d of December, a French force of 150,000 men, under General Ducrot, having been sent out of Paris by General Trochu on the preceding day, made a desperate attempt to force the German line of investment, and partially suc- ceeded, compelling the Saxons and Wurtembergers, 100,000 in number, to fall back, after a sanguinary conflict of seven hours. Several days afterward, Ducrot's force was compelled to retire back into Paris. During the Christmas holidays, the weather around Paris was intensely cold, and thousands of French and German soldiers were frozen to death. Capture of Pfalzburg — Capture of Montmedy. — On the 14th of December, the fortress of Pfalzburg, in the Vosges Mountains, surrendered unconditionally to the Germans, who had laid siege to the place soon after the battle of Woerth. On the following day (December 15, 1870), Montmedy, near the Belgian frontier, also capitulated to a German besieging force. Restoration of the German Empire — King William Emperor. — For sev- eral months, negotiations had been in progress for a union of the South German States — namely, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt — with the North German Confederation. These negotiations were successfully completed in the early part of December, 1 870 ; and, on the 9th of that month, the King of Prussia, with the desire of the German princes and people, accepted the title of Emperor of Germany. On the 19th of January, 1 871, in the presence of all the German princes, in the Hall of Mirrors, at Versailles, in France, King William, of Prussia, was formally proclaimed Emperor of Germany. Thus the long aspirations and dreams of the German people for the unity of their Fatherland were finally realized in the restoration of the German Empire, which had been dissolved in 1806, by the action of Napoleon I. Bombardment of Paris. — Having grown impatient at the lengthy duration of the siege of Paris, the Germans determined to compel the devoted capital to sur- render by assault and bombardment. In the latter part of December, 1870, the besiegers opened a hea\'y bombardment on Fort Avron, which was in consequence evacuated by its French garrison, and immediately occupied by German troops. (December 30, 1870.) The forts on the east and south sides of Paris were so vig- orously bombarded that some of them — Forts Noisy, Rosny, d'Issy, and Vanvres — were at length silenced, but they again resumed fire, and replied as vigorously to the fire from the German batteries. Both the French and German armies suffered much from the severity of the season. Much damage was done to the suburban villages of Paris by the heavy fire from the German batteries; but the Parisians, although suffering greatly from the inconveniences and miseries of the siege, were as determined as ever upon defense. Thousands of balls from the German guns fell in the suburbs of Paris, creating havoc in all directions, killing men, women, and children, in the streets and houses, striking ambulances, hospitals, museums, public libraries, churches, school-houses, and dwellings, and setting many portions of the citj' on fire. The horrors of the bombardment inflamed the Parisians with ra£;e, and made them more resolute than ever in their intention to resist to the ut- most. On the 9th of January, 187 1, a severe action occurred at the village of 4IO MODERN HISTORY. Clamart, in which the Prussians were victorious. On the loth of January, General Trochu was repulsed in a sally on the north side of Paris, from St. Denis; and on the nth, an unsuccessful sortie was made on the south side, between Forts Vanvres and Montrouge. On the 19th of January, a great sortie was made from Fort Vale- rian, by General Trochu, but he was repulsed, with the loss of 3000 men. The Army of the Loire — Battles of Vendome and Le Mans. — The French Army of the Loire, under General Chanzy, assumed the offensive, about the begin- ning of January (1871), and the Germans, under Prince Frederic Charles, were concentrating at Orleans, with the view of preventing Chanzy's army from advancing to the relief of Paris. A severe engagement occurred near Vendome, on the 6lh of January, between the Army of the Loire and the forces under Prince Frederic Charles, which resulted in the defeat of the French, who were in consequence com- pelled to retreat westward, closely pursued by the Germans. After a series of spirited actions, Chanzy's army was driven to Le Mans, where a general battle was fought on the nth of January. The German army, under Prince Frederic Charles, attacked the Army of the Loire along the whole line, carried all the French posi- tions, occupied Le Mans, and then went in hot pursuit of the defeated and fleeing hosts of General Chanzy. On the 15th (January, 1 871), another battle took place, which ended in another defeat for Chanzy, who then continued his retreat westward to Laval. The loss of the Germans in these battles was only 3500 men, while they made 22,000 prisoners. The Army of the Loire was now thoroughly crippled, and the last hope of the French for the relief of their capital had vanished. The French Army of the North — Battles of Amiens, Bapaume, and St. Quentin. — In the meantime, there had been great activity in the movements of the French Army of the North, commanded by General Faidherbe, which was endeavoring to cooperate with the Army of the Loire, in its efforts to raise the siege of Paris. On the 23d of December, 1S70, Faidherbe's army, then numbering 60,000 men, was, defeated and routed near Amiens, by the Germans under General Man- teuffel. At length, Faidherbe's army met with some successes, which led to the concentration of the German forces in the North of France under General Manteuf- fel. On the 3d of January, 1871, the French Army of the North was repulsed in an attack upon a portion of General Manteuffel's army at Bapaume. After the battle, Faidherbe's army hastily retreated, and was vigorously pursued by the German cav- alry. On the 19th of January (1871), a severe battle was fought at St. Quentin, in which Faidherbe's army was defeated by the Germans, who lost over 3000 men, but captured 4000 prisoners. Faidherbe then retreated northward, and near the close of January he reached Dunkirk. Battles at Belfort — Defeat and Retreat of the French Army of the East. — .\t the close of December, 1S70, a French army of more than 100,000 men, under General Bourbaki, moved into Eastern France, to operate against the Germans under General von Werder, in the vicinity of Belfort. The Germans laid siege to Belfort, but were repulsed in an assault upon the fortifications of the town. On the lOth of January, 187 1, General von Werder took Viller Exel by storm, and repulsed the French in their attempts to recapture the place. On the 17th of January, after three days of severe fighting at Belfort, the French Army of the East, under General Bourbaki, met with a disastrous repulse, and, after a loss of 8,000 men, was com- pelled to retreat, closely pursued by the victorious Germans. In a series of skir- NINETEENTH CENTURY. 411 mishes with the Prussians, Bourbaki's army was successful. General Manteuffel, who was now placed in chief command of the German armies in Eastern France, prepared to bring about the destruction of the French Army of the East. Bour- baki's defeated and shattered army retreated to Besancon, closely pursued by Man- teuffel's victorious forces. These disasters to the French arms had such an eflect upon the mind of General Bourbaki that he attempted suicide. After a series of engagements, lasting three days, and ending on the 1st of February, on the Swiss frontier, Manteuffel captured 15,000 prisoners, and compelled Bourbaki's army, So,ooo strong, to retreat into Switzerland. Battle of Dijon — Siege and Capture of Longwy. — On the 22d of Januaiy, 1871, the Prussians in large force attacked Dijon, but they were disastrously repulsed, after a severe battle of five hours, and compelled to retreat. By the 20th of January, the town of Longwy, near the Belgian frontier, had been completely invested by a Prussian force. The French garrison made two successful sorties, dislodged the Prussians, and silenced their batteries; but, after a furious assault and bombardment, Longwy, with its garrison of 4,000 P'rench troops, fell into the hands of the Prussians on the 25th of January. Surrender of Paris. — At length, after the French capital had suffered terribly from the fierce bombardment by the Germans, and after famine had wrought its horrors upon the inhabitants of the beleaguered city, the besieged made proposals of surrender to the besiegers; and on the 27th of Januaiy, 187 1, the articles of capitulation were signed by which the city of Paris was surrendered to the Ger- mans, and its garrison of 185,000 men, under General Trochu, became prisonei-s of war. The Germans levied a contribution of 53,000,000 francs upon the conquered city; and the forts around the city were immediately occupied by German garri- sons. Measures were taken for the revictualling of the city under German super- vision. For several weeks after the surrender, hundreds of Parisians died daily from starvation. An Armistice — A French National Assembly. — The fall of Paris opened the eyes of the French Government and people to the hopelessness and folly of resistance to the gigantic power of Germany, and made them anxious for the speedy conclusion of peace. An armistice of three weeks was signed at Versailles, on the 28th of January, by Jules Favre on the part of the French Republic, and by Prince Bismarck on the part of the German Empire, in order to allow the French people to elect representatives to a National Assembly, which should convene at Bordeaux, to consider and ratify a treaty of peace with Germany. Each of the different parties in France, — the Legitimists, the Orleanists, the Bonapartists, and the Republicans, — made great efforts for success in the election for deputies to the proposed National Assembly. The elections took place on the Sth of February, and resulted in the choice mostly of Orleanists and Republicans. The National Assembly convened at Bordeaux on the 15th of February, 1871, and upon its organization unanimously chose Louis Adolphe Thiers, the distinguised historian, orator, and statesman, to the ofSce of President of the French Republic, and took measures for the speedy restoi-ation of peace. Preliminary Peace of Paris. — After much negotiation, the armistice having been in the meantime extended one week, a preliminary treaty of peace was signed at Paris, on the 25th of Februaiy, 1871, by President Thiers and Jules Favre on the 412 MODERN HISTORY. part of the French Republic, and by Prince Bismarck on the part of the German Empire. France was required to cede to Germany nearly the whole of Alsace, in- cluding Strasburg, and one-fifth of Lorraine, including Metz; and pay five milliards of francs (equal to one thousand million dollars), in three years, as indemnity for the losses sustained by Germany in the war: a large portion of the German army was to garrison a number of the French fortresses until the entire indemnitj' was paid, the expense of supporting this army of occupation to be paid by France; and tlie Emperor William and a portion of the German army were to enter Paris, and occupy the Champs Elysees. On the 1st of March, 1871, the National Assembly at Bordeaux, by a large majority, ratified these terms of peace, so harsh and humili- ating to France, and the great Franco-German War ended. German Triumphal Entry into Paris — Release of Napoleon. — On the 1st of March, 1 87 1, the Emperor William, of Germany, and 30,000 German troops made their grand triumphal entr}' into the French capital. Contrary to the expecta- tions of many, no acts of violence were committed toward them, few of the inhabi- tants of the city appearing in the streets. The Germans evacuated Paris two days afterward (March 3, 187 1 ), and on the 14th, the Emperor William started for Berlin, where he arrived on the 17th (March, 1871). The ex-Emperor Napoleon was released from his captivity at Wilhelmshohe by the German Government, on the 6th of March, whereupon he left Germany, and retired to Chiselhurst, in England, where he died on the 9th of January, 1873. The war just closed was the greatest of modem times. During the six months that military operations were in progress, nearly half a million human lives were sacrificed. The successes of Germany in this mighty conflict were among the most remarl{ P.iris, exchanging shots with the insurgents, wlio lined the ramparts from Porte de la Meute to Porte d'Issy. Paris was now completely invested and declared in a state of siege. The Parisians were exjK>lled from the trenches between Forts d'Issy and Vanvres. Breaches were made in the enciente of Paris, by the furious cannonade from the Government guns, and the Antiuel gate was now completely destroyed. The Western and South-western arrondissemcnts of Paris were now uninhabitable, on account of the great destruc- tion of life .and property in those portions of the city. On the night of the I5lh of May, the Communists were repulsed with heavy loss, in a sortie upon the (Govern- ment troops in the Bois de Boulogne; and the Versaillists continued to fire around the ramparts from Pont du Jour to Porte Maillot. Destruction of the Column in the Place Vendome. — At six o'clock in the evening of the l6th of May (1S71), the great Column in the Place Vendome, which had been erected there by Napoleon I. to commemorate his great victory at Austerlitz, was levelled with the ground, by order of the Paris Commune. The Column fell at full length in the Rue de la Paix, amid the shouts of " Vive la Rejiub- lique !" "Vive la Commune!" from the multitude which had assembled in tiie Rue dc la Paix and the Rue Casliglione, to witness the destruction of this monument of imperial gloiy. The Government Forces in Paris — Battles in the Rue St. Honore and Rue Royale. — On Sunday night. May 21st, the Government troops elTected an entrance into Paris, through the Bois de Boulogne, when the most terrific fighting of the whole civil war commenced; and for a week, Paris was one vast battle-field. On the 22d (May, 1871), the Government troops, under Marshal MacMahon, con- tinued pouring into the city, through the Bois de Boulogne; and very soon three of the principal avenues leading to the Champs Elysees were in the possession of the Government forces. The Communists were now thrown into the greatest confusion. A bloody battle occurred on the same day in the Rue St. Honore, where the insur- gent barrioides were captured and recaptured six times. The Government troops charged down the street with fury, and were fired upon from the windows of the conciergieries. Many of the Communist barricades were c.:iptured,and the Ch.imps Eh'sees were swept by the heavy fire from the Versailles artillery, which were planted near the Arc de Triomphe. Many leaders of the Commune were captured, and some massacres were perpetrated. The head-quarters of Mai-shal MacMahon were established in the new opera-house. The heaviest fighting occurred in the NINETEENTII CENTURY. /19 Rue Royale, where the slaughter was terrific. At llic 'ruilerics, 10,000 insurgents were made prisoners Iiy the (Government troops under General Clinchart. May 23d — Battle at Montmartre— Murder of the Archbishop of Paris. — At daybreak, May 23d, a terriljle fire of musketry and cannon commenced in the Montmartre district; and at one o'clock in tlie afternooon, Montmartre was ca])ture(l by the Government forces, under Generals Clinchart and L'Admirault. Heavy fighting occurred at the barricades in the Place de la Concorde and the Place de Clichy. The Government troops under General Cissey captured the barricades in the Chaussu du Marne, in the southern part of Paris. Barricades were hastily thrown up, and terrible conflicts occurred in other parts of the city. Many of the lead- ers of the Commune were captured, and shot on the spot; and during the battles in various quarters of the city, no quarter was shown by the Government forces. At the close of the day, the Government troops occupied the Place de Clichy, the Palais de 1' Industrie, the Chamber of the Corps Legislatif, the Hotel des Invalidcs, St. Quen, the Tuilcries, the Hotel de Ville, and the Place Vendome. The Place de la Concorde was also abandoned by the insurgents. On the evening of this day, Monseigneur Darboy, Archbishop of Paris, and sixty-nine priests, who had been seized and held as hostages, were murdered by the infuriated (Communists. May 24th — Vandalism of the Commune — Breaking out of Fires in Paris. — On the 24lh (May, 1871), the (."(jnimunist insurgents, in tin; madness of desperation and despair, perpetrated acts of vandalism almost unparalleled in the history of the world. With the intention of destroying the city they could no longer rule, the insurgents, from their barricaded positions in various portions of Paris, threw petroleum shells over the city, and fires arose in many quarters. A number of women who were detected in the act of setting fire to buildings were shot on the spot, by the exasperated Government troops. The most famous build- ings set on fire were the Palace of the Tuileries, the Hotel of the Legion of Honor, the Hotel de Ville, and the Louvre. The fighting during the day was of the most desperate character. The streets were strewn with dead bodies, and no quarter was shown by either party. The fighting resulted in immense advantages to the Versaillists, the insurgents being driven from many of their positions. May 25th— Retreat of the Insurgents to Belleville — Additional Fires. — The fighting was continued during the 25th, with additional advantage to the Government army. Driven from Paris proper, the insurgents, mad with rage and fury, took refuge in Belleville, the very centre of the revolutionary movement, and the birth-place of the great Communist rebellion. From Belleville, the Commun- ists continued to throw petroleum shells all over Paris, thus kindling additional fires in the city, and destroying many public and private buildings. The whole city was wrapt in cloiwls of smoke, and the fires could be seen for many miles around. A great many buildings were destroyed by the explosion of mines. The Luxem- bourg, the Palais de la Quai d' Orsay, and the Palais l\oyal,were now also burning. May 26th — Battle of Belleville — Capture and Death of Communist Leaders. — On the 26th, a furious battle was in progress in Pantin. The capture of 6,000 insurgents in the Quartier Moiiffiard ended the rebellion in that quarter. The Government troops were severely harassed by the fire of musketry from the windows of houses. Many Communists who attempted to escape towards Pantin were hotly 420 MODERN HISTORY. pursued, and slaughtered without mercy, by the exasperated Versaillists. The insurgent position at Belleville was vigorously cannonaded by the Government army. The insurgents were driven into the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, where they were surrounded by the Government forces. The Rue Royale was destroyed by mines, and the most terrible fires were still raging in Paris. Women who were detected in pouring petroleum into cellars, were shot by the enraged Versaillists. Many of the insurgent leaders, among whom were Valles, Amoreux, Brunei, Rigault, Bous- quet, and General Dombrowski, were captured and shot. May 27th — Battles of Belleville and Pere la Chaise. — On the 27th occurred the most terrific fighting of the civil war. Sanguinary battles were fought at Belle- ville, Menilmontant, and in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise. No quarter was given to man, woman, or child. After a day of the most frightful carnage, the Govern- ment forces captured the insurgent positions at Belleville and Pere la Chaise, late in the night. The destructive fires were still r.iging in Paris, but soon after the arrival of the London Fire Brigade, the flames were got under control, and in a few days entirely extinguished. End of the Rebellion — Condition of Paris. — On Sunday morning, May 28th, the last band of insurgents surrendered unconditionally, the whole city was in the undisputed possession of the Government forces, the firing ceased, and 10,000 pris- oners were passing through the Rue Lafayette. The great Rebellion of Paris in 1871 had now ended: one-third of Paris was in ashes, and 50,000 dead bodies were lying in the streets and cellars of the city. Among'the slain were many women and boys who had fought in the ranks of the insurgents. The Tuileries, the Louvre, the Hotel of the Legion of Honor, the Luxembourg, the Palais Royal, the Hotel de Ville, and the Palais de la Quai d' Orsay were wholly or partially destroyed. This foolish and causeless rebellion, during the two months of its exist- tence, cost the lives of 60,000 Frenchmen. Many valuable works of art were sacri- ficed to the madness of the infuriated Communists. The outrages of the Commun- ists equaled those of the Jacobins of 1793; and the names of Cluseret, Bergerot, Dombrowski, Delescluse, Assy, Piat, and Rochefort, deserve the same execration as those of Robespierre, Danton, M:irat, St. Just, Couthon, Henriot, and Fouquier- Tinville. Paris under Military Law — Wholesale Execution of Communists. — Upon the suppression of the rebellion. President Thiers appointed General Vinoy military governor of Paris, and military law was established in the city. A heavy doom w.as inflicted on the vanquished rebels, of whom about 40,000 were held as prisoners. Drumhead court-martial was established, from fifty to one hundred insurgents were shot at a time, and no person was permitted to leave Paris without a pass signed by Marshal MacMahon. The places of execution were the Champ de Mar^, the Park de Monceaux, and the Hotel de Ville. Altogether, iS,ooo of the Communist rebels were shot after they had suirendered. In a few days after the suppression of the insurrection, all restrictions concerning communication with Paris were removed, and entrance and exit were free to all. The barricades were soon removed, and perfect order again prevailed. Republican Victory in the Supplementary Elections. — The supplemen- tary elections in France for deputies to the National Assembly, at the beginning of NINE TEE NTH CENTUR Y. 421 July, 1871, resulted in an overwhelming majority for the Moderate Republicans. Out of 105 deputies chosen, there were 86 Moderate Republicans, 13 Radicals, 3 Orleanisls, 2 Legitimists, and i Bonapartist. SPANISH REVOLUTION OF 1873 Difficult Position of King Amadeus — Various Opposition Parties. — From the moment of his accession to the throne of Spain, King Amadeus found his situation to be an unenviable one. The young sovereign was really desirous of the welfare and prosperity of his subjects, but he lacked the abilities necessary for the difiicult post of a constitutional monarch. The Spanish nation was divided into numerous parties, the rebellion against Spanish power in the island of Cuba still continued, and the young king found ojjposition on almost every hand. The most important parlies opjioscd to King Amadeus were the Carlisls, or adherents of Don Carlos; the AlphonsisLs, or partisans of Prince Alphonso, the son of ex-Queen Isabella II.; the Republicans, and the Radicals. The Carlists worked actively for the elevation of Don Carlos to the throne of Spain; and the Republicans, headed by Scnor Castelar and Senor Figueras, did not cease their dreams for the establish- ment of a Spanish Republic. The throne of Amadeus was only upheld by the non-agreement of the various opposition parties — the Carlists, the Alphonsists, the Republicans, the Radicals, and others. Carlist and Republican Insurrections — The Cuban Rebellion. — From the moment of the accession of King Amadeus, in January, 187 1, the Carlists and the Republicans plotted against his government ; and several attempts were made to assassinate the young monarch. In June, 1872, a formidable insurrection of the Carlists broke out in the North of Spain ; but, after some spirited actions, in which the Carlists were defeated by the Government troops, the rebellion was suppressed. Armed bands of Carlists and Republicans roamed over the Northern Provinces of Spain, tearing up railways and cutting telegraph wires. A Republican revolt broke out in the town of Ferrol, in October, 1872, but the insurgents dispersed on the approach of Government troops. The Cuban rebellion still continued without any decisive result. Abdication of King Amadeus — Spain Declared a Republic. — In the be- ginning of February, 1872, King Amadeus embraced the resolution of resigning his troublesome throne. The Ministry sought to dissuade the king from his purpose, but Amadeus persisted in his determination to abdicate the throne. When it be- came known that King Amadeus would certainly resign his crown, groups of people assembled in Madrid, and there were some attempts to create a disturbance; but these demonstrations were promptly suppressed, and the crowds were dispersed without any conflicts. The Congress, or lower branch of the Cortes, adopted a proposition that the President of that branch and fifty deputies should constitute a Permanent Committee. The Cortes assembled at a late hour on February nth, 1873, and the formal message of the king's abdication was read in each chamber separately, but upon the conclusion of the reading the Senate and the Congress met together in one chamber, and constituted themselves the Sovereign Cortes of Spain. Senor Rivero, the President of the Congress, being called to the chair, declared him- self ready to answer for the preservation of order, and for the execution of the decrees 422 MODERN HISTORY. of the supreme power. The abdication of King Amadeus was unanimously accepted by the Cortes, which then, by a vote of 259 in the affirmative, and 32 in the negative, declared Spain a Republic. That night the streets of the Spanish capital were filled with an excited people. The Senate appointed a Permanent Committee of Thirty. Senor Melcampo and Marshal Serrano offered their support to Prime-Minister Zorilla in maintaining order. The Ministry of Senor Zorilla now terminated, ard on the following day (February 12, 1873), the Cortes elected a new Ministry, ot Provisional Government, of which Estanislao Figueras, the ardent Republican, was chosen President. After the members of the new Government had taken their seats upon the ministerial benches in the Cortes, President Figueras addressed the Cortes, expressing the hope that the Spanish Republic would be established forever. On the following day (February 13th, 1873), ^^ ^^o Houses of the Cortes met in joint session, and constituted themselves the National Assembly of Spain; and proceeded to effect a permanent organization by electing Senor E. Martos President of the Assembly. The Provisional Government ordered the suppression of the Royal Guard. Ex-King Amadeus had already left Madrid for Lisbon, in Portugal, whence he was to be conveyed to Italy by an Italian squadron. The establishment of the Spanish Republic was celebrated in Madrid, on the night of the 14th (February, 1873), by a general illumination, on which occasion the streets of the Spanish capital were crowded vvith people, but there was no disorder. Abolition of Slavery in Porto Rico — Dissolution of the National As- sembly. — After several months' deliberation, the National Assembly of Spain, on the 22d of March, 1873, passed, by a unanimous vote, a bill providing for the im- mediate abolition of slavery in Porto Rico, one of the largest of the Spanish West- India Islands, and accorded to the emancipated slaves the full privileges of Spanish citizenship. yVfter passing this important measure, the National Assembly dissolved itfeelf by a unanimous vote, on which occasion the greatest excitement prevailed in the Assembly chamber, and in the streets of the capital. On that and the following day (March 22d and 23d, 1S73), there were several unsuccessful revolutionary demonstrations in Madrid. Carlist Insurrection in the North of Spain. — In the meantime, a formidable insurrection of the Carlists had broken out in the North of Spain. The Carlists, instead of concentrating their forces, roamed over the Basque Provinces, Navarre, and Catalonia, in small bands, and engaged in tearing up railways, burning railway stations and bridges, cutting telegraph wires, and in every way interrupting com- munication in the Northern Provinces of Spain. Numerous small engagements were fought with various success between the Republican forces, headed by Gen- erals Gonzales, Nouvillas, Cabrinity, and others, and the Carlist bands, led by the Cure of Santa Cruz, and by Generals Seballs, Dorregaray, and Tristany, and Don Alphonso, the brother of Don Carlos. At the close of May, 1873, General Nou- villas, at the head of 12,000 men, was holding the mountain passes of Biscay, and driving the Carlists in that province toward the coast. Insurrection in Madrid. — During the latter part of April, 1873, Madrid was greatly excited. A rising of the Monarchists in that city took place on the 23d of April, beginning with the revolt of several battalions of volunteers, who fired on General Contreras. The agitation increased as night approached, and shots were fired in other portions of the city. During this time, the Permanent Committee of NINETEENTH CENTURY. 423 the National Assembly held a session, to consider the gravity of the situation, and to deliberate upon measures for the public safety. Whil^ the Committee was in session, some of the rebellious volunteers entered the hall, and the Committee sought safety in flight. The Ultras demanded the establishment of the Commune in Madrid, and engaged in hunting down the members of the Permanent Committee, several of whom were arrested and imprisoned by the infuriated insurgents, and the greatest excitement prevailed. Early in May, there was a renewal of revolu- tionary demonstrations in Madrid. The city was placarded with numerous procla- mations, urging the people to demand the immediate proclamation of the Federal Republic, the abolition of capital punishment, the abolition of the State Council, and the separation of Church and State; and large Federalist meetings were held on the 5th of May (1873). The Elections in Spain — Meeting of the Constituent Cortes. — In the meantime, elections for a Constituent Cortes had been ordered. The elections took place on Saturday and Sunday, May loth and nth, 1873, and resulted in the choice of 310 Ministerial Federal Republicans, 30 Extreme Radicals, 8 Interna- tionalists, 10 Independent Republicans, and 30 Monarchists. The total number of votes cast throughout Spain was 1,200,000. The vote in the capital was light, owing to the apathy of all parties except the Federal Republican. The Constituent Cortes assembled on the 31st of May, 1873. The session was formally opened by Senor Figueras, President of the Spanish Republic, with a speech, in which he maintained the right of the Spanish people to choose their own form of government. The Cortes organized by electing Senor Orense, a Federal Republican, its President. Proclamation of the Federal Democratic Republic — Ministerial Crisis. — On the 8th of June, 1873, ''i*^ Cortes, by a vote of 210 yeas against 2 nays, pro- claimed the establishment of the Federal Democratic Republic in Spain, and then adjourned until evening. The session of the Cortes on the night of the 8th of June was a stormy one. Senor Figueras, President of the Spanish Republic, ten- dered his resignation ; but, after great confusion and excitement, a Ministry proposed by Senor Pi y Margall was rejected, and the Cortes went into secrect session. An excited crowd filled the streets in front of the palace, and within the Chamber the greatest agitation prevailed. Through the efforts of Castelar and E'igueras, calm was finally restored in the Chamber, as well as among the populace outside. After successive fruitless attempts of Figueras, Castelar, and Pi y Margall to form a new Ministry, Senor Figueras was finally prevailed upon, by the Cortes, to remain in power with his old Cabinet. After a vote of confidence in the Figueras Ministry, the Cortes adjourned. The proclamation of the Federal Democratic Republic was celebrated at Barcelona, on the night of the 8th of June, with illuminations and general rejoicings. Resignation of President Figueras — Senor Pi y Margall, President. — At a Cabinet council on the nth of June, 1873, President Figueras and his Minis- ters tendered their resignations, in consequence of a disagreement with the Cortes on the currency. In consequence of this ministerial crisis, fears were entertained of a serious outbreak in Madrid. The Cortes continued in secret session on the following day, and during their deliberations, a party of armed volunteers surrounded the palace of the Cortes. A large body of armed police and troops were stationed at various points throughout the city, in anticipation of an outbreak. A majority 424 MODERN HISTORY. of the Cortes finally chose Senor Pi y Margall to the Presidency of the Republic, and his Ministry was inimediately appointed. The excitement which had prevailed in Madrid for several days greatly subsided, and the city appeared quite calm. Senor Nicholas Salmeron was elected President of the Constituent Cortes. Disturbances at Barcelona, Malaga, and Seville. — Disturbances occurred at Barcelona on the 24th of June, 1873. There was firing all that night between the soldiers and the citizens. On the following day, the troops were all removed from the city, and a cordon of police was established between them and the city, to prevent a further collision. On the 25th of June, the populace in Malaga arose against the authorities, and killed the Mayor of the city, but order was restored in the evening. The Extreme Radicals arose in Seville, and barricaded the streets, but the outbreak was soon suppressed. Extraordinary Governmental Powers — A Spanish Republican Consti- tution. — On the 30th of June, 1S73, '^"^ Cortes, by a large maiority, ai)proved a bill granting extraordinary powers to the Government, to enable it to crush the Carlist insurrection. Serious apprehensions were entertained of an outbreak in Madrid against the Government, and troops were placed at strategic points in the city. The Constituent Committee of the Cortes completed the draft of a Federal Republican Constitution for Spain. The Constitution provided for the division of European Spain into eleven States; and Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands were to be constituted Territories of Spain. Madrid was to remain the capital. The Government was to be divided into the Legislative, Executive, and Judiciary Departments. The Cortes was to hold two sessions each year, and the members were to receive salaries. Senators were to be chosen by the States, and Deputies by universal suffrage. Deputies could not act as Ministers. A President was to' be elected by universal suffrage, for a single temi of four years. Rising at Alcoy. — On the 12th of July, 1873, the Internationals arose against the authorities at Alcoy, in the Province of Alicante, and assassinated the Mayor of the city, although he was a life-long Republican. His body was dragged through the streets by a mob which kept up a continuous yell. The Collector of Taxes was also assassinated, and his body was treated with the same indignities as that of the Mayor. Several factories were burned by the mob. On the 13th of July, General Velarde entered Alcoy, with a strong column of Government troops. The insurgents had already been reduced to submission by the Alicante miliitia, who took possession of the town, but the leaders of the revolt escaped. Insurrections in Andalusia, Murcia, Valencia, and Barcelona. — In anticipation of the adoption, by the Cortes, of contemplated changes in the new Federal Constitution, the Provinces of Andalusia, Murcia, Valencia, and Catalonia rose in rebellion against the Government, and proclaimed their independence. Declarations of independence were issued at Seville, Cadiz, and Barcelona. Communist Insurrection at Cartagena. — The Communist insurgents at Cartagena, headed by General Contreras, made themselves masters of the whole city, except the arsenal. The crews of several Spanish men-of-war in the harbor of Cartagena having revolted, the Spanish Government issued a proclamation declaring them pirates, and authorizing their capture and treatment as such, by any NINETEENTH CENTURY. 425 foreign power, on the high seas; and decrees were issued dismissing General Con- treras from the public service, and removing the civil governors of the revolted provinces. The insurgents at Cartagena, after gaining control of the city, seized the Castillo de las Galeras, a strong fort on the west side of the harbor, less than a thousand yards from the entrance, which it commanded completely. This gave them control of the batteries on the shore, at the mouth of the harbor. They hoisted the red flag of the Commune over the fortifications, and summoned the squadron lying in the harbor to surrender. The crews being in sympathy with the insurgents, the vessels fell into their hands without opposition. The insurgents levied a heavy contribution upon the inhabitants of Cartagena. The Communists, or Intransigentes, at Cartagena, established a Provisional Government for the Can- ton of Murcia, at the head of which was General Contreras, as President. Insurgent Attack on Almeria. — Contreras was in command of the insurgent fleet off Almeria. He demanded a heavy contribution from the city, but as the city authorities refused to comply with his demand, he opened a heavy bombardment on the city. After two hours of heavy firing, the Intransigentes attempted to disembark, but were repulsed by the Government forces, and compelled to reembark j but they afterward renewed their attack upon the city. Resignation of Pi y Margall — Senor Nicholas Salmeron, President. — The numerous internal troubles of Spain caused the Cortes to demand the formation of a vigorous Ministry under Senor Nicholas Salmeron ; and accordingly, Senor Pi y Margall and his Cabinet resigned, and on the 20th of July, 1 873, Senor Nicholas Salmeron was made President of the Spanish Republic, and an able Ministry was formed. While the debate on the Ministry was going on in the Cortes, great excite- ment was produced by the explosion of an Orsini bomb at the door. Senor Emilio Castelar was elected President of the Cortes, on the 26th of August, and on taking the chair, he made a speech exhorting the Republicans to be united. Bombardment of Valencia. — The insurgents at Valencia refused to surrendei to the Government troops, who thereupon opened a heavy bombardment upon the city, on the night of the 30th of July. The city was cannonaded at regular inter- vals, musketry firing was frequent, and there was some desperate fighting. The Government troops occupied the village of Mislata, but were dislodged by the in- surgent artillery, and the village was alternately taken and retaken, and set on fire by shells from the garrison in Valencia. A serious conflict took place at the village of Masannasa, near Valencia, between the Government troops and the insurgents, in whicn 150 men were killed. Already 200 shells had been thrown into Valencia, and the Government troops had advanced 600 yards. Reduction of Seville. — On the 31st of July, 1873, the insurgents at Seville set fire to that city in four different places, by means of petroleum. The insurrec- tion at Seville was soon suppressed, and the city was occupied by the Government troops. The fires which the insurgents had kindled were extinguished. The Government troops captured twenty cannon at Seville. Fight at Malaga — Revolt at Alhama — Fall of Cadiz. — Early in August, the Government troops defeated the insurgents in a sharp fight at Malaga, and drove them from the field. The town of Alhama, in the Province of Alicante, proclaimed its independence, and a junta was organized, whose first act was to levy a heavy 426 MODERN HISTORY. contribution upon the citizens. The insurgents at Cadiz surrendered to the Govern- ment troops, under General Pavia, on the 5th of August. Mutiny at Barcelona. — On the 8th of August, 1873, the artillerymen belong- ing to the garrison of Barcelona mutinied against their officers, but were quickly disarmed, and imprisoned by the cavalry under the command of the Captain-General of Barcelona. The mutineers were court-martialed, and twelve of the ringleaders were sentenced to death, and thirty to transportation to the penal colonies of Spain. Socialistic Rising in Andalusia. — Early in September, 1873, Socialistic troubles broke out in the Province of Andalusia. In the vicinity of the town of Jimena, the farm-laborers banded together, for the purpose of demanding and endeav- oring to enforce a division' of property. They burned forty farm-houses belonging to those opposed to them, and committed other excesses. Some of the rioters were arrested. Resignation of Salmeron — Senor Emilio Castelar, President. — The question of military executions engaged the attention of the Cortes, and President Salmeron, who was opposed to capital punishment, tendered his resignation, and his Ministry retired on the 5th of September, 1873. On the 7th, Senor Emilio Castelar was elected President of the Spanish Republic, and he entered on his duties with an able Ministry. The Cortes conferred on President Castelar dicta- torial powers, to enable him to crush the Carlist and Communist insurrections. Senor Nicholas Salmeron was elected President of the Cortes; and several weeks later, the Cortes adjourned. Disturbances at Ecija, Malaga, and Seville. — On the 16th of September, 1873, there was a serious riot at Ecija, provoked by the Intransigentes, and attended with considerable loss of life. The municipal elections in Malaga, on the same day, were attended with riot and bloodshed. The Intransigentes in Seville attacked a party of Republican recruits, but the latter resisted, and several were killed. Insurgent Bombardment of Alicante. — The insurgent men-of-war from Cartagena effected a landing at Augilas, and pillaged the town and suburbs. The insurgent fleet proceeded to Alicante, in the Province of Alicante; and when a demand for a contribution was rejected, a fierce bombardment was opened on the city, on the 27th of Septeml>er, 1873, ^^^ 5°° projectiles, some filled with petroleum, were.thrown into the city, and did great damage ; but the fleet was seriously disa- bled by a vigorous return fire from the forts, and, after several days, the insurgent fleet withdrew from Alicante. Siege and Bombardment of Cartagena. — In the meantime, the siege and bombardment of Cartagena by the Government forces had progressed actively. A column of 2000 insurgents made a desperate sortie from the city, on the 9th of Octo- ber, but were repulsed with heavy loss. The Intransigente fleet was defeated by the National squadron under Admiral Lobos, on the nth of October, near Carta- gena. On the 19th of October, the insurgent squadron from Cartagena appeared before Valencia, but withdrew several days afterward, with the plunder of ten Spanish merchant-ships. On the 23d of October, tlie Government fleet arrived off Carta- gena, and was fired upon from the forts, but the insurgent vessels remained inside the harbor. The bombardment of the city continued incessantly. On the 26th of NINETEENTH CENTURY. 427 November, the cathedral and hospital were struck by the besiegers' artillery. On the 28th, the Protestant church and the theatre were destroyed, and 200 persons were killed and wounded within the city. The insurgents raised the black flag upon the forts. The bombardment did great damage to the city, and 400 houses were destroyed ; but the forts and batteries remained almost intact. The bombard- ment produced distress among non-combatants. The insurgents strengthened their works and armament. The Government forces at length occupied the San Antonio suburb, and, concentratmg their fire upon the forts, suspended their bombardment of the town. The Carlist Rebellion. — The Carlist rebellion in the North of Spain continued during the Administrations of Pi y Margall, Salmeron and Castelar. Don Carlos had entered Spain, on the i6th of July, 1S73, from Bayonne, France, accompanied by several attendants, and was received by his adherents with indescribable enthu- siasm. During the whole summer and autumn of 1873, the Basque Provinces, Navarre, and Catalonia, were the theatres of numerous engagements between the Republican forces, commanded by Generals Nouvillas, Cabrinety, Moriones, and others, and the Carlist bands under the leadership of the Cur6 of Santa Cruz, and Generals Dorregaray, Seballs, Olio, and Tristany, and Don Alphonso. By the close of the autumn of 1873, there were 40,cxx3 Carlists under arms in the North of Spain, and Don Carlos took up his winter-quarters at Durango, in the Province of Biscay. Coup d' Etat of General Pavia — Marshal Serrano, President. — The Spanish Cortes reassembled on the 2d of January, 1874; and President Castelar read his message from the Ministerial bench. For a long time, a disagreement had existed between Senor Castelar, President of the Republic, and Senor Salmeron, President of the Cortes, and on this occasion a sharp debate took place between these two Republican Jeaders and statesmen. On the 3d (January, 1874), the Cor- tes, on two votes, refused to sustain President Castelar, the majority against him being twenty. As soon as the result of the votes was announced. General Pavia, Captain-General of Madrid, who had surrounded the Chamber of the Cortes with soldiers, sent an officer into the Chamber with a letter to Salmeron, demanding the dissolution of the Cortes. Thereupon Senor Castelar resigned the Presidency of the Republic, and his Cabinet retired from office; and immediately some of Gen- eral Pavia's soldiers entered the hall and expelled the Deputies. General Pavia then summoned the most eminent men of all parties to form a new Government, excluding only Carlists and Intransigentes; but he refused personally to become a member of the Government. Marshal Serrano was made President of the Repub- lic, and an able Ministry was formed. Castelar, Salmeron, and other Republican leaders protested with all their energy against the brutal Coup d' Etat of General Pavia. Communist Insurrection in Barcelona. — On the 8th of January, 1874, a Communist insurrection broke out in Barcelona, and barricades were erected in the suburbs by the insurgents. Fort Montijoi, on the south side of the city, opened fire on the city ; and there was severe fighting in the suburbs. The insurrection continued until the 15th, when the insurgents surrendered, and the authority of the Spanish Government was fully restored in the city. 428 MODERN HISTORY, Bombardment of Cartagena. — Early in January, 1874, after General Pavia's Coup d' Elat, the besiegers of Cartagena redoubled their efforts to reduce the city, but the garrison stubbornly held out and made several desperate sorties. On the 9th of January, a column of the National army besieging Cartagena was repulsed in an assault upon Fort San Julian. A heavy fire was kept up on both sides. The besiegers finally compelled Atalaya Co-stle to surrender. During the siege and bombardment, powder magazines frequently exploded in the city, causing much destruction of life. Fall of Cartagena — Flight of the Insurgent Leaders.— Cartagena sur- rendered to the Government forces, on the 14th of January, 1874. Upon the capitulation of the city, the members of the Insurgent Junta and the liberated con- victs went on board the frigate Numancia. The Numancia, in escaping, passed five Spanish men-of-war, and arrived safely at Mers-el-Kebir, on the coast of Algeria, with 2,500 refugees on board, among whom were Generals Contreras and Galvez. One of the steamers which attempted to escape was captured with a large number of refugees. Another insurgent vessel, with a large party of refugees, suc- ceeded in reaching the French shores, whither she was pursued by a French man- of-war. The members of the Cartagenian Junta surrendered the Numancia to the French authorities at Mers-el-Kebir. The Numancia was delivered by the French to a Spanish frigate. The insurgent chiefs, Contreras, Ferrez, and Galvez, were sent to the capital of Algeria, and the Cartagenian refugees were interned in the forts and barracks of Oran and Mers-el-Kebir. The Carlist War. — Winter did not suspend operation between the Carlist and Republican forces in the North of Spain; and the Province of Biscay was the prin- cipal theatre of war. During the month of February, 1874, there was severe fight- ing at Bilbao, Tolosa, and Somorrostro, between the opposing forces, with various success. After the fall of Cartagena and the suppression of the Instransigente insurrection. President Serrano assumed the chief command of the Government forces operating against the Carlists, and, with the aid of his chief subordinates, Generals Loma and Manuel de la Concha, he prepared for a vigorous and decisive campaign. Serrano's Campaign against the Carlists— Siege of Bilbao. — By the middle of March, 1874, a Republican army of 34,000 men, under the chief com- mand of President Serrano himself, stood face to face with a Carlist force of 35,000 men, while General Loma, with 8,000 Republican troops, was moving on the Car- list rear. In the meantime, the Carlists had laid siege to Bilbao, which they bom- barded incessantly, throwing 200 shells into the city daily. The Carlists captured an outlying fort with forty prisoners, and they threw incendiary shells into Bilbao with terrible effect. An engagement before the city resulted in the occupation of the Albia suburb by the besiegers. A desperate engagement was fought before Bilbao on the 25th of March, lasting all day, and in the evening, the Republicans encamped on the positions which they had captured from the Royalists. The fight- ing before Bilbao was renewed on the 26th, continuing all day, and closing at night with decided advantages for the Republican forces. Serrano's troops advanced, and drove. back the Carlist lines, capturing, at the point of the bayonet, several villages and several positions which were occupied by the insurgents the day pre- vious. Serrano's losses during these two days were 550 men, and Generals Loma NINE TEE NTH CENTUR V. ^29 and Primo de Rivera were severely wounded. Serrano made a successful attack on Pedro Abanto, and drove the Carlists beyond Santa Guliana, The fighting at Bil- bao was renewed on the 28th of March, lasting all day; and the Republicans were repulsed in their attacks on the Carlist lines, losing 4,000 men, while the Royalists lost only 1,000. A heavy fire was kept up on the Carlist positions before Bilbao by the Republican artillery. Active operations before Bilbao were resumed on the 3d of April (1874), with the bombardment of Abanto by the Republican forces. Serrano's army kept up a furious cannonade on the Carlist positions befcre Bilbao. On the 29th of April, fighting was resumed before Bilbao, and continued the next two days; and on the first of May, the Carlists were defeated and routed, and the Republican forces, under President Serrano and General Manuel de la Concha, triumphantly entered Bilbao. During the month of May, there were several skir- mishes around Bilbao, and, at the close of the month, the Carlists invested Ilernani. Attack on Estella and Death of Marshall Concha.— On the 25th of June, 1874, General Manuel de la Concha, in the midst of a terrible storm, surprised the Carlist positions near Estella. The engagement lasted an hour, and the Carlist losses were heavy. In a bayonet charge on the Carlist intrenchment? at Mui;a, Mar- shal Concha, who was over eighty years of age, having placed himself at the head of the Republican troops, was instantly killed. The Republican army then fell back to Lerin, eight miles from Estella. The Republican loss was 1,500 men. The command of the Republican army was then given to General Zabala, Spanish Minister of War. Marshal Concha's death produced a profound sensation through- out Spain, and his remains were honored with magnificent funeral obsequies. Capture of Cuenca by the Carlists — Cruelties of the Carlists. — On the 13th of July, 1874, Don Alphonso, with 8,000 Carlists, made an attack upon the Republicans at Cuenca, and, after a most desperate struggle, during which the Republicans repulsed four fierce assaults made upon them by the Carlists, the Roy- alists finally obtained possession of the Citadel, compelling the Republicans to surrender. The victors practiced the greatest cruelties upon the vanquished, many of whom were shot after they had surrendered. Recognition of the Spanish Republic by European Powers. — In August, 1874, the Spanish Republic was formally recognized by England, France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Holland, and Sweden; but Russia held aloof, fearing that recogni- tion would strengthen the cause of republicanism in Europe, and alleging that Marshal Serrano's government, which had its origin in a coup d'etat, had no legal existence. Progress of the Carlist War — Attacks on Puigcerda — Siege of Irun. — The war between the Republicans and the Carlists continued with various success. In the latter part of August, 1874, the Carlists were repulsed in repeated attacks on Puigcerda. Early in November (1874), the Carlists laid siege to Irun, which they furiously bombarded for nearly a week, but they were eventually com- pelled to raise the siege, and to retreat into Navarre. Prince Alphonso Proclaimed King of Spain by the Armies. — On the 31st of December, 1874, Prince Alphonso, son of ex-Queen Isabella II., was pro- claimed King of Spain, By the Republican armies. Marshal Serrano acquiesced. The Minister of Interior immediately sent dispatches to the Governors of the Provinces, announcing that Alphonso XII. had been proclaimed King by the 430 MODERN HISTORY. nation, the army, and the Ministry. On the 9th of January, 1875, King Alphonso arrived at Barcelona from France, and was received with great demonstrations of enthusiasm. On the 14th (January, 1875), he arrived in Madrid, and met with a grand reception, and in the evening the city was brilliantly illuminated. Alphonso's Proclamation to the Carlists — Desertion of Carlist Gen- erals. — After taking possession of the throne of Spain, King Alphonso issued a proclamation, calling upon the Carlists to lay down their arms, but they refused, and preparations were made to subdue them. In February, 1875, Estella was cap- tured by the Alphonsists, and the Carlists were repulsed in an attack upon Bilbao. In March, General Cabrera deserted the cause of Don Carlos, and issued a procla- mation recognizing Alphonso as King of Spain, and calling upon the Carlists to submit. He also concluded a convention with the Alphonsists. In May, Generals Elio and Aguirre also deserted Don Carlos; and Aguirre issued an address to the Carlists, advising them to submit to King Alphonso. Carlist Defeats— Flight of Dorregaray — Siege and Fall of Sec de Urgel. — In July (1875), the Carlists were defeated by the Alphonsists under Generals Jovellar and Martinez Campos, but the Alphonsist general Loma was unsuccessful. Dorregaray fled across the frontier, into France, pursued by the Alphonsists. In August, the Alphonists laid siege to the strong fortress of Seo de Urgel. On the 17th, a body of 6000 Carlists made an unsuccessful attempt to relieve the beleag- uered fortress; and on the 27th (August, 1875), Seo de Urgel surrendered to the Alphonsists. The Carlists were also defeated at other points, about this time. Submission of Carlists — Carlist Dissensions. — In September (1875), the Carlists in the provinces of Catalonia, Navarre, and Biscay, gave in their submission to the Government of King Alphonso, and applied for amnesty. The Carlists became more and more distracted by dissensions in their own ranks; and Don Carlos quar- relled with Generals Dorregaray, Seballs, and others, and ordered them to be shot. RECENT AFFAIRS OF EUROPEAN NATIONS. Political Struggles in France — Fall of Thiers — Marshal MacMahon, President. — After the suppression of tlie rebellion of the Paris Commune in 1871, the question of the future form of government for France engaged the attention of the French Assembly and people. The Legitimists and Orleanists effected a fusion, and labored actively for the elevation of the Count de Chambord, the repre- sentative of the Legitimists, as the chief of the reunited House of Bourbon, to the throne of France as king. The Bonapartists, who were now comparatively weak, intrigued in behalf of the Prince Imperial, son of Napoleon III.; while the Repub- licans of all factions, whose recognized chief was President Thiers, were determined upon the preservation of the Republic. The Radical Republicans, headed by M. Gambetta, demanded the dissolution of the National Assembly which had met in February, 1871, and the election of a new Assembly. On the opening of the As- sembly, in November, 1872, a violent struggle began between the parties in that body, for the furtherance of their respective schemes. A Committee of Thirty was appointed, to consider the question of the reorganization of the Government of France. M. Thiers recommended the definitive establishment of the Conservative Republic. The struggle between the Republicans and the Monarchists in the As- PRESIDENT McMAHON. VON MOLTKE. NINETEENTH CENTURY. 431 senibly continued until the 23d of May, 1873, when the Monarchical majority in the Assembly demanded the organization of a more Conservative Ministry. On that day, a violent scene took place in the Assembly. When President Thiers mounted the tribune to address the Assembly, his voice was drowned by the cries of the Monarchists ; and, after vainly endeavoring to make himself heard, the Pre- sident descended the tribune, and, amid the greatest confusion and excitement, the Assembly adjourned. On the following day (May 24, 1873), President Thiers addressed the Assembly, urging the definitive establishment of the Republic. After a violent debate, and the defeat of the Government on several votes in the Assem- bly, the Ministry resigned, and a message from M. Thiers was read in the Assembly, in which he tendered his resignation as President of the Republic, which was ac- cepted by a vote of the Assembly. The Assembly then elected Marshal MacMahon to the Presidency of the Republic. The new President announced a Conservative policy, and formed a Cabinet composed chiefly of Monarchists, with the Duke de Broglie at its head. For more than a year, the Assembly was engaged in the fram- ing of Constitutional bills. The Monarchists were intrigumg for the enthronement of the Count de Chambord, while the Republicans carried nearly all the elections to fill vacancies in the Assembly. On the 20th of November, 1873, ^^ Assembly, by a decisive vote, prolonged President MacMahon's powers for seven years. The Broglie Ministry resigned in May, 1874, in consequence of a defeat in the Assem- bly, and a new Ministry, in which the Duke Decazes was the chief member, was formed. Ecclesiastical Struggle in Germany — Attempted Assassination of Prince Bismarck. — During this time, Germany was disturbed by a religious and political dispute, or a struggle between Church and State. The Ultramontanes, or extreme Catholics, held allegiance to the Pope as a higher obligation than allegi- ance to the Emperor of Germany. The German Government, under the energetic direction of Prince Bismarck, was resolved to assert practically the supremacy of the civil over the ecclesiastical power; while the Ultramontane party, encouraged by the Pope and by the reactionary party in France, sought to place the spiritual above the civil power. Bishops were frequently arrested, fined, and imprisoned, by order of the Prussian Government, for their defiant attitude toward the civil authority of the Empire. The Pope addressed a letter to the Emperor William, praying him not to persecute the Church. To this letter the Emperor replied politely, but firmly asserted his determination to defend the imperial authority against the attacks of the Ultramontane party. The most defiant of the clergy were the Bishop of Emerland and Archbishop Ledochowski of Posen. The Prussian Gov- ernment caused the Catholic churches of Berlin and the Province of Posen to be closed, and Archbishop Ledochowski, who maintained an obstinate resistance to the decrees of the Government, was arrested, tried, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment. The Bishop of Treves, the Archbishop of Cologne, and Bishop Janizewski of Posen, were also arrested for violation of the ecclesiastical laws. The Prussian Government issued an ordinance requiring all Bishops when installed to swear to maintain the subordination of the Church to the State. The Pope, in December, 1873, issued an allocution denouncing the Governments of Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, for their encroachments on the Church. The journals in Prussia which published the allocution were prosecuted by the Government. On 432 MODERN HISTORY. the 14th of July, 1874, while Prince Bismarck was riding out in the counti7, he was fired at by a young Catholic named Kullman. The Prince narrowly escaped assassination, the ball grazing his wrist. Kullman was promptly arrested, and the people were with difficulty restrained from lynching him. Bismarck received over 100 telegrams congratulating him upon his escape. Republicanism in England — ^A^ar with the Ashantees — Gladstone's Fall. — During this time, Kngland was politically and socially agitated. Large Republican meetings were held in some of the large cities, and the Republican movement, directed by such men as Charles Bradlaugh and Sir Charles Dilke, made much progress among the workingmen. A Cabinet crisis occurred in March, 1873, but was soon terminated by Mr. Gladstone's Cabinet remaining in office. In August, 1873, an English military expedition, under Sir Garnet Wolseley, invaded the negro kingdom of Ashantee, in Upper Guinea, in Western Africa, for the put- pose of chastising the Ashantees for their depredations on the British possessions on the Gold Coast. After numerous victories over the Ashantees, the- Briti; h finally stormed and took Coomassie, the Ashantee capital, early in February, 1874, and compelled King Koffee to accept very humiliating conditions of peace. Late in January, 1873, Mr. Gladstone, finding a majority in Parliament opposed to him on some important measures, dissolved Parliament and ordered new elections. The elections resulted in giving the Tories an overwhelming majority in Parliament, whereupon Mr. Gladstone's Whig Ministry resigned, and the Tories, headed by Mr. Disraeli, returned to power. Definitive Establishment of the Republic in France. — In the meantime, the question of the future form of government for France engaged the attention of the French National Assembly. After voting the prolongation of President Mac- Mahon's powers for seven years, the Assembly devoted itself to the framing of Constitutional Bills. Finally, in February, 1875, the Assembly passed Constitu- tional Bills, providing for the establishment of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies, which were to be vested with the legislative power, while the executive power was to be entrusted to a President of the Republic, who was to be elected for seven years, by both Chambers of the Assembly in joint convention. The Constitution also provided that the President of the Republic, with the advice and consent of the Senate, could dissolve the Chamber of Deputies. The principle of Ministerial responsibility was established. The Senate was to consist of 300 members, of which 225 were to be elected by the Councils-Generals, the Municipal Councils, and the Arrondissements, and 75 by the Chamber of Deputies; and all Senators were to be irremovable. The Chamber of Deputies was to be elected by universal suffrage. The Senate Bill was passed on Februaiy 24th (1875), by 448 yeas to 241 nays. On the same day, the Assembly recognized the Republic, by passing the Public Powers Bill, by a vote of 433 yeas to 262 nays. An Electoral Bill, pre- scribing tlie conditions of suffrage, was debated for many months, and finally passed in December, 1S75. Russia's Wars in Central Asia. — During the greater part of the present century, Russia has been engaged in a series of wars with wild Tartar tribes and petty states of Central Asia. In a war with Bokhara, in 1868, the Russians were victorious; and in 1871, they subdued Soongaria, which had fought itself inde- pendent of Chinese rule in 1864. Early in 1873, a war broke out between NINETEENTH CENTURY. 433 Russia and Khiva; and a Russian military expedition, under General KaufTmann, was sent against the Khivans. After several engagements, in which the Khivans were defeated, General Kauffmann entered the Khivan capital in triumph, and dic- tated terms of peace to the terrified Khan of Khiva (June, 1873). In the fall of 1873, 'h^ Russians defeated the Turkomans. In the summer of 1875, hostilities broke out between Russia and Khokand. A Russian army under General Kauff- mann invaded Khokand, defeated 30,000 Khokand troops, captured the Khokand capital, and forced the Khan of Khokand to accept a humiliating peace. (Septem- ber, 1875.) Rebellion in the Herzegovina against the Turks. — In July, 1875, ^^ peasants of Herzegovina and Bosnia, provinces in the West of European Turkey, rose in rebellion against the Ottoman Government, to resist the collection of taxes by the officials of the Porte. The insurrection became quite formidable, and fears were entertained that the peace of Europe was jeopardized. The Consuls of the Great European Powers met at Mostar, and endeavored to bring about a pacification, by inducing the Porte to grant needed reforms and reasonable concessions to the Herzegovinians and Bosnians; while, at the same time, they tried to induce the insurgents to submit, but failed. Many engagements of an unimportant character occurred in the autumn of 1875, but no great battle took place; and no advantage was gained by either party. THE SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. THE SPANISH AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. CAUSES OF THE SPANISH AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Deplorable Condition of Spanish Annerica — Tupac Amaru's Revolt in Peru (1780). — Mexico, or New Spain, and South America, during the three cen- turies that they were dependencies of Spain, were to a great extent isolated from the rest of the world. The most exclusive policy was pursued by Spain toward her American colonies. No foreigners, except such as desired to make discoveries in natural history, were permitted to travel in Spanish America, and then only with the written consent of the King of Spain. The commerce of the Spanish .Ameri- can colonies was crippled by the most severe restrictions, and most of the wealth of the colonies flowed into the mother country. The Spanish Americans were taught to look upon Spain as the mother of nations. The condition of the Creoles and Indians of Spanish America was the most deplorable imaginable. The natives were the victims of the most cruel oppression; being forced to work in the mines, where many of them perished. The influence of priestcraft and Jesuitism contrib- uted to keep the inhabitants of Spanish America in intellectual darkness; and ignorance and superstition enabled Spain to uphold her dominion in Spanish America for three centuries. The condition of the Spanish Americans was far worse than that of the Anglo-Americans, as in the case of the former the intellect was enslaved. In 1780, the standard of revolt was raised in Peru, by Tupac Amaru, a descendant of the Incas, who endeavored to restore his country's inde- pendence; but, after a bloody struggle of two years, the insurrection was suppressed, 28 434 MODERN HISTORY. and Tupac Amaru was put to a cruel death, his body being drawn in quarters by horses. Effect of Bonaparte's Dethronement of the Royal Family of Spain in Spanish America. — The immediate cause of the Spanish American Revolution had its ori|SEjqafg •SJmsduUBj-l M9f^ •/Casjsf M9N \ -Y ■St" LdU^ ^» \ ''-^ \' ^^-■^ •>|JOJI^ M9N •iclclississ]|/\| •ubSil|DI|/\| ■b;os9uuii/\| •unossj|/\| •puB|XjE|/\; ■s;psnL|3BssB|/\| 9UIEI •BUBismo"! If 1. •BMO| •BUBipU| SBSUB)^ biSjosc) •epijoij S«iC-v-7 I 'ajBMB|aQ opc.io|03 •BjUJOjIIBQ •:^nDip3uuo3 •BUiBq^iY •SBSLIB>|jy ■^STTT" '^-^ 'NOmgl NVDRIHI^ aj.VJ.S JIWS JO SMIIV JO lLVOO THE HISTORY First One Hundred Years AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, INXLUDING AN ACCOUNT OF THE GREAT CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (A. D. 1775- 1789). CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION. Growth of Democratic Ideas in the Anglo-American Colonies. — Demo- cratic ideas had a slow and steady, but solid growth, in England's North American colonies, from the time of the establishment of those colonies. Those who left their homes in Europe to settle in the New World, were animated with a desire for the enjoyment of pure civil, political, and religious freedom. The republican spirit of of the English American colonists was manifested in popular resistance to obnoxious acts of the British Parliament, and to the tyranny of the royal governors sent from England to America to administer the government of the colonies. The claim of the English Parliament to legislate for the colonies was boldly denied by the colo- nists, who finally rebelled against the mother country, and, after a war of seven years, achieved their political independence, and established a democratic republic, under the name of " The United States of America." Wants of the British Treasury. — The long wars against France oppressed England with an enormous debt and exhausted the British treasury, and the Impe- rial Government resolved to procure money from the North American colonies by either direct or indirect taxation. The colonists denied the right of the Imperial Parliament to tax them, as they were not allowed any representation in that body, and maintained that "Taxation without representation is tyranny." Writs of Assistance — Opposition of the Colonists — ^James Otis. — The British Government first attempted to exercise the asserted right to tax the colonies by issuing search-warrants to persons appointed by the king to enforce the revenue laws. These warrants, called " Writs of Assistance," authorized the Government officials in the colonies to search for suspected goods which had been imported into the colonies, and on which the duty had not been paid. The colonists firmly resisted this encroachment on their liberties. The legality of the writs was boldly denied by the Americans; and in February, 1 76 1, the matter was brought before the Gen- eral Court in Boston, where James Otis, then Advocate-General of the colonies, and an able lawyer, appeared on the side of the American people, and denied the right of the Imperial Parliament to tax the colonies without their consent. Passage of the Stamp Act — Opposition to It in the Colonies — Patrick Henry. — In February, 1765, George Grenville, who was then at the head of the British Ministry, introduced into Parliament a bill requiring the Anglo-American colonists to purchase for specified sums, and place on all written documents, stamps furnished by the British Imperial Government. This was a measure which no former British Ministry had the courage to attempt. The passage of this bill, known as "The Stamp Act," in 1765, produced universal indignation in America. Most of the colonial legislatures passed resolutions denouncing the measure, and James Otis in Massachusetts and Patrick Henry in Virginia thundered forth eloquent denunciations of the act. Boldness of Patrick Henry in the Virginia Assembly — " Sons of Liberty." — While speaking in the Virginia Assembly, at Pvichmond, of the fate of 455 456 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. tyrants of former periods, Patrick Henr)- exclaimed, " CiEsar had his Brutus, Charles I. his Cromwell, and George III." — Here the speaker was interrupted by cries of " Treason ! treason ! " from some of the members, and Mr. Henry, after pausing a moment, said, " May profit by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it." A part of some bold resolutions which Henry had introduced, were adopted ; •ind the colonists were aroused to a firm stand to defend their rights; and the deter- mination was made to resist the execution of the odious Stamp Act. Associations, called " Sons of Liberty," were formed, and the stamps were seized on their arrival in the colonies, and secreted or burned. The officei-s, called " Stamp Distributors," who had been appointed to sell the stamps, were so much despised and insulted that they soon relinquished their business; and on the day appointed lor the Stamp Act to go into effect, there was not an officer who had the courage to attempt the enforcement of the law. Stamp Act Congress — Indignation of the American People. — A conven- tion of delegates, known as "The Stamp Act Congress," assembled in New York City, on the 7lh of October, 1765. This convention, or congress, which was in session fourteen days, drew up a "Declaration of Rights," which denied the right of Parliament to tax the colonies, and adopted a petition to the king, and mem- orials to Parliament. On the ist of November, 1765, the appointed day for the Stamp Act to go into effect, universal silence prevailed in English America : all business was suspended; the courts were closed ; the bells were muffled and tolled; and the vessels in the harbors displayed their flags at half-mast. Suddenly the Anglo-Americans manifested their indignation in an open disregard of the law. The houses of British officials in American cities were assailed by mobs, and loy- alists were burned in effig\'. The colonists agreed to import no more goods from the mother countn,-, until the obnoxious law should be repealed. Repeal o-f the Stamp Act — The Declaratory Act. — The determination of American merchants not to import British goods into America, alarmed the British merchants so much, that they united with the colonists in petitioning Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act. The British Ministiy found that it must either compel the colonists to submission, or have the odious act repealed. After long and angry debates in Parliament, the act was repealed, on the 6th of March, 1766. The repeal was hailed with manifestations of joy, in both England and America. The colonists testified their gratitude to William Pitt and Edmund Burke, the great friends and champions of the Americans in Parliament. The fires of discord were soon kindled anew. For the purpose of securing the repeal of the Stamp Act, Pitt had accompanied the repeal with a " Declaratory Act," which asserted that the Parliament had " the right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever." New Measures of Oppression. — Under the sanction of the Declarator)' Act, the British Parliament passed new acts, as obnoxious in principle to the Anglo- Americans as the .Stamp Act had been. To intimidate the colonists, British troops were sent to America, in June, 1766, and the Parliament passed a "Mutiny Act," requiring the colonists to furnish food and shelter to these royal troops. In June, 1767, a tax was imposed on several articles imported into the colonies. In July of the same year, an act was passed, creating a board of trade and commissioners of customs in the colonies, independent of the colonial assemblies ; and another act was passed which suspended the legislative power of the assembly of New York, UNITED STATES. 457 because that body had refused to supply the royal troops in that colony with food or quarters. These tyrannical measures highly exasperated the Americans. Non-Importation Leagues — Boldness of the Massachusetts Assem- bly. — New non-importation leagues were now formed in the colonies; and pamphlets and newspapers instigated the American people to oppose the oppressive measures of the British Ministry and Parliament. In February, 1768, the Ma.ssachu.setts Assembly issued a " Circular Letter" to the assemblies of the other Anglo-Ameri- can colonies, soliciting their cooperation in endeavors to procure a redress of griev- ances; and before the close of the year, almost every colonial assembly had asserted that the Imperial Parliament had no right to legislate for the colonies. The British Ministry, highly exasperated at this boldness, ordered the Massachusetts assembly, in the name of the king, to rescind the Circular Letter ; but the Assembly, by an almost unanimous vote, refiLsed to rescind. Commissioners of Customs — A Mob. — The new commissioners of customs, who arrived in Boston, in May, 1768, were detested by the colonists. In June, 1768, the commissioners seized a sloop belonging to John Hancock, because that individual had refused td pay the duty on the cargo on the arrival of the vessel When the seizure had become known, the commissioners were assailed by a mob and compelled to flee for refuge to Castle William (now Fort Independence), in Boston harbor. Royal Troops in Boston. — At the call of Bernard, the royal governor of Massachusetts, 700 royal troops, under General Thomas Gage, were brought to Boston, for the purpose of frightening the people into submission. On a quiet Sun- day, in September, 1768, these troops entered the city, with charged muskets and fixed bayonets, with drums beating and flags flying, and with all the insolence of a conquering army taking possession of a captured city. As the indignant Bostonians refused to furnish the troojjs who had been sent among them as instruments of slavery, with provisions or quarters. Governor Bernard caused some of them to be quartered in the State House, some in Faneuil Hall, and others in tents on the city common. Early in 1769, the British Parliament revived an old law of the time of Henry VIII., which required the governor of Massachusetts to send the leaders of the late disturbances in Boston to England, for trial on a charge of treason. Riot in Boston — " The Boston Massacre." — The exasperated people of Boston could with difficulty be restrained from committing acts of violence. The soldiers and citizens quarreled almost daily; and on the 2d of March, 1770, sev- eral citizens were beaten by some of the troops. This created great excitement among the inhabitants, and on the evening of the 5th (March, 1770), several hundred collected in the streets, for the avowed purpose of driving the troops from the city. A fight ensued, in which three of the citizens were killed, and two badly wounded. The mob retired before the troops. The city bells rang an alarum, and very soon several thousand of the citizens assembled under arms. Governor Hutchinson made his appearance, and appeased the excited people by promising that justice should be rendered in the morning. At the demand of the Bostonians, the soldiers were removed from the city; and Captain Preston and eight of the troops, who had fired on the mob, were tried for murder. The capUin and six of the troops were acquitted. The other two were found guilty of manslaughter. Those Bostonians who were killed in the riot were considered martyrs to liberty; and "The Boston 458 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. Massacre," as the affray w.as called, was for many years kepi alive by anniversary orations in IJoston and its vicinity. The English East- India Company and the Duty on Tea. — The disturb- ances in America, and the complaints of the British merchants, whose interests were injured by the operation of the American non-importation leagues, induced the British Ministry to propose, on the very day of the Boston Massacre, the repeal of all the obnoxious lax laws, except the duty on tea. The tax on tea was retained for the double purpose of aiding the English East-India Company, and maintaining the right of the Imperial P;\rliament to tax the colonies. Lord North, who was then Prime-Minister of Great Britain, not comprehending the fact that the colonists were contending for a great principle, and that they considered the imposition, by the British Parliament, of a tax on a single article as a stroke at their liberties just as much as if a hundred articles were taxed, believed that they would not complain of a small duty on one article of luxury. The Anglo-Americans therefore continued their nonimportation leagues against the purchase and use of tea. The Regulators of North Carolina — Destruction of the Gasp'e. — In 1 77 1, the exactions of British Government otlicials produced rebellion in the inte- rior of North Carolina. The insurgents, whose object was to redress the grievances of the people, called themselves "Regulators." In a bloody skirmish on the Ala- mance Creek, on the i6th of May, 1771, the Regulatoi-s were conquered by Gov- ernor Tryon, and six of their number were hanged for trexson ; but the spirit of opposition among the people was not crushed, and was frequently manifested in popular outbreaks. On the 9th of June, 1772, a party of sixty-four armed men from Providence, Rhode Island, burned the British schooner " Gasp6," which had run aground while cruising in Narraganset bay for the purpose of enforcing the revenue laws. Tea-ships Sent to America — Destruction of Tea in Boston Harbor. — As the Americans refused to use or purchase tea so long as a duly remained on that article, Lord North, who was still unwilling to relinquish the right of Par- liament to tax the colonies, agreed to permit the East-India Company to send over their tea on terms that would make it cheaper in America than in England. This attempt to bribe the colonists into submission by means of cheap tea only aroused their indignation so much the more, and they refused to receive a cargo of tea. Governor Hutchinson of Massachusetts, in defiance of the popular will, ordered the landinjT of sever.1l cargoes which arrived at Boston in December, 1773. The peo- ple of Boston held meetings in Fanueil Hall, and resolved that no tea should be landed; and on the night of the i6th of December, 1773, a party of about sixty men, disguised as Indians, went on board of the tea-ships, and broke open three hundred and forty-two chests of tea, and emptied their contents into the waters of the harbor. The Boston Port Bill and other Retaliatory Measures. — So highly exas- perated at the destruction of tea in Boston harbor was the British Ministry that they resolved upon retaliatory measures. On the 7lh of March, 1774, Parlia- ment passed an act called the Boston Port Bill, which ordered the port of Boston to be closed against all commerce, and removed the seat of the colonial government of Massachusetts to Salem. Another act was passed on the 2Sth (March, 1774), UNITED STATES. 459 which virtually subverted the colonial charter of Massachusetts. This was followed by another act on the 21st of April, providing for the trial in E^nglandof any person charged with murder in the colonies in support of the Imperial Government. A fourth act authorized the quartering of royal troops in the colonies; and a fifth conceded great privileges to the Roman Catholics in the newly-acquired province of Canada. These tyrannical measures aroused the most intense indignation in America, which was increased when General Thomas Gage, who had just been appointed Governor of Massachusetts, went to Boston with troops, to enforce the obnoxious acts of Parliament. Under his direction, the port of Boston was closed on the 1st of June, 1774. Committees of Correspondence — Whigs and Tories. — Committees of Cor- respondence had been formed in some of the colonies in 1773. These commit- tees were diligent in their work of uniting the colonies by an interchange of vi«ws and intelligence. The Anglo-American colonists were now divided into two par- ties. The few who sustained the British Government were called "Tories;" and the great body of the American people, who opposed the despotic measures of the Government, were called "Whigs." The First Continental Congress. — Soon after the closing of the port of Bos- ton, the Assembly of Massachusetts met at Salem, and issued an invitation to the other Anglo-American colonies to elect delegates, who should meet in a Continental Congress in Philadelphia, in September following. This invitation was accepted; and the First Continental Congress convened in Carpenter's Hall, in Philadelphia, on the 5th of September, 1774. All the colonies, with the exception of Georgia, were represented. The Congress chose for its president, Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, and for its secretary, Charles Thomson, of Pennsylvania. The Congress approved the conduct of Massachusetts, in her opposition to the oppressive meas- ures of the British Ministry and Parliament; agreed upon a "Declaration of Rights;" recommended non-intercourse with Great Britain so long as the ob- noxious laws of Parliament remained unrepealed; and voted a petition to the king, and an address to the people of Great Britain and Canada; after which they adjourned, to meet on the ensuing loth of May (1775), unless the British Govern- ment should, in the meantime, redress the grievances complained of by the colo- nists. Spirit of the New England People. — During the summer of 1774, the people of English America, and particularly those of Massachusetts, were earnestly preparing for the inevitable struggle with the mother country. They engaged daily in military exercises, chose leaders, and held themselves ready to fly to arms at a moment's warning. On this account, they were called "Minute-men." Mar- tial exercises continued throughout the ensuing autumn and winter; and public speakers everywhere encouraged the colonists to resist the tyrannical measures of the British Parliament. General Gage, Governor of Massachusetts, and British commander-in-chief in America, becoming alarmed, fortified Boston Neck, and seized great quantities of ammunition, found in the New England colonies. A false rumor, which spread over New England in September (1774), that British war-ships were cannonading Boston, produced such excitement that within two days 30,000 armed men were on their way to that city. In October, the Assembly 46o CENTENNIAL HISTORY. of Massachusetts convened at Cambridj^e, and resolved itself into a Provincial Con- gress, with '\o\\\\ Hancock as president, and made provisions for raising an army. New Oppressive Measures of Parliament. — As the British Parliament, early in 1775, rejected a conciliatory mciisure, proposed by Mr. Pitt, and passed an act prohibiting the colonists from fishing on the banks of Newfoundland, thus strik- ing a severe blow at the prosperity of New England, the colonists saw that they must either defend their rights and liberties by force of arms, or slavislily submit to the oppressive acts of Parliament. They chose the former alternative; and, rely- ing upon the justice of their cause and the aid of an All-Ruling Providence, they resoved to bid defiance to the military and naval power of Great Britain. THE WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE (A. D. 1775-1783). EVENTS OF 1778. British Troops in Boston — Bloodshed at Lexington and Concord — Its Effects. — On the isl of April, 1775, there were 3,000 British troops in Boston; and on the night of the iSth, General Gage sent 800 trooj^, under Lieutenant- Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn, to destroy the stores of ammunition which the colonists had gathered at Concord, about sixteen miles north-west tVom Boston. Although this movement was made secretly, the people were aroused by the vigil- ant Dr. Joseph WaiTcn and Paul Revere, who had obtained a knowledge of the designs of Gage; and when, on the morning of the 19th (April, 1775), Pitcairn approached the village of Lexington, six miles from Concord, he found eighty armed Minute-men ready to oppose him. Pitcairn, riding forward, exclaimed, " Disperse you rebels! lay down your arms and disperse!" and when they refused obedience, his troops, according to his orders, fired upon the patriots, killing eight of them. This w,as the first bloodshed in the great American Revolution. After the short skirmish at Lexington, the British immediately proceeded to Concord, killed several more Minute-men in a skirmish there, and destroyed the stores of ammunition. The king's troops then hastily retreated to Boston, fired upon along the whole route of their retreat by the people, from behind trees, stone-fences, and buildings; and by the time they reached Boston, in the afternoon of the same day (April 19, 1775), they had lost in killed and wounded 273 men, while the American loss was only 103 men. The intelligence of the bloodshed at Lexington and Con- cord produced the greatest excitement throughout the Anglo-American colonies, and everywhere aroused the colonists to action. Before the close of April, a patriot army of 20,000 men was surrounding the British troops in Boston; and before the close of summer, the power of everj' royal governor, from Massachusetts to Geor- gia, was at an eml. Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point — Committee of Safety. — On the loth of May, 1775, some New Hampshire Militia, under Colonel Ethan Allen, seized Fort Ticonderoga. Two d.ays later (May 12, 1775), Colonel Benedict Arnold, with Connecticut militia, took possession of Crown Point. With the capture of these two fortresses, the Americans obtained forty pieces of artillery, and secured the conmiand of L.ake Champlain, thus opening the way for an invasion of Canada. A Committee of Safet)', appointed by the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, VNITED STATES. 461 held its sittings in CarnLrifigc, regulated military operations, and appointed General Artema-s Ward commander-in-chief of the provincial forces, and Richard Gridlcy chief engineer. British Reinforcements. — On the 25th of May, 1775, large reinforcements for General Gage arrived from England, under the command of Generals William Howe, Henry Clinton, and John Burgoyne. The British army in Boston, thus in- creased to 1 2,000 men, prepared to drive the rebellious provincials from the vicinity of the city. Gage issued a proclamation, declaring all Americans in arms to he rebels and traitors, and offering an amnesty to all who would submit to Britirsh authority, except .Samuel Adams and John Hancock, whom he intended to seize and send to England to be hanged. Fortification of Breed's Hill — Battle of Bunker's Hill.— On the night of the 1 6th of June, 1775, General Artemas Ward sent 1,000 provincial troojjS, under Colonel William Prescott, to take possession of, and fortify BunkcT's Hill, in Charlestown. By mistake, in the darkness of the night, Prescott and his troop as- cended Breed's Hill, on which they erected a strong redoubt before morning. WTien the astonished British commanders saw thi^redoubt, on the morning of the 17th (June, 1775), they opened upon it, from Copp's Hill, in Bwton, and from the ships-of-war in the harbor, a fierce cannonade, which continued until noon with little effect. The Americans had received a reinforcement of 500 troops during the forenoon, thas increasing their force in the redoubt to 1,500 men. About noon, 3,000 British troops, under Generals Howe and Pigot, crossed the Charles river from Boston, and marched up the hill to attack the redoubt, firing cannon as they ascended. When the British column had approached within ten rods of the redoubt, Colonel Prescott gave the order to fire, which his troops executed with such terrible effect, that the advancing enemy were driven back with heavy loss. The British again advanced and assailed the redoubt, but met with a second disas- trous repulse. They ascended the hill a third time, and the battle raged fiercely, until the Americans, having exhausted all their ammunition, were driven from the redoubt, and compelled to retreat across Charlestown Neck. As the Americans re- treated, one of their number, the heroic General Joseph Warren, was shot dead. The British took possession of, and fortified Bunker's Hill, while the Americans intrenched themselves on Prospect Hill. The Americans lost 450 men in killed, wounded, and missing, while the British lost 1,054. During the b>attle, Charles- town was set on fire \rj order of General Gage, and 500 houses were destroyed. Although fought on Breed's Hill, this memorable engagement, which was the first real battle of the War of the American Revolution, is known as "The Battle of Bunker's Hill." The Revolution in Virginia and North Carolina. — In the meantime, while the events just related were occurring in New England, the Revolution was pro- gressing rapidly in the Southern colonies. In the Virginia A.ssembly, at Richmond, Patrick Henry concluded a masterly speech with the words, "Give me Liberty, ct give me Death !" WTien Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia, seized a quantity of powder belonging to the colony, the patriot Henry demanded and obtained full indemnity, and Dunmore was forced to seek refuge on a British man- of-war, in Norfolk harbor. In May, 1775, ^ convention of delegates, sitting at Char- lotte, Mecklenburg county, North Carolina, declared their constituents absolved 4 62 CENTENNIAL HISTORY, from all allcs;i;incc to the l^iilisli crown. This is known as " The IVIcckh-nlnirij Declaration." Second Continental Congress— Washington, Commander-in-Chief. — In the meantime, while Eni;lish America was in one blaze of excilemenl over the the events at Le.\iny;ton ami Concord, the Seet)nd Continental Congress assembled in riiiladelphia, on the lOlh of M.iy, 1775- Although expressing its desire for a reconcilation with the mother country, the Congress voted to raise an army of 20,ooo men ; and on the 15th of Jmie, 1775, that body elected George Washington, a dele- gate from Virginia, commander-in-chief of ail tlie forces raised, or to bo raised, for the defense of American liberty. On the 3^1 of July (1775), Washington took com- mand of the American army at Cambridge. With this force, numbering 14,000 men, Washington began a siege of Boston, which was still occupied by the British .irmv under ticneral William Howe. Invasion of Canada— Capture of St. Johns, Chambly, and Montreal. — During the summer of 1775, some New England and New York troops, under General Bhilip Schuyler, went down Lake Champlain. Owing to illness, Schuyler wjis obliged to relinquish the command of his troops to General Richard Montgom- ery, who, on the 3d of November, captured St. Johns, on the Sorel or Richelieu river, after a siege of more than a month. While the siege of St. Johns was pro- gressing, Colonel Ethan Allen, who, with eighty men, had attacked Montreal on the 25th of September, was made a jnisoner and carried to England in irons. Colonel Bedell, with some American troops, captured Chambly; and, on the 13th of November, Montgomery took possession of Montreal. Siege of Quebec — Defeat of the Americans.— At Point an Trembles, twenty miles above Montreal, Montgomery was joined by 750 Americans under Colonel Benedict Arnold, who had left Cambridge, Massachusetts, in September, 1775, and marched along the Kennebec and Chaudiere rivers to the St. Lawrence, suffering almost incredible hardships on the way. On the 5th of December, the American forces, under Montgomery and Arnold, laid siege to Quebec. For three weeks the Americans had besieged Quebec, when, on the 31st of December (1775), they at- tempted to take the city by assault. Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded, and their troops were repulsed with great loss. In the month of June, 1776, the American invaders were entirely driven out of Canada. The War in Virginia— Defeat of Governor Dunmore. — While the Americans were sufTeriiig misfortunes in Canada, the Virginians were jirosccuting the Revolution with zeal and success. Governor Dunmore, at the head of a force of Tories and negroes, ravaged South-eastern Virginia, but was repulsed in an attack upon Hampton, on the 24th of October (1775); and, after proclaiming open war, he was defeated by the Virginia militia, in a severe battle near the Dismal Swamp, twelve miles from Norfolk. For the purpose of revenging himself upon the rebel- lious Virginians, Dunmore burned the city of Norfolk, on the 1st of January, 177^; but after committing other atrocities on the sea-board, he was finally driven away, and went to England. EVENTS OF 1770. Siege and Evacuation of Boston. — As the British Government, early in 1776, made extensive arrangements to crush the rebellion against its authority in INDEPENDENCE HALL PATRICK HENRY. THOMAS JEFFERSON. UNITED STATES. 463 North America, the Continental Congress urged General Washington to attack the the British army under General Howe in Boston. On the evening of the 2d of March, 1776, Washington, having 14,000 men under his command, opened a heavy cannonade upon the British works around that city; and, on the night of the 4th, a portion of Washington's army, under General John Thomas, intrenched itself upon Dorchester Heights, now South Boston. The siege continued until the 17th, when Howe and his troo^w were allowed to evacuate the city. The British army sailed to Halifax, iri Nova Scotia, with the families of 1,500 Tories, and Washing- ton's army immediately took possession of the city, to the great joy of its delivered inhabitants. Lee and Washington in New York. — During the winter, General Charles Lee had been sent by Washington to take command of troops for the defense of New York against any attack which might be made upon that city by Sir Henry Clinton, who had left Boston in January, with a part of Howe's army. After the evacuation of Boston, Washington proceeded to the Hudson, and fortified the passes of the Highlands. The War in South Carolina — British Repulse at Fort Moultrie. — In the meantime. Sir Henry Clinton, with British land troops, in conjunction with a fleet from England under Sir Peter Parker, was on his way to attack Charleston, South Carolina. The South Carolinians made ample preparations to defend their chief city against any attack of the enemy. On Sullivan's Island, near the city, a fort was built of palmetto logs, and garrisoned by 500 Americans under the gallant Colonel William Moultrie ; and before the British were prepared to attack the city, General Charles Lee arrived in Charleston, and took the chief command of the American troops there. The English fleet under Parker, and the land troops under Clinton, opened a furious assault upon Fort Moultrie, on the 28th of June (1776). After a stubborn conflict of ten hours, the British army was repulsed with heavy loss, and sailed away for New York, leaving the Southern colonies free from the turmoil of war for more than two years. General Clinton joined Howe's army at New York, on the 1st of August. Declaration of Independence. — A few days after the repulse of the enemy at Charleston, the Continental Congress, sitting in the old State House, in Phila- delphia, immortalized itself by a glorious act. The Congress had been for some time discussing the question of proclaiming the independence of the Anglo-Amer- ican colonies. All hopes for a reconciliation with the mother country had passed away. The British Parliament had not repealed its obnoxious acts. The British Ministry had sent large armies to America to force the colonists to submit ; and hired 17,000 Hessians from Germany to assist in crushing liberty in America. These proceedings widened irreparably the breach between England and her North American colonies; and sentiments of independence filled the hearts of the Anglo- Americans. On the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, offered the following resolution of independence, in the Continental Congress: — " Resolved, That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown; and that all political connection between 'them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." This resolution was warmly debated in the Congress, many of the delegates opposing it as premature, and others as treasonable; and a com- 464 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. jnittoc of five, consisting of Thomas JetTersou of Virginia, John Adams of Massa- chusetts, Dr. Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, anil Robert R. Livingston of New York, were appointed to draft a declaration of independence, in accordance with Lee's resolution. The declaration was written by Jefferson, the chairman of the committee, and was reported on the 2d of July, on which day Lee's resolution was passed; and on the 4th (July, 1776), the Con- gress adopted the great Declaration of Independence, which proclaimed the Anglo- American colonies free and independent States, under the name of "The IJuited States of America," and which also defined the rights of all mankind. This action of the Congress was approved everywhere throughout English America ; and the 4th of July, 1776, has ever since been remembered by the American people as their countiy's birth-day, and the annual recurrence of the day has been always celebrated witii every demonstration of public enthusiasm. British Forces near New York — Peace Propositions. — A few days before the Declaration of Lulependence, General Howe appeared on Staten Island, with a powerful British force. There, on the 12th of July, he was joined by liis brother. Admiral Lord Howe, with a large fleet from England ; and, on the 1st of August, by Sir Henry Clinton and his land forces from Charleston. In August, 30,000 British troops stood opposed to the American army of 17,000 men. Admiral and General Howe were jointly commissioned to treat for peace ; but only on the condition that the Americans should lay down their arms and submit to the authority of the British Government ; and, as the Americans refused to agree to such a peace, the British oflicors prepared to crush the rebellious colonists at one blow. Battle of Long Island — Escape of the Americans. — On the 22d of August, 1776, a British force of io,opo men landctl on Long Island, near Brooklyn; and on the 27th (August, 1 776), a bloody battle was fought between the British com- manded by Generals Grant, Cornwallis, Clinton, and De Heister, and several thousand Americans under the chief command of General Israel Putnam. The Americans were disastrously defeated, with the loss of 1,600 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Among the Americans who were made prisoners were General Sul- livan and Lord Stirling. Several days after the battle. General Putnam was joined by Washington, with the main body of the American army, from New York City; but on the 30th (August, 1776), the whole American army recrossed from Brooklyn to New York. Washington's Retreat up the Hudson — Skirmish on Harlem Plains. — On the 15th of September (1776), Washington's army evacuated New York City, and retreated up the Hudson, for the purpose of seizing and fortifying Harlem Heights, twenty-two miles above the city. The British pursued, and on the same day a severe skirmish occuiTed on Harlem Plains, in which the Americans were victorious, but at the cost of the lives of Colonel Knowlton, of Connecticut, and Major Leitch, of Virginia. Battle of White Plains — Capture of Fort Washington. — On the 2Sth of October (1776), Howe defeated Washington in the battle of White Plains; after which Washington retreated further northward; and, on the 4th of November, he crossed the Hudson river into New Jersey, for the purpose of saving Philadelphia, where the Congress was sitting. On the i6th of November (1776), Fort Washing- ton was captured by the Hessian general Knyphausen, after a furious assault, in UNITED STATES. 465 which he lost i,ooo men. The 2,000 American troops under Colonel Magaw, who had garrisoned the fort, became prisoners to the victorious Hessians. Flight of Washington's Army across New Jersey. — Two days after the fail of I'ort Washington ( November ]8, 1776;, Lord Cornwallis, with 6,000 British troops, crossed the Hudson into New Jersey, in pursuit of Washington's shattered army. For three weeks, Washington, with only 3,000 men under his command, retreated before the pursuing hosts of Cornwallis, until he reached the Delaware, on the 8th of December, and crossed that stream into Pennsylvania. Howe ordered Cornwallis to wait until the river was frozen over, and then cross on the ice. Battle of Trenton — Its Effects. — Taking advantage of the delay of the ene- my, and having increased his army to 5,000 men, Washington secretely recrossed the Delaware into New Jersey, on Christmas night, and on the following morning (December 26, 1776), he attacked and captured 1,000 Hessians at Trenton. The Hessian commander. Colonel Rahl, fell mortally wounded in the streets of the city. This sudden victory raised the spirits of the desponding patriots, and alarmed Gen- eral Howe, who had supposed that the rebellion was at an end. Howe immediately sent Cornwallis with a considerable force to capture Washington's army. EVENTS OF 1777. Battle of Princeton — Guerrilla Warfare. — On the evening of the 2d of Jan- uary, 1777, Lord Cornwallis appeared a,t Trenton, with a strong British force, and encamped close to Washington's army, which he expected to capture on the follow- ing morning. Washington, however, escaped secretly during the night, and the next morning (January 3, 1777), he defeated a British detachment, under Ojlonel Maw- hood, at Princeton. Among the Americans who were killed was the heroic General Hugh Mercer. After the battle of Princeton, Washington marched to the hills of North-eastern New Jersey, and established his camp at Morristown. He sent out detachments, which, by a system of guerrilla warfare, so annoyed the British that they soon left New Jersey. British Depredations in Connecticut. — About the middle of April, 1777, Governor Tryon, at the head of 2,000 British and Tories, invaded Connecticut, and devastated the southern part of that State. The Connecticut militia, under Generals Wooster, Silliman, and Arnold, attacked Tryon's force at Ridgefield, on the 27th of April (1777). Wooster was killed in the engagement, but the enemy were compelled to retreat hastily to New York. Foreign Officers in America. — During the year 1777, the young Marquis de Lafayette, a wealthy French nobleman, nineteen years of age; the Baron DeKalb, also a Frenchman; and the two brave Poles, Count Pulaski and Thaddeus Kos- ciuszko, arrived in America, to serve the cause of freedom. In the following year, the Baron de Steuben, a skillful Prussian military officer, arrived, and brought effi- ciency to the American army. Movements of Howe and Washington. — The main armies of the British and the Arnericaas commenced actire operations in June. In the latter p>art of that month, Howe's army left New Jersey, and was conveyed by the British fleet down the Atlantic, to the mouth of the Chesapeake bay, and up that bay to its head, where it disembarked; after which it marched eastward, in the direction of Philadelphia. 30 466 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. Washington, in the nicaiUinic, liad crossed Ihc Delaware river, and advanced west- ward to meet Howe. Battle of Brandywine — Massacre of Paoli. — On the banks of the Brandy- wine creek, in Chester county, Pennsylvania, a bloody battle was fought, on the nth of Sci)teml)er, 1777, between the armies of Washington and llowc. Wash- ington was defeated, with the loss of 1,200 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, while Howe lost only 800 men. The next day, the shattered American army re- treated to rhiladcli)hia. In this battle, the young Mar(|nis de Lafayette w;vs severely wounded. On the night of the 20th (September, 1777), General Anthony Wayne, with 1,500 American troops, was attacked at Paoli, by a British force under General Grey. Wayne lost 300 men. This is known as "The Massacre of Paoli." Howe's Army in Philadelphia. — After the battle of Brandywine, Washing- ton made no stand for the defense of Philadelphia against Howe's advancing forces. The Congress left the city, and went first to Lancaster, and then to York, where it asseinl)leil on llie 30th of September (1777), and where it remained in session until the following summer. General Howe look military possession of Pliiladeli)hia on the 26th of Septeml)er, 1777; and the British army established its winler-nuartcrs in the Quaker City. Battle of Germantown — Whitemarsh and Valley Forge. — On the 4lh of October (1777), a severe battle was fought at Germantown, near Philadelphia, be- tween the arniips of Washington and Howe. The Americans were dcfeateil, with the loss of 1,200 men, while the British lost only half that number. The campaign between the main armies closed with the battle of Germantown, and Washington went into winter-quarters at Whitemarsh; but he afterwards removed to Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill river, twenty miles north-west from Piiiladelphia, which city was occupied by the enemy until the following June. British Fleet in the Delaware — Assault on Forts Mifflin and Mercer. — While the events just related were occurring on land, the British (Icct sailed round to Delaware bay, which it aftenvards ascended, on its way to Philadclpljia; but its pass.age was obstructed by I'^ort Milllin, on the Pennsylvania shore of the Delaware river. Fort Mercer, on the New Jei^sey shore, and heavy chevattx-de-frise, in the channel of the river. The forts were unsuccessfully assailed by land troops sent by General Howe to cooperate with the fleet. Fort Mifllin, which was defended by a small American force under Colonel Christopher Greene, repulsed an attack of 2,000 Hessians under Count Donop, who was mortally wounded during the attack. Fort Mercer, garrisoned by a body of American troops under Lieutenant-Colonel Smith, also repulsed the assaults of the enemy; but about the middle of November (1777), both forts were evacuated by their garrisons, and the British fleet sailed up to Phil- adeli)hia. Burgoyne's Invasion of New York — Schuyler's Retreat to the Mohawk. — While the Americans met with misfortunes in Pennsylvania, General Burgoyne, with 10,000 British troops, was marching southward from Canada, along the Western coast of Lake Champlain, toward Albany. Burgoyne took possession of Ticonde- roga, on the 2d of July, the American troops under General Arthur St. Clair, who ihad gami-soued the fortress, having fled, on the invader's approach, to Fort Edward, \which wae tlien held by 3,000 American troops under General Philip Schuyler. UNITED STATES. 467 St. Clair's rear division was dcfcatod by the enemy at Ilubhardton, in the present State of Vermont. The shattered forces of St. Clair joined General Schuyler at Fort Edward, on the 12th of July (1777); and the whole American army of iJic North, then under the command of Schuyler, retreated to the Mohawk river, and established a fortified camp in the vicinity of the Cohoes P'alls. Battle of Bennington. — I'urj^oyne, after reachinf^ Fort Edward, on the 3d of July, sent out a body of Hessians, under Colonel Baum, to seize provisions and cattle which the Americans had collected at Bennington, in the present State of Vermont. Bauni's Hessians were defeated, on the i6th of August, 1777, lse of 1780. On the 17th of January, 1781, a part of Greene's army, under General Daniel Morgan, defeated Tarleton's cavalry, in the battle of the Cowpens, in the north-western part of South Carolina, on which occasion Colonels William A. Washington, of Virginia, and John Eager Howard, of Maryland, l>e- haved very gallantly. After the battle, Morgan retreated toward Virginia with his 500 prisoners, and was pursued by the British army under Lord Cornwall is. Greene soon joined Morgan, and the whole American army made a safe retreat across North Carolina, into Virginia. After the Americans had crossed the Dan river, ComwallLs, greatly dispirited, gave up the pursuit, and took post at HiIlsbor>ugh, in North Carolina. Battle of Guilford Court-House— Battle of Hobkirk's Hill.— After a short rest in Virginia, Greene marched into North Carolina, to opfx^se Comwallis. A bloody battle was fought at Guilford Court-House, near HilLsborough, on the 15th of March, 1781. Greene was driven from the field, but the army of Comwallis suffered severely, and after the battle, it retired to Wilmington, on the Cape Eear river. After the battle of Guilford Court-House, Greene advanced into South Carolina, to oppose the British under Lord Rawdon. On the 19th of April, Greene was defeated by Rawdon, in the battle of Hobkirk's Hill, near Camden. About the middle of May (1781J, four important military posts in South Carolina fell into the hands of the Americans. Siege of Fort Ninety-Six — Siege and Capture of Augpjsta.— On the 22d of May (1781 j, Greene laid siege to Fort Ninety-Six. After vainly attempting for nearly a month to take the fort, Greene relinquished the siege and retired from the place, on the 19th of June, and marched to the High Hills of Santee. American 474 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. troops, under Colonels Pickens, Clarke, and Henry Lee, captured Augusta, mi Georgia, on the 5th of June, 1781, after a siege of twelve days. High Hills of Santee — Battle of Eutaw Springs— British Posts. — During tlie summer of 17S1, Greene encamped on the High Hills of Santee. On the 8th of September, he fought with the English under Colonel Stuart, the battle of Eutaw .Sjjrings. Greene was driven from his position, but during the night, the British licit to Charleston, and the American army reoccuj)ied the battle-field. The American guerrilla parties, under Colonels Marion, Sumter, and Henry Eee, con- fined the enemy to the sea-board; so that at the close of 1781, Charleston and Savannah were the only posts held by the British south of New York. Lord Cornwallis in Virginia — Fortification of Yorktown. — Lord Corn- wallis left Wihniugton, North Carolina, on the 25th of April, 17S1, and arrived at Petersburg, Virginia, on the 20th of May, where he took command of the troops of the deceased General Phillips. Cornwallis moved beyond Richmond, destroying a vast amount of property, but he was compelled to retire before the Americans under General Wayne, Lafayette, and Baron Steuben. Soon afterward, Cornwallis retired to the sea-coast and fortified Yorktown, on the York river, near its mouth. The Allied Armies — Arnold in Connecticut — Washington's March for Virginia. — Early in July, 1781, Washington's army was reinft.)rccd by French troops under the Count de Rochambeau; and an attempt was about to be made to expel the English army, under Sir Henry Clinton, from New York city; but when Clinton was reinforced by 3,000 fresh troops from England, Washington resolved to march into Virginia, for the purpose of driving the British under Cornwallis from that State. After Washington had marched through New Jersey, Clinton sent the traitor Arnold on a plundering expedition into Connecticut, for the purpose of in- ducing Washington to turn back. Although Arnold burned New London, and massacred the American garrison under Colonel Ledyard, at Fort Griswold, Wash- ington continued his march for Virginia. Siege of Yorktown — Surrender of Cornwallis — Clinton's Movements. — On the 2Slh of September, i7Si,the allied American and French armies, under Gen- eral Washington and the Count de Rochambeau, appeared before Yorktown. The Count de Grasse, with a powerful French fleet, arrived in the mouth of the York river, from the West Indies. A vigorous siege of the English works was soon commenced. The besiegers opened a heavy cannonade upon the British works on the 9th of October, and two of the British redoubts were captured by American and French storming parties under Lafayette. Reduced to great extremities, Corn- wallis attempted to escape, on the i6th, with his army, and join Clinton at New York, but was prevented from so doing by a terrific storm ; and three days after- ward (October 19, 1 781), he surrendered Yorktown and his entire army of 7,000 men to General Washington, and his shipping to the Count de Grasse. A few days after the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, Sir Henry Clinton appeared at the mouth of the Chesapeake bay, with 7,000 English troops, to assist Cornwallis; but, being too late, he soon returned to New York, astonished and chagrined. Washington's army returned to the Hudson, while the French troops passed the winter in Vir- ginia. The capture of Cornwallis was hailed by the Americans as a harbinger of peace. UNITED STATES. 475 EVENTS OF 1782 AND 1788. The Peace Party in England — End of Lord North's Administration.— Intelligence of the surrender of Cornwallis struck terror and amazement into the hearts of Lord North and his supporters in the British Parliament. The English people were now fully convinced of the utter impossibility of restoring England's colonial empire in North America. Lord North and his CaJjinct were obliged to resign, and a new Ministry, headed by the Marquis of Rockingham, came into power, and took measures for the restoration of peace. On the 4th of March, 1782, the British House of Commons resolved to end the war in America, and orders were sent to the British commanders to cease from hostilities against the Americans. Preliminary Peace of Paris — Definitive Peace of Paris. — On the 30th of November, 1782, a preliminary treaty of peace was signed at Paris, by English and American commissioners; and on the 20th of January, 1783, French and English commissioners also signed a preliminary treaty. A definitive treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, on the 3d of September, 1783, by British and Amer- ican commissioners, by which Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the United States, to which all the country south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi, as far south as the .Spanish possessions on the Gulf of Mexico, was ceded. On the same day, definitive treaties of peace were concluded between England, France, Spain, and Holland; and the United States took its place as an acknowledged power among the nations of the earth. British Evacuation of America — American Army Disbanded — Wash- ington's Resignation. — The British evacuated Savannah on the llth of July, 1782, Charleston on the 14th of December of the same year, and New York, on the 25th of November, 1783. On the 3d of November, 1783, the American army was disbanded, and the American soldiers returned to their homes, to enjoy the freedom which their valor had won, and to receive the grateful benedictions of their country- men. After an affectionate parting with his officers in New York City, on the 4th of December, Washington proceeded to Annapolis, in Maryland, where the Con- gress was in session; and on the 23d of December (1783), he resigned, into the hands of that body, his commission of commander-in-chief of the armies of the United States; after which he returned to his farm at Mount Vernon, on the banks of the Potomac, carrying with him the esteem and gratitude of his countrymen, and the admiration of the world. Thus Washington, like Cincinnatus, after delivering his country from its enemies, returned to private life. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. Weakness of the General Government of the United States after the War. — When the War of American Independence was ended, and external dan- gers had passed away, the Americans perceived that the Articles of Confederation allowed the exercise of too much sovereign and independent power by the States, and too little by the Congress, thus preventing a Union of States sufficiently strong to entitle the American people to the character or rank of a nation. The Congress had no power to dispose of the immense foreign and domestic debt with which the 476 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. country was burdened; and the States, all financially exhausted by the war, found it extremely difficult to provide means for the payment of the soldiers of the Revo- lution. The Constitutional Convention — Framing of the National Constitu- tion. — In May, 17S7, delegates from all the United States, except Rhode Island, assembled in convention, in the State House, in rhiladelphia, with (jcneral Wash- ington as president, for the purpose of amending the Articles of Confederation, so as to give greater powers to the General Government. Convinced of the utter defects of the Articles of Confederation, the Convention abandoned its former pur- pose of amending them, and applied itself to the task of framing an entirely new instrument. The Convention was impressed with the conviction that a centraliza- tion of greater power in the General Government was essential to the ])ublic wel- fare; and, in September, 17S7, after four months secret deliberation and much con- tention, many conflicting opinions and interests having to he reconciled, and the Convention at one time seeming about to dissolve without accomplishing its grand object, the National Constitution, under which the United States has ever since been governed, was framed, and the Convention submitted the instrument to the States for ratification. THE CONSTITUTION. Three-fold Powers of Government. — The National Constitution invests the Government of the United States with three-fold powers, — legislative, executive, and judicial, — each of which is independent in its own sphere, and each is a coor- dinate branch of the General Government. The legislative power is to enact laws; the executive power to execute them; and the judicial power to interpret them. The Legislative Power — The Senate and House of Representatives. — The Constitution vests the legislative power in a Congress of the United States, which consists of two branches, a Senate and a House of Representatives. The House of Representatives, or Lower House, consists of members chosen for two years by the people of the several States, the Representatives to be apportioned according to the population, which is ascertained every ten years. The Senate, or Upper House, consists of two members from each State, oliosen for six years, by the Legislatures of the States. The States retained the power of domestic legislation ; but the Congress is invested with the power to declare war; to raise and support armies; to levy and collect taxes, duties, imports, and excises; to coin money; to establish post-oflfices and post-roads; to provide and maintain a navy; to call out the militia for the purpose of suppressing Insurrection and repelling invasion; to admit new States into the Union; and to dispose of, and make all needful rules and regu- lations respecting the territory and other public property of the United States. All bills for raising the revenue originate in the House of Representatives, and that branch of the Congress has the sole power of impeachment; but the Senate has the sole power to try all impeachments, and to confirm all treaties and all executive appointments. The Executive Power — The President and Vice-President, — The Con- stitution vests the executive power in a President of the United States, who, with the Vice-President, is chosen for a term of four years, by Electors, equal in number for each State to all its Senators and Representatives in the National Congress. No UNITED STATES. 477 bill passed by the Congress can become a law without the President's .signature, unless repassed by a vote of two-thirds of each branch of that body. The President is also commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States. He must be a native-born citizen; and, before he can enter upon the duties of his office, he must solemnly swear, or affirm, that he will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of his ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States. The President has the power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, and to appoint ambassadors and other public ministers and consuls, Judges of the Supreme Court, and other officers of the United States. The duty of the Vice-President is to preside over the Senate of the United States, but he is allowed no vote unless the Senate is equally divided, in which case he must give the casting vote; and in case of the death, resignation, or removal of the President, the Vice-President must perform the duties of President of the United States. The Judicial Power — The Supreme Court and Inferior Courts. — The Constitution vests the judicial power in a Supreme Court of the United Slates, con- sisting of a Chief-Justice and several Associate-Justices, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may establish. The judges of both the supreme and inferior courts hold their offices during good behavior. The judicial power of the United States extends to all cases arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States, and treaties made with foreign powers ; to all cases of maratime jurisdiction ; to all controversies to which the United States is a party; to all controversies between States; between citizens of different States; between a State and citizens of another State; between a State, or its citizens, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. Various Provisions of the Constitution. — The Constitution defines treason against the United States to consist in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies ; and it provides for the removal of the President and all other civil officers of the United States, on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, and other misdemeanors. Provision is also made for the amendment of the Con- stitution ; and for guaranteeing to every State of the Union a republican form of government, and for the protection of each against invasion or domestic violence. The Constitution is the Supreme Law of the Land, and all civil officers of the United Slates, and of the several States, are bound thereby. ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION. Opposition to the Constitution. — The National Constitution was to go into effect as the Organic Law of the Republic upon its ratification by conventions of the people in nine States. The new instrument met with violent opposition from a large portion of the American people, and two parties were quickly formed upon the question of its adoption or rejection. Those in favor of its adoption were called Federalists, and those opposed to such action were designated Anti-Federalists, Some of the States very reluctantly yielded their assent to the new instrument, and some of the greatest men in America, such as Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry, of Virginia, were strenuously opposed to its adoption, because it deprived the States of too many of their former rights, and centralized too much power in the National Government; but the articles in "The P'cderalist" in favor of its adoption, written by Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, of New York, and James Madison, of Virginia, had a powerful effect upon the public mind. 478 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. Ratification and Adoption of the Constitution — Expiration of the Con- tinental Congress. — After much opposition, the Constitution was finally ratified in 17SS, by the conventions in eleven States, whereupon it became the Supreme Law of the American Republic; and on the 4th of March, 1789, the old Continental Congress expired, and the new National Government went into full operation. Then the Republic of the United States of America commenced its glorious career. THE GROWING AMERICAN UNION. WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION (APRIL 30, 1789- MARCH 4, 1797). Organization of the Government under the National Constitution. — After the National Constitution, by receiving the approval of the people of the requi- site number of States, had become the Supreme Law of the land, George Washing- ton was chosen, by the unanimous vote of the Electors, the first President of the United States, and John Adams, of Massachusetts, was elected Vice-President. The inauguration of Washington took place, on the 30th of April, 17S9, in New York City, in the presence of an immense body of spectators. The First Congress under the new Constitution established three Executive Departments, — War, Treasury, and Foreign Affairs, — the heads of which were to be styled Secretaries, instead of Ministers, as in other countries, and who were to constitute the President's Cabinet, and could be appointed and dismissed at his pleasure. A national judiciary was established, consisting of a Supreme Court, having a Chief Justice and several Associate Justices; also Circuit and District Courts, which had jurisdiction over certain specified cases. Henry Knox was appointed Secretary of War; Alexander Hamilton, Secretan' of the Tre.isury; and Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Foreign Affairs. John Jay was appointed Chief Justice. Financial Measures — National Bank and Mint. — During the second ses- sion of the First Congress, early in 1 790, on the recommendation of Mr. Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, the National Government assumed the public debt con- tracted during the War of the Revolution; also the debts which the several States had incurred during the same period. Congress, during this session, passed an act to remove the seat of the National Government from New York to Philadelphia, where it should continue until the expiration of ten years from that date, when it should be removed to a suitable place on the Potomac. Agreeably to the recom- mendation of Mr. Hamilton, Congress, during its third session, in 179 1, authorized the establishment of a national bank and a mint for coinage, both of which were located at Philadelphia. Admission of Vermont and Kentucky — Settlements in the West. — Already Rhode Island and North Carolina had become memliers of the Union, by adopting the National Constitution; and the number of States was further increased by the admission of Vermont, in Feliruary, 1791, and Kentucky, in June, 1792, into the Union. The vast wilderness west of the Alleghany mountains, which was embraced in the North-west Territory and the Territory South-west of the Ohio, was already becoming peopled. UNITED STATES. 479 Indian War in the West. — In the summer of 1790, the Indians norlh-west of the Ohio, encouraged by British emissaries, began a war against the United States. After vainly attempting to secure peace, the President sent General Ilarmcr with a considerable force against the Indians. In October, 1790, Ilarmer was severely defeated by the Indians, in two battles, near the present town of Fort Wayne, in Indiana. A year later. General St. Clair, Governor of the North-west Territory, marched against the Indians, but was defeated on the 4th of November, 1791, and driven back with the loss of 600 men. General Wayne, who succeeded St. Clair, defeated the Indians so badly, on the 20th of August, 1794, near the present Maumee City, Ohio, that they humljiy sued for peace. In August, I795> a treaty was concluded at Greenville, by which the Indians ceded to the United States a vast extent of territory. From this time until the commencement of the war of 1812 with Great Britain, the North-western Indians lived at peace with the United States. Federalists and Republicans — Washington Re-elected.^ — Before the second Presidental election took jilace, in the fall of 1792, two political jiarties had been organized. The one, called the Republican or Democratic party, headed by Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Sate, advocated the distribution of power among the States and the people. The other, called the Federalist party, headed by Alex- ander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasuiy, advocated the concentration of great power in the National Government. In the election of 1792, Washington was again the unanimous choice of the Electors for the office of President of the Repub- lic, find John Adams was reelected Vice-President. Troubles with the French Minister. — The Republican party sympathized with the Revolutionary party in France, which had executed King Louis XVI., abolished monarchy, and established the political equality of all classes in that country. The French Republic sent as its minister to the United States, M. Genet, who, soon after his arrival in America, fitted out privateers in American ports to prey upon the commerce of England, Spain, and Holland, against which countries, Republican France had declared war. When Washington, anxious to keep the United States free from the complications of European jiolitics, issued a proclama- tion of neutrality, declaring it to be the duty antl the interest of the peo]ilc of the United States to observe a perfectly neutral attitude in regard to the European struggle. Genet tried to arouse the American people agamst their Government; but, at the request of Washington, the French Republic recalled its imprudent minister, and sent M. Fouchet in his place. Whisky Insurrection. — In 1791, Congress passed an act imposing heavy duties u]Kjn liquors distilled in the United Stales. This measure was very unpop- ular, and, in 1794, the people of Western Pennsylvania rose in arms, resisted the Government officers sent to collect the tax, robbed mails, and committed many other outrages. After issuing two proclamations ordering the insurgents to lay down their arms and obey the laws, the President sent General Henry Lee, of Virginia, with a military force sufficient to quell the insurrection. The insurgents immediately submitted, and quiet was restored. This rebellion is known in history as "The Whisky Insurrection." Difficulties with Great Britain — Jay's Treaty. — Unfriendly relations be- tween the United States and Great Britain threatened to end in war, in 1794. The 48o CENTENNIAL HISTORY. United States accused Great Britain of violating the treaty of 1783, by retaining passession of military posts in the North-West Territory, and by withholding in- demnification for negroes carried away at the close of the Revolution; and com- plaint was also made that British emissaries had excited the Indians of the North- West to hostilities against the American people, that to retaliate on France American vessels had been seized by British cruisers, and that American seamen had been impressed into the British naval service. Great Britain complained that the United States did not comply with treaty stipulations respecting the property of Tories, and also in relation to the recovery of debts contracted in England before the Revolution. To settle these difficulties, John Jay was appointed a special envoy to Great Britain. He negotiated a treaty which was violently opposed in the United States, but it was finally ratified by the United States Senate, on the 24th of June, 1794. Algerine Pirates. — For several years, American commerce in the Mediterra- nean sea had suffered from the depredations of Algerine pirates, who seized the merchandise, and held the seamen as slaves, for the purpose of obtaining ransom money. To put a stop to these outrages. Congress, in 1 794, made appropriations for the organization of a navy. In 1795, the United States was obliged to make a treaty of peace with the Dey of Algiers, by which an annual tribute was to be paid for the liberation of captive American seamen. Admission of Tennessee — Election of John Adams. — In June, 1796, Ten- nessee was admitted into the Union of States. The Presidential campaign of 1796 was an exciting one. The candidate of the Federalists was John Adams, and the nominee of the Republicans was Thomas Jefferson. Adams was elected President and Jefferson was chosen Vice-President. JOHN ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1797— MARCH 4, 1801). Adams' Inauguration — Difficulties with France. — Mr. Adams was inaugu- rated on the 4th of March, 1797, as second President of the United States. On account of the unfriendly character of the relations between the United States and France, the President summoned Congress to meet in extra session on the 15th of May following. In July (1797), Congress appointed Charles Cotesworth Pinck- ney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry envoys to France for the adjustment of all difficulties. The French Government refused to receive them until they should pay a large sum of money into the French treasury. This insolent demand was refused with indignation; and two of the envoys, Messrs Pinckney and Marshall, who were Federalists, were ordered to leave France, while Mr. Gerry, who was a Republican, was permitted to remain. Preparations for War with France. — The year 1798 was signalized by pre- parations, on the part of the United States, for war with the French Republic. In May of that year, a large provisional army was authorized; and Washington was appointed commander-in-chief. A small naval armament was raised, and hostilities were begun on the ocean. The American schooner Retaliation was captured by the French frigate Insurgente, but the latter was afterwards captured by the Ameri- can frigate Constellation , commanded by Commodore Truxtun, The firm course -\ CO o" O UNITED STATES. 481 pursued by the United States Government, caused the French Directory to propose a settlement of all difficulties between the two nations. The President sent three envoys, who, Jate in 1799, concluded a treaty of peace with Napoleon Bonaparte, who had a short time previous overthrown the Directory, and made himself ruler of France, with the title of First Consul. Alien and Sedition Laws — Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. — The Federalist party was greatly weakened by the passage of two extremely unpopular acts by Congress, and their approval by President Adams. These were the Alien and Sedition Laws. The Alien Law authorized the President to expel from the United States any alien whose presence he might deem dangerous to the Republic. The Sedition Law authorized the suppression of publications which tended to weaken the authority of the National Government. The Legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky asserted the dangerous doctrine of State Rights, by passing, in opposition to the Alien and Sedition Laws, resolutions in which they declared the rights of the States to judge how far the National Government had a right to go- Death of Washington — Seat of Government at Washington City. — At the close of 1799, the Nation was called upon to mourn the loss of the illustrious Washington, who died at Mt. Vernon, on the 14th of December, 1799. In the summer of 1800, the seat of the Government of the United States was removed from Philadelphia to the new city of Washington, in the District of Columbia. Election of Jefferson, — In 1800, the Federalists nominated John Adams and Charles Cotesworlh Pinckney for the Presidency, while the Republicans nominated Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. This time the Republican party was success- ful; but, as Jefferson and Burr had each the same number of votes, the election was carried to the House of Representatives, when, after thirty-five ballotings, Jefferson was chosen President, and Burr was declared to be elected Vice President. JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1801- MARCH 4, 1809). Inauguration of Jefferson — Admission of Ohio — Purchase of Louisiana. — Mr. Jefferson was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1801; and he commenced the administration of affairs with great vigor and ability. In 1802, Ohio was ad- mitted into the family of States; and in 1803, the United States purchased from France, for fifteen millions of dollars, the immense territory of Louisiana, then ex- tending from the Mississippi river to the Rocky Mountains, and from the British possessions to the Gulf of Mexico. War with Tripoli — Decatur's Bold Exploit — Eaton and Hamet's Ex- pedition. — The insolent conduct of the piratical Barbary States of Northern Africa caused the United States to stop paying tribute to them in 180I, whereupon the Bashaw, or ruler of Tripoli, declared war against the United States. The American frigate George Washington, under the command of Captain William Bainbridge, was sent to the Mediterranean sea, to protect American commerce; and, in 1803, x small American squadron, under Commodore Preble, appeared before Tripoli, where one of his vessels, the Philadelphia, commanded by Captain William Bainbridge, grounded, and was captured by the Tripolitans. In February, 1804, seventy-six Americans, with Lieutenant Stephen Decatur at their head, went into the harbor 482 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. of Tripoli, boarded the Philadelphia, drove the pirates from her deck, and then, under a heavy cannonade from the shore, set the vessel on fire. Decatur did not lose a single man in this bold exploit. A severe naval battle was fought on the 3d of August (1804), which resulted in an American victory; and the city of Tripoli suffered heavy bombardments from the American squadron. The Bashaw of Tripoli, alarmed at the rapid progress of the victors, made peace with Mr. Lear, the Ameri- can consul-general on the Mediterranean. (June 4, 1805.) Reelection of Jefferson — Aaron Burr's Trial for Treason and Acquittal. — In the autumn of 1804, Jefferson was reelected President, and George Clinton, of New York, was chosen Vice President. The great South-west was rapidly be- coming peopled. In 1806, Aaron Burr, who, by killing Alexander Hamilton in a duel, in July, 1804, had come to be detested by a majority of the people of the United States, secretly organized a military expedition in the Ohio region, with the professed object of establishing an independent empire in Northern Mexico, with himself as Emperor. Being suspected of the design of separating the country west of the Alleghany mountains from the Union, he was arrested and brought to trial on a charge of treason, at Richmond, Virginia, in 1807; but, his guilt not being proven, he was accjuitted. Robert Fulton and Steam Navigation, — The experiments of Robert Fulton, a Pennsylvania, in the application of steam to purposes of navigation, resulted in success, in a voyage from New York to Albany, in August, 1807. Condition of Europe — Napoleon, Emperor. — Europe was still convulsed by the wars resulting from the French Revolution ; and at this time the greater part of Continental Europe was under the control of the powerful and victorious Napoleon Bonaparte, who had been created " Emperor of the French," in 1804. While France was triumphant on land. Great Britain, which was engaged in a long and fierce war with her old enemy, was undisputed master of the seas. American Commerce Injured by France and England. — The measures of the two belligerent powers for each other's destruction produced great injury to the commerce of the United States. For the purpose of destroying the commerce of France, Great Britain, by an order-in-council, declared the coast of Continental Europe from the mouth of the Elbe, in Germany, to Brest, in France, to be in a state of blockade. Napoleon retaliated by issuing a decree at Berlin, in November, 1806, declaring the blockade of the ports of the British Islands. American vessels were seized by both English and French cruisers, and American commerce was swept from the ocean. In Januar)', 1807, England, by an order-in-council, pro- hibited the coast trade with France. The American merchants, whose interests were injured by the measures of the two belligerent powers, demanded redress and -protection ; and great excitement prevailed in the United States. France and Eng- land still continued their desperate commercial game, regardless of the rights of neutral powers. On the nth of November, 1807, Great Britain, by an order-in- council, forbade neutral nations from trading with France or her colonies, unless they first paid tribute to England. In retaliation. Napoleon, by a decree issued at Milan, on the 17th of December, 1807, forbade trade with England or her colo- nies, and authorized the confiscation of any vessel that had submitted to English search or paid English tribute. ROBERT FULTON. SAMUEL F. B. MORSE. UNITED STATES. 483 Search and Impressment — The Chesapeake and the Leopard. — Great Britain, denying that any of her subjects could become citizens or subjects of any other nation, claimed the right to search American vessels, and take from them her native born subjects for her navy. This right was denied by the United States. On the 22d of June, 1807, an event occurred which increased the excitement in the United States, and created intense indignation against Great Britain. Four men on board the American frigate Chesapeake, being claimed as deserters from the British armed ship Melampus, and Commodore Barron of the Chesapeake refusing to sur- render them, the Chesapeake was attacked by the British frigate Leopard, off the coast of Virginia. Taken completely by surprise, the Chesapeake surrendered after having lost eighteen men killed and wounded. The four men were taken on board the Leopard, and the Chesapeake returned to Hampton. The matter was investi- gated, when it was proven that three of the seamen were native Americans, and that the fourth, after being impressed into the British service, had deserted. Embargo and Non-intercourse. — In July, 1S07, the President issued a proclamation, ordering all British arm^ vessels to leave the waters of the United States, and forbidding any to enter until Great Britain should render full satisfac- tion for the outrage upon the Chesapeake ; and, on the 22d of December (1807), the National Congress decreed an embargo, which prevented both American and foreign vessels from leaving American ports. Because the embargo was very un- popular in the United States, especially with the merchants, to whose interests it was very injurious, and because it failed to obtain justice from France and England, it was repealed on the ist of March, when all commercial intercourse with those countries was forbidden, until they should either modify or rescind their injurious measures. Election of Madison. — The Presidential election of 1808 resulted in the choice of the Republican candidate, James Madison, of Virginia, for President, and the reelection of George Clinton as Vice-President. MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1809- MARCH 4, 1817). Inauguration of Madison. — Mr. Madison entered upon the duties of President of the United States, on the 4th of March, 1809, when the relations of the Repub- lic with England and France were of the most unfriendly character. On account of the unfavorable aspect of affairs, Congress, at the summons of the President, was assembled in extra session on the 22d of May. Erskine's Assurances of Peace Fail. — Soon after his inauguration. President Madison was assured by Mr. Erskine, the British ambassador at Washington, that a special envoy from Great Britain would soon make his appearance in the United States, to negotiate for a settlement of all the subjects of dispute between the two Governments. Relying upon this assurance, the President proclaimed a renewal of couimercial intercourse with England, but the British Government disavowed Erskine's act, and the President again proclaimed non-intercourse. Continued Injury to American Commerce. — Both France and England continued their desperate commercial game for the ruin of each other, regardless of the interests of other nations. Great Britain refused to rescind her obnoxious 484 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. or(lers-in-council,and Bonaparte firmly adhered to liis Berlin and Milan decrees, so injurious to American commerce; and American vessels continued to be seized by both English and French cruisers. In 1 81 1, Great Britain went so far as to send armed vessels to the coast of the United States, to seize American merchant vessels, and take them to England as lawful prizes. The President and the Little Belt.— On the i6th of May, 181 1, an event occurred which increased the bitter feeling in the United States against England. The British sloop-of-war Little Belt, Captain Bingham, was met and hailed by the American frigate President, Captain Rodgers, off the Coast of Virginia. The Lit- tle Belt immediately answered by a cannon-shot. A short engagement ensued; and when the Little Belt had thirty-two men killed and wounded, her commander gave Captain Rodgers a satisfactory answer. Both Governments approved the acts of their respective officers. Indian Hostilities— Battle of Tippecanoe.— During the spring of 181 1, the Indians of the North-West, led by Tecumseh, a famous Shawnoese chief, and in- stigated by British emissaries, began a war against the United States, for the purpose of expelling the white people from the country north of the Ohio river. In the autumn of the same year. General William Henry Harrison, Governor of Indiana Territory, led about 2,000 troops up the Wabash river, to the mouth of Tippecanoe creek, where the Prophet, a brother of Tecumseh, had assembled many Indian warriors. The Prophet proposed a conference for peace ; but Harrison, suspecting treachery, caused his troops to sleep on their arms that night. (November 6, 181 1.) Before daylight the next morning, the Indians attacked Harrison's camp, but, after a desperate conflict, which lasted until dawn, they were repulsed. This engage- ment is known as the battle of Tippecanoe, and it occurred on the 7th of Novem- ber, 181 1. ■WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN— EVENTS OF 1812. Declaration of War against Great Britain— Doings of Congress.— All efforts made by the United States Government for a peaceful settlement of the difiiculties with England having failed, the President of the United States, by authority of Congress, issued a proclamation, on the 19th of June, 1812, declaring war against Great Britain. The contest which then began is known as " The War of 181 2." Congress made appropriations for carrying on the war, and authorized the President to enlist 25,000 men, to accept the services of 50,000 volunteers, and to call out 100,000 militia for the defense of the sea-coast and the frontiers. Gen- eral Henry Dearborn, of Massachusetts, was appointed commander-in-chief. The other leading generals were James Wilkinson, Wade Hampton, William Hull, and Joseph Bloomfield. These officers had all served in the War of the Revolution. Invasion of Canada — Hull's Surrender at Detroit. — The war commenced with an invasion of Canada, from Detroit, in Michigan Territory, in July, 1812, by about 2.000 American troops under the command of General William Hull, Gov- ernor of Michigan Territory. . When informed that Fort Mackinaw, a strong American post in the North-west, had been surprised and captured by a party of British and Indians, on the 17th of July, and that a small American force under Major Van Home had been defeated on the River Raisin, on the 5th of August, Hull hastily returned to Detroit. Sir Isaac Brock, at the head of 1,300 British and UNITED STATES. 485 Indians, pursued Hull, and, appearing before Detroit, demanded the surrender of that post and Hull's army, threatening in case of a refusal to allow the Indians the unrestrained exercise of their barbarous system of warfare. Hull, greatly alarmed, complied with the demand of the British general; and his army, and the fort at Detroit and the Michigan Territory, fell into the hands of the enemy. Movements on the Niagara Frontier — Battle of Queenstown. — After Hull's surrender at Detroit, the Americans made an attempt to invade Canada on the Niagara frontier. On the 13th of October (1812), a party of Americans crossed the Niagara river into Canada, to attack the British at Queenstown. The invaders captured a battery and made themselves masters of Queenstown Heights; but when the enemy were reinforced by 600 men under Sir Isaac Brock, the British commander-in-chief, and when many of the American militia refused to go to the relief of their countrymen, the Americans were defeated with the loss of 1,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Among those who were taken prisoners by the enemy were Colonel Winfield Scott and Captain John Ellis Wool, who had distin- tinguished themselves by their gallantry. Among the killed on the side of the British was Sir Isaac Brock, their able and heroic commander-in-chief. Victories of the American Navy. — The Americans, though defeated on land, were successful on the sea. On the 13th of August, 1812, the American frigate Essex, Captain David Porter, defeated and captured the British sloop-of-war Alert. On the 19th of the same month (August, 1812), the United States frigate Constitu- tion, Captain Isaac Hull, defeated, captured, and burned the British frigate Guer- riere, off the Gulf of St. Lawrence. On the 18th of October (1812), the United States sloop-of-war Wasp, Captain Jacob Jones, compelled the British brig Frolic to surrender, after a severe conflict, off the coast of North Carolina; but, in the after- noon of the same day, both the Wasp and the Frolic were taken by the British ship Poitiers. On the 25th of October, the American frigate United States, Captain Stephen Decatur, was captured by the British frigate Macedonin, off the Azores Islands. On the 29th of December, the American frigate Constitution, Captain William Bainbridge, compelled the British frigate Java to strike her colors, after a desperate fight of three hours, off the coast of Brazil. Federalist Opposition to the War — Re-election of Madison. — The Fed- eralists were violently opposed to the war ; but they failed in their endeavors to make it unpopular, as the war spirit of the great majority of the people of the United States was fully demonstrated, in the autunrn of i8i2, by the reelection of Madison as President, with Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, as Vice President. EVENTS OF 1813. The American Armies. — The Americans had organized three armies on the Canada frontier, for the campaign of 1813. " The Army of the West," under Gen- era] William Henry Harrison, was near the Western end of Lake Erie; "The Army of the Centre," under General Henry Dearborn, the commander-in-chief, was on the Niagara frontier; and " The Army of the North," under General Wade Hampton, was near Lake Champlain. Massacre of Frenchtown. — The people of the West were resolved to recover Michigan Territory; and so many volunteers from Ohio and Kentucky offered their 486 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. services thai General Harrison found himself obliged to issue an order against further enlistments. On the loth of January, 1813, General Winchester, with 800 Ken- tuckians, reached the Maumee RSpids, and, after a portion of this force had driven the British from Frenchtown, on the River Raisin, in Michigan, on the l8th of January, Winchester arrived with the remainder of the troops on the 20th (January, 1813). General Proctor, with 1500 British and Indians, attacked the Americans at Frenchtown, on the 22d of January, and Winchester surrendered, on condition that his troops should be protected from the Indians; but Proctor, in disregard of his promise, marched away, leaving the sick and wounded Americans to be massacred by the Indians. From that time the war-ciy of the Kentuckians was, " Remember the River Raisin!" Fort Meigs Twice Besieged. — In February, 1813, General Harrison built Fort Meigs, at the Maumee Rapids, where he was besieged at the beginning of May, 1813, by 2000 British and Indians, under Proctor and Tecumseh, who were finally driven away on the 5th of May, when Harrison was reinforced by a body of Kentuckians, under General Green Clay. On the 2 1st of July, 1813, about 4000 British and Indians, under Proctor and Tecumseh, again besieged Fort Meigs, but the garrison, then under the command of General Clay, repulsed the enemy and compelled them to retire. Attack on Fort Stephenson Repulsed. — After their second repulse before Fort Meigs, Proctor and Tecumseh marched against Fort Stephenson, at Lower Sandusky, which they attacked on the 2d of August, but the garrison of 150 men, under Major Croghan, a gallant officer only twenty -one years of age, bravely resisted the assaults of the enemy, who were at last obliged to flee in confusion. Perry's Victory on Lake Erie. — During the summer, the Americans con- structed, at Erie, in Pennsylvania, a squadron of nine vessels, carrying fifty-five guns, which they placed under the command of Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry. The British had prepared a squadron of six vessels, carrying sixty-three guns, commanded by Commodore Barclay. A terrible battle was fought between these two squadrons near the West end of Lake Erie, on the loth of September, 1813. Each squadron had about 500 men. During the battle, which began about noon, Perry was obliged to abandon his flag-ship, the Lawrence, and to transfer his flag to another ship, in the midst of a severe fire from the enemy. Such terrible broad- sides were poured upon the enemy's fleet, that at four o'clock in the afternoon, every British vessel had surrendered to Perry. Perry's dispatch to General Harrison was, " We have met the enemy, and they are ours." Canada again Invaded — Battle of the Thames — End of the War in the West. — After the victory on Lake Erie, Perry's fleet conveyed General Harrison and his army across the Lake to Canada. Harrison advanced upon Fort Maiden, which he found deserted. He pursued and overtook the fleeing British and Indi- ans, under Proctor and Tecumseh, and, at the Moravian Town, on the Thames, he annihilated the whole force of the enemy, on the 5th of October ( 1813). Tecumseh was among the killed. The consequences of this brilliant victory were the recovery of Michigan and the termination of the war in the North-west. Capture of York or Toronto. — On the 27th of April (1813), General Dear- born, after being conveyed across Lake Ontario in Commodore Chauncey's fleet, UNITED STATES. 487 landed with 1700 troops at York, now Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada, and an important depot of British supplies. The place was immediately abandoned by the enemy, who blew up their magazine, thus killing 200 Americans, among whom was the gallant General Zebulon N. Pike, who led the troops against the town. Capture of Fort George — Battle of Stony Creek. — On the 27th of May, the army under Dearborn and the fleet under Chauncey attacked the British at Fort George, in Canada, at the mouth of the Niagara river, and drove them westward for many miles. On the night of the 6th of June, the enemy were repulsed in a sudden attack upon the pursuing Americans, at Stony Creek; but Generals Chandler and Winder, the American commanders, were taken prisoners. Battle of Sackett's Harbor— Battle of Chrysler's Field. — On the 29th of May, 1813, Sir George Prevost, with 1000 British soldiers, landed at Sackett's Harbor, but they were repulsed in an attack upon the town, by the American militia, under General Jacob Brown, and compelled to return hastily to their ships. In August, Dearborn was succeeded in command by General James Wilkinson, who, with 7000 troops, went down the St. Lawrence in boats, early in November, for the purpose of attacking Montreal. Wilkinson landed troops near Williamsburg, on the Canada shore of the St. Lawrence, a little below Ogdensburg, when an indecisive action, known as " The Battle of Chrysler's Field," was fought with the enemy, on the i ith of November (1813). Wilkinson proceeded farther down the river; but when General Wade Hampton refused to cooperate with him, he relinquished his inten- tion of attacking Montreal, and went into winter-quarters at PYcnch Mills. Desolation of the Niagara Frontier. — General George McClure, who then commanded American troops on the Niagara frontier, was so hard pressed by the enemy that he destroyed Fort George, and the neighboring village of Newark, on the loth of December, 1813; and on the 12th, he fled to Fort Niagara, (Jn the New York side of the Niagara river. The British and Indians crossed the river, cap- tured Fort Niagara on the 29th of December, and laid six towns, including Buffalo, in ashes. War with the Creek Indians — Subjugation of the Indians. — In the meantime, trouble had arisen in the South, where the Creek Indians, instigated by Tecumseh, had commenced a fierce war against the white people. On the 30th of August, 1813, the Creeks surprised and destroyed Fort Mimms, on the Alabama river, and put to death 400 men, women, and children, who had sought refuge within its walls. This atrocious deed aroused the indignation of the white people; and Genera! Andrew Jackson marched into the Creek country, at the head of 2000 men, chiefly Tennesseeans, and, in a series of conflicts, beginning in the early part of November, 1813, and ending with the battle of Tohopeka, or Great Horse Shoe, at the close of March, 1 8 14, the Creeks were so thoroughly defeated, and their power was so completely broken, that they were compelled to accept a humiliating peace. The War on the Ocean. — The ocean was the theatre of desperate engage- ments in 1813. On the 24th of February, the American sloop-of-war Iloniet, Captain James Lawrence, captured the British brig Peacock, off the coast of Jamaica after a sharp action of fifteen minutes. The Peacock sunk soon after the fight, carrying with her to the bottom of the sea nine British and three American seamen. 488 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. Captain Lawrence, soon after his return to the United States, was promoted to the command of the frigate Chesapeake ; and on the ist of June, he was defeated and killed, after a bloody struggle of fifteen minutes with the British frigate Shannon, off Boston harbor. Forty-eight of the officers and crew of the Chesapeake were killed, and ninety-eight wounded. As the heroic Lawrence was carried below, he exclaimed, "Don't give up the ship!" The American brig Argtts, Captain Allen, after capturing many British vessels off the English coast, was herself captured, on the 14th of August, 1813, by the British brig Pelican. On the 5th of September, 1813, the American brig Enterprise, Lieutenant Burrows, captured the British brig Boxer, off Portland, Maine. The commanders of both vessels were killed, and their remains were interred, with militaiy honors, in one grave, in Portland. Cockburn's Depredations oir the Atlantic Coast. — During the spring and summer of 18 13, Lewistown, on Delaware bay, and Havre de Grace, Frenchtown, Fredericktown, and Georgetown, on Chesapeake bay, were plundered and burned by a British squadron, under the command of the infamous Admiral Cockbum. After being repulsed in attacks upon Norfolk and Portsmouth, Virginia, in June, 1813, and after committing great outrages at Hampton, Cockbum carried many negroes away from the Carolina coasts, and sold them in the West-Indies. EVENTS OF 1814, AND 1818. Battles at Oswego. — On the 5th of May, 1814, the town of Oswego, in New York, on Lake Ontario, after a fierce engagement, was captured by the British, who, however, withdrew from the towatwo days afterward. (May 7, 1814.) Battle of Chippewa. — On the 3d of July, 1814, the American army under General Jacob Brown, on the Western frontier of New York, crossed the Niagara, with General Winfield Scott and General Ripley, and captured Fort Erie on the same day. Brown advanced northward, along the west bank of the Niagara river, and, on the 5th (July, 1814), he gained a brilliant victory at Chippewa, over the British army, under General Riall. Battle of Lundy's Lane. — The British army, under the command of Lieu- tenant-General Drummond, advanced toward the Niagara, and, at sunset on the 25th of July, 1814, met the American army, under General Brown, at Lundy's Lane, near the thundering cataract of Niagara, where a sangunary battle ensued, which ended at midnight, without a decisive result. Each party had lost over 800 men. Generals Brown and Scott, the American commanders, were both wounded. On the 26th (July, 1814), the American army retired to Fort Erie. Siege of Fort Erie. — On the 15th of August, the British army under Drum- mond attempted to take Fort Erie by assault, but was repulsed with the loss of 1,000 men. After the British had besieged the fort for more than a month, they were driven from their intrenchments, on the 17th of September, by a party of Americans who sallied from the fort. The enemy then retreated to Chippewa; and in November, the Americans destroyed Fort Erie, and recrossed to the New York side of the Niagara river. Invasion of New York — Battles at Plattsburg. — When informed that General Izard, the American commander at Plattsburg, in New York, on Lake Champlain, had gone to the Niagara frontier with 5,000 of his troops to reinforce UNITED STATES. 489 General Brown, leaving only 1,500 under General Macomb at Plattsburg, Sir George Prevost, who commanded 14,000 veteran troops on the St. Lawrence, ad- toward Plattsburg, before which place he appeared on the 6th of September. Each party had, during the summer, constructed a small squadron on Lake Cham- plain. On Sunday morning, September llth, 1814, the British squadron, under Commodore Downie, attacked the American squadron, under Commodore Mac donough, off Plattsburg; and after a fierce engagement of several hours, every British vessel surrendered to Macdonough. On the same day, the British land force of 12,000 men under Prevost, which had attacked the little American army under Macomb, at Plattsburg, was defeated and compelled to retreat hastily toward Canada. Bombardment of Stonington. — In the meantime, the British had blockaded the whole New England coast, and had taken possession of Eastport, Machias, and Belfast, in Maine. A British squadron under Commodore Hardy had bombarded and cannonaded Stonington, in Connecticut, for four days, when the enemy finally withdrew on the 14th of August. Property on the New England coast was de- stroyed by British marauding parties. Invasion of Maryland — Capture of Washington. — About the middle of August, 1 8 14, a British fleet under Admiral Cochrane sailed up the Patuxent, and landed 5,000 troops under General Ross, who defeated the Americans under General Winder, at Bladensburg, on the 24th of August, and, entering Washing- ton City on the same day, burned the Capitol, the President's House, and other public and private buildings, and then quickly returned to their shipping. Attack on Baltimore Repulsed. — Encouraged by their success at Washing- ton, the enemy threatened Baltimore with an attack. With about 8,000 British troops, Ross landed at North Point, on the I2th of September, 1814, and, after a desperate engagement, seven miles from Baltimore, on the same day, in which Ross was killed, the Americans, under General Strieker, were compelled to fall back behind the defenses of Baltimore. The British squadron which had ineffect- ually bombarded Fort McHenry, garrisoned by a few Americans, under Major Armistead, a few miles below Baltimore, finally withdrew with the land troops, on the morning of the 14th (September, 1814), and the attempt to take Baltimore was abandoned. Jackson's Invasion of Florida and Capture of Pensacola. — The subjuga- tion of the Creek Indians by General Jackson did not put an end to the war in the South. The Spaniards of Florida permitted the British to make the town of Pensacola a base of operations. From this point, a force of British troops and fugi- tive Creek warriors marched into Alabama, and attacked Fort Bowyer (now Fort Morgan), below Mobile, on the 15th of September, 1814, but were repulsed with heavy loss. Failing to obtain satisfaction from the Spanish Governor of Florida for sheltering the enemies of the United States, Jackson marched from Mobile, with 2,000 Tennesseans, against Pensacola, which he seized on the 7th of Novem- ber, after driving the British to their shipping, Invasion of Louisiana — Battles near New Orleans. — After returning to Mobile, Jackson was called to New Orleans, to defend that city against an expected attack from the British army and navy. On the 14th of December, 1814, a British 49° CENTENNIAL HISTORY. fleet captured an American flotilla in Lake Borgne. A British army of 12,000 men, under General Pakenham, landed in Louisiana, and soon appeared below New Or- leans. After being repulsed in an attack upon the British camp, on the night of the 23d of December, 1814, Jackson placed his little army of 3000 men, mostly Tennessee militia, behind strong intrenchments, three miles below New Orleans, and extending from the Mississippi river to an impenetrable cypress swamp, where he was soon reinforced by about 3000 Kentucky militia, increasing his army to 6000 men. The British opened a cannonade on the American works on the 28th of December, 1814, and again on New Year's day, in 1815. At length, on the 8th of January, 1815, the whole British army, 12,000 strong, with Pakenham at its head, advanced to open a grand attack upon the Americans, who opened a deadly musketry and artillery fire on the advancing enemy. The British troops at length wavered and began to flee, and, while endeavoring to rally them. General Paken- ham was killed. The whole British army retreated to their ships, and this sanguin- ary battle ended in a glorious victory for the Americans. The British lost 2000 killed and wounded, while the Americans lost only seven killed and six wounded. This victory produced the liveliest joy in the United States. The War on the Ocean. — The war was still continued with vigor on the ocean, during the years 1814 and 1815. On the 28th of March, 1814, the American frigate Essex, Captain Porter, was captured off the port of Valparaiso, on the coast of Chili, in South America, by the British frigate Phoebe and sloop-of-war Cherub. On the 29th of April, 1814, the American sloop-of-war Peacock, Captain Warring- ton, captured the British brig Epervier, off the coast of Florida. The American sloop-of-war Wasp, Captain Blakeley, was lost at sea, after capturing thirteen British vessels, among which were the Peindeer, taken on the 28th of June, and the Avon, on the 1st of September, 1814. On the i6th of January, 1S15, the American frigate President, Commodore Decatur, was captured off Long Island, by a British squadron. On the 20th of February, 181 5, the American frigate Constitution, Commodore Stewart, captured the British sloops-of-war Cyane and Levant, off Lisbon, in Portu- gal, after a spirited engagement. On the 23d of March, 18 15, the American sloop- of-war Hornet, Captain Biddle, captured the British brig Penguin, in the South Atlantic Ocean. Hartford. Convention — Peace of Ghent. — The Federalists had all along been strenuously opposed to the war, and had thrown every obstacle in the way of its prosecution by the Administration. At length, in December, 18 14, a convention composed of delegates from all of the New England States, and called on the recom- mendation of the Legislatures of Massachusetts and Connecticut, assembled at Hart- ford, Connecticut, to consider the grievances of the people caused by the war, and to adopt measures to bring about its speedy termination. The proceedings of this convention, which were secret, were regarded by many as treasonable. Soon after the adjournment of the convention, the Legislatures of Massachusetts and Connec- ticut passed several laws which were in direct opposition to the laws of the United States; and a feared collision between the governments of the States and the National Government was only prevented by the arrival of intelligence that a treaty of peace had been signed at Ghent, in Belgium, on the 24th of December, 1814, by American and British commissioners. The President proclaimed peace on the i8th of February, 1S15. The treaty left unsettled all the issues which had led to the war. UNITED STATES. 4f,I War with Algiers — Commodore Decatur Humbles Algiers. — No sooner was the war with England terminated, than the United States was obliged to engage in a short war with the piratical Barbary State of Algiers, in Northern Africa. Under the impression that the navy of the United States had been almost destroyed by that of Great Britain, the Algerines had become extremely insolent, and com- mitted depredations upon American commerce in the Mediterrranean sea. Com- modore Decatur, who was immediately sent to the Mediterranean with a United States squadron, captured two Algerine vessels on the 17th of June, 1815; and, on the 28th (June, 1815), he appeared before the city of Algiers, and demanded that all Americans held as prisoners should be set at liberty, that all destroyed American property should be indemniiied, and that all claims to tribute from the United States in future should be relinquished. Two days afterward (June 30, 1815), the Dey, or ruler of Algiers, greatly alarmed, assented to Decatur's conditions, and a treaty of peace was signed. Decatur also obtained satisfaction from the rulers of Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco; and thenceforth American commerce was not disturbed in the Mediterranean sea. The United States was the first power that made any determined efforts to stop the piratical proceedings of the Barbary States. Admission of Louisiana and Indiana — Election of Monroe. — Two new States were admitted into the Union during the Administration of Mr. Madison; — Louisiana, in April, 181 2, and Indiana, in December, 1816. In the autumn of 1816, the Republican candidate for President, James Monroe, of Virginia, was elected by a large majority, with Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, as Vice- President. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1817- MARCH 4, 1825). Inaugfuration of Monroe. — Mr. Monroe was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1817. He selected a Cabinet of able men; and entered upon the duties of his ofiice with vigor, at a time when the Republic was recovering from the effects of the late war with England, when American commerce and manufactures were re- viving, and when the nation was starting on a new and glorious career of prosperity, wealth, power, and greatness. Emigration to the West. — Daring the war with England, the prices of various commodities had become so high that the numerous manufacturing estab- lishments in the United States had enjoyed a great degree of prosperity; but when, on the return of peace, British goods flooded the country at low prices, these estab- lishments ceased to flourish, and thousands were compelled to seek other occupa- tions. This sudden change in the pecuniary condition of so many thousands, led to so large and rapid an emigration to the vast region west of the Alleghanies, which awaited the industry of the agriculturist, that in less than ten years, four new and prosperous States had grown up in the recent vast wilderness. Indian War in the South — Cession of Florida. — In the latter part of 1817, the Seminole and Creek Indians began a series of murderous attacks upon the white settlers of Southern Georgia. General Jackson, with some Tennessee troops, marched against the hostile Indians. With the belief that the Creeks were pro- tected by the Spanish authorities of Florida, Jackson marched into that country, 492 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. captured the post of St. Mark's, sent the Spanish authorities to Pensacola, and afterwards to Havana, in Cuba, and hanged Alexander Arbuthnot and Robert C. Ambrister, British subjects, who were known to have excited the Indians to war. These proceedings led to a treaty, by which Spain ceded all of the P'loridas to the United States; and, in February, 1821, that country was organized as a Territory. In 1818, a treaty with Great Britain fixed the boundary line between the United States and British America at forty-nine degrees north latitude, from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. Admission of Five New States — " Missouri Compromise." — Five new States were admitted into the Union during Monroe's Administration : Mississippi, in 1817; Illinois, in 1818; Alabama, in 1819; Maine, in 1820; and Missouri, in 1 82 1. When the proposition for the admission of Missouri was brought forward in Congress, in 1819, angry debates arose as to whether it should be admitted as a Free or a Slave State. This was the first great contest for supremacy in the Repub- lic, between the friends and the opponents of slavery. It was finally agreed, in 1820, by a compromise, tljat Missouri should be admitted as a Slave State, and that slavery should be allowed in all territory south of its southern boundar}', thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes north latitude, and prohibited in all territory north and west of these limits. This is known as "The Missouri Compromise." Under this compromise, Missouri became a State on the 21st of August, 1821. Re-election of Monroe — "The Monroe Doctrine." — In the autumn of 1820, Monroe and Tompkins were reelected President and Vice-President, by an nlmost unanimous Electoral vote. The old Federalist party was almost extinct, and the Administration was very popular. Among the important events of the Admin- istration of Monroe, was the recognition of the independence of Mexico and the South American Republics by the United States, when the President declared, as a principle, " that the American continents are not henceforth to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power." This is known as "The Monroe Doctrine." Visit of Lafayette to the United States. — In August, 1824, the beloved Lafayette arrived in the United States, as the guest of the nation for whose inde- pendence he had fought so valiantly nearly half a century before. During a period of eleven months, he visited twenty States of the Union, being everywhere received with demonstrations of gratitude. When he was ready to leave the Amer- ican shores, the frigate Brandyzvine, in compliment to him, conveyed him back to his delightful France. Election of John Quincy Adams. — In the Autumn of 1824, there were four candidates in the field for the Presidency. As not one of them had received a majority of the Electoral vote, the election was carried to the House of Represen- tatives, when John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, son of President John Adams, was chosen President, and John Cadwell Calhoun, of South Carolina, was elected Vice-President. UNITED STATES. 493 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1825-MARCH 4, 1829). Inauguration of John Quincy Adams — The Georgia Controversy. — John Quincy Adams was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1 825, when the United States was at pe'ace with all the world. In the earlier part of his Administra- tion, there was a controversy between the National Government and the State of Georgia, concerning the removal of the Indians within the borders of that State. The National Government had agreed to remove the Indians to the region west of the Mississippi river, when it could be done peaceably. The Governor of Georgia, assuming State supremacy, threatened to remove them immediately; the National Government interfered in behalf of the Indians, and the difficulty would perhaps have ended in civil war, had not the Indians, in consideration of a large annuity which was to be paid to them from the National treasury, agreed to remove peace- fully to the country west of the Mississippi. Erie Canal^First Railroad in the United States. — John Quincy Adams's Admimistration is celebrated for various internal improvements. The great Erie Canal, which connects the Hudson river with Lake Erie, in the State of New York, was completed in 1825, through the exertions of the distinguished De Witt Clinton. The first railroad in the United States was finished in Quincy, Massachusetts, in 1827. A Strange Coincidence. — The fiftieth anniversary of American Independence, or the 4th of July, 1826, was made memorable by a strange coincidence, which made a profound impression throughout the United Stales. On that day, John Adams died at Quincy, Massachusetts, and Thomas Jefferson, at Monticello, Vir- ginia. These two statesmen had been the most earnest advocates of independence, each had signed the great Declaration, each had been a member of the Congress, afterwards Vice-President, and lastly President of the United States. The American System. — It was during the Administration of John Quincy Adams, that the principle of encouraging home manufactures by imposing duties on foreign articles of the same kind, became a settled national policy in the United States, and was called " The American System." That policy was very popular with the manufacturers of the Northern section of the Union ; but the planters of the cotton-growing States, who found a ready market for their cotton in England, opposed it. A tariff enacted in 1828, was made to appear very unjust to the Southern planters, by John C. Calhoun and other Southern politicians, who taught the doc- trines of "State Rights" and "Nullification." Election of Jackson. — In the Presidential election of 1828, General Andrew Jackson, of Tennes.see, was chosen President of the United States, and John C. Cal- houn, of South Carolina, was reelected Vice-President. JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1829- MARCH 4, 1837). Inauguration of Jackson — His Collision with the Supreme Court. — General Jackson was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1829, seventh President of the United States. He formed a Cabinet from his political friends; and entered 494 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. upon the duties of his exalted station with a determined will, and with incorruptible integrity. In 1832, President Jackson came into collision with the Supreme Court of the United States, respecting the removal of the Creek and Cherokee Indians from Georgia. The authorities of Georgia threatened to remove them Ijy force ; and when the Supreme Court decided against the claims of that State, the President sided with the authorities of Georgia, and procured the removal of the Indians beyond the Mississippi river. The United States Bank — Removal of the Public Money. — In his first annual message to Congress, in December, 1S29, President Jackson expressed him- self strongly against a renewal of the charter of the United States Bank, which would expire in 1836; and, although Congress refused to authorize the removal of the public funds from the United States Bank, as recommended by the President, he caused the Secretary of the Treasury to remove them, in 1833. The result of this measure was great excitement and a terrible financial and business convulsion throughout the country. Black Hawk War. — In the spring of 1832, the Sac, Fox, and Winnebago In- dians, in Wisconsin Territory, led by the famous chief. Black Hawk, commenced a destructive war on the frontier settlements of Northern Illinois. The Indians were completely subdued in August of the same year (1832), by United States troops under General Scott and Illinois militia under General Atkinson. Black Hawk was made prisoner, and taken to the principal Eastern cities, in order that he might be impressed with the number and power of the white people. Trouble with France — Re-election of Jackson. — At the close of Jackson's first term, a serious difficulty between the United States and France threatened to end in a war between the two nations. The French Government did not promptly comply with the agreement to indemnify the United States for French spoliations on American commerce during the wars of Napoleon. But the resolute stand taken by President Jackson caused France to pay the claims justly demanded by the United States; and the difficulty ended. In the autumn of 1S32, Jackson was reelected President, with Martin Van Buren, of New York, as Vice-President. Rebellion in South Carolina — Compromise Tariff. — The tariff-law of 1828 was still a source of bitter complaint in the Southern States; and in November, 1832, South Carolina, through a State convention assembled at Charleston, declared the tariff-laws to be unconstitutional, null and void. Assuming that the enforce- ment of those laws would be a sufficient cause for South Carolina to separate herself from the Union, that State prepared to resist the collection of duties in the port of Charleston by force of arms. At this crisis. President Jackson issued a proclama- tion against the South Carolina nullifiers, with John C. Calhoun and Robert Y. Hayne at their head, declaring that he would enforce the laws of the United States by military power, if necessary. The threatened civil war was prevented by a compromise prepared by Henry Clay, of Kentucky, the author of the Missouri Com- promise, and one of the warmest friends of the tariff system ; and, on the 3d of March, 1833, a law went into operation which greatly reduced the duties so obnox- ious to the Southern planters. War with the Seminole Indians in Florida — " Specie Circular." — When, in December, 1835, the United States Government attempted to remove the ,^'^f^^-Li:. ANDREW JACKSON JOHN C. CALHOUN. UNITED STATES. 495 Seminole Indians from Florida to the Territories west of the Mississippi, in accord- ance with a treaty which had been concluded with a few chiefs, that fierce tribe began a war against the United States. On the 28th of December, 1835, a band of Seminoles, with their famous chief, Osceola, at their head, killed General Thomp- son and five of his friends, near Fort King. On the same day, another party of Seminoles attacked 100 men under Major Dade, and killed all but four of them. On the 30th of December, 1835, General Clinch defeated the Seminoles on the banks of the Withlacoochee ; and on the 29th of Februar>', 1836, General Gaines defeated them near the same place. On the nth of July, 1836, a circular was issued from the Treasury Department, requiring collectors of the public revenue to receive only gold and silver in payment. This circular, known as " The Specie Circular," created much bitter feeling against President Jackson. Admission of Arkansas and Michigan — Election of Van Buren. — Two new states were admitted into the Union during the Administration of General Jackson; — Arkansas, in June, 1836, and Michigan, in January, 1837. In the autumn of 1836, Martin Van Buren, of New York, the Democratic candidate for the office of President of the United States, was elected. As the people had failed to elect a Vice-President, Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky, was chosen as such by the United States Senate. VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1837- MARCH 4, 1841). Inauguration of Van Buren — Financial Convulsion. — Mr. Van Buren was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1837, at a time when the country was on the brink of a terrible financial and business convulsion. During March and April of that year (1837), there were mercantile failures in the city of New York to the amount of over one hundred millions of dollars. The effects of these failures were felt throughout the whole country, and credit and confidence were destroyed. The banks suspended specie payment. The National Government could not call in its deposits, or collect its duties in specie ; and the National treasury was empty. The State of Mississippi and the Territory of Florida repudiated their debts. The Seminole War. — The Seminole war in Florida still continued. In March, 1837, some of the Seminole chiefs made a treaty of peace with General Jessup, but it was soon broken by the treacherous Osceola, who was in consequence seized by stratagem, in October, 1837, and imprisoned in Fort Moultrie, where he died. On Christmas day, 1837, Colonel 21achary Taylor defeated the Seminoles near Lake Okechobee. This destructive war ended in 1842, after a continuance of seven years. Rebellion in Canada. — The peaceful relations between the Governments of the United States and Great Britain were disturbed in 1837, by a rebellion in Canada, which had for its object the establishment of the independence of that countr)'. The leaders of the revolt were Louis Joseph Papineau, in Canada East, and William Lyon Mackenzie, in Canada West. Great Britain was offended because hundreds of citizens of the United States crossed the borders of New York into Canada, to aid the rebellious Canadians. The danger of war was averted by the prompt action of the President of the United States and of the Governor of 496 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. New York, who issued proclnmalions declaring that all who crossed the border to aid the insurgents, would forfeit all claims to the protection of the Government of the United States. The Maine Boundary Dispute. — The peace between the United States and Great Britain was also threatened by a dispute about the boundary between the State of Maine and the British Province of New Brunswick. The inhabitants of Maine and New Ikunswick were only prevented from settling the dispute by an appeal to arms, by the conciliatory course of General Scott, who had been sent to the border by the United Stales Government to preserve peace. The boundary line was finally settled by a treaty, negotiated at Washington, in 1842, by Daniel Webster on the part of the United States, and Lord Ashburton on the part of Great Britain. Election of Harrison. — The financial convulsions of this and the preceding Administration ]M()(luccd such a change in the minds of the people of the United States, that the Whig candidate for the Presidency of the Republic, in 1840, Gen- eral William llenry Harrison, of Ohio, was elected by an overwhelming majority, with John Tyler, of Virginia, as Vice-President. HARRISON'S AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1841-MARCH 4, 1845), Harrison's Inauguration and Death. — General Harrison took the oath of office on tlie 4th of March, 1841, as ninth President of the United States. On the 17th of March (1841), the new President issued a proclamation calling an extra session of Congress, to begin on the 31st of May, of that year. The hopes of the people of the United States that a new career of prosperity was about to dawn upon the Nation by a change of policy, were soon dispelled by the death of President Harrison, which occurred on the 4th of April, 1841, just one month after his in- auguration. Tyler Made President — His Rupture with his Party. — In accordance with the requirements of the N.ational Constitution, the Vice-President, John Tyler, was immediately inaugurated President of the United States. The extra session of Congress called by Harrison, commenced on the 31st of May, and ended on the 13th of September. (184 1.) Two bills which had been passed for the re-charter of the United States bank were vetoed by President Tyler. All the members of the Cabinet, with the exception of Daniel Webster, Secretary of State, dissatisfied with the action of the President in respect to the bank, charging him with vioKiting the pledges which he had made to the party which had elected him to the Vice- Presidency, immediately resigned their offices. Troubles in Rhode Island. — The year 1842 is noted for domestic troul^les in Rhode Island, whicli threatened to involve that State in civil war. The difficulty was about the exchange of the old charter, granted by King Charles II. in 1663, for a new State constitution. The people of the State were all in favor of the adoption of a new constitution; but with regard to the mode of adoption there were two p.irties, known respectively as the Law and Order party and the Suffrage party. The Law and Order party chose Samuel W. King for Governor, while the Suffrage p.arty elected Thomas W. Dorr. Each of these claimed to be the legal Governor; UNITED STATES. 497 and liloodslied was only prevented Iiy United Stales troops who had been sent tlierc to preserve order. A new constitution was ado[jted the same year (1842), and went into operation in 1843. The Texas Question— Election of Polk. — Tlie question of the admission, as a State of the Union, of the independent Reind;lic of 'I'exas, which had achieved its independence of Mexico in the battle of San Jacinto, in April, 1836, after a bloody war, was warmly discussed in the United States during the last year of Tyler's Administration. The annexation of this Reindjiic, in which slavery existed, was violently opposed in the Northern States, because it would increase the terri- torial extent and j)olitical power of slavery; while it was advocated in the Southern States for that very rea.son. In the autumn of 1844, James Knox Polk, of Tennessee, who was \\\ favor of the rnncxation of Texas, was elected President of the United States, with George Mifflin Dallas, of Pennsylvania, as Vice-President. Electro-Magnetic Telegraph — Admission of Florida and Iowa. — The first use ever niafle of the Electro-Magnetic Telcgrai)h, — the invention of Professor Samuel Finley Brecse Morse, — was in 1S44, in sending to Washington the account of the proceedings of the Democratic National Convention at Baltimore, which nominated Mr. Polk as a candidate for the Presidency. On the 3(1 of March, 1845, the d.ay before he retired from the Presidency, Mr. Tyler signed a bill for the admission of Florida and Iowa into the Union (jf Slates. POLK'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1845- MARCH 4, 1849). Inauguration of Polk— Oregon Boundary Dispute. — Mr. Polk was inaugu- rated on the 4th of March, 1845, at a period when the United St.-xtcs had a serious dispute with Great Britain in regard to the possession of the Territory of Oregon, on the Pacific coast. The territory was claimed by both Great Britain and the United .States ; but the difficulty, which at one time threatened to end in war, was settled in 1846, by a division of the territory, giving to Great Britain all that portion rkorth of forty-nine degrees north latitude, and to the United States all that portion south of these limits. Admission of Texas — Rupture with Mexico. — On the 4lh of July, 1845, the Government of Texas formally approved of the joint-resolution of the Q>ngress of the United States for annexation, and that Republic became a .State of the American Uraon. Mexico, which had never acknowledged the independence of Texas, and which still regarded that country as a part of her territory, immediately prepared for war with the United States, and recalled her minister. General Almonte, from Washington. General Taylor in Texas. — President Polk now ordered General Zachary Taylor to advance into Texas with 1500 troops, to protect that State from invasion, and to lake post near the Rio Grande, as an army of observation. In March, 1846, Taylor left his camp at Corpus Christi, and, having established a depot of supplies at Point Isabel, advanced to the mouth of the Rio Grande, opposite the Mexican city of Matamoras, where he erected Fort Brown. 32 498 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 'WAR WITH MEXICO (1846-1848). First Bloodshed in the War with Mexico. — Being informed that the Mexi- cans were crossing the Rio Grande above Fort Brown, Taylor sent sixty dragoons, under Captain Thornton, to reconnoitre. These were surprised, on the 26th of April, 1846, by the Mexicans, and, after losing sixteen men, were made prisoners, Captain Thornton alone escaping by a leap of his horse. This was the first blood- shed in the war between the United States and Mexico. Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. — Leaving a small garrison in Fort Brown, Taylor marched back to Point Isabel, which was threatened by the Mexicans. While on his return to Fort Brown, Taylor, at the head of 2000 men, met 6000 Mexicans under Arista, at a prairie called Palo Alto, on the 8th of May ; and, after a desperate battle of five hours, during which he lost only fifty-three men, Taylor gained a glorious victory. On the following day (May 9, 1846), Taylor again defeated the Mexicans with a loss of 1000 men, at Resaca de la Palma. By these two battles the Mexican army was virtually annihilated. Declaration of War against Mexico— Plan of a Campaign. — On the nth of May, 1846, the Congress of the United States declared that "war existed by the act of the Republic of Mexico," and appropriated ten millions of dollars to carry on the war, and authorized the President to call out 50,000 volunteers. The Sec- retary of War and General Scott planned the military operations. A fleet was to sail around Cape Horn and attack the Pacific coast of Mexico; an "Army of the West," under General Stephen W. Kearney, was assembled at Eort Leavenworth, to invade New Mexico, and to cooperate with the Pacific fleet; an "Army of the Centre," under General John Ellis Wool, was collected at San Antonio de Bexar, in Texas, to invade Mexico from that point; and "The Army of Occupation," under General Taylor, was largely reinforced by the new volunteers. Invasion of Mexico — Capture of Matamoras and Monterey. — On the 18th of May, 1846, General Taylor crossed the Rio Grande into Mexico, and took possession of the city of Matamoras. In August (1846), Taylor, at the head of 6,000 men, marched against the city of Monterey, which, after a siege and assault of four days, he captured, on the 24th of September, with its garrison of 9,000 Mexi- can troops under General Ampudia. After this triumph, Taylor advanced farther into Mexico; and, after being joined by General Wool, he look possession of Vic- toria, the Capital of the State of Tamaulipas, on the 29th of December. Battle of Buena Vista. — Early in 1847, ^ large part of Taylor's army was sent to assist General Scott in the siege of Vera Cruz, so that Taylor was left in command of only 5,000 men, to oppose 20,000 Mexicans gathering at San Luis Potosi, under General Santa Anna. On the 23d of February, a fierce battle was fought between the armies of Taylor and Santa Anna, at a plantation called Buena Vista, eleven miles from Saltillo. The Mexicans, although four times as numerous as the Americans, were badly defeated, and compelled to flee during the night and leave their dead and wounded on the field of battle. The Americans were now masters of all Northern Mexico; and in September, 1847, Taylor left his army in command of General Wool, and returned to the United States. The Conquest of New Mexico and California. — The Army of the West under General Kearney took formal possession of New Mexico, at Santa Fe, its WINFIELD SCOTT. 7A/^UAnV TA\/I r\r~i UNITED STATES. 4^0 capital, on the 1 8th of August, 1846. Leaving the greater part of his force with Colonel Doniphan at Santa Fe, Kearney, at the head of 100 men, hastened to take possession of the Mexican province of California, on the Pacific coast. While on his way to California, Kearney learned, by a messenger, that the conquest of that country had already been accomplished by Colonel John Charles Fremont, with a few United States troops, assisted by the United States navy, under Commodores Sloat and Stockton. On the iSlh of February, 1847, Kearney proclaimed the an- nexation of California to the United States. Doniphan's Exploits in Mexico — The Conquest of Northern Mexico. — In accordance with the orders of General Kearney, Colonel Doniphan, with 1,000 Missouri volunteers, forced the Navajo Indians to make a treaty of peace with the United States, on the 22d of March, 1846, and then proceeded to join General Wool. Doniphan defeated the Mexicans, under General Ponce de Leon, at Bracito, on Christmas day, 1846; and at Sacramento, on the 28th of February, 1847, he gained a victory which gave him possession of Chihuahua, a city of 40,000 inhab- itants, and the capital of the State of the same name. After a march of 5,000 miles, Doniphan joined General Wool at Saltillo, on the 22d of March, 1847. The con- quest of Northern Mexico and California was now complete; and General Winfield Scott had just commenced, at Vera Cruz, a campaign which ended in the reduction of the Mexican capital and the military occupation of the heart of the Mexican Republic. Siege and Capture of Vera Cruz. — On the 9th of March, 1847, a United States army of 12,000 men under General Scott, and a squadron under Commodore Conner, appeared before Vera Cruz, and soon completely invested the city. After a vigor- ous siege and bombardment, the city of Vera Cruz and the neighboring castle of San Juan de Ulloa, together with 5,000 Mexican troops aud 500 cannon, were sur- rendered to Scott, on the 26th of March. (1847.) Battle of Cerro Gordo. — After the capture of Vera Cruz, Scott's army marched toward the city of Mexico. At Cerro Gordo, a difficult mountain pass, Scott de- feated Santa Anna, who was at the head of 12,000 troops strongly intrenched. The Mexicans lost 4,000 killed and wounded, and 3,000 were made prisoners by the Americans. The Mexican army was completely broken up, and Santa Anna fled on a mule. The March toward the Mexican Capital — Rest at Puebla. — After their victory at Cerro Gordo, the Americans continued their advance toward the capital of the Mexican Republic, took possession of Perote, the strongest fortress in Mex- ico, on the 22d of April, 1847, and on the 5th of May entered Puebla, a city of 80,000 inhabitants, where they rested until August, after a series of victories almost unparalleled in the annals of war. The March toward the Capital Resumed. — After having received rein- forcements, Scott left Puebla, on the 7th of August, 1847, ^"^ resumed his march toward the Mexican capital; and on the loth (August, 1847), the American troops saw the extensive valley of Mexico before them. Lakes, plains, cities, and cloud- capped mountains burst upon their gaze. Away in the distance was seen the great city of the Montezumas, with its lofty domes and towers. But between that city and the American army, were strong fortifications, and a Mexican army of 30,000 men, under Santa Anna, to be overcome. 500 CENTENNIAL HIS TOR Y. Battles of Contreras, San Antonio, and Churubusco. — On the 20th of Au- gust, 1S47, ^^^ American army, after a bloody struggle, carried the Mexican camp of Contreras by assault. On the same day, the Americans took the strong fortress of San Antonio, and gained a brilliant victoiy over the Mexicans at Churubusco. Santa Anna's army, virtually annihilated, fled to the capital. During this bloody day, the Mexicans lost 4,000 men killed and wounded, and 3,000 were made prisoners by the victorious Americans. An Armistice — Treachery of Santa Anna. — Scott now offered the Mexicans peace. Santa Anna asked for an armistice, which Scott granted; but, when in- formed that the treacherous Mexican general was improving the time by strength- ening the defenses of the capital, the American commander declared the armistice at an end, on the 7th of September. (1847.) Capture of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec — Fall of the Capital. — The victorious Americans took by storm the strong position of Molino del Rey, on the 8th of September,* and the lofty fortified hill of Chapultepec, on the 13th of the same month; and, on the 14th (September, 1847), Scott entered the Mexican capi- tal in triumph, and by his orders the Stars and Stripes were placed on the National Palace. Order was soon restored in the city. Santa Anna and the authorities of the Mexican Republic had fled. Peace of Guadaloupe Hidalgo. — .\ treaty of peace between the Governments of the United States and Mexico was concluded at Guadaloupe Hidalgo, on the 2d of February, 1848; and President Polk proclaimed peace on the 4th of July of the same year. By the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, New Mexico and California became Territories of the United States, while the United States Government agreed to pay to Mexico fifteen millions of dollars for the ceded territory, and to assume the debts due by the Mexican Government to American citizens. Admission of Wisconsin — General Taylor Elected President. — In May, 1S48, Wisconsin was admitted into the Union as a State. In the autumn of the same year. General Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, whose great military achievements in Mexico had made him a popular favorite, was elected President of the United States, with Millard Fillmore, of New York, as Vice-President, SLAVERY AGITATION AND THE CIVIL WAR. TAYLOR'S AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATIONS (MARCH 4, 1849-MARCH 4, 1853). Inauguration of Taylor — Slavery Agitation. — As the 4th of March, 1849, fell on the Sabbath, the inauguration of President Taylor did not take place until the 5th. The agitation of the slavery question was revived during the first year of Taylor's Administration, by the action of the people of California, who, in a con- vention held at San Francisco, framed a State constitution by which slavery should be excluded from California forever after its admission as a .State. Threatened Dissolution of the Union — A Compromise. — When, in Feb- ruary, 1850, the representatives of California petitioned Congress to admit their Territory into the Union as a State, the friends of slavery in Congress violently op- HENRY CLAY. UNITED STATES. 501 posed her admission as a Free State, and boldly declared that such a proceeding would be a valid reason for the Slave States to secede from the Union. The bold threats of the members of Congress from the Slave States alarmed the friends of the Union so much that they became ready to acquiesce in any measure, and Henry Clay brought forward a plan of compromise in the United States Senate. A committee of thirteen, composed of six Senators from the PVee States and six from the Slave States, with Mr. Clay as chairman, was appointed to consider the plan of compromise; and, on the 8th of May, 1S50, Mr. Clay rejxirted a compromibc bill. Death of President Taylor — Fillmore Inaugurated President. — While the slavery question was absorbing the attention of Congress and the Nation, ['resi- dent Taylor was attacked by a sudden illness, of which he died on the 9th of July, 1850. In accordance with the provisions of the National Constitution, the Vice- President, Millard Fillmore, took the oath of ofifice on the following day, and immediately assumed the duties of President of the United States. The Compromise Act — Admission of California. — After four months' discussion, Mr. Clay's compromise measures were passed by both Houses of Con- gress, and, after receiving the signature of President Fillmore, on the 9th of Sep- tember, 1850, became a law of the Republic; and California entered the Union as a Free Slate. The Compromise Act, as it was called, provided, 1st. For the admission of California as a Free State ; 2d. For the erection of the Mormon settle- ments into a Territory called Utah, without mention of slavery; 3d. For the erection of New Mexico into a Territory without mention of slavery, and the payment of ten millions of dollars to Texas in purchase of her claims to a large portion of New Mexico; 4th. For the abolition of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia; and 5th. For the arrest and return to their masters of all fugitive slaves who should escape to the Free States. The last measure met with much opposition in the Free Slates, and the execution and violation of the law in several instances led to serious results. Election of Pierce. — The Presidential election of 1853 was a remarkably quiet one, and resulted in the choice of the Democratic nommees, Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, for President, and William Rufus King, of Alabama, for Vice- President. PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1853- MARCH 4, 1857). Inauguration of Pierce — Dispute with Mexico. — Mr. Pierce was inaugu- rated on the 4lh of March, 1853. For a time, during the earlier part of his Admin- istration, another war between the United States and Mexico seemed inevitable. The fertile Mesilla Valley was claimed by both fhe Territory of New Mexico and the Mexican State of Chihuahua; and Santa Anna, who had again become Presi- dent of Mexico early in 1854, caused Chihauhua to take armed possession of the disputed territory. The dispute was settled in 1854 ; and the Mesilla Valley came, by purchase, into the possession of the United States. Exploring Expeditions — Commercial Treaty with Japan. — During Pierce's Administration, naval expeditions were sent by the United States Government to 502 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. explore the North Pacific Ocean, between the Pacific shores of America and Asia. Land expeditions were sent across the continent, to ascertain the most practicable route for a railroad to the Pacific Ocean. In the summer of 1854, a treaty of commerce and friendship was made with the Emperor of Japan, by Commodore Matthew C. Perry on the part of the Government of the United States. Agitation of the Slavery Question — The Kansas-Nebraska Act. — The agitation of the slavery question was suddenly revived in the beginning of 1854, by a bill reported in the United States Senate by Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, Chairman of the Senate Committee on Territories, proposing the organization of the vast region between the Missouri river and the Rocky mountains into two Ter- ritories, one to be named Kansas and the other Nebraska, and leaving the people of those Territories to decide whether or not they would have slavery within their borders. The passage of this bill would, in effect, annul the Missouri Compromise, and for this reason it was violently opposed in the Free States, where the greatest' excitement prevailed, and where public meetings were held by men of all parties, to protest against the measure. The bill was, however, passed, in March, 1854, and thus the Missouri Compromise was virtually repealed. The most bitter sectional feeling was beginning to be felt between the North and the South. Civil War in Kansas. — The pro-slavery men of the Slave States now deter- mined to make Kansas slave territory by colonizing it with emigrants from their section of the Union, while the anti-slavery men of the Free Slates resolved to secure the Territory to freedom by peopling it with settlers holding their views. A heavy emigration to Kansas at once set in from both the Free and the Slave States, and, as a natural consequence, there was civil war in the Territory for several years. Formation of the Republican Party — Election of Buchanan. — The repeal of the Missouri Compromise, and the encroachments of the slave power, led to the formation of a new political organization, called " The Republican Party," whose leading principle was opposition to the extension of slavery into the Territories of the Republic. This party, which had its entire strength in the Free States, nomi- nated Colonel John Charles Fremont, of California, for the Presidency, in 1856. The Democratic party, which had its chief strength in the Slave Slates, nominated James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania. The American or Know-Nothing party, which was opposed to foreign influence in American affairs, nominated ex-President Millard Fillmore, of New York. The result of the election was the choice of James Buchanan for President, and John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, for Vice-President. BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1857- MARCH 4 1861). Inauguration of Buchanan — The Bred Scott Decision.— James Buchanan was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1857, fifteenth President of the United States. Two days after his inauguration, Chief-Justice Taney gave a decision in the Supreme Court of the United States, that no freed negro-slave, nor the descend- ant of a slave, could become a citizen of the United States, and that "the negro had no rights which the white man was bound to respect." This was called "The Dred Scott Decision," because it was rendered in the case of Dred Scott, who UNITED STATES. S^S had once been a slave in Missouri, but who now claimed to be free, on account of havin^^ been taken by his master into a Free State. Threatened Rebellion of the Mormons in Utah.-Early in 1857. Ae Mor- mons in the Territory of Utah threatened to rebel against the Nat.onal Government. Tecause Congress rlsed to admit their Territory as a State of ^he Un.on The President Z a body of troops, under Colonel Joseph E. J^^-ton. to enforce^h laws of the United States, and to suppress any attempt at rebellion m Utah. The difficulty was settled, however, without bloodshed. The Political Contest in Kansas-Admission of Kansas, Minnesota, and Oregon -The Dred Scott decision aroused the agitation of the slavery ' ii?n n an its intensity, and the greatest excitement prevailed in the Free States K57. measures were taken for the admission of Kansas mto the Umon ^ a State A State constitution which excluded slavery from Kansas was framed at Toteka by the anti-slavery party; while the pro-slavery party framed a constitution at Lecompton tolerating slavery within the Territory. Although the people of KatasTdected the pro-slavery constitution, in January. 1858. by ten thousand ^ or y, he President! in a message to Congress, recommended its acceptance by Z b dy. Congress, however, justly decided that it should be left to a vote of the ZlZoi the Territory, who again rejected it by ten thousand majority; and on fl!r,oth of Tanuarv 861, Kansas was admitted into the Union as a Free State. T^tLr St^wie admitted into the Union during Buchanan's Administration; -namely, Minnesota, in 1858, and Oregon, in 1859. The Personal Liberty Laws-Reopening of the African SJave-Trade _The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 was still obnoxious to the great body of the people of the Free States; and, to guard against any abuses of the law. the Leg s 'atur s of New York, Ohio, Maine, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Michigan, and W.s- conX passed what were called "Personal Liberty Laws." ^unng the Adm^^^^^^ tration of Buchanan, efforts were made by influential individuals in the Slave S ate to eopen the African slave-trade. Native Africans were landed on the coa.s s of the Southern States, in defiance of the laws. In Louisiana attemps were made to eeaize the trade, under what was called " The African Apprentice System; and the Grand Jury o Savannah openly protested against the laws when obliged to find b-lls alins sle persons engaged in the illegal slave-trade These proceeding^ creaTed the slave'ry agitation, and strengthened the ^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^f" ^^ opposed to the extension of slavery into the Territories of the United States. John Brown's Insurrection in Virginia-Execution of Browr.-In the auimn of 1859, great excitement was produced in the Slave States by the foolish a^lmpt of the'LLiastic John Brown, who had been a leading ant-laver^ -n in Kansas, to liberate the slaves of Virginia. On the night of October i6th (.859 . at the head of a few followers, Brown sei^ed the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, intend- g to am such slaves as approached. Brown did not succeed, however, in excitmg a file insurrection ; and. being overpowered and made prisoner by V-gima md. tia and United States troops under Colonel Robert Edmund Lee. he was tried on le charges of treason, murder, and exciting slaves to insurrection, and was hanged rl the 2d of December. 1859, under the laws of Virginia. It was thought by the pLple o? he rr Sta es St Brown was only the agent of a large party m the 504 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. Free States who had formed a plot to free all the slaves; and, during the next session of Congress, a committee, with Mr. Mason, of Virginia, the author of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, as chairman, was appointed in the United States Senate to investigate the matter, when it was proven that Brown had no other accomplices than his immediate followers, fifteen or sixteen in number. Election of Lincoln. — There were four candidates for the Presidency in i86o. The portion of the Democratic party from the Free States nominated Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, while the portion from the Slave States nominated John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky. A new party, called " The Constitutional Union Party," nominated John Bell, of Tennessee. The Republican or anti-slavery party nomin- ated Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois. The election was decided in favor of Abraham Lincoln for President, and Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, for Vice-President. Conspiracy of Southern Politicians. — No sooner was the election of Mr. Lincoln known throughout the United States, than the politicians of the Slave States began to carry out plans, which they had long prepared, for the dismemberment of the Union, and the establishment, in their section, of an independent confederacy of Slave States. Secession of South Carolina and other Slave States. — As in 1832, South Carolina took the lead in rebellion against the National Government. A State con- vention, which had assembled at Charleston, declared, on the 20th of December, i860, that State to be separated from the Union forever. Within little more than a month from the secession of South Carolina, the example of that State was fol- lowed by six other Slave States, — namely, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. Formation of a Southern Confederacy. — On the 4th of February, 1861, delegates from the seceded States met in a Congress at Montgomery, in Alabama, and formed a Southern Confederacy, with the title of " The Confederate States of America." On the 9th of the same month, this Confederate Congress elected Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, President of the Confederacy, with Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, as Vice-President. Seizure of National Property by the Conspirators. — Most of the property of the National Government in the seceded States, such as forts, arsenals, mints, ships, and custom houses, — were seized by the conspirators, who raised armies to up- hold their treason and to subvert the Republic. In February, 1861, General Twiggs, who commanded the United States troops in Texas, surrendered his whole force to the authorities of that State. Fortress Monroe, in South-eastern Virginia, and the forts on the Dry Tortugas, off the southern coast of Florida, remained in the posses- sion of the National Government; and Fort Pickens, near Pensacola, Florida, was saved from falling into the hands of the conspirators by the gallant conduct of its commander, Lieutenant Adam J. Slemmer. Fort Sumter, at Charleston, South Carolina, was held by Major Robert Anderson. On the 9th of January, i86i, the Government steamer Star of the West was fired upon by South Carolinians, while bringing reinforcements to Fort Sumter. Conduct of the Administration — Treason of Cabinet-Officers.— President Buchanan made no effort to check the conspirators in their treasonable work. Several of his Cabinet-Officers who were among the conspirators, were doing all in JEFFERSON DAVIS. ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS. UNITED STATES. 505 their power to deprive the National Government of all means for its protection against armed treason. John B. Floyd, of Virginia, Secretary of War, transferred most of the arms from the forts and arsenals in ihe Free Slates to those in the Slave States; and Howell Cobb, of Georgia, Secretary of the Treasury, tried to injure the public credit and banlcrupt the National treasury. The Peace Convention — The Crittenden Compromise. — On the 4th of February, 1861, an assemblage, known as " The Peace Convention," met at Wash- ington, for the professed purpose of preserving peace and saving the Union. Every just and reasonable concession for the sake of peace was rejected by the conspirators ; and it was evident that they did not desire a reconciliation, from their rejection of the plan known as " The Crittenden Compromise," proposed by John J. Crittenden of Kentucky. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4 1861- APRIL 15, 1864). THE CIVIL WAR— EVENTS OF 1861. Inauguration of Lincoln — Bombardment of Fort Sumter. — On the 4th of March, 1861, Mr Lincohi was inaii;^ur,ilcd sixteenth President of the United States. The conspirators at Montgomery, having determined upon war, sent several thousand troops, under the command of Pierre G. T. Beauregard, to Charleston, South Carolina, for the purpose of seizing Fort Sumter. Beauregard demanded the surrender of the fort. Its commander, Major Robert Anderson, refused to com- ply with this demand; and, on the I2th of April, 1861, Beauregard opened a heavy bombardment on the fort, which continued the followmg day, and, on the 14th (April, 1861), Anderson and his men evacuated the fort, which was immediately taken possession of and garrisoned by the insurgents, and sailed for New York. News of this event spread through the loyal .States like lightning; and, like the attendant thunder-peal, it aroused every loyal heart. Troops Called to Suppress the Rebellion. — On the day after the evacua- tion of Fort Sumter (April 15, 1861), the President called for 75,000 militia to serve for three months in suppressing the rebellion. The loyal people warmly re- sponded to this call. Within a short time, 200,000 men had offered their services to the National Government; and forty million dollars had been contributed to carry on the war. Secession of Virginia — Seizure of the Armory at Harper's Ferry. — On the 17th of April, 1861, Virginia seceded from the Union, and became a member of the Southern Confederacy. On the following day (April 18, 1861), the United States armory at Harper's Ferry was seized by the Virginia insurgents. On the 17th of April (1861), Jefferson Davis, the President of the so-called Confederate States of America, issued letters-of-marque and reprisal, to all who would prey upon American commerce. Two days afterward (April 18, 1861), President Lincoln proclaimed the blockade of the Southern ports. Massachusetts Troops Attacked in Baltimore. — On the iglh of April, 1861, the sixth Massachusetts regiment, while passing through Baltimore, on its way to Washington, was attacked by a mob of 10,000 men. A fight ensued. 5o6 CENTENNIAL HISTORY, Several of the troops were killed and wounded; and nine of the mob were killed, and many others wounded. More Troops Called For — Secession of Other States. — As armed Confed- erates were continually pouring into Virginia for the purpose of seizing the National capital, the President, on the 3d of May, called for 64,000 more men for the Na- tional army, and 18,000 men for the navy. Before the middle of June (1861), Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee had withdrawn from the Union and joined the Southern Confederacy. Meeting of Congress — Its Doings. — The President, on the 15th of April, 1861, summoned Congress to meet on the 4th of July. When it assembled, there were about 300,000 troops in the field to defend the old flag and to preserve the integrity of the Union. Congress authorized the raising of 500,000 men, and appropriated five hundred million dollars to defray the expenses of the war. Confederate Troops — Richmond Made the Confederate Capital. — More than 100,000 Confederate troops were stationed at various points in Virginia, from Harper's Ferry to Norfolk. The chief force of the insurgents was at Manassas Junction, about thirty miles from the National capital. On the 20th of July, i86l, the seat of the so-called Confederate Government was removed from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, Virginia. Invasion of Virginia — Events in Missouri. — The first invasion of the re- bellious States took place on the 24th of May, 1 86 1, when National troops crossed the Potomac river from Washington, and took possession of Alexandria and Arling- ton Heights, on the opposite side of the river. Before this invasion (May 10, 1861), Captain Nathaniel Lyon saved Missouri to the Union by the capture of an insurgent camp at St. Louis. Battles of Philippi, Big Bethel, Romney, and Rich Mountain. — The first regular battle of the Civil War occurred at Philippi, in Western Virginia, where, on the 3d of June, 1861, General Benjamin F. Kelly, with a few National troops, routed 500 Confederates. On the loth of the same month, a severe engage- ment took place at Big Bethel, in South-eastern Virginia, between the National troops under General Pierce and a considerable force of Confederates. In this action the National troops were repulsed with the loss of two brave officers, — Lieutenant John T. Greble and Major Theodore Winthrop. ' On the day after the National disaster at Big Bethel (June il, 1861), a few National troops, under General Lewis Wallace, dispersed 500 Confederates at Romney, in Western Virginia. One month later (July 1 1 , I861 ), 3,000 Confederate troops, under Colonel Pegram, were defeated at Rich Mountain, in Western Virginia, after a spirited action with the National troops under General William S. Rosecrans. Battle of Bull's Run— Its Effects. — On the i8th of July, 1861, the National army of 50,000 men, in Virginia, under General Irwin McDowell, left Fairfax Court- House, to attack the Confederates under General Beauregard, at Manassas Junction, about thirty miles from Washington. A stubborn contest was fought at Blackburn's Ford, near Centreville, on the same day. Three days afterward (July 21, 1861), a sanguinary and memorable battle was fought at Bull's Run, near Man- assas Junction. At the moment that the Confederates were about to lose the field, they received reinforcements from the Shenandoah Valley, under General Joseph UNITED STATES. 507 E. Johnston. The result was that the Confederates gained a complete victory; and the National army fled toward Washington in the greatest consternation. For his gallant conduct in this battle, the Confederate General Thomas Jefierson Jackson received the name of "Stonewall Jackson." The intelligence of the National misfortune at Bull's Run struck the people of the loyal States with dismay; but, instead of discouraging them, it caused them to exert themselves more vigorously for the great struggle. Large numbers of volunteers joined the army. On the day after the battle of Bull's Run, General George B. McClellan was placed in com- mand of "The Army of the Potomac," as the forces around the National capital were named. The War in Missouri — Battles of Carthage, Dug Spring, and Wilson's Creek. — In the meantime, the war raged violently in Missouri. On the 5lh of July, 1861, the National troops, under Colonel Franz Sigel, defeated the Confederates, under Clayborne F. Jackson, the disloyal Governor of Missouri, at Carthage. On the 2d of August, a National force under General Nathaniel Lyon defeated the Confederates commanded by General Ben McCullough, the famous Texas Ranger, at Dug Spring, near the border of Arkansas. On the loth of the same month (August, 1861), Lyon, at the head of 5,000 National troops, fought with 20,000 Confederates, under Generals Stirling Price and Ben McCullough, the battle of Wilson's Creek, near Springfield, Mi.ssouri. In this battle, Lyon was killed while gallantly figliting at the head of his troops. The slaughter on both sides was ter- rific. The result of the battle was that the National troops were obliged to fall back. Capture of Hatteras Inlet. — On the 26th of August, 1861, Forts Clarke and Hatteras, on Hatteras Inlet, on the coast of North Carolina, were captured by the National army and navy, under General Benjamin F. Butler and Commodore String- ham. This victory gave the National troops a foothold in North Carolina which they never lost. Loyalty of the People of West Virginia. — The people of West Virginia had from the beginning of the Civil War been opposed to secession, and they per- sisted in refusing to place themselves under the rule of the Confedate Government and the rebel State Government of Virginia. Representatives from about forty of the western counties of Virginia met in a convention at Wheeling, on the nth of June, 1861; and, on the 17th, they declared West Virginia independent of the rest of the State, and elected Frank Pierpont for their Governor. Confederate Invasion of West Virginia — Battle of Carnifax Ferry. — The Confederates of Virginia, having resolved to compel the loyal people of West Virginia to submit to their authority and that of the Confederate Government, sent large bodies of troops into that region, under the command of Robert Edmund Lee, late a colonel in the United States army, Henry A. Wise, ex-Governor of Virginia, and John B. Floyd, ex-Secretary of War. Floyd was defeated by the National troops under General William S. Rosecrans, on the 12th of September, i86r, at Carnifax Ferry, on the Gauley river, in West Virginia, after a fight of three days. Capture of Lexington, Missouri— Battle of Ball's Bluff.— About the middle of September, 1861, the town of Lexington, in Missouri, with its garrison of National troops under Colonel Mulligan, was captured by the Confederates. On 2o8 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. the 1 6th of October (1861), Lexington was retaken by a National cavalry force under Major White. On the 21st of October, 1861, a severe action occurred at Ball's Bluff, on the Potomac, above Washington, between the National force under Gen- eral Stone and a large body of insurgents under General Evans. The National troops were thoroughly defeated and routed, with the loss of many brave men, among whom was the gallant Colonel Edward D. Baker, late a United States Senator from Oregon. Battle of Belmont — Capture of Port Royal. — On the 7th of November, 1861, a force of National troops, under General Ulysses Simpson Grant, was defeated at Belmont, in South-eastern Missouri, on the Mississippi river, by the Confederates under General Cheatham. On the day of the battle of Belmont (November 7, 1 861 ), Forts Walker and Beauregard, at Port Royal Entrance, on the coast of South Caro- lina, below Charleston, were captured by a National naval force under Commodore Dupont. The capture of Port Royal gavt the National forces possession of the Sea Islands of South Carolina, so celebrated for the production of fine cotton. McClellan, Commander-in-Chief— Extent of the Civil War— Foreign Relations. — On the 1st of November, 1861, General McClellan was made com- mander-in-chief of the armies of the United States, General Winfield Sqott having resigned that post in October. Only the most important .military events have been related. There were thousands of conflicts in the refractoiy States. The relations of the National Government with England and France were not of the most pleasant character. Both of these nations, as well as Spain, had recognized the insurgent Confederates as a belligerent power, in the beginning of the great contest. Russia was the only European power that sympathized with the National Government in its struggle for life. EVENTS OF 1862. Battle of Mill Spring. — On the 19th of January, 1862, a National force, under General George H. Thomas, defeated a Confederate army under General George B. Crittenden, at Mill Spring, near Somerset, Kentucky. The Confederate General Felix Zollicoffer was killed. Capture of Roanoke Island. — On the 8th of February, 1862, after a hot con- flict, Roanoke Island, on the North-eastern coast of North Carolina, was taken pos- session of by the National army and navy, under General Ambrose E. Burnside and Commodore Louis M. Goldsborough. Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. — On the 6lh of February (1862), Fort Henry, on the Tennessee river, in Tennessee, was captured by the National army and navy, under General Ulysses S. Grant and Commodore Andrew H. Foote. On the 1 6th of February, after a siege and assault of three days, Fort Donelson, on the Cum- berland river, in the same State, was surrendered, with its garrison of 13,000 Con- federate troops, to the National army of 40,000 men under General Grant. The Confederate troops that had garrisoned the fort were commanded by General Simon Bolivar Buckner. Before the surrender, 5,000 Confederates, under Generals Pillow and Floyd, made their escape. Battle of Pea Ridge. — On the 6th, 7th, and 8th of March, 1862, the National army under General Samuel R. Curtis fought a severe battle with the Confederate troops under Generals Earl Van Dorn, Stirling Price, and Ben McCullough, at Pea UNITED STATES. 509 Ridge, in North-western Arkansas. The Confederates were defeated; and among their killed was General McCullough. Fight Between the Merrimac and Monitor. — On the day of the National victoiy at Pea Ridge (March 8, 1862), the Confederate iron-clad ram Merrwiac sunk the National frigates Cumberland and Congress, at the mouth of the James river. On the following day (March 9, 1862), a newly-invented floating battery, called the Monitor, attacked the Merrimac, disabled her after a severe action, and compelled her to return to Norfolk. Capture of Newbern — Battle of Winchester. — On the 14th of March, 1S62, after a severe fight with the Confederates, General Burnside, with 12,000 National troops, captured Newbern, in Eastern North Carolina. A National force under General Shields defeated the Confederates under " Stonewall Jackson," near Winchester, Virginia, on the 23d of March. Battle of Shiloh. — On the 6th of April, 1862, the National army commanded by General Grant was attacked at Shiloh church, near Pittsburg Landing, on the Tennessee river, in Tennessee, by the Confederates under Generals Beauregard and Albert Sydney Johnston. The Confederates were victorious on that day; but on the following morning (March 7, 1862), Grant was reinforced by a strong force under General Don Carlos Buell, and the Confederates were defeated and compelled to flee toward Corinth, in North-eastern Mississippi. The defeat of the Confeder- ates is to be attributed chiefly to the assistance which the National gunboats in the Tennessee river rendered to Grant's army. Among the Confederate killed was General Albert Sydney Johnston. Siege and Capture of Island No. 10. — On the day of Grant's victory at Shiloh (April 7, 1862), the strong post of Island No. 10, in the Mississippi river, was surrendered to Commodore Foote, whose flotilla had bombarded the place for three weeks. Capture of Fort Pulaski — Capture of Huntsville — Capture of Fort Macon. — On the nth of April (1S62), Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the Savannah river, in Georgia, after withstanding a heavy bombardment, surrendered to the National troops under Captain Quincy Adams Gillmore. On the same day, Gen- eral Ormsby McKnight Mitchell, after a remarkable forced march through Kentucky and Tennessee, captured Huntsville, in Northern Alabama. On the 25th of April, Fort Macon, on the coast of North Carolina, was surrendered to the National troops, after a se^'ere bombardment. Bombardment of Forts Jackson and St. Philip — Capture of New Or- leans. — In the South-west, an expedition had been organized for the capture of New Orleans. The expedition consisted of a gunboat and mortar fleet, under Commodores David G. Farragut and David D. Porter, and a land force under General Benjamin F. Butler. After bombarding Forts Jackson and St. Philip, below New Orleans, for six days, Farragut and Porter passed up the river with their fleets, and appeared before New Orleans on the 25lh of April. The Confed- erate troops, 20,000 strong, under General Mansfield Lovell, who had garrisoned the city, fled, and, on the 28th (April, 1862), General Butler, with the National army, took possession of the city. The capture of New Orleans was the severest blow thus far inflicted upon the Rebellion. 5IO CENTENNIAL HISTORY. Movements on the Virginia Peninsula — Evacuation of Yorktown. — After compelling the Confederates to retreat from Manassas toward Richmond, the Army of the Potomac, under General McClellan, prepared to approach the Confed- erate capital by way of the peninsula formed by the York and James rivers. On the 4th of April, 1862, McClellan commenced his march up the peninsula, from Fortress Monroe. After enduring a short siege, Yorktown was evacuated by the Confederates, who fled toward Richmond. (May 3, 1862.) Battle of Williamsburg — Fall of Norfolk. — Two days after the evacuation of Yorktown by the Confederate army (May 5, 1862), was fought the terrible bat- tle of Williamsburg, which resulted in a National victory. The Confederates then resumed their retreat, and were again pursued by the National forces. On the loth of May, 1S62, five days after the battle of Williamsburg, Norfolk was evacuated by the Confederates, after they had destroyed the Merrimac, and the town was entered on the same day by National troops under the command of General John Ellis Wool. Capture of Hanover Court-House — Battle of Fair Oaks. — On the 29th of May, Hanover Court-House was captured by a portion of the National army, under General Fitz-John Porter, after a spirited conflict. The National army still continued its advance toward Richmond. On the 31st of May and the 1st of June (1862), a memorable engagement occurred at a place called Fair Oaks, in which neither party was victorious. Capture of Natchez — Capture of Corinth — Capture of Memphis. — On the 1 2th of May, the National fleet under Admiral Farragut captured Natchez, in Mississippi, on the Mississippi river. On the 29th of the same month (May, 1862), Corinth, in the north-eastern part of the same State, after having suffered a heavy bombardment, was evacuated by the Confederates and taken possession of by the National army under Gener.al Henry W. Halleck. On the 6th of June, 1862, the important town of Memphis, in Tennessee, on the Mississippi river, fell into the hands of the National forces, after a severe naval engagement, in which all but two vessels of the Confederate fleet were either captured or destroyed by the National squadron under the command of Flag-Oflricer Davis. Operations in the Shenandoah Valley — Battles of Cross-Keys and Port Republic. — In the meantime, a National force of 4000 men, under General Na- thaniel P. Banks, in the Shenandoah Valley, in Virginia, after being defeated near Winchester, on the 25th of May, was driven down the valley, and compelled to cross the Potomac into Maryland, by 15,000 Confederates under Stonewall Jackson, who hastily retreated up the valley. On the 7th of June, General John C. Fremont, with National troops, fought with the Confederates an indecisive battle at Cross- Keys; ar d, on the following day, General Shields was beaten by Stonewall Jackson, in a battle at Port Republic. The Seven Days' Battles near Richmond — Battle of Malvern Hill. — Three weeks after the battle of Fair-Oaks, McClellan prepared to advance upon Richmond. At the same time, he changed the base of his supplies from the York to the James river. These movements led to a series of sanguinary battles near Richmond, during seven days, commencing on the 25th of June, and ending with the repulse of the Confederates at Malvern Hill on the istof July. The most UNITED STATES. S" important engagements were the battle of Oak Grove, June 25; the battle of Mechanicsville, June 26 ; the battle of Gaines' Mill, June 27 ; the I^attles of Peach Orchard Station and Savage Station, June 29 ; the battle of White-Oak Swamp, June 30; and the battle of Malvern Hill, July 1. Each army numbered about lcx>,ooo men. The National army lost 16,000 men, and the insurgents about 20,000; and McClellan's movement on Richmond failed. General Halleck, Commander-in-Chief. — On the ist of July, the President of the United States called for 300,000 more men for the army; and, on the llth of the same month. General Henry \V. Halleck was appointed commander-in-chief of the armies of the United States. Battle of Baton Rouge. — On the 5th of August, 1862, the Confederates, under General John C. Breckinridge, attacked a small National force under General Thomas Williams at Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The National troops were victorious, and the Confederate ram Arkansas was sunk, but the gallant General Williams was killed in the moment of triumph. Formation of the Army of Virginia— Battle of Cedar Mountain. — The forces under Generals Banks, FVemont, and McDowell, were united on the 25th of June (1862), into one army named " The Army of Virginia," the command of which was given to General John Pope. This army soon found sufficient employ- ment, as the insurgents, flushed with their successes over McClellan's army near Richmond, marched northward for the purpose of taking Washington. On the 9th of August, a spirited but indecisive action was fought at Cedar Mountain, in Cul- peper county, Virginia, between that portion of the Army of Virginia under General Banks and a large body of insurgents under Stonewall Jackson. Terrible Defeats and Retreat of the Army of Virginia. — At length, the Confederates flanked the Army of Virginia, and a succession of bloody battles were fought, beginning on the 24th of August, and ending on the 1st of September. The most important of this series of engagements were the battle of Kettle Run, August 27; the battle of Groveton, August 29; the second battle of Bull's Run, August 30; and the battle of Chantilly, September I. In the last named conflict, Generals Stevens and Kearney were among the killed on the National side. The Con- federate loss in this series of battles was 15,000 men, while the National loss was 20,000 men. Pope's army was so badly defeated that, to escape total destruction, it was compelled to seek safety behind the fortifications of Washington. Lee's Invasion of Maryland. — Early in September, the Armies of Virginia and the Potomac were consolidated, and were thereafter known as "The Army of the Potomac," the command of which was entrusted to General McClellan, for the defense of Washington. The Confederates, under the command of Robert Edmund Lee, their commander-in-chief, now crossed the Potomac into Maryland. McClellan followed on their right flank, to cover Washington and Baltimore. Battle of South Mountain — Surrender of Harper's Ferry. — On the 14th of .September, 1862, a heavy battle was fought at .South Mountain, in Maryland, in whichthe National army was victorious, but one of its gallant commanders. General Reno, was killed. The next day (September 15, 1862), after a bloody conflict, Harper's Ferry, with its garrison of 12,000 National troops, was surrendered to the Confederates. 212 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. Battle of Antietam— Lee in Virginia.— On the 17th of September (1862), a great battle was fought near Antietam Creek, in Maryland, between the armies of McClellan and Lee, each numbering about 100,000 men. The Confederates were defeatea with the loss of 20,000 men. The National loss was about 15,000 men. Among the killed on the National side were the heroic Generals Mansfield, Rich- ardson, and Rodman. Immediately after the battle, Lee's army fell back to the Potomac, which it crossed, and retreated in the direction of Richmond, without being pursued by the National army. Confederate Invasion of Kentucky— Battle of Richmond— Battle of Perryville. — In the latter part of August, 1862, a large body of Confederate troops, under General E. Kirby Smith, invaded Eastern Kentucky. On the 29th and 30th of August, they defeated a part of the National army commanded by Gener.-xl Nel- son, near Richmond, Kentucky. At the same time, another Confederate army, under General Braxton Bragg, invaded the more western portion of Kentucky, and advanced in the direction of Louisville; but, after suffering a defeat at Perryville, from the National forces under Generals Rousseau and McCook, Bragg was com- pelled to abandon Kentucky with his army. Smith and his army also evacuated the State about the same time. (October, 1862.) Battles of luka, Corinth, and Hatchie. — In the autumn of 1862, events of great importance were transpiring in North-eastern Mississippi. On the 19th of September, the Confederates under Generals Van Dorn and Price were defeated at luka, by the National troops commanded by General Rosecrans. On the 3d and 4th of October, the Confederates met with another severe defeat at Corinth. The Confedemtes were pursued, and defeated on the 5th of October (1862), in "the battle of the Hatchie," by the National troops under (Jenerals Ord and Hurlburt. Confederate Cavalry Raid — McClellan Relieved of Command. — About three weeks after the battle of Antietam, a Confederate cavalry force, under General Stuart, made a destructive raid as far as Chambersburg, in Pennsylvania. In the latter part of October, the Army of the Potomac crossed the Potomac into Virginia. On the 5th of November (1862), McClellan was relieved of the command of the army, and General Ambrose E. Burnside was appointed to take his place. Battle of Prairie Grove. — The war was again raging in Arkansas. On the 7th of December, 1862, the National troops, under Generals Herron and Blunt, gained an important victoiy over a Confederate army under General Ilindman, at Prairie Grove, near Fayetteville, in North-western Arkansas. Battle of Fredericksburg. — Toward the close of 1862, another great battle was fouglit in Virginia. The Army of the Potomac, then under the command of General Burnside, attacked the Confederates at Fredericksburg, on the 13th of December (1862). After hard fighting, the National troops were repulsed, with the loss of 8,000 of their 'number. The Army of the Potomac then recrossed to the north side of the Rappahannock river, where it remained until May of the next year. Sherman's Unsuccessful Attack on Vicksburg. — In the latter part of December, 1S62, a large National force, under General William Tecumseh Sherman, made an attack on the city of Vicksburg, in Mississii)])!, on the Mississippi river; but was repulsed after severe fighting. Sherman was then superseded in his com- mand by General John A. McClernand. STONEWALL JACKSON. UNlTEn STATllS. S'3 Battle of Murfrccsboro'. -At Miiificcslxni)', in 'rfiim-ssce, :i :<:iii|;iiiii;uy lialilc, l)Ctwccu the National aiiuy under (leiieral R()S(;eraiis and the Confederate army under General Hra},fjj, eoinnieiiced on the 29th of Decendxir, I.S62, and ciilc of that State, by an aliarl; ii|i<>ri tiie town of N(-w Ulm. Many atrocious massacres were |)erpelraled by thesavaj^es ; and about 215,000 white people were driven from their homes. At Ion;,'th, (leneral Henry II. Sibley defeated the Indians and drove them into Dakota. The followini,' year the savaj;es renewed the war, but they weie soon subdued, and their chief. Little Cnjw, was killed. Doings of Congress. — While llu: war was raginj^ on sea ami land during the year iS()2, the National (lovernment was devising measures for the sujipression of the rebellion. Ivirly in April, ("onjMess jussed an act providing for the abolition of .slavery in the District of ("ohnnbia. The bill received the signature of the Pre- sident and became a law on the ifith of June. On the 20th of the same month (June, 1862), the President signed a bill passed by Congress for the prohibition of slavery in the Territories of tin- Unili-d Slates. Congress also authorized the J'resihcd in the way of its suppression. There were about 700,000 National troo|)s in the licdd, while the Confederate army was larger than al any ])revious (jr subse(iuent period. EVENTS OF J808. Emancipation Proclamation. -As the Confederates ]iaid no attention to the proclamation issued by the President on the 22d of September, 1862, he issued another jiroclamation on the 1st of |ai)iiary, 1S65, dccl.uing forever free; all the slaves in Virginia, North Carolina, .South Carolina, (Jeorgia, J'loiida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas, excepting West Virginia and such ])ortions of the rebellious Slates as were in the hands of the National lroo])S al that time. It was evident that the time liad arrived for this decisive slej); and il received the unanimous ajiproval of the sup])orters of the Administration, and destroyed the last ho])e of foreign aid to the insurgents. Capture of Arkansas Post. — After his unsuccessful attempt to take Vicks- burg, at the close of 1862, Sherman was succeeded in his command by General John A. McClernand, who went up the Arkansas river, and, in conjunction with Admiral Porter, captured Arkansas Post, with its garrison of 5,000 (Jonfederalc troops, after a severe engagement, on the nth of January, 1863. Operations in North Carolina Siege of Suffolk. — In Kaslcrrn North (^iro- su CEyTEWIAL HISTOR Y. lina, during the spring of 1863, the National forces, under the command of General John G. Foster, repelled the assaults of the Confederates, under General D. H. Hill and others, and foiled their attempts to obtain the entire control of that region. Early in May, 1S63, the Confederates, under Generals Longstreet and D. H. Hill, •were repulsed in an attempt to take by siege the town of Suffolk, La South-eastern Virginia, by 14,003 National trooj>s under General Peck. Success of Banks in Louisiana. — During the winter and spring of 1S63, General Banks, with a National force, overran Louisiana, from New Orleans to the Red River, defeated the Confederates in a number of actions, and captured many prisoners, some artiller)-, and much public property. Banks returned to New Or- leans; and during the summer, he sent an expedition by water to Texas. Battle of Chancellorsville. — On the 27th of April, 1S63, General Bumside was relieved of the command of the Army of the Potomac and succeeded by Gen- eral Joseph Hooker. Hooker crossed the Rappahannock river, and, on the 2d, 3d, and 4th of May, his army engaged in a severe battle with Lee's army at a place called Chancellorsville. In this battle, the famous Confederate general, " Stonewall Jackson," lost his life. The result of the battle was that the National army was defeated, and compelled to retire across the Rappahannock on the 5th (May, 1S63). Grant's Victories in Mississippi. — The defeat of the Army of the Potomac in Virginia was fully atoned for by a series of brilliant victories gained by the Na- tional army under General Grant in Mississippi. In the latter part of April (1863), Grant defeated the insurgents in two battles near Port Gibson. The Confederates were also defeated in the battle of Raymond, May 12; the battle of Jackson, May 14; the battle of Champion Hills, May 16; and the battle of Big Black River Bridge, May 17; after which Grant prepared to carry on the siege of Vicksburg with vigor. Invasion of Maryland and Pennsylvania by Lee's Army. — After the battle of Chancellorsville, Lee's army began to march northward, for the purpose of carrjing the war into the loyal States. Hooker followed with his army, on the right flank of the Confederates, in order to save Washington and Baltimore from capture. At length, on the 28th of June, General George Gordon Meade was appointed to the command of the Army of the Potomac, Hooker having resigned. Battle of Gettysburg — The Armies in Virginia. — Lee advanced into Penn- e\'lvania, followed by Meade. At length, the two armies confronted each other at Gettysburg, where a sanguinary engagement occurred on the ist, 2d, and 3d of July, 1S63. The Confederates were thoroughly defeated, with the loss of about 30,003 men, while the loss of the National army was more than 20,000 men. General John F. Reynolds, of the National army, and General Barksdale, of the Confederate army, were killed. After the battle, the Confederate army made a precipitate flight toward Virginia, closely pursued by the victorious army under General Meade ; and it was not long before both amiies again found themselves south of the Potomac. Siege and Capture of Vicksburg. — Late in May, the army under General Grant invested Vicksburg, which was garrisoned by a large Confederate army, under General John C. Pemberton. The siege was prosecuted with so much vigor that, on the 4th of July, (1863), Pemberton surrendered his whole force, amounting to more than 30,000 men, and the city of Vicksburg, into the hands of Grant. UNITED STATES. 51.S Repulse of the Confederates at Helena. — On the day that Vicksburg yielded to the National arms (July 4, 1863), a Confederate force was repulsed in an attack upon the National troops under the command of General Prentiss, at Helena, Arkansas. Fall of Port Hudson. — After his successes in South-western Louisiana, Gene- ral Banks invested Port Ihulson. on the Mississippi, above Baton Rouge. On the 8th of July (1863), Port Hudson, with its garrison of 5,000 Confederate troops under General Gardner, was surrendered to Banks; and thus the last obstruction to the navigation of the Mississippi river was overcome. Morgan's Raid in Indiana and Ohio. — About the time of Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania, a large body of Confederate guerrillas, under General John Morgan, suddenly crossed the Ohio river into Indiana, and advanced eastward into Ohio, plundering as they went. After many of the raiders had been killed or captured, Morgan surrendered with the remainder, numbering about 800 men, to General .Shackleford, in Morgan County, Ohio. Siege of Charleston — Bombardment of Fort Sumter. — During the spring and summer of 1863, the National forces were vigorously besieging Charleston, in South Carolina. An unsuccessful atteinpt was made, on the 7th of April (1863), by the National navy, under Admiral Dupont, to take Fort .Sumter. In July, .a National land force, under General Q. A. Gilhnore, landed on Morris Island, and commenced besieging the works which defended Charleston harbor. After a fright- ful bombardment of seven days. Fort Sumter was reported by Gillmore as being reduced to "a shapeless and harmless mass of ruins." It was not harmless, how- ever, as it still successfully bid defiance to the guns of the besieging forces. Fort Wagner was evacuated by its Confederate garrison in September (1863), after which it was taken possession of by the National troops. The siege of Charleston was continued for a year .and a half longer. Capture of Fort Smith and Little Rock. — On the ist of September, 1863, Fort Smith, in Western Arkansas, was captured by a National force under General Blunt. On the loth of the same month (September, 1863), General Frederic Steele, with National troops, completely broke the power of the insurgents in Arkansas by the captlire of Little Rock, the capital of that State. The Army of the Cumberland. — In the latter part of June, 1863, the great Army of the Cumberland, under General Rosecrans, began a decisive campaign in Tennessee. After a series of conflicts, the Confederate army under General Bragg was compelled to retreat to Chattanooga, in the South-eastern part of that State, The insurgents erected strong fortifications at Chattanooga, but when Rosecrans approached, in August, the Confederate army evacuated the city, which was taken possession of by a portion of Rosecrans' army on the 9th of September. Battle of Chickamauga. — Rosecrans again pursued Bragg, who was now rein- forced by General James Longstreet and his corps, from Lee's army, in Virginia. The Confederate army, thus strengthened, suddenly attacked the pursuing army of Rosecrans at the Chickamauga creek, where a bloody battle was fought on the 19th and 20th of September, 1863. The insurgents were victorious; and the National army was obliged to fall back, and seek refuge behind the fortifications of Chatta- nooga. 5l6 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. Skirmishes between the Great Armies in Virginia. — In October, 1863, Lee's army drove the Army of the Potomac back upon Manassas, but was in turn compelled to retreat, after some skirmishing. On the 7th of November, a severe skirmish at Kelly's Ford resulted in the capture of 2,000 Confederates, by a portion of the National army, under Generals John Sedgewick and W. H. French. Battle of Chattanooga. — After his defeat in the battle of Chickamauga, Rose- crans was in a perilous situation. General Grant, who had just been entrusted wth the command of all the National armies in the West, east of the Mississippi, hastened to his relief. After being joined by Sherman from Vicksburg and Hooker from the Army of the Potomac, Grant attacked Bragg's army at Chattanooga, on the 23d of November; and, after a sanguinary conflict of three days, known as "the battle of Chattanooga," in which the insurgents were driven from their strong positions on Orchard Knob by General Thomas (November 23), from Lookout Mountain by General Hooker, after a fierce struggle known as " the battle above the clouds" (November 24), and from Missionary Ridge, after the most obstinate resistance (November 25), the siege of Chattanooga was raised, and the National army gained a brilliant victory. Bragg's defeated and shattered army retreated into Georgia, and the whole of Tennessee fell into the possession of the National forces. Siege of Knoxville. — About the middle of November, 1863, General Bumside, with 5,000 National troops, was besieged in Knoxville, in East Tennessee, by General Longstreet, who had left Bragg's army with his corps, for the purpose of expelling the National forces from that quarter. When General Sherman came with National troops for the relief of Burnside's beleaguered force, Longstreet fled eastward, and rejoined Lee's army in Virginia. Progress of the National Arms during the Year.— The progiess of the National arms during the year 1863 had been very great. Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, large portions of Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and the control of the Rio Grande and Mississippi rivers, had been lost to the insurgents; and the Rebellion was on its decline. Doings of Congress— Riot in New York— West Virginia a State.— On the 4th of March, 1863, the Thirty-seventh Congress closed its last session, after having adopted measures for the efficiency of the araiy. Steps were taken for the enlistment and organization of colored troops; and, on the 3d of March (1863), a conscription act became a law. In May, the President ordered a draft of 300,000 men. Much opposition was manifested against the draft, especially in the city of New York, where a terrible riot of three days occurred (July 13, 14, and 15, 1863), in which one hundred lives were lost, and property to the value of two million dol- lars was destroyed. On the 20th of June, 1863, West Virginia was admitted into the Union as a State, by authority of an act passed by Congress on the 31st of December, 1862. EVENTS OF 1864. Bright Prospect. — The year 1864 opened with many bright and promising hopes for the National cause. The National armies were strong and well discip- hned, while the finances of the Republic were in a good condition. The loyal UNITED STATES. ^ly people were more united in the support of the Administration and in the deter- mination to prosecute the war until the suppression of the rebellion should be accomplished. Averill's Raid in Virginia — Kilpatrick's Bold Attempt. — About the middle of January, 1864, a body of National cavalry, under General William W. Averill, destroyed thirty miles of the Virginia and Tennessee railway track west of Lynch- burg. In the latter part of February, a bold exploit was performed by General Judson Kilpatrick, who, with a small force of National cavalry, entered the outer defenses of Richmond. Sherman's Invasion of Mississippi. — On the 3d of February, 1864, General William T. Sherman, with a considerable National force, commenced a destructive invasion of Mississippi. Starting from Vicksburg, Sherman's force advanced east- ward, almost to the borders of Alabama, seizing or destroying much property, and liberating about 10,000 slaves. Seymour's Invasion of Florida — Battle of Olustee. — On the 5th of Febru- ary, 1864, General Seymour, with a National force, left Port Royal, in South Carolina, and invaded North-eastern Florida. Seymour defeated the Confederates at Jack- sonville, and moved westward; but, on the 20th (February, 1864), his army was defeated and almost ruined, in a bloody battle at Olustee, on the Florida Central railroad. Seymour abandoned his project and returned to Jacksonville. Red River Expedition — Its Unfortunate End. — On the loth of March, 1864, General Andrew J. Smith left Vicksburg, with a heavy National force, for the in- vasion of Louisiana. A fleet under Admiral Porter, and an army under General Banks from New Orleans, cooperated with Smith's expedition. Smith captured Fort De Russey from the Confederates under General Richard Taylor, on the 13th of March, and, continuing his advance toward Shreveport, was joined by Banks at Alexandria. The National troops were defeated by the Confederates at Sabine Cross-Roads, on the 8th of April, and were compelled to retreat toward New Or- leans. On their retreat, they defeated the Confederates at Pleasant Hill, and at Cane River. Porter's fleet, which had gone to Shreveport, was enabled to return to New Orleans by damming up the river. Forrest's Raid in Tennessee and Kentucky — Massacre of Fort Pillow. — In March, 1864, a Confederate cavalry force, under General Napokon Bona- parte Forrest, made a destructive raid into Tennessee and Kentucky. Forrest captured Union City, Tennessee, on the 24th of March, and the next day some of his troops almost destroyed Paducah, in Kentucky, on the Ohio river. On the 12th of April, Forrest captured Fort Pillow, in Tennessee, on the Mississippi river, and caused most of the garrison, which was composed of negro troops, to be massacred after they had surrendered. Grant a Lieutenant-General — The Army of the Potomac. — In February, 1864, General Grant was placed in chief command of the armies of the Republic, with the title of Lieutenant-General. He established his head-quarters in the field with the Army of the Potomac. On the 3d of May, he issued an order for the Army of the Potomac under General Meade, and three Western armies under Gen- eral W, T. Sherman, in Northern Georgia, to commence operations against the Confederate armies opposed to them. 5i8 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. Battles of the Wilderness and Spotsylvania — Advance on Richmond. — On the 5th of May, 1864, the Army of the Potomac, under the immediate com- mand of General Meade, and by the direction of Lieutenant-General Grant, whose head-quarters were with that army, crossed the Rapid Anna, and attacked General Lee's army in the " Wilderness," in Orange County, Virginia, where a sanguinary battle ensued, on the 5th, 6th, and 7th of May. (1864.) Lee retreated to Spotsyl- vania Court-House, where another series of bloody stiuggles followed ; and, at the end of a week's conflict, the National army was successful, and Lee's army was in full retreat toward Richmond. In these battles. Generals John Sedgewick and James Wadsworth, of the National army, were killed. Grant pursued Lee's retreat- ing army, fought several bloody actions with the enemy, the most important of which was at Cold Harbor, outflanked Lee, and thus compelled him to fall back to the defenses of Richmond, in the early part of June. Cavalry Raids — Movements of the Army of the James. — Grant sent out cavalry expeditions in various directions'to destroy railroads, and to cut off all com- munication with the Confederate capital. La the meantime, a large National force named "The Army of the James," which had been placed under the command of General Butler, had gone up the James river, from Fortress Monroe, and fortified Bermuda Hundred, on the south side of the river. Butler was repulsed in an attack upon Fort Darling, but he afterwards repulsed several attacks by the insurgents under Beauregard upon Bermuda Hundred. Siege of Petersburg. — Butler's movements enabled Grant to place the Army of the Potomac on the south side of the James river, and to lay siege to Petersburg, an important city on the Appomattox river, twenty miles south of Richmond. The Confederates had strongly fortified Petersburg, as they considered the defense of that town essential to the safety of Richmond. Lee with the greater part of his army took a position to defend Petersburg. Sherman's Successes in Georgia — Siege of Atlanta. — While the Army of the Potomac had been thus successful in Virginia, the Armies of the Cumber- land, the Tennessee, and the Ohio, which had been united in Northern Georgia, and placed under the command of General W. T. Sherman, were fully as victorious. At the beginning of May, 1864, Sherman compelled the Confederates, under General Joseph E. Johnston, to evacuate Dalton. For several months there was almost constant fighting between Sherman's and Johnston's armies. Johnston was always defeated and compelled to retreat. The most important of these battles were those of Resaca, Dallas, Allatoona Pass, and Kenesaw Mountain. In July, Johnston was removed from the command of the Confederate army in Northern Georgia, and his place M-as supplied by General John B. Hood. Sherman defeated Hood in three great battles before Atlanta (July 20, 22, and 28, 1864), after which he laid siege to that important town and railway centre. In the battle fought on the 22d of July, General James B. McPherson, of the National army, was killed. Battle of Guntown. — While the great events just related were occurring in Virginia and in Georgia, events of minor importance were transpiring in other quarters. On the loth of June, 1864, a National force in Northern Mississippi, under the command of General Sturgis, was defeated in the battle of Guntown, by a Confederate force under General Forrest, and compelled to retreat about sevent)*- ULYSSES S. GRANT. WILLIAM T. SHERMAN. UNITED STATES. 519 five miles. Soon after this disaster, Sturgis was superseded in his command by General Andrew J. Smith, who soon defeated the Confederates and restored the supremacy of the National arms in that quarter of the Southern Confederacy. Fight between the Kearsarge and the Alabama. — After the beginning of the Civil War, several large vessels were built for the Confederates at Liverjx)ol, in England, by Laird, a ship-builder at that place, and a member of the British Parliament. One of these vessels, named Alabama, and manned chiefly by Eng- lishmen, but bearing a Confederate flag, and commanded by Captain Raphael Semmes, was defeated and sunk, on the 15th of June, 1864, in the English Chan- nel, near the French port of Cherbourg, by the Kearsarge, a National vessel, com- manded by Captain John A. Winslow. The crew of the Alabama were saved Ly an English vessel and carried to England. Early's Invasion of Maryland — Battle of Monocacy. — At the beginning of July, 1S64, about 15,000 Confederate troops, under General Jubal Early, crossed the Potomac, from the Shenandoah Valley, into Maryland. They moved toward Baltimore, and, on the 9th (July, 1864), they defeated a few National troops, under General Lewis Wallace, on the Monocacy river, near Frederick. Soon aftersvard, the Confederates recrossed the Potomac into Virginia, carrjang with them a large amount of plunder. Battle at Winchester — Burning of Chambersburg. — WTien Early's troops retired into Virginia, they were pursued by National troops, who defeated them at Winchester, on the 20th of July. In the latter part of July, a small Confederate force crossed the Potomac, and marched northward to Chambersburg, in Pennsyl- vania. They reduced the greater part of that town to ashes, on the 30th (July, 1864), after which they again retired into Virginia, pursued by a National force. Explosion of a Mine at Petersburg — Seizure of the V^eldon Railroad. — During the latter part of June, and throughout July and August, 1864, Grant prosecuted the siege of Petersburg with vigor. On the 30th of July, a mine which had been dug under one of the strongest of the Confederate works, was exploded with terrific effect ; but the assault on Petersburg which immediately followed, was disastrously repulsed. In August, Grant seized the railroad leading from Peters- burg to Weldon, in North Carolina. Four desperate attempts made by the insur- gents to retake this important road were defeated. (August 19, 20, 21, and 25, 1864.) Siege and Capture of Atlanta. — During the latter part of July and throughout August, 1864, Sherman was vigorously besieging Atlanta, while the Confederate army which defended the place was gradually becoming weaker. Cavalry exj>e- ditions had cut the railways leading to Atlanta. At length, on the 2d of Sej)- tember (1864), Sherman defeated and severed Hood's army, compelled it to evac- uate Atlanta, and immediately took possession of the cit)'. Farragut's Victory in Mobile Bay — Capture of Forts Gaines and Mor- gan. — \Miile the sieges of Petersburg and Atlanta were progressing, important events were occurring near Mobile. On the 5th of August, the National fleet, under Admiral Farragut, defeated the Confederate fleet at the entrance to Mobile bay, capturing many vessels. The Confederate admiral, Franklin Buchanan, lost a leg during the engagement. Farragut acted in conjunction with a National army under 520 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. General Gordon Granger. Fort Gaines, after a furious assault, was captured by Farragut on the 8th of August. Farragut and Granger opened a heavy assault on Fort Morgan, which they compelled to surrender on the 23d of August (1864). Sheridan's Victories in the Shenandoah Valley. — On the 19th of Septem- ber, 1864, the National army in the Shenandoah Valley, under General Philip H. Sheridan, gained a brilliant victory over the Confederates under General Early, not far from Winchester. Sheridan gained another victory at Fisher's Hill, on the 22d (September, 1864). Early was driven farther up the valley. On the 19th of Octo- ber, Sheiidan almost annihilated Early's army, in the battle of Cedar Creek. After this, the valley was under the complete control of the National troops. Hood's Invasion of Tennessee — Destruction of Hood's Army. — After the fall of Atlanta, Hood, with his Confederate army, moved northward, for the pur- pose of invading Tennessee and cutting ofl" Sherman's communications with the loyal States. Sherman followed Hood and drove him into Alabama. At length, Sher- man left General George H. Thomas with a part of his army in Tennessee to watch Hood, and with the remainder he began his great march through Georgia. Hood invaded Tennessee with about 40,000 men. On his approach, Thomas retreated to Nashville, the capital of Tennessee. Hood pursued, fought an indecisive battle with a part of Thomas's army under General Schofield, at Franklin, on the 30th of November, and then laid siege to Nashville. On the 15th of December (1864), Thomas marched out of the city, and in a bloody battle he completely destroyed Hood's army. Nearly the whole of Hood's artillery was captured by the victori- ous National troops, and Hood, with a small remnant of his army, fled south into Alabama. Sherman's March Through Georgia — Capture of Savannah. — After having gone in pursuit of Hood, Sherman divided his army, retaining 50,000 men under his own command, and leaving the remainder under General Thomas to oppose Hood's army in Tennessee. On the 14th of November, Sherman finally abandoned Atlanta, and commenced a grand march through Georgia for the Atlantic coast. No opposition was made to his progress. He captured Milledgeville, the capital of that State, on the 29111 of November; and, on the 2lst of December, he took military possession of Savannah, which, on his approach, had been evac- uated by 15,000 Confederate troops, under General Hardee, who fled toward Charleston. Admission of Nevada — Re-election of Lincoln. — On the 31st of October, 1864, Nevada was admitted into the Union as a State. On the 8th of November, the people of the loyal States pronounced in favor of a vigorous prosecution of the war, by reelecting Abraham Lincoln President of the United States, over his oppo- nent. General George Brinton McClellan. Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, was elected Vice-President. EVENTS OF 1863. Abolition of Slavery. — In the early part of 1S65, Congress passed an amend- ment of the National Constitution abolishing slavery forever within the limits of the Republic. Within a few months, three-fourths of the States had ratified the amendment. UNITED STATES. 521 Capture of Fort Fisher and Wilmington. — On the 15th of January, 1865, Fort Fisher, at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, in North Carolina, having been furiously bombarded for two days by 8,000 National troops under General Alfred H. Terry, assisted by Admiral Porter's fleet, was surrendered, with its garrison of 2,000 Confederate troops, Terry moved up the river, and, on the 22d of February, he captured Wihnington, the possession of which had long been desired, as it had been the only seaport in the power of the insurgents for a long time. Sherman's March in South Carolina— Evacuation of Charleston. — About the middle of January, 1865, Sherman left Savannah and invaded South Carolina. He was soon joined by General John G. Foster with a strong force of National troops. Sherman marched northward, and entered Columbia, the capital of the State, on the 17th of February. This caused the Confederates to evacuate Charleston on the same day, and on the following day (February 18, 1865), that city was taken possession of by National colored troops. Sherman's Invasion of North Carolina — Junction of Armies.— Sherman advanced into North Carolina, and defeated the insurgents, under Hardee and John- ston, at Averysboro', March i6th,and at Bentonville, March 19th. On the 22d of March (1865), Sherman was reinforced at Goldsboro', by the army under Terry from Wilmington, and that under Schotield from Newbern, while Johnston with his Confederate army retired to Raleigh, the capital of North Carolina, which was occupied JDy Sherman on the I3lh of April. Sheridan's Movements. — In the meantime, Sheridan had gone up the Shenan- doah Valley, with a force of 10,000 cavalry ; and, on the 2d of March, he almost annihilated the Confederate force under Early, near Charlottesville. After destroying railways and canals, Sheridan joined the Army of the James under General Ord. Evacuation of Petersburg and Richmond— Surrender of Lee. — During the entire autumn of 1864 and the ensuing winter, nothing of importance occurred at Petersburg, except a severe conflict at Hatcher's Run, in February, 1865. On the 25th of March, 1865, Fort Steadman was captured by the insurgents, but it was recaptured by the National troops on the same day. On the 29th of March (1865), a terrific struggle of three days began between the two great armies before Peters- burg. After three days' fighting, Lee's army was compelled to evacuate Peters- burg and Richmond, and flee westward toward Lynchburg. A hot pursuit on the part of the National army followed, and many of the Confederate troops were cap tured on the way. The retreat of Lee's army had been intercepted by Sheridan, and, at Deatonsville, the Confederate General Ewell and his entire corps were made prisoners, after a sharp fight. At length, on the 9th of April, finding escape impossible, Lee surrendered what remained of his army, about 26,000 men, to General Grant, at Appomattox Court-IIouse. End of the Confederate Government. — By the surrender of Lee's army, the Rebellion had received its death-blow. Richmond had been entered on the 3d of April, by colored troops under General Godfrey Weitzel, who received the sur- render of the city from the mayor. "The President," "The Cabinet," and "The Congress" of the Confederacy had fled, thus putting an end to " The Confederate Government." On the 4th of April (1865), President Lincoln, who had been at the head-quarters of Grant for more than a week, made his appearance in Rich- 522 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. mond, and, in the mansion of Jefferson Davis, the fugitive President of the Southern Confederacy, he publicly received many army officers and citizens. Capture of Mobile — Cavalry Raids. — Operations near Mobile had been suspended during the winter, but in March, 1S65, they were resumed by General Canby and Rear- Admiral Thatcher; and, after a defense of more than a month the city of Mobile and its defenses were surrendered to the National forces, on the 1 2th of April. General J. H. Wilson, with a large force of National cavalr)', made a destructive raid through Western Georgia and Eastern Alabama; and General George Stoneman, at the head of another cavalry force, swept through South-western Virginia, to Salisbury, in North Carolina, destroying railways and bridges. Assassination of President Lincoln. — While the American people were rejoicing, because of the suppression of the rebellion and the return of peace, they suddenly became a nation of mourners, when the news spread over the country that President Lincoln had- been assassinated in a theatre in Washington. On the night of the 14th of April (Good Friday), 1865, John Wilkes Booth, who had at one time been an actor in that theatre, stole up behind the President, and shot him through the head. Mr. Lincoln died the next morning. The assassin, immediately after committing his tragical deed, leaped upon the stage, and, brandishing a large knife, exclaimed, in the motto of Virginia, "Sic semper tyrannis!" "May this ever be the fate of tyrants!" and made his escape. He was afterwards found m a bam, in Virginia, and, refusing to surrender himself, he was shot by Sergeant Boston Corbett. Booth's accomplices in the assassination were tried, and, upon conviction, four were hanged, and the rest were imprisoned for life, with the exception of one, who was only imprisoned for six years. JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (APRIL 15, 1865- MARCH 4, 1869). Andrew Johnson Inaugurated President. — At about noon on the day that Mr. Lincoln died (April 15, 1865), Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, was sworn in, as President of the United States, by Chief-Justice Chase. Surrender of Johnston's Army — End of the Rebellion. — On the 26th of April, 1S65, the insurgent army in North Carolina, numbering then about 31,000 men, under the command of General Joseph E. Johnston, surrendered to General Sherman. The other Confederate armies and guerrilla bands soon afterward laid down their arms; and, by the middle of May, all armed opposition to the National Government had ended ; and the National armies were disbanded, and the Nation's defenders were returning to their homes. Flight and Capture of Jefferson Davis. — In the meantime, Jefferson Davis, the late so-called Confederate President, and the chief of the foiled conspirators, was fleeing toward the sea-coast, with a large amount of specie, for the purpose of escaping from the country. He was captured near Irwinsville, Georgia, by a part of the 4th Michigan cavalry, under the command of Colonel B. D. Pritchard; and was brought to Fortress Monroe, where he was kept a close prisoner for two years, after which he was finally set at liberty. (May, 1867.) ABRAHAM LINCOLN. WILLIAM H. SEWARD. UNITED STATES. -23 Purification and Perpetuity of the Republic. — Thus closed the most terrible ci^l war ever known. A few restless and ambitious men, who had lost the power which they had wielded over the Nation for many years, had conspired against the life of the Republic, and inaugurated a gigantic rebellion, for the purpose of dis- membering the Union, and establishing an independent empire, with slavery as its comer-stone. In that fierce struggle p>erished the schemes of these conspirators, and the barbarous institution which they had desired to perpetuate. The Republic was purified and strengthened by the fiery ordeal through which it had passed. Reconstruction — Readmission of Tennessee. — On the assembling of Con- gress, in December, 1865, it became evident that a disagreement existed between that body and the President, respecting the restoration of the lately -rebellious States to their former relations with the Union. The President demanded their immediate restoration, while Congress contended that they should first comply with certain conditions imposed upon them in the shape of a Constitutional amendment. In June, 1866, Tennessee, having ratified the proposed amendment, was restored to its former place in the Union. Atlantic Telegraph Cable. — In the summer of 1866, telegraphic communica- tion between America and Europe was established by means of the Atlantic Tele- graph Cable, which was laid from Valentia, in Ireland, to Heart's Content, in New- foundland. The accomplishment of this vast undertaking is owing to Cyrus W. Field, of New York. The Queen of Great Britain immediately sent a congratula- tor}' dispatch to the President of the United States, and received a reply from him on the same day. Military Reconstruction Bill. — The Thirt}--ninth Congress, before the close of its last session, in March, 1867, passed, over the President's veto, a bill placing the States lately in rebellion under the military authority of the Republic until their full restoration as States of the Union should be effected. Admission of Nebraska — Purchase of Alaska. — During the last session of the Thirt)'-ninth Congress, in 1867, Nebraska was admitted into the Union as a State. In the spring of 1867, Russia sold all her territorial possessions in North America to the United States, for 7,200,000 dollars. The purchased territory was named Alaska. Impeachment, Trial, and Acquittal of President Johnson. — In the latter part of February, 1868, the National House of Representatives preferred articles of impeachment against President Johnson, for a violation of what was called the Tenure-of-Office Act, in an attempt to forcibly remove Edwin M. Stanton, Secre- tary of War, from the Cabinet, and for other misdemeanors. On the 1 6th of May, 1868, the National Senate, sitting, in accordance with the provisions of the Con- stitution, as a High Court of Impeachment for the trial of the Chief Magistrate, acquitted the President of all the charges brought against him. General Grant Elected President of the United States. — In May, 1868, the Republican party, which had sustained the National Government in its prose- cution of the war for the suppression of the rebellion, nominated Gener.d Ulysses Simpson Grant, of Illinois, for President of the United States, and Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana, for Vice-President. The Democratic nominees were Horatio Seymour, of New York, for President, and Francis P. Blair, Jr., of Missouri, for Vice-President. 524 CENTENNIAL HISTORY, On the 3d of November, General Gr.int and Mr. Colfax were elected by an over- whelming majority over the opposing candidates. GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1869- ). Inauguration of Grant — Pacific Railroad. — On the 4th of March, 1869, General (]rant took the oath of oftice as eighteenth President of the United States. In May following, the railroad from Omaha, Nebraska, to Sacramento City, Cali- fornia, was completed. This great National highway across the continent to the Pacilic, is known as the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific Railro.ids. Enfranchisement of the Colored Population of the United States. — All political distinctions on account of race or color in the United States, were finally removed by the ratification and adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment of the Na- tional Constitution. This amendment, which was declared adopted in March, 1870, secured the rights of citizenship to all races within the borders of the Republic ; and several hundred thousand poor colored men, who ten years before were held as chattels, now enjoyed the glorious privileges of American citizens, and were placed on a political equality with their late masters. War with Corea. — On the ist of June, 1871, the United States fleet under Admiral Rodgers, while in the waters of Corea, in Eastern Asia, was fired upon from the Corean forts, but repulsed the attack; and, on the loth and nth of the same month (June, 1871), the Americans defeated the Coreans, and captured their forts, after some spirited fighting. The Alabama Controversy with England. — The conduct of England, in allowing the construction, in her ports, and the escape therefrom, of the Alabama and other Anglo-Confederate pirate-ships, had produced a bitter feeling in the United States, against the British Government. A treaty signed by Lord Clarendon on the part of Great Britain, and by Reverdy Johnson on the part of the United States, on the 15th of January, 1S69, was almost unanimously rejected by the United States Senate ; and the controversy threatened to end in a war between the two nations, in the early part of General Grant's Administration. Joint High Commission and Treaty of Washington — A Court of Arbi- tration. — In P'ebruary, 1 87 1, commissioners appointed by the American and British Governments met in Washington City, as " The Joint High Commission;" and, on the loth of May, 1871, the commissioners agreed upon " The Treaty of Washing- ton," which was speedily ratified by the two Governments. The Treaty of Wash- ington provided for the settlement of the Alabama dispute by a Court of Arbitration, consisting of five Arbitrators, to be appointed respectively by the President of the United States, the Queen of Great Britain, the Emperor of Brazil, the King of Italy, and the President of Switzerland. The 'Indirect Claims" Controversy. — When the Court of Arbitration met, at Geneva, m Switzerland, in February, 1872, American claims for indirect or con- sequential damages were presented ; but the British Arbitrator, Sir Alexander Cock- burn, violently objected to the consideration of such claims, and his course was approved and sustained by the British Government and people. Intense excitement and bitter feeling against the United States was manifested in Great Britain, and it SALMON P. CHASE. CHARLES SUMNER. UNITED STATES. 525 was feared that the Arbitration would signally fail. The United States Government for some time obstinately persisted in its preposterous claims for consequential damages, and the British Government as persistently denied the justice of such claims; but, after several months' negotiation between the two Governments, the Tribunal of Arbitration, upon reassembling, in June, 1872, settled the question by rejecting the consideration of the claims of the United States for indirect damages. Decision of the Alabama Claims Arbitration Tribunal at Geneva. — The Alabama Claims Arbitration Tribunal at Geneva finally concluded its work on the 6th of September, 1872. The Court expressed in mild terms England's want of due diligence in preventing the escape of the Anglo-Confederate cruisers. The amount of damages awarded the United States by the Court was fifteen and one- half million dollars. Thus was settled amicably a dispute which had threatened to iavolve in war two nations kindred in race, language, institutions, and religion ; — presenting to the whole civilized world a most commendable spectacle. Presidential Campaign of 1872, and Re-election of President Grant. — A portion of the Republican party, known as Liberal Republicans, dissatisfied with General Grant's Administration, held a National Convention at Cincinnati, early in May, 1872, and nominated Horace Greeley, of New York, for President, and Governor Benjamin Gratz Brown, of Missouri, for Vice President. Early in June, the regular Republican National Convention, at Philadelphia, renominated President Grant, with Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, for Vice-President. Early in July, the Democrats, in their National Convention at Baltimore, instead of nominating a candidate from their own party, adopted the Liberal Republican nominations. On the 5th of November, President Grant was reelected by a majority far greater than in 1868; and, on the 29th of the same month, Mr. Greeley died, mourned by the whole American nation. Domestic Difficulty in Louisiana. — Near the close of 1872, a serious domestic difficulty arose in Louisiana, concerning the election in that State. Both parties claimed to have carried the elections, and each endeavored to have its candidates installed. On the night of the 6th of December, 1872, in accordance with an order issued by Judge Durell, of the United States District Court of Louisiana, United States troops seized the State House in New Orleans, and held it for the Kellogg or Administration faction, which was supported by the National Administration ; but the opposite faction refused to recognize William Pitt Kellogg as Governor of the State, and acknowledged John McEnery as chief magistrate of Louisiana; and for some time Louisiana had two governors and two legislatures. On the 5th of March, 1873, the partisans of Governor McEnery made an armed attack upon the Kellogg party in New Orleans, but the disturbance was quickly quelled by United States troops. On the 13th of April (1873), ^ bloody conflict took place at Colfax, in Grant parish, which resulted in the horrible massacre of 150 negroes who sup- ported the Kellogg Government. On the 7th of May (1873), an armed insurrec- tion against the authority of Governor Kellogg broke out at St. Martinsville; but, after some spirited skirmishing, and upon the appearance of National troops, the insurgents submitted, and quiet was restored, but the great body of the white popu- lation of Louisiana was very restive under the authority of the Kellogg Government. War with the Modoc Indians in Oregon. — In November, 1872, the National Government attempted to remove the Modoc Indians, of Northern Cali- 526 CENTENNIAL HISTOR V. fornia, to a reservation in Soutliern Oregon. The Modocs, numbering no more than sixty warriors, headed by their principal sachem, Captain Jack, and by their other chiefs, Shack-Nasty Jim, Schonchin, Bogus Charlie, Boston Charlie, and Scar-faced Charlie, resisted, and defeated the United States troops sent to remove them. In January, 1873, Captain Jack again defeated the troops sent against him. On the nth of April (Good Friday), 1873, General Canby and Commissioner Thomas were treacherously ass.issinated by Captain Jack and Boston Charlie, at a peace conference. This event produced the most intense indignation throughout the United St.ates, and public sentiment was for a time strongly in favor of the extermination of the whole tribe of the Modocs. General Schofield, who com- manded the United States forces in the Pacific Department, sent troops after the Modocs, who fled to the Lava Beds, in Southern Oregon. During the months of April and May, 1873, ^^^ Modocs frequently repulsed the attacks of the United States troops; but finally, on the 1st of June (1873), Captain Jack surrendered with his bands, and the famous " Modoc War" ended. On the 3d of October, 1873, Captain Jack, and the other Modoc leaders who had murdered General Canby and Commissioner Thomas, were hange 53'S 530 525 52' S'o 509 405 494 490 480 479 471 4()9 464 4<>.> 460 45S 450 449 448 43' 429 421 415 405 404 403 400 399 395 3S7 3S3 371 366 362 358 350 343 342 Solon frames n code for Athens, Tlic Jews carried into the Babylonian Captivity, Usurpation of Pisistratus in Athens, Cyrus the Creat founds the Persian Emjiire, . Cyrus the (jreat conquers Croesus, Kinj; of Lydia, . Con(iuest of liahylon i)y C'yrus the (Jreat, l'",(lict of Cyrus ]H'rniittint:; the return of the Jews to Palestine, Cyrus the Creat defeated and killed by the Scythians, Cambyses, King of I'ersia, conquers Egypt, Darius llystaspes becomes King of Persia, . . A Rejniblic established in Athens, . . Tarquin the Proud ex)>elled from Rome, Rome becomes a Republic, .... Revolt of the Creek cities of Asia Minor against Persia, l'lel)eian insurrection at Rome, .... Tribunes chosen at Rome, ..... lianishment of Coriolanus from Rome, Commencement of the Persian War against Greece, Persian invasion of Greece, .... Battle of Marathon, ..... Invasion of Greece by Xerxes, King of Pei-sia, , liattle of 'rhermo]iyl;v, ..... Athens i)unieil by the Persians, Battle of Salamis, "j Battle of Plata?a, \ Greek victories over the Persians, Battle of Mycale, j Themistocles bani-ihed from Athens, Battle of Kurymedon, .... I'.arthquakc .at Sparta, .... Rebellion of the Sjiartan Helots and the Messenians, l'"/.ra and Nehemiah rebuild Jerusalem, Dictatorship of Cincinnatus, Decemvirs chosen in Rome, Peace made between Greece and Persia, Abolition of the Oftice of Decemvir, Ci^mmencement of the Peloponnesian War, Plague at Athens and death of Pericles, Peace of Nicias, .... Athenian Expedition against Syracuse, . Battle of /Egosixifamus, Surrender of .\ihens to the Spartans, The Thirty Tyrants rule in Athens, , The Council of Ten in Athens, Democracy restored in Athens, Retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks from Persia, 1 )eath of Socrates, .... Concjuest of \"eii by the Romans under Camillus, Peace of Antalcidas, Italy invaded by the Gauls under Brennus, Battle on the Allia, — the Romans defeated by the Gauls, Rome taken and burned by the liauls, . Commencement of the Theban War, Battle of Leuctra, .... Adoption of the Laws of Caius Licinius Stole, Battle of Mantinea, .... Beginning of the Sacred War in Greece, Destruction of Sidon. .... Eirst war between the Romans and Samnites begun War between the Romans and the L.atins, CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 547 PAGE. 338 Battle of Vesuvius;, — Patriotic devotion of Decius, ... 74 " Battle of Chaeronea and end of Greek independence, . . -53 336 Assassination of Philip of Mace^lon, .... 54 335 Thebes, Greece, destroyed by Alexander the Great, . . -54 334 Alexander's invasion of the Persian Emjiire, ... 54 " Battle of the Granicus, ^ -.r- ^ • r ai j„ .u„ /-, * / 54 ,. .^, r .1, T \ Victories of Alexander the Great, . \ -i], 333 Battle of the Issus, / 155 332 Tyre taken and destroyed by Alexander the Great, . . -55 " Siege and capture of Gaza by Alexander the Great, . . 56 331 Founding of Alexandria in Egypt, . . . . • 5^ " Battle of Arbela and Gaugamela, ..... Sfj 330 Assassination of Darius Codomannus, King of Persia, . . -57 328 Conquest of Scythia by Alexander the Great, ... 57 327 Alexander's invasion of India and defeat of Poms, . . -5^ 324 Death of Alexander the Great at Babylon, .... 59 322 Demosthenes destroys himself by poison, . . . -59 321 The Romans defeated by the Samnites and obliged to pass under the yoke, 74 301 Battle of Ipsus and dismemberment of Alexander's empire, . . 60 290 SuVjjugation of the Samnites by the Romans, • • • 75 281 Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, engages in a war with Rome, . . 75 280 Invasion of Macedon and Greece by the Gauls under Brennus, . 61 279 Defeat of the Gauls at Thermopylae, . . . , .61 275 Defeat of Pyrrhus by the Romans, .... 76 272 Death of Pyrrhus at Argos, . . . . . .61 " Conquest of Tarentum by the Romans, .... 76 263 Commencement of the First Punic War, . . . • 7*^ 255 Defeat of the Romans and captivity of Regulus, ... 77 250 Battle of Panormus — Defeat of the Carthaginians, . . -77 " Rise of the Achaian League under Aratus of Sicyon, . . 61 " The Parthian Empire founded, . . . . .64 240 End of the First Punic War, ..... 77 238 Sicily made a Roman province, . . . . • 77 228 Conquest of the Illyrians by the Romans, .... 78 222 Conquest of the Cisalpine Gauls by the Romans, . . • 78 221 Death of Cleomencs III. and capture of Sparta by the Macedonians, 62 219 Capture of Saguntum, in Spain, i)y the Carthaginians, . . .78 218 Beginning of the Second Punic War, . ... 78 217 Hannibal's passage of the Alps and invasion of Italy, . . -78 " Battle of the Ticinus, ] f 79 " Battle of the Trebia, 79 " Battle of Placentia, I Victories of Hannibal, . . . - 79 " Battle of Trasimenus, | 79 216 Battle of Cannse, J 79 215 Building of the Great Vv^all in China, . . . . .22 212 Syracuse taken and destroyed by the Romans, ... 80 207 Battle of the Metaurus, — Hasdrubal defeated by the Romans, . . 80 " Sparta subdued by Philopoemen, the successor of Aratus, . . 62 202 Battle of Zama and end of the Second Punic War, . . .81 197 Battle of Cynoscephalce, . . . . . .62,81 191 Battle of Magnesia, . . . . . , .81 183 Death of Hannibal and Scipio Africanus, .... 81 168 Battle of Pydna and conquest of Macedon by the Romans, . 63, 82 149 Beginning of the Third Punic War, .... 82 146 Carthage taken and destroyed by Scipio vEmilianus, . . -83 " Destruction of Corinth and conquest of Greece by the Romans, 63, 82 133 Numantia, in Spain, taken and destroyed by Scipio y^milianus, . 83 132 Tiberius Gracchus endeavors to secure the enforcement of the agrarian law, but is defeated and slain, ..... 84 121 Caius Gracchus attempts to secure the enforcement ot the agrarian law, but is killed in a tumult, ..... 84 248 CJIROXOLOGICAL IXDEX. ic6 JiiCTurtha, King of Numidia, defeated and captured by the Romans, lOI The Cimbri and Teutones annihilated by the Romans, 90 The Social War in Italy begun. — It lasted two years, 85 Fii-st war between Rome and Mithridates, King of Pontus, " The civil war between Marius and Sylla begun, 86 Dictatoi-ship and death of Marius, .... 84 Sylla defeats Mithridates, ..... 81 Sylla assumes the Dictatorship, .... 78 Resignation and death of Sylla, .... 70 The rebellion of Sertorius in Spain suppressed, " The rebellious slaves in Italy under Spartacus subdued by Crassus, 67 The Cilician pirates subdued by Pompey, . 66 Pompey's victory over Mithridates, .... 65 Pompey overthrows the Syrian Empire of the Seleucidie, . 63 Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Pompey, " Mithridates terminates his life by poison, " Catiline's conspiracy at Rome, ..... 60 The First Triumvirate at Rome, — Cwsar, Pompey, and Crassus, 60 Defeat and death of Crassus in Parthia, 58 Julius Cicsar made governor of Gaul, 55 Ci^sar's first invasion of Britain, .... 54 Caesar's second invasion of Britain, . . , 52 Final conquest of Gaul by Cajsar, .... 49 The civil war between Pompey and Ci'esar commenced, " Cresar's crosses the Rubicon and marches to Rome, 48 Battle of Pharsalia and assassination of Pompey, 47 Ciesar overthrows Ptolemy in Egypt, " Caesar's triumph over Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, 46 Battle of Thapsus, — the Roman republicans defeated by Cassar, 45 Battle of Munda, — Pompey's sons defeated by Cresar, 44 Dictatorship of Ci^sar, ..... " Assassination of C^Ksar, .... 43 The Second Triumvirate at Rome, — Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus 42 Battle of Philippi and suicide of Brutus and Cassius, 31 Battle of Aclium and suicide of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, 30 Egypt becomes a Roman province, " Octavius becomes Emperor, with the title of Augustus, . A. D. 9 Defeat of the Roman legions under Varus by the Germans, 14 Death of the Emperor Augustus, .... 51 C;\ractacus, the British chief, carried a captive to Rome, 64 Burning of Rome by order of the Emperor Nero, . " Defeat of the British queen, Boadicea, by Suetonius Paulinus, . 68 Overthrow and death of Nero, .... 70 Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus, 79 Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii, . 96 Final conquest of Britain by the Romans under Julius Agricola, 226 Beginning of the Persian Empire of the Sassanid^, 305 Abdication of the Emperor Diocletian, .... 312 Constantine the Great becomes sole Emperor of Rome, 325 Constantine the Great embraces Christianity. 336 Constantine makes Constantinople the capital of his empire, 357 Death of Constantine the Great at Nicomedia, in Asia Minor, . 361 Julian the Ajx>state becomes Emperor of Rome, 363 Julian's untortunate expedition against the New Persians, 364 The Roman Empire divided between \'alentinian and Valens, 396 Stilicho, the general of Honorius, defeats the Goths in Greece, 406 The Romans under Stilicho defeat the barbarians, . 410 Rome taken and pillaged by Alaric, King of the Goths, PAGE. S5 85 86 86 86 86 86 87 87 87 87 87 88 64, 88 88 88 8S 88 89 88 89 89 89 89 89 90 90 90 90 90 90 91 92 92 93 64, 93 93 94 94 95 96 96 96 97 98 9S 103 106 106 107 107 107 loS 108 109 no 110 III CIIR ONOL O GICA L INDEX. 451 Attila, King of the Huns, defeated at Chalons by the Romans, 452 Attila's retreat into Pannonia, .... 472 Rome taken and plundered by Genseric, King of the Vandals, 476 Downfall of the Roman Empire of the West, . 549 PAGE. 112 . 112 112 • "3 THE MIDDLE AGES. A. D. 486 Clevis, King of the Franks, conquers Gaul, 496 Clovis defeats the Alemanni in the battle of Tolbiac and embr: Christianity, ...... 507 Clovis puts to death the other chiefs of the Franks, 527 Justinian becomes Emperor of the East, 535 Belisarius overthrows the Vandal kingdom in Africa, . 537 Belisarius defends Rome against the attacks of the Goths, . 554 Tejas, the last Gothic king, slain in battle with Narses, 565 Death of the Emperor Justinian, .... 568 The Lomljard kingdom in Italy founded by Alboin, 622 The Ilegira, or Mohammed's flight from Mecca, 632 Death of Mohammed, ...... 638 Conquest of Syria by the Saracens, .... 640 Conquest of Egypt by the Saracens, .... 651 Conquest of Persia by the Saracens, 660 Accession of the Ommiyades, ..... 712 Invasion and conquest of Spain by the Saracens, 732 Defeat of the Saracens near Tours by Charles Martel, , 752 The dynasty of Ommiyades overthrown by the Abbasides, . " Beginning of the Pope's temjioral power, 768 Death of Pepin the Little and division of the Frank kingdom, 771 Charlemagne becomes sole monarch of the Franks, 772 Charlemagne forces the Saxons to a peace, 775 Charlemagne overthrows the Lombard kingdom in Italy, 778 Charlemagne's rear-guard cut to pieces in the pass of Roncesvallcs, 800 Charlemagne crowned at Rome Emperor of the West, . 804 Final subjugation of the Saxons by Charlemagne, 814 Death of Charlemagne, ..... 827 Founding of the Kingdom of England by Egbert, . . 120, 841 Battle of Fontenaille, ...... 843 Partition Treaty of Verdun, .... 871 Alfred the Great l)ecomes King of England, 875 The Kingdom of Norway founiled by Harald Fairhair and Denmark by Gorm the Old, ... 898 Charles the Simple becomes King of France, 900 The Vnglians found the kingdom of Sweden, . 901 Death of Alfred the Great, ...... 911 Germany becomes an elective empire, .... 933 Henry the Fowler, Emperor of Germany, defeats the Magyars at Merse berg, ....... 973 Otho the Great, Emperor of Germany, defeats the Hungarians at Lech feld, ....... 981 Greenland discovered by an Icelander, .... 987 Hugh Capet ascends the throne of France, 999 Death of Hugh Capet, ...... 1000 Stephen the Pious assumes the dignity of King of Hungary, " Vladimir the Great becomes sovereign of Russia, . 1002 Greeland colonized by Icelanders, .... " Massacre of the Danes in England, .... 1016 Canute the Great of Denmark becomes King of England, 1025 Conversion of Canute the Great to Christianity, 1031 Dissolution of the Saracen Caliphate of Cordova, 125 550 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. PAGE. 1060 Robert Guiscard, the Norman duke, conquers Southern Italy, . 145 1066 Battle of Hastings and conquest of England by Duke William of Nor- mandy, who then becomes King of England, . . . 172 1077 Henry IV. of Germany humiliated by Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), 161 1081 The Emperor Henry IV. leads an expedition against Hildebrand, . 161 1081 Hildebrand deposed and Clement III. made Pope, . . 161 1085 Pope Urban II., at the Council of Clermont, preaches the First Crusade, 135 1096 The First Crusade undertaken, .... 135, 147 1097 The Christian army under Godfrey of Bouillon arrives in Palestine, . 135 " The Crusaders besiege and take Antioch, .... 136 1099 Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, . . . , .136 1 1 30 Roger II. founds the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, . . 145 1 147 St. Bernard of Clairvaux originates the Second Crusade, . . 137 1 152 Frederic Barbarossa becomes Emperor of Germany, . . 162 1 1 54 Henry Plantagenet ascends the throne of England, . . •174 1 1 70 Assassination of Thomas a Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, . 174 1 172 Ireland conquered by King Henry II. of England, . . . 174 1 176 Battles of Lignano, — Frederic Barbarossa defeated by the Milanese, 142, 163 1 1 79 Henry the Lion deprived of his territories by Frederic Barbarossa, . 163 1 180 Philip Augustus ascends the throne of France, . . . 149 1187 Sultan Saladin of Egypt wrests Jerusalem from the Christians, . . 137 1 189 Death of Henry II. of England and accession of Richard the Lion- hearted, . . . . . . . -174 1 190 The ThiTd Crusade begun, — Death of Frederic Barbarossa, 137, 163 H91 Defeat of Saladin by Richard the Lion-hearted, , . . 138 1192 Richard the Lion-hearted imprisoned in Germany, . . 138, 174 1 199 Death of Rich.ird the Lion-hearted and accession of John, . • "S 1204 Fourth Crusade and temporary subversion of the Greek Empire, 138, 149 1205 The Pope causes the Cross to be preached against the Albigenses, . 141 1213 The Child's Crusade, ...... 139 1215 King John of England forced to sign Magna Charta, . . . 175 1218 Frederic II. becomes Emperor of Germany, , . . 164 1226 Louis IX., or St. Louis, becomes King of France, . , . 150 1227 Zingis- Khan, chief of the Moguls, begins his career of conquest, . 190 1228 The Emperor Frederic II., undertakes the Fifth Crusade, . 139, 165 1234 King Andrew II. of Hungary grants the Golden Privilege, . 189 1237 Russia made tributary to the Khan of the Golden Horde, . .188 1244 Defeat of the Christians at Gaza by the Corasmins, . . 139 1250 Death of the Emperor Frederic II. of Germany, , . . 165 " The Sixth Crusade, — Captivity of St. Louis, , . 139, 150 125S The Moguls overthrow the Caliphate of Bagdad, . . . 190 1266 The foundations of the English House of Commons laid, . . 176 1270 The Seventh Crusade, — Death of St. Louis, . . . 140, 150 1273 Count Rodolph of Hapsburgh elected Emperor of Germany, . 166 1282 The Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers, ..... 150 1285 Philip the Fair becomes King of France, . . . .150 1 29 1 Acre, the last Christian stronghold in Palestine, taken by the Turks, . 140 1296 Battle of Dunbar, — John Baliol defeated by Edward I. of England, 176 " Battle of Stirling, — the English defeated by William \Yallace, . . 177 1298 Battle of Falkirk, — William Wallace defeated by Edward I., . 177 1305 Martyrdom of William Wallace, the Scottish patriot, . . . 177 " Avignon, in PVance, becomes the seat of the papacy, . . 169 1314 Battle of Bannockburn, — defeat of Edward II. of England, . . 177 131 5 Battle of Morgarten, — the Austrians defeated by the Swiss, . 167 1328 Philip of Valois ascends the throne of France, .... 152 1346 Battle of Crecy, — Edward III. of England defeats the French, 152, 178 " Battle of Nevil's Cross, — David Bruce taken prisoner, . . .178 1347 Calais surrendered to Edward III. of England after a long siege, 150, 178 " Cola di Rienzi becomes the head of a new Roman Republic, . .142 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 1354 Assassination of Cola di Rienzi, the Last of the Tribunes, . 1356 Battle of Poitiers, — King John of France taken prisoner, 1364 Death of John the Good of France, 1376 Death of the Black Prince, ..... 1377 Death of Edward III. of England, .... 1 38 1 Wat Tyler's Insurrection in England, .... 1386 Battle of Sempach, — Patriotic devotion of Arnold Winkelried, 1397 Union of Calmar, — Denmark, Sweden, and Norway united, 1399 Dethronement of Richard II. of England by Henry of Lancaster, . 1402 Battle of Angora, — Sultan Bajazet taken prisoner by Tamerlane, 1403 Battle of Shrewsbury, — Henry IV. of England defeats the barons, 1414 The Council of Constance assembles, .... 141 5 Battle of Azincourt, — Henry V. of England defeats the French, 141 7 Martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of Prague, 1419 Beginning of the Hussite War, which lasts seventeen years, 1422 Treaty of Troyes. — Accession of Henry VI. of England, 1429 Joan of Arc compels the English to raise the siege of Orleans, 143 1 Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, perished at the stake, 1453 The English driven out of France, . . . • " Sultan Mohammed II. captures Constantinople and puts an end to the Byzantine or Greek Empire, .... 1455 Commencement of the Wars of the Roses in England, . 1461 Edward IV. becomes King of England and Louis XI. of France, 147 1 Battles of Barnet and Tewksbury, — the Lancastrians overthrown, 1476 Battles of Granson and Murten, — defeats of Charles the Bold, 1477 Battle of Nancy and death of Charles the Bold of Burgundy, . 1479 Union of Aragon and Castile under Ferdinand and Isabella, ■ 1483 Death of Edward IV. of England and Louis XI. of France, 1485 Battle of Bosworth Field and death of Richard III., i486 Bartholomew Diaz discovers the Cape of Good Hope, 1492 The Moorish Kingdom of Granada conquered by Ferdinand and Isabella, ...... " Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, 1493 Founding of St. Domingo by Columbus, 1497 Vasco de Gama's voyage to India round the Cape of Good Hope, " Discovery of North America by Sebastian Cabot, . 1498 Discovery of South America by Columbus, 1499 The Emperor Maximilian I. of Germany acknowledges the independ- ence of Switzerland, . . . . , .171 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. A. D. 1 501 Discovery of Central America by Columbus, 1504 Ferdinand of Spain obtains possession of Naples, 1505 Death of Ivan the Great, Grand Duke of Moscow, 1506 Death of Christopher Columbus at Valladolid, in Spain, 1507 The city of Ormuz, in Persia, conquered by Albuquerque, 1508 League of Cambray against Venice, 1509 Death of Henry VII. of England and accession of Henry VIII., 1510 Albuquerque conquers Goa, which becomes the capital of Portu- guese Asia, ....... 15 1 2 John Ponce de Leon discovers Florida, 15 12 Conquest of Navarre by Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, 1513 Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean, " John de Medici becomes Pope with the title of Leo X., " Battle of the Spurs, France, "1 ^ . t . f " Battle of Flodden Field, England, | September loth, . | 1515 Death of Louis XII. of France and accession of Francis I., " Battle of Marignano, or Battle of the Giants, Italy, 551 PAGE. 143 153, 178 153. 179 179 179 179 168 186 180 191 iSo 169 154. 181 169 169 154, 181 155. 181 155, 181 156, 181 191 182 183, 156 183 156 . 156 159 183 184 193 125, 159 194 194 193 195 194 194 145 188 194 193 144, 158 185, 209 193 194 159 194 199 158' 209 209 158, 202 143. 202 552 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. PAGE. 1517 Commencement of the Religious Reformation by Martin Luther, . 199 " Conquest of Eg\'pt by the Turks, . . . . .192 " Discovery of Mexico by Cordova, ..... 214 1519 Death of the Emperor Maximilian I. and accession of Charles V., 202 1520 Luther excommunicated Ijy the Pope and his writings condemned, . 200 " Luther burns the papal bull of condemnation, . . . 200 " Luther appears before the Diet of Worms, .... 200 " Commencement of the first war between Charles V. and Francis L, 202 " The Field of the Cloth of Gold, .... 202, 209 " Massacre of Stockholm, . . . . . 186, 213 " Solyman the Magnificent becomes Sultan of Turkey, . . . 192 " Ferdinand Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe, . . 195 1521 Conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards under Fernando Cortez, . . 214 " Henry VIII. of England writes a volume against the Reformation, 209 1523 Death of the Chevalier Bayard, ..... 203 " Gustavus Vasa liberates Sweden from the Danish yoke, . .213 1524 John Verrazzani explores the Atlantic coast of North America, . 195 1525 Battle of Pavia, — Francis I. defeated and made prisoner, . , 203 " Establishment of the Mogul Empire in India by Baber, . . 215 1526 Peace of Madrid and release of Francis I., . . . . 203 " Battle of Mohacz and fall of Louis II. of Hungary, . 190, 204 " Discovery of the La Plata river by Sebastian Cabot, . . • '95 1527 The Holy League formed against Charles V., . . . 203 " Second war between Charles V. and Francis I., ... 203 " Rome taken and pillaged by the Germans and Spaniards, . . 204 1528 Andria Doria frees Genoa from French supremacy, . . 144, 204 1529 Ladies' Peace of Canil)ray between Charles V. and Francis I., . 204 " Siege of Vienna by Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, . . 192, 204 " The Protestation of the German Reformers at the Diet of Spire, . 20I " Discovery of Peru by Francisco Pizarro, . . . .214 1530 Diet of Augsburg, — The Augsburg Confession, . . . 201 " The League of .Schmalkald formed by the German Protestants, . 206 " Religious war in Switzerland, — Battle of Kappel and death of Zwingle, 20I " Death of Cardinal Wolsey, November 29th, .... 210 1532 Conquest of Peru by the Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro, . 214 1533 Henry VIII. divorces Catharine of Aragon and marries Anne Boleyn, 209 " Accession of Ivan the Terrible, Czar of Russia, . . . 188 1534 Henry VIII. created Head of the Church in England, . . 2IO " James Cartier discovers the St. Lawrence river, . . . 195 1535 Cartier's second voyage up the St. Lawrence, . . -195 " First expedition of Charles V. to Africa, .... 204 1536 Henry VIII. causes Anne Boleyn to be beheaded, and marries Jane Seymour, . . . . . . .210 " Third war between Charles V. and Francis I., ... 205 1538 The Ten Years' Truce of Nice between Charles V. and Francis I., 205 1540 The Order of Jesuits founded by Ignatius Loyola, . . '213 1541 Discovery of the Mississippi river by Ferdinand De Soto, . . 195 " Second African expedition of Charles V., .... 205 1542 Fourth war between Charles V. and Francis I., . . . 205 " War between England and Scotland, — Battle of Solway Moss, . 21 1 1543 Bombardment of Nice by the French and Turkish fleets, . . 205 1544 Battle of Cerisoles, ....... 205 " Peace of Crepy between Charles V. and Francis I., . . 205 1545 Opening of the Council of Trent, . . . , . 207 1546 Death of Dr. Martin Luther, February i8th, . . . 207 1547 Beginning of the religious war in Germany, .... 207 " Death of Henry VIII. and accession of Edward VI., . 206, 211 " Death of Francis I. of France and accession of Henry II., 206, 218 " English invasion of Scotland. — Battle of Pinkie, . . .211 1552 Duke Maurice of Saxony makes war on the Emperor Charles V., 208 CHROXOLOGICAL INDEX. 553 PAGE. 1552 Henry II. of France seizes the fortresses in Lorraine, . . 206, 218 " Religious Peace of Passau, ..... 208 '553 Death of Edward VI. of England and accession of Mary . .212 1554 Unsuccessful siege of Metz by the Emperor Charles V., . 206 " Religious Peace of Augsburg, ...... 208 1556 Abdication and retirement of the Emperor Charles V., . . 208 " Philip II., King of Spain, and Ferdinand I., Emperor of Germany, . 208 1557 War of England and Spain against France, . . 212, 218 " Battle of St. Quentin, — the French defeat the English and Span- iards, ....... 212, 218 1558 The French recover Calais from the English, . . 212, 218 " Death of Queen Mary of England and accession of Elizabeth, . 212, 222 " Death of Charles V., ...... 209 1559 Peace of Chateau-Cambresis between France and Spain, . 206, 218 " Death of Henry II. of France and accession of Francis II., . 218 1560 Death of Francis II. of France and accession of Charles IX., . 218 1562 The first religious war in France, ..... 219 1563 Peace of Amboise between the French Catholics and Huguenots, 219 " Hungary comes under the House of Hapsburgh, . . . 190 1564 Death of the Emperor Ferdinand I. and accession of Maximilian II., 225 1565 The Catholic nobles in the Netherlands petition for toleration, . 216 " Mary, Queen of Scots, marries Lord Darnley, . . . 222 1566 Murder of Mary's favorite, David Rizzio, .... 222 " Death of Sultan .Solyman the Magnificent of Turkey, . . 192 1567 The second religious war in France, ..... 219 " Philip II. appoints the Duke of Alva Governor of the Netherlands,- 216 " Murder of Lord Darnley, the husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, . 222 " Mary's marriage with the Earl of Bothwell, . . . 222 1568 The Peace of St. Germain closes the second religious war in France, 219 " Queen Mary of Scots flees to England, where she is kept a prisoner, 223 1571 Battle of Lepanto, — the Turkish navy annihilated, . . 192, 215 1572 Massacre of .St. Bartholomew, ..... 219 " The revolted States of the Netherlands choose William of Orange for their Stadtholder, . . . . . .216 1574 Death of King Charles IX. of France and accession of Henry III., 220 1576 The Pacification of Ghent, . . . . . . 217 " Death of the Emperor Maximilian II. of Germany and accession of Rodolph II.. ....... 225 1579 The Union of Utrecht, ...... 217 1580 Portugal united with Spain, ...... 216 1581 Assassination of William of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland, . 217 1387 Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, by order of Elizabeth, . . 223 15S8 The Spanish Armada sent against England. — Destroyed by storms, 224 " Rebellion in Paris against King Henrj- III., .... 220 " Death of the Czar, Ivan the Terrible of Russia, . . . 188 1589 Henry III. besieges Paris, . . ... 221 " Assassination of Henry III. and accession of Henr)' IV., . . 221 1590 Siege of Paris by King Henry IV., ..... 221 '593 Henry IV. becomes a Catholic and thus brings about a peace, . 221 1598 Edict of Nantes issued by Henry IV., tolerating Protestantism, . 221 " Death of Philip II. of Spain and accession of Philip HI., . . 215 " The Earl of Tyrone heads a Catholic rebellion in Ireland, . . 225 1600 The English East-India Company chartered by Queen Elizabeth, . 298 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. A. D. 1601 Execution of the Earl of Essex, Queen Elizabeth's favorite, . . 225 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold explores the New England coast, . . 257 1603 Death of Queen Elizabeth of England and accession of James I., . 225 554 CHRONOLOGICAL LVD EX. PAGE. 1603 Martin Pring explores the New England coast, . . . 257 1605 The French colony of Acadia (now Nova Scotia) founded by De Monts, 300 " The Gunpowder Plot in London, ..... 2;^^ 1606 Martin Pring's second visit to the New England coast, . . 257 1607 The first permanent English settlement in America at Jamestown, 255 1608 Quebec, in Canada, founded by Samuel Champlain, . , . 300 1609 Samuel Champlain discovers Lake Champlain, . . . 300 " Henry Hudson discovers and explores the Hudson river, . . 259 " Holland becomes independent of Spain, . . . 217, 231 1610 Assassination of Henry IV. of France and accession of Louis XHL, 221 " Expulsion of 600,000 Moors from Spain, . . . . .215 " The Starving Time in Virginia, ..... 256 1612 Death of the Emperor Rodolph H. and accession of Matthias, . . 226 " Capture of Moscow by the Poles. 1613 Michael Romanoff becomes Czar of Russia, .... 273 1614 Captain John Smith explores and names New England, . . 257 1618 Execution of Sir Walter Raleigh, ..... 232 " Beginning of the Thirty Years' War by the Bohemian revolt, . 226 1619 Death of the Emperor Matthias and accession of Ferdinand IL, . 226 " The first legislative assembly in America met at Jamestown, June 28, 256 " The Dutch colony of Batavia, in Java, founded, . . .218 1620 Slavery introduced into Virginia, ..... 256 " The Puritan settlement of Plymouth, in New England, December 21, . 257 1621 The Virginia House of Burgesses established, . . . 256 " Death of Philip HI. of Spain and accession of Philip IV. 1622 Ormuz wrested from the Portuguese by Shah Abbas of Persia,' . 215 " The first Indian war and massacre in Virginia, .... 256 1623 The Dutch colony of New Netherland established, . . 259 1624 Cardinal Richdlieu becomes Prime-Minister of France, . , 249 " Ring James I. of England makes Virginia a royal Province, . 256 1625 Death of James I. of England and accession of Charles I., . . 234 " Frederic, King of Bohemia, defeated by the Emperor Ferdinand II., 227 1625 King Christian IV. of Denmark aids the German Pretestants, . 227 1626 Defeat of Christian IV. at Lutter by Tilly, the imperial general, . 228 1628 Validity of the Petition of Right acknowledged by Charles I., . 234 " Richelieu humbles the Huguenots by the capture of Rochelle, . . 249 " Salem, Massachusetts, founded by John Endicott, , . . 258 1629 Peace of Lubec between the King of Denmark and the Emperor of Germany, ........ 228 " The Edict of Restitution published by the Emperor Ferdinand II,, 228 " Charles I. of England dissolves his Parliament, which is not again convened for eleven years, ...... 234 1630 Boston, Massachusetts, founded by John Winthrop, . . 258 " King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden aids the German Protestants, . 229 1 63 1 Magdeburg taken and destroyed by Tilly, .... 229 " Battle of Breitenfeld and Leipsic, — Tilly defeated by Gustavus, . 229 1632 Battle of Lutzen, — victory and death of Gustavus Adolphus, . 230 1633 Alliance of Heilborn between the Swedes and the Germans, . . 230 1634 Assassination of Wallenstein by order of the Emperor Ferainand II. , 230 " Battle of Nordlingen, . . . . . . .231 " Settlement of Maryland by English Roman Catholics, . . 261 1635 Clayborne's first rebellion in Mar)'land, ..... 261 " Peace of Prague between the German Princes and the Emperor, . 231 " Roger Williams banished from Massachusetts, . . . 258, 263 1636 Founding of Providence, Rhode Island, by Roger Williams, . 263 " Settlement of Hartford, Connecticut, by Rev. Thomas Hooker, , 262 1637 Extermination of the Pequod Indians by the Connecticut settlers, . 262 " Death of the Emperor Ferdinand II. and accession of Ferdinand III., . 231 " Presbyterian rebellion in Scotland, ..... 235 CHROXOLOGICAL INDEX. 555 PAGE. 1637 Founding of Harvard College at Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1638 Founding of New Haven, Connecticut, by Rev. John Davenport, , 262 " Settlement of Newport, Rhode Island, by William Coddington, . 263 " Settlement of New Sweden (now Delaware), . . . 264 " Sultan Amurath IV. of Turkey causes a massacre of the inhabitatants of Bagdad. 1640 Portugal recovers her independence, . . . . 216 " Frederic William, the Great Elector of Brandenburg, begins his reign, 281 1 641 Catholic rebellion in Ireland, ...... 236 1642 Commencement of the civil war in England between the Cavaliers and the Roundheads, ...... 23O " Battle of Edge Hill, England, October 3d, ... 237 " Death of Cardinal Richelieu, December, .... 249 1643 Death of Louis XIII. of PVance and accession of Louis XIV., , 249 " Battle of Rocroi, — the Spaniards defeated by the French. " Battle of Newbury, England, ..... 237 " Union of the New England colonies, ..... 258 1644 Battle of Marston Moor, — Lord Fairfax defeats the royalists, July 9th, 237 " Second Indian war in Virginia, ..... 256 " Union of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, . . 263 " The Mantchoo-Tantar dynasty ascends the throne of China. 1645 Claybonie's second rebellion in Maryland, . . . 261 " Battle of Naseby, — Charles I. overthrown, June 14th, . . . 238 1648 Peace of Westphalia terminates the Thirty Years' War, . . 231 " The Civil Wars of the Fronde commence in France, . . . 250 " Colonel Pride's Purge, — 81 Presbyterians expelled from Parliament, 239 1649 Execution of King Charles I. of England, January 30th, . . 239 " The Commonwealth of England established, . . . 240 " The Toleration Act passed by the Maryland Assembly, . . 262 1650 Battle of Dunbar, — the Scots defeated by Cromwell, September 3d, 240 1651 Battle of Worcester, — the English royalists defeated by Cromwell, September 3rd, ....... 240 " The Navigation Act passed by the English Parliament, . . 241 1652 Commencement of a naval war between England and Holland, .. 24I 1653 Cromwell dissolves the Long Parliament, April, . . . 241 " Praise-God Barebone's Parliament, April to December, . . 242 " Oliver Cromwell created Lord Protector of England, December, . 242 1654 Abdication of Queen Christina of Sweden, .... 232 " Peace between England and Holland, .... 241 1655 War between England and Spain, ..... 242 " Conquest of the island of Jamaica by the English Admiral Penn, . 242 " Civil war in Maryland between the Catholics and Protestants, . . 262 •' Conquest of New Sweden by Governor Stuyvesant of New Nether- land, ....... 260, 264 1656 Persecution of Quakers in Boston, Massachusetts, . , . 25S " Three days' battle of Warsaw, — the Swedes defeat the Poles. 1657 Death of the Emperor Ferdinand HI. and accession of Leopold I. 1658 Death of Oliver Cromwell, September 3rd, . . . 242 " Richard Cromwell becomes Lord Protector, but soon resigns, . . 243 1659 Aurungzebe ascends the Mogul throne in India, . . 215, 281 " The Treaty of the Pyrenees between France and Spain, . . 250 1660 Restoration of Monarchy in England, — Charles II., King, May 29th, 243 1661 Death of Cardinal Mazarin, Prime- Minister of France, . . . 250 1663 Naval war between England and Holland, .... 244 " . Charter granted to Rhode Island by King Charles II. of England, . 264 " Settlement of North Carolina by emigrants from Virginia, . . 264 1664 Conquest of New Netherland by the English, . . . 260 " Settlement of Elizabethtown, New Jersey, by English Puritans, . 266 1665 Connecticut and New Haven united under one charter granted by Charles XL, ........ 263 556 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. I'AGE. 1665 Great plague in London, , , . . . . 244 1666 Great fire in Lond.)n, ....... 244 1667 Peace of Tkeda between England and Holland, . . . 244 " Louis XIV. of France makes conquests in the Spanish Netherlands, . 251 l66ugene annihilates an army of 200,000 Turks at Belgrade, 1718 War of the Quadruple Alliance against Spain, " Peace of Passarovitz between Austria and Turkey, 281 300 248 268 274 301 274 275 269 269 275 269 270 270 270 270 275 265 248, 278 . 271 281 271 275 276 271 301 276 301 265 272 269 272 272 278 265 277 272 a78 278 278 277 278 278 279 278 249, 558 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. PAGE. 1718 Sicfje of Fredcrickshall and death of Charles XII. of Sweden, . 278 " Yale College removed from Saybrook to New Maven. " Founding of New Orleans, Louisiana, .... 300 1721 Peace of Nystadt between Russia and Sweden, . . . 278 1722 Persia overrun and subdued by the Afghans, , . . 281 1725 Death of Peter the Great of Russia and accession of Catharine I., . 278 1727 De.ath of Catharine I. of Russia and accession of Peter II., . 278 " Death of George I. of England and accession of George II., . 249, 278 " Siege of Gibraltar by the Spaniards. " Conquest of Thibet by the Chinese. 1729 North and South Carolina become separate royal provinces, . 266 " The Natchez Indians massacre the French settlers at Fort Rosalie, . 301 1730 The Empress Anne ascends the throne of Russia, . , . 278 1732 Birth of Gorge Washington, February 22d. 1733 Savannah, Georgia founded by James Edward Oglethorpe, . 267 " War of the Polish Succession begins, ..... 280 1734 Battle of Panna, Italy, between the Sardinians and Austrians. 1735 Peace between France and Germany, ..... 280 1736 Kouli Khan ascends the throne of Persia with the title of Nadir Shah, 28 1 1737 Austria joins Russia in a war against the Ottoman Porte, . . 280 1738 Battle of Krotzky, July 21st, — the Turks defeat the Austrians. " France agrees to the Pragmatic Sanction, .... 282 1739 Peace of Belgrade between Austria and Turkey, . . . 280 " Nadir Shah of Persia invades India and causes 100,000 of the inhabi- tants of Delhi to be massacred, ..... 281 " Colonial and maritime war between England and Spain, . . 280 " Porto Bello, South America, taken by Admiral Vernon's fleet, . 280 1740 Admiral Vernon and General Wentworth repulsed in an attack upon Carthagena, South America, ...... 280 " Death of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany, . . . 282 " Frederic the Great becomes King of Prussia, .... 281 " Coalition against Maria Theresa and War of the Austrian Succession, 282 " Frederic the Great begins the First Silesian War, . . . 282 1741 B.attle of Molvitz, — defeat of the Austrians by the Prussians, . 282 " A French army under Marshal Belleisle marches into Bohemia, . 283 " Charles VII. elected Emperor of Germany, . . . 283 " Accession of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia, .... 278 " War between Sweden and Russia, ..... 281 " Supposed Negro Plot in New York City. 1742 Peace of Breslau between Austria and Prussia, . . . 283 " Marshal Belleisle's retreat through Germany to the Rhine, . . 283 1743 England's alliance with Maria Theresa, .... 283 " Battle of Dettingen, — George II. of England defeats the French, . 283 " Peace of Abo between Sweden and Russia, . . . 281 1744 The Second Silesian War and Frederic's capture of Prague, . . 284 1745 Death of Ch.arles VII. of Germany and election of Francis I., . 284 " Battle of Ilohenfriedberg, ...... 284 " Battle of Sorr, ....... 284 " Battle of Kesselsdorf, ....... 284 " Peace of Dresden between Frederic and Maria Theresa, . . 284 " Battle of Fontenoy, ....... 285 ♦' Capture of Louisburg, Acadia, by Admiral Warren and General Pepperell, . . . . . . 285, 302 " Scotch Rebellion, ....... 285 •' Battle of Preston Pans, Scotland, ..... 285 1746 Battle of Falkirk, Scotland, ...... 285 " Battle of CuUoden Moor, Scotland, ..... 285 1747 Assassination of Nadir Shah of Persia, . . . . .281 1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, ..... 286, 302 1749 The Ohio Company obtains a land-grant from King George II., . 302 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 55^ l'A(;t. 1753 Wnshington's mission to the French, . . . , 302 '754 Washington's expedition against Fort Du Quesne, . . . 303 " ]jattle of the Great Meadows, ..... 303 " Washington's capitulation at Fort Necessity, July 4th, . . . 303 " Colonial Congress at Albany, New York, .... 303 1755 Capture of French forts in Acadia by Colonel Monckton, June, . 303 " Acadia plundered and desolated by the English, June, . . 303 " Battle of the Monongahela and death of Braddock, July 9th, , . 303 " Battle of Lake George, — Colonel Williams defeated by Dieskau, . 304 " CJreat earthquake at Lisbon, Portugal, destroys 30,000 houses. 1756 Coalition against Frederic the Great and beginning of the Seven Years' War, . . . . . , . .286 " Sudden invasion of Saxony by Frederic the Great, . . . 287 " Bailie of Lowositz, Bohemia, ...... 287 " Surrender of the Saxon army, ..... 287 " The French wrest the island of Minorca from the English, . . 287 •' The Marquis de Montcalm captures the English garrison at Oswego, , . . . . . . 287, 304 '' Battle of Kittanning, — Colonel John Armstrong defeats the Indians, 304 " Surajah Dowlah confines 146 Englishmen in the Black Hole of Calcutta, ........ 299 1757 Battle of Plassey, India, — ...... 299 " Battle of Prague, Bohemia, May 6th, .... 287 " Battle of Kolin, Bohemia, June i8lh, ..... 288 " lialtle of Rosbach, Saxony, November 5th, . . . 288 " Battle of Leuthen, Silesia, December 5th, .... 288 " Capture of Fort William Henry by Montcalm, . . 289, 304 " William Pitt the Elder becomes Prime Minister of England, . 289,304 1758 Battle of Zomdorf, Brandenburg, August 24th, . . . 289 " Battle of Hochkirchen, Saxony, October 14th, .... 289 " Capture of Louisburg, Acadia, by Generals Amherst and Wolfe, 289, 305 " Capture of Fort Frontenac, Canada, by Colonel Bradstreet, . 289, 305 " Capture of Fort Du Quesne by General John Forbes, . . 305 1759 Battle of Minden, Havover, August ist, .... 290 " Battle of Kunersdorf, Silesia, August 14th, .... 290 " Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point by General Amherst, . 305 " Capture of Fort Niagara by General William Johnson, . . 305 " Defeat of the French at Quebec and death of Wolfe and Montcalm, September I3lh, ...... 290, 306 " Quebec surrendered to General Murray, September i8th, . 290, 306 " The Jesuits expelled from Paraguay. 1760 Battle of Liegnitz, August 13th, ..... 291 " Battle of Torgou, November 3d, ..... 291 " Battle of Sillery, Canada, April 28th, .... 291, 306 " Surrender of Montreal to General Murray, September 8th, . 291, 306 " Death of George II. of England and accession of George III., 292, 297, 455 1 761 Battle of Panniput, India, January 7th, .... 281 " Family Compact between France and .Spain, , . . •991 " Defeat of the Cherokee Indians in Georgia by Colonel Grant, . 306 " Mason's and Dixon's Line established, .... 267 " Writs of Assistance tried in the Anglo-American colonies, , . 455 1762 Capture of Havana, CuIki, by the British navy, . . . 292 " Death of the Empress Elizal>eth of Russia, . . . 292 " Murder of the Czar Peter HI. of Russia and accession of Catha- rine IL, ..,..,,, 292 1763 Peace of Paris between England and France, February loth, 292, 306 " Peace of Hul^ertsburg between Austria and Prussia, . . 292 " Pontiac's War against the English in North America, . . . 306 1764 Death of Augustus HI. of Poland and election of Stanislaus Ponia- towski, ........ 293 560 CIIKONOLOGICAL INDEX. 1765 Tlie Stamp Act passed by the IJiilish Parliament, . " Tlie Stamp Act Coiii^ress in New York City, Octol)er, " Death of the Kmpoior l-'iancis 1. and election of Joseph 11., 1766 Repeal of llie Stamp Act, March 6lh, .... " Parliament levies duties on articles imported into America, 1767 Civil war in Pi)land, ...... " Ilyder Ali, Sultan of Mysore, begins a war against the English, 176S War between Russia anil Turkey, .... " IJiitish troops under General CJage sent to Boston, . 1769 Ac(|uisiiion of Corsica by the French, .... 1770 Jk'uder stormed and taken by the Russians, " The Hoston Riot and Massacre, March 5th, 1771 Defeat of tlie Regulators in Ni)rth Carolina, May l6lh, " Gustavus III. ascends the throne of .Sweden. " Gustavus III. breaks the jiower of the Swedish aristocracy. 1772 Destruction of the Gasp(i, ..... " First Partition of Polanil, ..... 1773 Committees of Correspondence in the Anglo-American colonies, " Tea-ships sent to America, ..... " Destruction of tea in Boston harbor, December l6th, 1774 PugalschelV's rebellion in Russia, .... " Passage of the Boston Port l>ill by the Britisli Parliament, " The port of Boston closetl against all commerce, June ist, . " The First Continental Congress assembles in Philadel])hia, Sept. 5tl' " Peace of Kudschuck Kainanlsche between Russia and Turkey, " Death of Louis XV. of France and accession of Louis XVL, . 1775 PugatschelT. the Don Cossack, lieheaded in Moscow, " American Revolution begins by the skirmishes at Lexington and and Concord, April 19th, .... '* The .Second Continental Congress assembles at Philadelphia, May loth, ....... " Capture of Ticonderoga by Colonel Ethan Allen, May loth, " Capture of Crown Point by Colonel Seth Warner, May I2lh, . " Mecklei\berg Declaration of Independence, May 20th, " Washington chosen Commander-in-chief, June 15th, , " Battle of Bunker's Hill, June 17th, " American invasion of Canada, Se]itember, . . " Defeat of Governor Dunmore in Virginia, . " Cajiture of Montreal by General Montgomery, November 13th, " Defeat of the Americans at Quebec and death of Montgomery, December 31st, 1776 Lord Dunmore burns Norfolk, Virginia, January 1st, " Washington begins the siege of Boston, March 2d, " Evacuation of Boston by CJeneral Howe, March 17th, " The British repulsed at Charleston, South Carolina, June 2Sth, " Declaratiitn of American Independence, July 4th, " Battle of Long Island, August 27th, .... " B.attle of White Plains, New York, October 2Sth, . " Capture of Fort Washington by the British, November i6th, " Washington's retreat across New Jersey, December, " Battle of Trenton, New Jei-sey, — 1,000 Hessians captured, Decem- ber 26th, ....... 1777 Battle of Princeton, New Jci-sey, January 3d, . " Skirmish at Ridgetield, Ci>nneclicut, April 27tli, " Siege of Fort Schuyler, New York. August, " Battle of Onskany, New York, August 6th, " Battle of Bennington, Vermont, August 1 6th, " Battle of Brandywinc, Pennsylvania, September nth, " Battle of Bemis's Heights, New York, September 19th, " Massacre of Paoli, Pennsylvania, September 20th, , 455 456 298 456 456 294 299 294 457 297 294 457 458 458 294 459 4S8 45^5 294 45S 458 459 294 310 294 307, 460 462 307 460 460 461 462 307 461 307 462 462 307 462 307 462 462 462 462 4, Febru.uy 28th, . . . 40S " Siej;e and capture oi \t:rA Caui by Cener.xl Scott, March, . . 499 Battle of Cerro Cordo, Mexico, April iSth, .... 499 " Battles of S.in Antonio, Contrents, and Churulnisco. August 20th, . 500 " Battle of Molino ilel Key, Mexico, September Sth, . . 500 Battle of Chapuhepec. Alexico, September 1 ;ih, . . . 500 •• Cieneral ScvUt entei-s the city of Mexico, Septeml>er 14th, . . 500 " The French conquest of Algiei-s comj^leteti by llie surrender of Abdel-Rader, ....... 370 " Civil war in Switzerland between the Catholics and Ihvtestants. 1S4S Beacc of liuadaloupe llidali^o between Mexico and the United States, February id, ........ 500 " Revolutioi\ in Paris and aWication and flight of Louis Philippe, Feb., 371 *• Fstabli.-hment of the SecvMul French Republic, February, . . 371 " Popular movements in the tierman States, M;ucli, . . . 374 " The Fn>t Revolution in \ienna, March, .... 374 '• Revolution in Milan, Italy, and expulsion of the Austri;uis, Miirch, . 378 Revolution in Berlin, M;uch, ..... 374 '* Sicily's revolt ag-ainst the King of Naples. .... 37S " Revolt v>fSchle5>wig-Holstein against the King of Denm.uk, . 375 ** Fii-st Communist rising in Paris, Mav 15th, .... 372 '* The Cierman National Assembly meets at Frankfort, May iSth, . 375 " Archduke John of Austria ch^vsen Regent of Germany, . . . 376 *• \Vi>CvM»sin admitted into the .\merican I nion. May, . . 500 ** Slavic insurnvtion in IV.igue, Bohemia, lune, .... 376 " dreat Communist insunxvtion in Paris, June. . . . 372 •' The old .Vustrian t>eld-m;u>hal Radetrky deieats the Sardini.vns. July, . 379 *' Secv^ud Revolution in \'ienna. October, .... 376 " Siege and fall of Vienna. October. ..... 376 " Dissolution of the IVussian National .\ssemblv, . . . 376 " Hung;\rian n.4>ellion ag-ainst the Austrian emjx-rvu, . . . 3S0 *• Revolution in Rome and tlight of Pojx* Puis I\.. Novemlier, . 379 •' Establishment of a new Roman Republic, Novenil>er. . . . 379 «• Louis Najx^Uvn Bonajvune inaugurated lYesiiknt of France, Dec. 20th, 3", 4 *' AWic;»tion of Feixlinand of Austria and accession of Fnuicis Jiiseph, 376, 3S1 I&40 The Austrians under IVince Windiscligrau enter Pesth, Hungar)-, January 5th, . . . ^ . . . . 3S1 «' The Magyars kvse the strong fortress of Elszeck. in Slav-onia, Jan. 30th. 381 •* BiUtle of Kajv^lna. Hung;\ry. February a6ih .and 27th. . . -3^1 " The FmjHMvr Francis Josej'th prvvlaims a constitution for Austria. Marvh 4th, ....... 37S, 3S2 " General Zacharj- Taylor inaugurated President ol" the United States, M.xrch 5th. . . . . . - . . . 500 " Renewal of the Schleswig-Holstein revolt ."ig^iinst Denmark. March. 377 " Defeat ot' the S.\rviini;uis by Miuvl\al K.idetxky and alxiication of Charles Allxat. . . . .' . . . 379 " Territic hand-to-hand fighting in Hungarj-, Ajvil. . . . 382 ** Hungarian Declaration of Indej->endence! Aj-uril 14th. . . . 382 ** Louis Kossuth createvi Governor ot" Hungary, April I4ih, . 382 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 571 I'A(;k. 1849 The Magyars under GSrgey carry Buda by storm, May 21st, . . 382 " The Austrian armies cxpL-lled from llunfjary, May, . . . 382 " Invasion (jf lluiif^ary hy the Austrian and Kussian armies, June, . 3X2 " The Magyars under Jiem driven frcjni Transylvania, . . 382 " Surrender of Rome to a French army after a spirited siege, July 3d, . 380 " Pope Pius IX. restored to his authority in Rome, . . , 380 " Rei)uljlican insurrection in Baden, ..... 377 " Battle of Komorn, Hungary, July nth, .... 383 " General Klapka's grand sortie from Komorn, August 3d, . . 383 " Terrific figliling in the I'anat, Hungary, August 5th-8th, . . 383 " Battle of Temeswar, — defeat of the Magyars under Pern, August 9th, . 383 " Governor Kossuth a])])oints Gijrgey Dictator of Hungary, August loth, 385 " Gorgey's treacherous surrender to the Russians at Villagos, August 13th, 383 " The Austrians under Radetzky reduce Venice after a long siege, August 25th, ....... 380 " Surrender of Kometween Spain and Chili, .... 400, 44I " Russian conquests in Turkestan. 1866 Alliance of Peru, Chili, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Venezuela against Spain, January, ....... 441 " Readmission of Tennessee into the American Union, June, . 523 " The Seven Weeks' War of Prussia and Italy against Austria begins, June 14th, . . . . . , . .397 " Battle of Custozza, Italy, June 24th, .... 398 " Battle of Sadowa, Bohemia, July 3d, ..... 398 " Naval battle off the island of Lissa, — Austrian victory, . . 398 " The Atlantic Telegraph Cable successfully laid, June, . . . 523 " Peace of Prague between Austria and Prussia, August 23d, . 398 " The North German Confederation established, .... 399 " Peace of Vienna between Austria and Italy, October 3d, . . 399 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 575 I'ACK. 1866 Insurrection in the island of Candia aj^ainst the Turks. " The French forces under Marshal Bazaine evacuate Mexico, December, 450 1867 The Dominion of Canada established by the British Parliament, Feb. " Passage of the Military Keconstructiion Bill by the United States Congress, March, .....,, 523 " Nebraska admitted as a State of the American Union, January 15th, 523 " Purchase of Alaska from Russia by the United States, March, . . 523 " Siege of Vera Cruz and Mexico by the Liberals of Mexico, . . 450 " Capture and execution of the Emperor Maximilian at Querctaro, June 19th, . . . . . . . .451 " Passage of the Second Reform Bill by the British Parliament, August, 399 " Garibaldi's movement on Rome, September, .... 413 " War between Great Britain and Abyssinia, November, . . 399 1868 Impeachment of President Johnson, February, .... 523 " King Theodore of Abyssinia defeated and killed by the English, April, 399 " Accjuittal of President Johnson after a trial of several weeks, May i6lh, 523 " Revolution in Spain and flight of Queen Isabella II., September, . 400 " General U. S. Grant elected President of the United States, Nov. 3d, 523 " Insurrection in Cuba against i6panish authority, November, , 400, 421 1869 Inauguration of President Grant, March 4th, .... 424 " Completion of the Union Pacific Railroad, May, . . . 424 " Disestaiilishment of the Anglican Church in Ireland, August, . , 399 " Carlist insurrection in Spain, August, .... 400 " Republican insurrection in Spain, Septeml)er, .... 400 1870 President Lopez of Paraguay defeated and killed by the Brazilians, 441 " Adoption of the 15th Amendment of the United States Constitution, . 424 " Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern a candidate for the crown of Spain, 401 " France declares war against Prussia, July 15th, . . . 402 " Prussian invasion of France, July 30th, .... 402 " Skirmish at Saarbrucken, August 2d, . . . ^ . 402 " Battle of VVeissenburg, August 4th, .... 403 " Battles of Woerth and Forbach, August 6th, .... 403 " Great battles near Metz, yVugust I4th-i8th, . . . 403 " Battle of Gravelotte, France, August 18th, .... 403 " Battle of Beaumont, France, August 30th and 31st, . . 404 " Battle of Sedan, France, September 1st, .... 404 " Surrender of McMahon's army and of Napoleon III., September 2d, 405 " Revolution in Paris and establishment of the Third French Republic, September 4th, ....... 405 " Siege of Strasburg by the Germans, August and September, . 405 " Investment anil siege of Paris by the Germans, Seiiteinijer i6th, . 407 " Italian military occupation of Rome, September 20th, . . 413 " Surrender of Strasburg to the (iermans, Septemljer 27th, . 406 " Bazaine's surrender of Metz, October 27th, .... 407 " Frencii victories near Orleans, November 9th and loth, . . 408 " The Duke of Aosta elected King of Spain with title of Amadeus I., November 17th, ....... 400 1 87 1 Bombardment of Paris by the Germans, January, . . . 409 " Battle of St. Quentin, France, January, .... 410 " Battle of Vendome, France, January 6th, .... 410 " Battle of Le Mans, France, January nth, .... 410 " Battle of Belfort, France, January, ..... 410 " King William of Prussia proclaimed Empe]5or of Germany, Jan. I9lh, 409 " Capitulation of Paris to the Germans, January 27th, . . .411 " The French National Assembly meets at Bordeaux, February 14th, 411 " Peace of Paris between France and Germany, March 2d, . .411 " Red Republican insurrection lireaks out in Paris, March 17th, . 414 " Battle of Courbevoie, near Paris, April 3d, . . . • 4'5 " Siege and bombardment of Paris by the Versaillists, April and May, ....... 416,417, 418 576 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. PACK. " Terri1)le fighting in Paris, May 2ist-27th, . . 418, 419, 420 " Battle of Pere la Chaise, Paris, May 27th, .... 420 " End of the Paris rebellion. May 28th, .... 420 '■' Treaty of Washington between the United States and England, May, . 524 " Victories of the United States navy over the Coreans, June loth-llth, 524 " Revolution and civil war in Mexico, October, . . . 450 1872 Carlist insurrection in Spain, June, ..... 421 " Death of President Juarez of Mexico, June 1 8th, . . . 451 " Close of the Mexican civil war and presidency of Lerdo de Tejada, . 451 " The Alabama Claims Arbitration Tribunal, .... 525 " General Grant reelected President of the United States, Nov, 5th, . 525 " Death of Horace Greeley, November 29th, . . .525 1873 Death of the Ex-Emperor Napoleon III., January 9th, . . .412 " Abdication of King Amadeus of Spain and establishment of a Spanish Republic, February nth, ...... 421 " Second inauguration of President Grant, March 4th, . . 525 " Abolition of siavary in the Spanish island of Porto Rico and dissolution of the Spanish National Assembly, March 22d, . . . 422 " Carlist insurrection in Spain, ..... 422 " War between Russia and Khiva, ..... 432 " Domestic difficulties in Louisiana, ..... 525 " War with the Modoc Indians in Oregon, .... 525 " Resignation of President Thiers and election of Marshal McMahon as President of France, May 24th, ..... 430 " War between the British and the Ashantees, . . ■ . 432 " Communist insurrection in Spain, ..... 424 " War between the Dutch and the Atcheenese of Sumatra. " The Virginius dispute between Spain and the United States, . . 526 " Bomliardment of Cartagena, Spain, by the Government forces, . 426 1874 Coup d' etat of General Pavia in Spain, Janu.iry 2d, . . . 427 " Passage of a military bill by the German Parliament. " Fall of Cartagena, Spain, January 15th, .... 428 " Capture of Coomassie, the Ashantee capital, by the British, February, 432 " Fall of Gladstone's Ministry in England, February, . . . 432 " Egyptian victories in Darfur. " Siege of Bilbao, Spain, by the Carlists, March and April, . . 428 " Relief of Bilbao by Marshal Serrano's army, May ist, . . 429 " Civil war in Arkansas, April and May, ..... 527 " Veto of the cun^ency-intlation bill by President Grant, April, , 526 " Republican defeat at Estella, Spain, and death of Marshal Concha, June 25th, ........ 429 " Capture of Cuenca, Spain, by the Carlists, July 13th, . . 429 " Attempted assassination of Prince Bismarck, July 14th, . . 431 " Iceland's millenium, August. " Insurrection in Louisiana, September, . . . . • 5^7 " Prince Alphonso proclaimed King of Spain, December 31st, . 429 1875 Admission of Colorado as a State of the American Union, March 4th, 528 " Centennial Celebration of Lexington and Concord, April 19th, . 528 " Centennial Celebration of the capture of Ticonderoga, May 10th, . 528 " Centennial Celebration of the Mecklenburg Declaration, May 20th, 528 " Centennial Celebration of the Battle of Bunker's Hill, June 17th, . 528 " Insurrection in the Herzegovina against the Turks, July, . . 433 " Capture of Seo de Urgel, Spain, by the Alphonists, August, . . 430 " War between Russia .and Khokand, September, . . . 432 " General Kautfmann defeats 30,000 Khokand troops, September 4th, . 433 " Khokand occupied by General Kauft'mann, September i6th, . 433 " War between Egj'pt and Abyssinia. " War between the English and the Malays of Malacca, November. " French Constitution completed, December, .... 43^ 1876 The United States Centennial Celebration, May loth — Nov. loth, . 538 ALPHABETICAL INDEX AND PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF PROPER NAMES. A. Pagf. Aaron (A'-ron), . . . .28 Ab-bas (Ab-basO, . . . .124 Abbasides (Ab'-bas-ides), . . . 124 Abdel Kader (Ab'-del Ka'-der), . 370 Abdelrahman (Ab-del-rah'-man), . . 124 Abderrahman ( Ab-der-rah'-man, . 124 Abel (A'-bel),. . . . .21 Abensberg (A'-bens-berg), . . 340 Abercrombie (Ab'-er-crom'-bie), . 304, 305, 333 Abo (A'-bo). 281 Aboukir (A-Doo-kur'), . , . 328 330 Abraham (A'-bra-ham), . . . 27, 28 Absalom (Ab'-sa-lom), . . . 31 Abubokir (A'-bn-ba'-ker), . . 121, 127 Abyssinia (Ab-ys-sin'-i-a), . . 25 Abyssinian (Ab-ys-sin'-i-an), . . 399 Abyssinians (Ab-ys-sin'-i-ans) . . 106 Acadia 'A-ca'-di-a) . . . 300, 301 Acadians (A-ca'-di-ans), . . . 303 Acarnania (A-car-nan'-i-a), . . 3S Achaia (A-ka'-a) . • • 3Si 61, 62, 63 Achaian (A-ka'-an) . . 61, 62, 63 Achilles (A-kil'-lecs), . . 38, 56 Acre (A'ker). . . . 138, 140, 330 Acropolis (A-krop'-o-lis) . . .44 Actiiim (Ak'-she-um), ... 93 Adam (Ad'-am) . . . .21 Adams (Ad'-ams), . . 464,479,481 Adams, John (Jon Ad'-ams). . 464, 478, 480 Adam>, JohnQuincy (Jon Quin-cy Ad'-ams) . 492. 493 Adams, Samnel (Sam-yel Ad'ams) . . 461 Adda (Ad'-da). .... 326 Adherbal (Ad-her'-bal), . . .85 Adige (Ad'-ij), . . . .335 Adolph (A'-dolQ, . . . .166 Adrian (A'-dri-an), . , .99 '°o Adrianople (A'-dri-an-o-pel). , 109, 360 Adriatic (A-dri-at'-ic) . . 8g, 143 yEgean (K-je'-an), . . . 38,40,45 yEgospotamos (E'-gos-pot-a'-mus,) . 50 iEmilianus (E-mil'-i-an-us) . . . 104 iEmilius, Paulus (Pawl-us E-mil'-i-us), 63, 79 iEneas (E-ne'-as) , . .6; 37 (577) Page. ^olian(E-o'-Ie-an) . . . .37 ^quians (E'-qui-ans), ... 71 vEtolia (E- to'-le-a) . . . .35 A'AoUan (E-to'-le-an), ... 6a yEtoleans (E-to'-le-ans) . . .63 Affra, .... 375 Africa (Af'-re-ca), . 22,26,27,33,90,54 African (Af'-re-can), ... 94 Africans (AT re-cans), . . .118 Africanus, Scipio (Sip'-e-o AP-re-can-us) 8x Afghan (Af-gan) . . . .369 Afghanistan (Af-gan-is-tan') . . 35, 369 Afghans (Af'-gans), .... 281 Agag (A'-gag), .... 30 Agamemnon (Ag-a-mem'-non), . . 38 Agesilaiis (A-jes-e-la'-us), . . 52 Agis (A'-jib), . . . .59,62 Agra(Ag'ra). . . • . 300 Agricola, Julius (Ju'-le-us Ag-re'-co-la) . 98 Agrigentum ( Ag-re-jen'-tum), . . 65 Agrippa, Menenius (Me-nen'-e-us A-grip'-pa) 70 Agrippina (Ag-re-pi'-na), . . 95 Augilas (Au-ge'-las), . . . 426 Ahab (A-hab), .... 31 Ahriman (Ali-re-man'), . . -35 Aix la Chapelle (Akes-la-Sha-pel'), 129, 251, 286 . 3°2 Akbar (Ak'-bar), . . . 215 Alabama (Al-a-bam'-a), . . 489,519525 Alamance f Al-a-mance'), . . . 458 Alamo (Al'-a-mo), . . . 443, 444 Aland (A'-land), .... 277 Alans (A'-lans) . . . . iii Alaska (A-las'-ka), .... 523 Allatoona Pass (Al-a-too'-na Pass), . 518 Alba (Awl'-ba) . . . 65, 66 Alban (Awl'-ban), . . .65, 67 Albania (Al-ba'-ne-a), . . .36 Albans (Awl'-bans), ... 63 Albany (Awl'-ba-nc), . . . 260, 303 Albemarle (Al be-marl'), . . 244 Alberoni (Al-ba-ro'-ne), . , . 270 Albuquerque ( Al-boo-ker'-ka), . 193 Albert (Al'-bert), . . . 372 57S ALPHA BE TICAL INDEX. Albi (Al'-be), . . . . . ,50 Albigeiises (Al-be-jen'-sees), , 141,149,150 Albums, Clodius (Klo'-di-us Al-bi'-nus), loi 119 343 49. S'^ 424 . 12S 109, 125 . 123 . 4S5 357 37i 56, 57. 64 60 • 273 13S 171,172 158 , So, 402, 428 4S0 49" 7' Alboin (Al'-bo-in) Albiiera (Al-boo-a'-ra), . Alcibiades (Al-ci-bi'-a-dees), . Aleoy (Al-ko'-e), . Alciiin (Al'-'5. 3'7. 3«9 2S4, 406, 412 396 • 277 275 . 207 447 . 326 400, 421,422 433. 434 219 • 93 492 • 369 30 193,300,314,455 460, 462. 465, 468 Ameers ( Amelekites (A-mel'-e-kites), America (A-mer'-i-ca), American (A-mer-i-cn). Americans ( A iner-i-can-;), 455, 460. 462, 463, 464 Amerigo Vespucci, ^A-raer-e■-go Ves-poot'- she), . . . . .19, Amherst (Ara'-herst), . . 289,290,305 Amidas (Ame'-e-das), . . . 355 Amiens (A-me-on;'). . 135. 3-53, 334. 40S, 410 Ammon. Jupiter (lu'-pi-ter Am'-moii), . 56 Ammonites (Am'-mon-ites), . . 29 Amoreaux (A-mo-ro'), . . . 420 Amorites (A'-mor-ites), ... 29 Amos (A'-mos), , . . .32 Amov (A'-moy), .... 369 Amphictyon (Am-phic'-ty-oni, , . 39 Amphictyonic (Am-phic'-ty-on-lc), . 39, 53 Ampudia (Am poo'-di-a), . . . 498 Amru (Am'-ru), . . . .122,123 Amsterdam (Am'-ster-dam), . . . 251 Amulius (A-mu'-li-us), ... 66 Amurath ( Am'-u-rath), . . . 191 Anabaptists (.An-a-bap'-tists) . . 207 Anam (An'-am), .... 394 Ancona (.An-co'-na), . . . 366 Ancus Manius (.An'-cus Mar'-she-us), . 68 Anderson, Robert (Rob'-ert An'der-son), 505 Andes ( An-dees'), .... 439 Andre, John (Jon An'-dre), . . 472 Andreas t)oria (.An'-dre-as Do'-ri-a), 144,204 Andreas Hofer (An'-dre-as Hof-er), . 341 -Andrew (An'-droo), .... 189 Andros, Sir Edmund (.An'-dros), . 259 -Angele-land (An'-gle-land), . . 120, 171 .Angelo, St. (Saint An'-je-lo), . . 204 .Angles (An'-gles), .... 120 -Anglia, E.»st (E;ist .An'-gli-a), , . 120 .Anglican Church (.An'-gli-can). . 211,223 Anglo-Saxons (An'-glo-Sax'-ons), . 120 Angora (An-go' ra), .... 191 -Angostura (.An-gos-too'-ra), . . 437 Angoulome (.An-gou-leme'i, . 202, 3^4, 356 Anjou (.An-joo'), . 145,150,165,173,174,182, 330,268,269,272 Ankarstrom (.An'-kar-strom), . . 296 Anna (.An'-na), .... 278 Annapolis (Au-nap'-o-lis), . . 500,475 Anne (Ann), . , , 248,269,278 Anne Boleyn ( Bo'-Ien), . 209,210,222 Ansgar (.Ans'-gar), . . . 186 Anson (.An'-son), .... 287 Antalcidas (An-tal'-ce das), . . 52 .Antediluvian (An-te-de-lu'-ve-an), . . 21 Antedduvians ( An-te-<.le-lu'-ve-ans), . 21 -Anthemius 1 .An-the'-me-us), . . . 112 Antichrist (.An'-te-krist), . . 235 Antietam i^.An-tee'-tam\ , . . 512 Antigonus (.An-tig'-o-nus), . 60,61,62 Antioch (.An'-te-oK). . . 64,122,136 -Antiochus (An-te-ok'-us\ . . 63, 64 -Antiochus Cpiphanes ( An-ti-ok'-us E-pif-a- nees\ ..... 64 -Antipater (_.An-tip'-a-ter'), . • 54. 59 Antoinette, Marie (Mar'-e An-toi-net') . 310 Antoninus Pius iAn-to-ni'-nus Pi-iis) . 100 Antonio ^.An-to'-ne-o), . . . ai6 -Antonio de Levya\-An-to'-ne-o de Lev-ya"), 203 -Antonio, San (San .An-to'-ne-o), 4?7, 447,500 Antonius I An-to'-ne-us), . . . 133 Antony, Mark tMark -An'-to-ny), 89. 91, 92, 93 -Antwerp (Ant'-werp\ . . 156, 363. 364 -AnviUe, Duke d' ( Duke de An'-vil),. . 302 -Aosta, Duke of (.A-os'-la), . . 400 Apis(A'-pis), . . . .56 .Apollo l-A-pol'-lo'), . . 36.39,53,61 -Appalachian (Ap-pa-la'-chi-ani, . 265 -Appius Claudius (Ap'-pi-us Clau'-di-us, ) 71, 7a -Appomattox (Ap-po-mat'-tox), . 51S, 521 -Apraxin (A-prax'-inl, . . . 65, 79, 145 Apulia I .A-pur-e-a\ ... 79 Aqua: Sexti, . . 126, 148 Aquitania (.A-que-tan'-e-a), . . -94 -Aquitanians (A que-tan'-e-ans\ . . 127 Arab uAr'-ab!,- .... 126 -Arabella Stuart (A-ra-bel'-la Stu'-art), 232, 233 -Arabia (.A-ra'-bi-a>, . 25,28,121,122,368 -Arabian (.A-ra'-hi-an\ 58,120, 121,122, 124, 125 Arabians (.A-ra'-bi-ans), . . 121, 122, 123 -Arabs (,.Ar'-abs\ . . aS, lao, 123, 124, 125 -Arad (Ar'-ad^, . . . 3S3. 384 -Arago, Emanuel ( E-man'-yel -Ar'-a-go>, 371, 406 -Aragon (-Ar'-a-gon ;, aa5, 146, 150, 15S, 159 2oa,a69 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 579 Ararat f Ar'-a-rat), . . . .21 Aratus (A-ra'-tus), . . .61,62 ArbL-la (Ar-bel'-a), ... 56, 57 Arbogastes (Ar-bo-gas'-tees), . . no Arbuthnot (Ar'-buth-nott, . . 471,492 Arc, Joan of (Jo'-an of Arc), . 155,181 Arcadia (Ar-ca'-de-a), . . .35 Arcadius CAr-ca'-di-us), . . . no Arc de Triomphe ^ Ark de Tre-omphe';, 416, 418 Archidamus ( Ar-ke-da'-mus), . . 349 Archimedes (Ar-ke-int'-decs), . . 80 Arcis (Ar'-se), .... 49 Areola (Ar-ko'-la), .... 326 Ardea (Ar'-de-a), 68 Areopagus (Ar-e-op'-a-gus) . . .43 Argentine (Ar'-jen-teen), . . 438, 440, 441 Argive f Ar'-give), . . . . 6i Argo fAr'-go), .... 38 Argolis (Ar'-go-lis), . . . 35,38 Argos CAr'-gos), . . . 35,37.6' Argonautic (Ar'-go-naul'-ik), . . 38 Argus (Ar'-gus), .... 488 Argyle, Duke of (Ar-gilc'), . . 246,278 Arian (A'-re-an), . . . .110 Ariana (A-re-an'-a), . . . .57 Arista f A-rees'-tal, . . 446, 447, 498 Aristidcs I'A-ris-ti'-dees), . . 46, 47, 48 Arlstoliulus (Ar-is-tob'-u-lus\ . . 88 Aristodemus (Ar-is-to-de'-raus), . . 42 Aristogiton (Ar-is-to-git'-toni, . . 44 Aristomenes (Ar-is-tom'-e-neesj, . . 42 Aristotle (Ar-is-tot'-el), ... 54 Arius (A'-re-us); .... 107 Arkansas (Ar-kan'-sas), 495, 506, 507, 509. 512, 5»3, 5»5. 527 Arkansas Post f" Ar-kan'-sas Post\ . . 513 Arlington Heights (Ar'-ling-ton Hights), 50O Armadaf Ar-ina'-da), . . 217,224 Armand Marrast (Ar'-mong Mar-rah'), . 374 Armenia (^Ar-me'-ne-a), . . 21,281 Arminians Ar-min'-e-ans), . . . 218 Armistead (Arm-is-ted'), . . . 489 Armstrong (Arm'-strong), . . 304 Arnaud, St. (Saint Ar'-no), . . 387 Arnold, Benedict (Ben'-e-dict Ar'-nold), 460, 462,, 467. •472> 478, 474 Arnold Winkelried (Ar'-nold Wm'-kel-ried), 168 Arnolph 'Ar'-nolf;, .... 159 Arpad I Ar'-pad), . . . 129,189 Arras 'Ar'-rasi, . . .156, 408 Arrondissements CAr-ron'-dis-ments), 370,418 Artaphernas f Ar-ta-fcr'-nas), . . 45 Artaxcrxes Longimanus (Lon'-jim-an'-us), 34 Artaxerxes Mnemou (Ar-ta-zerk'-zees Ne'- mon , ..... 51 Artemisium f Ar-te-me'-se-um), . . 46 Arthenay (Ar-te-nay'j, , . , 408 Arthur Ar'-ther), .... 149 Artois Ar-twah'j, . . . •3'Oi354 Aruns ^A'-runs), . . . » 68,69 Ascalon (As'-ca-lon), . . . 138 Aschaffenburg (As-chaP-fen-burg), . 284, 398 Ashantee (Ash-an-fe'), . . . 432 Ashantees (Ash-an-tees'\ . . . 432 Ashburton (Ash'-bur-ton), . . 496 Ashley ( Ash'-lcy), .... 245 Ashley Cooper (Coop'-er), . . 264 Ashur (Ash'-er), . . . .24 Asia (^A'-she-a), . . . 22,26,27,35 Asia Minor (.V-shea Mi— nor), 22,40,44,45 Asiatic (A-she-at'-ik), . . 37,58,388 Asmonians f As-mo'-ne-ans), . . .64 Asnieres f As'-niers;, . . , 417 Aspern As '-pern), .... 340 Aspromonte (As-pro-mont') . . 413 Assassins (As sas'-sins) . . 141,142 Assaye 'As-sa'-ya), . . .299,300 Asscmblyists (As-sem'-bly-ists), . 415,417 Assisi, Francis of (As-se'-se), , . 133 Assy (As'-se), . . . , 204 Assyiia (As-syr'-e-a), . . . 24,27 Assyrian (As-syr'-e-an), . . 24, 32 Astracan (As'-tra-kanl, . . .188 Austragal Judgment (Aus-tra'-gal), . . 897 Asturias (As-tu'-re-as), . . .195,339 Astyages ^As-ty-a'-gecs), . . .33 Atalayga Castle (At-a-ly'-a), . . 428 Athena (Ath-e'-nai, . , . .33 Athenian (Ath-e'-ne-an), . . 42,43,44 Athenians, .... 45,48,49 Athens (Alh'-ens), . 355 37)42,43,46 Atkinson f At'-kin-son), . . . 494 Atlanta (At-lan'-ta), . . 518,519,520 Atlantic (At-lan'-tic),. . 37,94, 194, 19S Attalus CAt'-ta-lus), ... 84 Attica (At'-te-ka), . . . .35 Attila (At-til'-a). . . . .112 Auerstadt (Ou'-er-stot), . , . 337 Augcreau (O-zhe-ro') . . .327,350 Aughrim f Au'-grim ), .... 248 Augsburg I (^ugs'-burg), . . 201,207,254 Augusta (Au-giis'-ta),. . 47', 473, 474 Augustenburg (Au-gus'-ten-burg), .39(^,793 Augustine (Au'-gus-teen), . . . 120 Augustine, St. (Saint Au'-gus-teen), . 133 Augustinian (Au-gus-tin'-e-an), . 133, 199 Augustulus, Romulus (Rom'-u-lus Au-gus'-tu- lus), . . . . .119 Augustus (Au-gus'-tus . . . 93, 94 Augustus, Philip fFil'-ip Au-gus'-tus), 149, 150 Aulus Plautius (Au'-lus Plau'-te-us), . 95 Aurehan f Au-re'-le-an), . . . 105 Aurelius, Marcus (Mar'-kus Au-re'-lc-us), . 100 Aurungzebe (Au-rung-zebe'), . .215,281 Aruns (A'-runsj, . . . ,68 Austrasia f Aus-tra'-she-a), . . 126 Austria (Aus'-tre-ai, . 138, 166, 167, ;68, 308 Austrian (Aus'-tre-an), . 167,168,341,398 Austrians (Aus'-tre-ans) . 282,284,288 Auxerrois, St. Germaine l' (Sang Zher'-nien- lo-zer-waw'j, .... 219 Avars fAv'-ars), . . . 198,129,159 Aventine HilHAv'-en-tin Hill), . 6884 Averill, William \V (Av'-er-il), . . . 547 Averysborough CAv'-er-is-bur'-o), . . 521 Avignon (A-vin'-yon), . . 142,150,169 Avitus f A-vi'-tus;, . . . .112 Avon (A'- von), .... 490 Avron Av'-ron 1, '. . , 409 Axel Oxenstiern I'Ax'-el Ox-en-steern'), 230 Ayacucho (I-a-coo'-choj, . 438,439,440 Ayesha (I'-sha ', .... 121 Azincourt (A-zhin-koor'}, , 154, 155, 181 Azores (.'V-zores'). . . , 193 Azov (A'-zov), .... 253 Aztec (Az'-tek . . . .214 Aztecs, ..... 214 B. Baal (Ba'-al), . Baalbec (Ba'-al-bek), Babel (Ba'-bel), Baber fBa'-ber^, . Babylon ^Bab'-e-lon\. Babylonia (Bab-e-lo-ne-a), Babylonian, Babylonians, . Bacchus (Bak'-kus\ 24,2 122 . 21,22 21 s 24,25 24 24,25,27,35 • 32 36 Bacon, Nathaniel (Na-than'-yel Ba'-kon), . 257 Bactrian (Bac'-tre-an), ... 57 Bactnana i Bac-tre-an'-a), . . .57 Badajoz (Bad-a-hoce'), . . . 342 Baden < Bad'-en), . '70,207,374,375,377 Baden Durlach (Bad'-en-Dur'-lok), . 227 Bagdad (Bag'-dad I, . . 124,12=;, 191 Bagratian f Ba-gra'-shan), . .33^,343 P.ailly 'Bal'-yc), . . 312,313,321 Bainbridge ('Bain'-bridge), . . 481 Bajazet 'Baj'-a-zct I, .... lyi Bakei Edward D (Ba'-ker), . . 508 58o ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Palaklava (Bal-a-kla'-va), . . .387 Halbimis (Bal-bi'-nus), . . .103 Balboa tl?al-bo'-;i), .... 194 Baldwin of Flanders (Bald'-win), . 138, 139 Baliol, John (Jon Bal'-e-ol,), . . 176, 177 Balkan (Bawl'-kan), . . . 360 Ball's Bluff (Ball's BlufT), . . 507. 5oS Baltic (Bawl'-tic),. ... 27 Baltimore (Bawl'-te-more), . 261,262,489,505 Banat (Ban'-at't, . . . .381,383 Banda Oriental (Ban'-da O-re-en'-tal), . 440 Baner (Ban'-er\ .... 231 Banjialore (Ban-ga-lore'), . . . 299 Banks, Nathaniel P. Bannockburn (Ban-nok-burn'), Bapaume (Ba-paiim'), Bar (Bar),. Barak (Bar'-ak), Barbadoes (Bar'-ba-does), 510, 5Ji,5M. 515, 5'6 177 . . 4><) 294 . 29 264 Barbarossa, Frederic (Bar-ba-ros'-sa), 137,149, 162, 163, 194 Barbarossa, Hayraddin (Hay-i-ad'-din), . 204 Barbaroux (Bar-bar-roo'), . 3'7..'>-' Barbary (Bar'-ba-ry), . . . 355 Barca (Bar'-ka), .... 40 Barc.is, Hamilcar (Ha-mil'-kar (Bar'-kas),77, 78 B.ircclona (Bar-se-lo'-na), . 270,424,426,427 Barclay (Bar'-klay), . . .486 Barclay, Robert, .... 266 Barclay de Tolly (Bar'-klay de Tol'-ly), 343, 344,347 Barebone (Bare'-bone), . . . 24a Baronberg (Ba'-ren-berg^, . . . 228 Barenklaii (Ba-renk'-low), . . 283 Barksilale (B.irks'-dale), . . . 514 Barlow, Arthur (.\r'-thur Bar'-lo), . 255 Barnave ( Bar-nav'), .... 321 Barnet (Bar'-net), . . . 183 B.unveldt, Van Olden), (VanOI'-den Barn'- velt), . . . . . 218 Barragan (Bar'-ra-gan), . . . 444 Barras (Bar'-ras), . . 324. 325 Barrere (liar-rare'^ . . . •321 Barrot, Odillon (O-deel'-vong Bar-ro'), 37" Bartholomew, St. (Saint JBar-thol'-o-mew), 219, 220 Bashaw (Ba-shaw'), Basle ( Ba'-sel), Basque Provinces (Bask). Bassantello (Bas-san-tel'-lo), Bascile (Bas-teel'), Batavia (Ba-ta'-ve a), Batavian, . Bath (Bath), Batignolles (Bat-ig-noles'), Baton Rouge (Bat-on Roozh'), Baudin 1 Bo^-din), Baum (Bourn). . . . Bautzen (Boutz'-en). . Bavaria (Ba-va'-re-a), . 128, Bavarian, .... Bavarians, .... Bayard. Chevalier (Chev-a-leer' By Bayonne ( Ba-one'), ^aylen (Bi'-len), ^azaine (Ba-zang'), . 481, 4S; 166, 170, 171. 325 . 422, 427 . . 160 325. 329. 334 . 238 . 4t4 5". 5»5 385 467 347 59. 167. 336 . 167, 297 270. 403 -ardl, . 203 339. 348, 427 ;9 38S, 402, 403, 404, 405, 407, 450 . 219 Beam (Ba-arn'), . . Beaugency (Bo'-zhen-sy\ Beauharnais, General ^Bo-har'-na^, 321, 323, 325 Bcauharnais, Eugene (U-geen'), . 335, 343 Beauharnais Hortense (Or-tangs'), . 386 Beaujou (Bo-joo'), .... 417 Beaulieu (Bo-loo') . . . 326 Beauregard, Pierre G. F. (Bo'-re-gard), . 503, 506, 509, 518 Bcausejour (Bo-se-jour'), . . 303 Becket, Thomas 6. (Tom-as & Beck'-et") . 174 Bedell (Be-dell'). .... 462 Bedford (Bed'-ford), Bedloe(Bed'-lo), . Belfast (Bel'-faM), Belfort (B>--l'-foi-t), Belgian (Bel'-je-an), Belgians, 15s, 156, 182 246 . 489 . 410, 412 363, 404, 405, 411 363. 364 Belgium (Bel'-je-um), . 217, 298, 351, 363, 364, 404, 406 Belgrade (Bel-grade'), . 135, 190, 192, 279, 2S0 Bclisanus (Hel-e-sa'-re-us), . . 117, ii8 Bell, John (Bell), .... 504 Bellcisle (Bell-ile'), . . . .283 Bellerophon (Bcl-ler'-o-fon), . . 35a IJelleville (Bcll'-vil), . . 414,415,419, 420 Belmont (Bel-mont), . . . .508 Beloochistan (Be-loo-chis-tan') . . 35 Belshazzar (Bel-shaz'-zar), . . .25,33 Belus (Bcl'-us), .... 24 Belvedere (Hel-ve-deer'), . . . 340 Bern, .... 365, 381, 383 Bemis's Heights (Bcm'-is's Hights), . 467 Bender (Hcn'-der), . . . 276, 294 Benedek (Ben'-e-dek). . . .398 Benedetti (Ben-c-det'-te), . . . 402 Benedict ol Nursia (Ben-e-dict of Nur'-she-a), 133 Benedictine (Ben-e-dic'-teen), . 133, 186 Benevento (Ben-e-ven'-to), . . 165 Bengal (Ben-gawl'), . . . 389,390 Benito Juarez (Bcn'-e-toWhaw-ar'-ez), 447, 448, 449. 45^. 45t Benjamin (Ben'-ja-min), . . 30, 31 Benningsen(Ben'-ning-sen), . .3371338 Bennington (Ben'-ning-lon), . . 467 Bentonville (Ben'-ton-vil), . . 521 Berber (Ber'-bcr) .... 124 Beresford ( Ber'-ez-ford), . . . 342 Beresina (Ber-e-ze'-na), . . . 346 Berg (Berg), .... 226 Bergeu (Berg'-en), . . . 266, 290 Bergerot (Ber-jer-o'), . . . 415 Berghen (Ber'-jen), .... 330 Berkeley (Berk'-lc), . . 256,257,266 Berlin (Ber-lin'), . . 288,291,337,412 Bermuda Hundred (Ber-mii'-da Hundred), 518 Bernadotte (Ber'-na-dot),. . 342, 347 Bernard (Ber'-nard), .... 457 Bernard, St. (Saint Ber-nard), . . 332 Berne (Bern), . . . 167, 328 Bernese (Bern'-ese), . . . 328 Bernhard (Bern'-hard), . . . 231 Bernhard of Weimar (Wi'-mar), . 231 Bcrri, Duke of (Ber'-re), . ■ . 156 Bertha (Ber'-tha), . . . 147 Berthclemy (Bcr-thel'-e-me), . 327 Berthier (Ber-te-a'), . . . 327 Berthold Schwartz (Bert'-old Schwartz), 192 Berwick (Ber'-wick), . . . . 271 Besancon (Be-zong'-soang), . . 411 Bessieres (Bes-se-er*), . . . 347 Bessus (Bes'-sus), ... 57 Bethlehem (Bcth'-le-hem), . . .94 Beuret (Boivra'), .... 393 Beyreut (Ba-root'), .... 368 Big Bethel (Big Beth'-el), . . 506 Big Bl.\ck River Bridge, . . . 5'4 Bicetre (Be-set-ra'), . . . 407 Bicocco (Be-kok'-ko), . . . 202 Biddle (Bid'-del), . . .490 Bienville (Be-ang'-veel), . . . 3QI Biloxi (Be-lok'-sc), . . . 300 Billaud Varennes (Bil'-lo Va-ren'), . 323, 324 Bingham (Bing'-am), . . . 484 Biron (Bi'-ron), . . . 321, 438 Bismarck (Bis'-mark), 397, 401, 406, 408, 411, 412, 431, 432 Bithynia (Bith-in'-e-a\ . . 6*>, 8i Bittenfeld (Bit'-teti-feld), . . . ?9S Bizoin, Glais iGlai Bizh-oin'), . . 406 Blackburn's Ford (Black'-burn's\ . 506 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 581 326 387, 388, 389 263 489 523 241 490 374 150 372 270 . 262 36, 173. 408 372, Black Forest, . Black Sea, . 34, 38, 40, 51, 295, Blackstone (Black'-stone), . Bladensburg (Blad'-ens-burg), . Blair, Francis P., Blake Blakeley (Blake'-le), , Blanc, Louis (Loo'-e Blong), . Blanche (Ulanch), . Blanqiii (Blon-kee'), Blenheim (Hlen'-hime), Block, Adrian (A'-dri-an Block), Blois (1>I A'aw), Bloomfitld, Joseph (Bloom'-field), Blount, Sir George, . . . 279 Blucher (Blook'-er), 347, 348, 349, 351, 352 Blum, Robert, .... 376 Blunt, ..... 512, 515 Boadicea (Bo-a-de'-she-a), . . .96 Bocchus (Bok-kus), ... 85 Boeff, La (La Buf) 302 Boeotia (Be-o'-she-a), , . , 35, 37 Bogota (Bo-go-taw'), . . 436, 437 Bohemia (Bo-he'-me-a), 166, 169, 226, 283, 289 Bohemian, , . , , 169, 228 Bohemians, .... 226, 227 Bohemond (Bo'-hc-mond), . . 136 Bois de Boulogne (Boi de Boo-lone'), 417, 418 Bokhara (Bo-ka'-ra), . . 190, 432 Boleslaus (Boies'-iaus), Boleyn, Anne (Ann Bo'-Ien), Bolinnbroke (Bo'-ling-broke), Bolivar, Simon (Si'-mon Bo-le'-var), 209, 210 180, 272 436, 437, 438, 440 438, 439, 441 . 366 Bolivia (Bo-lee'-ve-a), B'llogna (Ho lonc'-ya), Bombay (Bam'-bay), . . . ^ Bonaparte, Charles Louis Napoleon (Bo'- na-part), . ... 370, 371, 372 Bonaparte, Jerome (Jer-ome'), . . 338 Bonaparte, Joseph . . 336, 339, 346, 4^8 Bonaparte, Louis (Loo'-e), . . 336, 341 Bonaparte, Lucien (Lu'-she-en), . . 331 Bonaparte, Napoleon (Na-po'-le-on), . 322, 325, 326. 327, 328, 329, 330, 331 Bonapartes, ..... 436 Bonapartists (Bo-na-part'-ists),35o, 384, 411, 430 Bonhomme Richard (Bon-hom';, . . 470 Boniface (Bon'-e-face), . . .126, 151 Boone, Daniel (Dan'-yei Boon), . . 470 Booth, John Wilkes, . . .522 Bora, Catharine of (Bo'-ra), . . . 201 Bordeaux (Bor-do';, . 179, 348, 362, 411, 472 Borgne (Borni, .... ico Bornheimer (Born-hi'-mer), Borodino (Bor-o-de'-no), Boscawen fBos-caw'-en), Bosnia (Bos'-ne-a), . Bosquet (Bos-ka'), Boston (Bos'-ton), 258, 259, 457, 458, 459, 460', 461, 462, 463 Bostonians (Bos-to'-ne-ans), Bosworth Field (Boz'-worth), Bothnia (Both'-ne-a), , Both weJi( Both'- well), Boufflers (Boof-flers), . Bouillon (i5ool-yong'). Boulevards (Bool-vards'), Boulogne (Boo-lone'), Bousquet (Boos-ka'), , Bcurbaki ( Boor-ba'-ke), . Bourbon (Boor'-bon), Bourbonn, Bourgeoisie CBour-jeoi -see), Bou vines (Boo-veen'), Bowyer, Fort(Bow'-yer), Boxer (Box'-er), .... 488 Boyaca (Boy-ak'-ka), . . . ^37 Boyne(Boin), . . . .248,254 Bozrah (Boz'-rah), .... 122 376 344 305 433 387 259, 457 . 184 130 . 222, 223 . . 271 135, 136 • 385, 405. 414 205, 211, 333, 335 . 420 410,411 156, 221 29i>332, 348, 350 370, 414 149 Bozzaris fBot-zar'-is), . . . 358 Bracito (Bra-se'-to), .... 499 ISraddock, Kdward (Brad'-dock), . 286, 303 Bradford, William (Brad'-ford;, . . 257 Bradstreet (Brad'-strectj, . . 290, 305 Braganaa (Bra-gan'-za), . 216,339,440 Bragg, Braxton (Brax'-ton Bragg), 512, 515, 516 Brahma (Bram'-a), ... 23 Brnhminical (Bram-in'-ic-al), . . 23 Brahmins (Bram'-ins), ... 23 Brahilov (Bra-e'-lovj, . . . 359 Brandenburg (Bran'-den-burg), 128, 169, 207, 208, 226, 251, 252, 281, 287 Brandt, Joseph (Brant), . . 467, 469 Brandywine (Bran'-de-winc), . . 466 Braunau (Brou'-nou), . . . 226 Bravo (Bra'-vo), .... 435, 441 Brazil (Bra'-zeel), . J93, 339, 356, 440, 441 Brazilian (Bra-zeel'-yan), . . 441 Brazilians, .... 438, 440 Breadalbane ( Bre-ad-al'-bane), . 248 Breckinridge, John C. (Brek'-in-rij), 502, 504, Breda (Bra'-da), .... 244 Breed's Hill, . . . 461 Breitenfcld (Bri'-ten-feld) , . .229 Brennus (Bren'-nus), . . 61, 72, 73 Bremen (Brem'-en;, .... 165 Breslau (Bres-lou;, . . , 190, 283 Jlrest, ..... 318, 482 Bretagne (Bre'-tan), . 146, 149, 156, 157 Bretons (Bre'-tons) . . . . '57 Bridgewaier (Brij'-wau-ter), . . 238 Brienne (Bre-en'), . . . 348, 349 ]Jrienne, Lomoine de (Lo-mo-nc' de), . 311 Bright, John (Hrite), . . -399 Brahuega (Brah'-we-ga), . . . 271 Brissot (I'rees'-so), . . . 317 Bristol (Bris'-tol;, , . 195, 238, 367 Britain (Brit'-tn), . . 89,95,96,106, 120 Britain, Great . 278, 306, 308, 460, 463, 475, 484 Britannicus (Brit-an'-ne-kus), . . 95 British (Brit'-ish 1,307, 308,309,328,331,455, 504 Britons (Brit'-ons J, . , 89,95,96,98 Brittany (Brit'-ta-ne), . . 157, 158 Brock, Sir Isaac , . . 484, 485 Broglie (Brole'-ye), .... 431 Broglio (Brole'-yoj, . , . 313 Brown, Jacob . . . 4S7, 488 Brown, Benjamin Giatz . . . 525 J5ruce, Robert . . . 176, 177 Brueyes (Brays), .... 328 Bruges (Bru'-jezi, .... 156 Brumaire (Bru'-mer\ . . . 331 Brundusium (Brun-du'-ze-um), , . 92 Brune, ..... 330 Brunei (Bru-nel'), .... 420 Brunswick (Bruns'-wick), 163, 227, 228, 278, 289 290, 318, 337, 351 Bmssels (Brus'-sels), . . 216, 351, 363 Brutus (Bru'-tus), . .68^69,91,92,456 Brutium (Bru'-te-um), ... 65 Bucharest (Boo-ka-rcst'), . . . 343 Bucephala (Bu-sef-a-la), ... 58 Bucephalus (Bu-sef-a-lus), . . .58 Buchanan, Franklin (Buk-an'-an), . 519 Buchanan. James . . 502, 503, 504 Buchcz (Boo-shez'), . . . 372 Buckersdorf (Buck'-ers-dorf), . . 292 Buokner, Simon Bolivar (Buck'-nei), . 508 Buena Vista (Bwa'-na Vees'-ta), . 447, 498 Buenos Ayrcs (Bo'-nos Airz;, . 438, 439 Buda (Boo'-dal, . , . 376, 382 Buddha (Bood'-da), ... 23 Budenbrock fBoo'-den-brock), . . 283 Buell, Don Carlos (Don Car'-los Bu'-el), 509 Buffalo ( Buf -fa-lo), . , . .487 Buford (Bu'-ford), ... 471 Bug (Boog), . . . . ,365 Bulgaria (Bul-ga'-re-a), . . . 135 582 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Bulgarians, , . . . .118 Bulgaris, Demetrius (De-me'-tre-us Bool- gar'-is), . . . .395 Bull's Run, . . , 506, 507, 511 Bulow (Boo'-lo), .... 34S Bunker's Hill (Bunk'-er's), . , 307, 461 Burgesses (Bur'-ges-ses), . . 256 Burgos (Boor'-goce), .... 340 Burgoyne (Bur-goin'), . 461, 466, 467, 468 Burgundians, (Bur-gun'-de-ans), . .111 Burgundy (Bur'-gun-de), 126,129, ^4^i '54i '55i 156, 157, 160 Burke, Edmund, ... 298, 456 Burleigh (Bur'-le), . . 223, 224 Burnside, Ambrose E. (Burn'-side), 508, 509, 512 5M, 5'6 Burr, Aaron, . . . 481, 482 Burrhus (Bur'-rus), . . . .96 Burrows (Bur'-rose), . . . 488 Busaco (Boo-sak'-ko), . . . 342 Bussolongo (Boos-so-lone'-go), . . 379 Bustamente (Boos-ta-men'-ta),442,443, 444,445 Bute, Earl of, ..... 292 Butler (But'-ler), . . . 230 Butler, Benjamin F., , 507i 509, 5'8 Butler, John, . . • 467, 469 Byng, . . . . . .279 Byron (By'-ron'), .... 358 Byzantine (Be-zan'-tin), 113, 117, 118, 119, 122, 123, 139, 191, 192 Byzantium (Be-zan'-she-um), . 40, 47, 107 Byzas (By'-zas), .... 40 c. Cabal (Ka'-bal), . . . 244, 245 Cabet (Ka-ba'), .... 372 Cabot, John (Ka'-bot\ . . . 195 Cabot, Sebastian (Se-bas'-che-an), , 195 Cabral (Ka-bral'), .... 193 Cabrera (Ka-bra'-ra), . . . 430 Cabrinity (Ka-brin'-e-te), . . 422, 427 Cabul (Ka'-bool), . . . 369 Cade, Jack, ..... 182 Cadesiah (Ka-de'-she-a) . . . 122 Cadiz (Ka'diz), . . . 27, 37 Cadmea (Kad'-me-a), ... 37 Cadmus ( Kad'-mus), . . '37 Cadorna (Ka-dor'-na"), . . . 413 Cadoudal, George (Ka-doo'-dal), . . 335 Caernarvon (Kar-nar'-von), . . 176 Cajsar, Julius (Ju'-le-us Se'-zer), 88, 89,90, 91 Cassar. Octavius (Ok-ta'-ve-us), . 92, 93 Csesars, ..... 93 Cain, . . . . . .21 Cairo (Ki'-ro), .... 123, 328 Caius Gracchus (Ka'-e-us Grak'-us), . 84 Caius Marius (Ma'-re-us), . . 85 Calabria (Ka-la'-bre-a), . . 65, 145 Calais (Kal'-la), 152, 156, 178, 1S2, 202, 209, 212, 313, 218 Caledonia, (Kal-e-do'-ne-a), - . . 120 Caledonians, .... 99 Calcutta (Kal-cut'-ta% . . . 299 Calhoun, John C. (Kal-hoon'), . 492, 493, 494 Calicut ^Kal'-e-kut), . . . 193 California (,Kal-e-for'-ne-a), 447, 498, 499, 500, 501, 524 Caligula (Ka-lig'-u-la), . . .94, 95 Caliph (Ka'-lifi, . . 121,122,123,124 Caliphate (Ka'-lif-ate), . . 123, 124, 125 Caliphs, ..... 125 Calixtines CKa-lix'-tins),. . . 170 Callao (Kal-la'-o), . . . 440, 441 Calmar, Union of (Kal'-mar), . . 186 Calonne I Ka-lon'), . . . • 3'' Calvary ( K.al'-va-re"), ... 94 Calvert, Cecil (Sis-il Kol'-vert), . . 261 Calvin, John (Kal'-vin). Calvinism (Kal'-vin-ism), . . 217,22a Calvinists (Kal'-vin-ists;, . .218,219 Cambaceres (Kam-ba-ser'), . . . 331 Cambray (Kam-bra'), . . 144, 158, 206 Cambresis, Chateau (Sha-to' Kong-bra-ze'j, 206, 218 Cambridge f Kame'-brij), . . 258, 460 Cambyses (Kam-bi'-seez), . . 34 Camden (Kam'-den), . 266, 471, 473 Camerletta (^Kam-er-let'-ta), . . 393 Camille Desmoulins (Ka-meel' Da-mo-long'), 313) 3"7, 3»8, 323 72, 73 65, 74 469, 472 390, 391 . 248 327 . 28, 29 29 Camillus (Ka-mil'-!us), Campania (Kam-pan'-e-a), Campbell (Kam'-el), Campbell, Sir Colin ^Ko'-lin), . Campbells, .... Campo Formio (Kam'-po For'-me-o), Canaan (Ka'-nan), Canaanites (Ka'-nan-ites), . . Canada (Kan'-a-da), 301, 302, 304, 305, 306, 307 Canadian ( Ka-iia'-de-anj, . . 300 Canalizo (Ka-nal'-e-zo), . . . 445 Canby (Kan'-be), . . . 522, 526 Candahar (Kan-da-har') . . . 369 Cane River, .... 517 Cannae (^Kan-ne'), . . . •79 Cannes ( Kan), .... 350 Canning (Kan'-ning), . . . 359 Canrobeit (Kan'-rob-ert), . 387, 402 Canterbury (Kan'-ter-ber-re), 120,174,179, 310, 234 Canton (Kan-ton'), . Canute (Ka-nute'), . . Cape Cod, . . Cape Fear River, Capet (Kah-pa'l, . Capet, Hugh (Hu), . Capitol (Cap'-e-tol), . , Capiioline Hill (Ka-pit'-o-line), Capitolinus ^Kap-it-o-li'-nus 1, Capo d' Istria (Ka'-po Dees"-tre-a), Cappadocia (Kap-pa-do'-she-a), Capreae (Ka-pre'-e), . Capua (Kap'-u-a), . Capuan, • . , Carabobo (Kar-a-bo'-bo), Caracalla ( Kar-a-kal'-laj, Caraccas (Ka-rak'-kas), . Carartacus (Ka-rak'-ta-kus), . Carbonari (Kar-bo-na'-re), Carinthia (Ka-rinth'-e-a), Corasmin (Ko-ras'-min), . , Corasmins, Carinus ^Ka-ri'-nus), , Carlisle (Karl'-ile), Carlist (Karl'-ist), 368, 400, 422, 424, 427, 428, ^ ,. 429. 430 Carlists, . 366, 367, 400, 422, 427, 428, 429, 430 Carloman (Kar'-lo-man), . . 126, 127 Carlos, Don (Don Kar'-los), 215, 280, 367, 368. 421, 422, 427, 430 Carlovingian (Kar-lo-vin'-je-an;, 126, 129, 146. 159 Carlovingians, Carlsruhe (Karls'-ru), . Carlstadt (Karl'-stot), Carmania (Kar-man'-e-a\ Carnifax Ferrj' (Kar'-ne-fax Fer'-re Carniola (Kar-ne-o'-la), . Carnot (Kar'-no), Carolina (Kar-o-li'-na), . Carolinas, . . . Caroline (Kar'-o.!ine\ Carolinians ( Kar-o-li'-ne-ans), Carpenter's Hall. Carrera (Kar-ra'-ra), . Carreras, . . . Carrier (Kar-re-a'^ Cartagena (Kar-ta-je'-na), Cartagenian I Kar-ta-ge'-ne-an), . Carteret Sir George (,Kar'-ter-et,i, 369 172 257 . 195, 264 146, 152 . 146, '47 73, 489 6C .67 . 73 , 359i 360 105 94 • 74 , So 80 437 lOI, 102 435, 436 95 356 . 208, 226 . 190 139 . 105 • 177 . 126 377 . 200 58 . 507 166 . 327 . 264 . 264 327: 336 265, 463. 504 . 459 439 • 439 324 424, 425, 426, 428 428 , 266 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 583 Carteret Philip (Fil'-ip) . . .266 Carthage (Kar'-thage; 27, 62, 63, 66, 77, 7S, 80, 81, 82, 83, 123 Carthagena (Kar'tha-je-na'), . 78, 280, 436, 437 Carthaginian tKar-tha-jin'-e-an;, 76, 77, 78, 79, 81,82,83 Carthaginians, 62, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83 Carthusians (Kar-thu'-she-ans), . . 133 Cartier, James (Kar-te-a';, . . 195 Carus (Ka'-rus), .... 105 Carver, John (Kar'-ver), . . 257 Cashmere (Kash'-meer), . . . 371 Casimir ^Kas'-e-mer^, .. . . 187 Casimir the Great, .... 187 Casino, Mount (Kas-e'-no) . . 133 Caspian Sea 1 Kas'-pean), . • • 33> 34 Cassander (Kas-san'-dcr) . . 60 Cassandra (Kas-san'-dra) . . . 358 Cassano ( Kas-sah'-no), . . . 329 Cassavo (Kas-sa'-vo) . . . 191 Cassel ( Kas'-sel), .... 405 Cassius ( Kash'-e-us) . . . 89,91,92 Castanos ( Kas'-ta-noce') . . . 339, 340 Castelar ( Kas-te-lar'j 421, 422, 423, 425, 426, 427 Castigiione (Kas-teel-yo'-na) , . .418 Castile (Kas'-teelj, 125, 158, 159, 165, 194, 269 Castilian (Kas-teel'-yan) . . 158 Castillo de las Galerus (Kas-teel'-yo-da-las Gal-a'-rus) . . . . .42 s Castor ( Kas'-ter), ... 38 Catalonia (Kat-a-lo'-ne-a), 158,422, 422, 427, 430 Catana (Ka-tan'-a) . . . • 65 Catania ( Ka-tan'-ea) . . . 378 Catharine I. (Kath'-a-rin), . . . 278 Catharine II., 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 308, 472 Catharine de Medicis ^Med'-e-chej . 318, 319 Catharine Howard (How'-ard), . . 210 Catharine Parr, .... 210 Catharine of A ragon (Ar'-a-gon), . 209,210 Catharine of Braganza (Bra-gan'-zaj, . 244 Cathelineau (Kath'e-lin-o'j, . 322 Catholic (Kath'-o-lik), . . . 206 Catholicism (Ka-thol'-e-sism) . . Catholics, .... Catiline, Sergius (Ser'-je-us Kat'-e-line) . 88 atinra ! Kah'-te-nah) Cato the Elder (Ka'-to) Cato the Younger, Catulus (Ka-tul'-us) . Caucasus (Kau'-kas-us) Caudine Forks (Kaw-dine), Cavaignac (Kav'-en-yak), Cavaliers (Kav-a-leers'j, Cavour (Kav'-oor), . Cawnpore ( Kawn'-pore) . Cayenne (Ki'-enj, . Cecil (Sis'-ll), Cecrops (Se'-krops), . Cedar Creek (Se'-der), . Cedar Mountain, Centreville (Sen'-ter-vil), . 255, 208 . 82 90 85,86 . 188 . 74i 75 37', 372, 373. 374 236 • 393 390, 391 . 386 224 • 37 520 . 511 506 Ceraunus, Ptolemy (Tol'-e-me Se-raw'-nus), 61 Ceres ( Se'-rees), . . . .36 Cerisoles ( Se-ris'-o-lees'), . . 205 Cerro Gordo (^Seer'-o Gor'-do), . 447, 499 Cevalles (Se-vals'), . . . 451 Cevennes (Sa-ven'), .... 269 Ceylon (Se-lon') .... 193 Chacabaco (Cha-ka-ba'-ko), . . . 439 Chaeronea I Ker-o-ne'-a), • • 53 Chaldea (Kal-de'-a), . . . 23,99 Chaldean, .... 27 Chaldeans, . , . . '24 Chalgrave Field (Shal'-grave), . . 237 Chalier I Shal-e-a') .... 322 Chalons 1 Sha-loang'), . . . 112 Chalons-sur-Marne (-soor-Marn), 402, 403, 404 Chambersburg (Cham'-bers-burgi, . 519 Chambly (Sham' blel, . . . 462 l-hampagne (Sham'-pane), 146, 147, 148, 349 Champ de Mars (Shong der Mar), Champion Hill (Cham'-pe-onJ, Championnet (Snam-pe-o'-na), . Champaubert (Shong-po'-ber), Champlain, Lake (Sham-plain'), Champlain, Samuel, 300, 304, 460, 462, Champs Elysees (Shong-E-lees'-e) 412 Chancellors ville (Chan'-cel-lors-vilj,. Chandler (Chand'-ler) Changarnier (Shan-gar'-ne-a), Chantilly (Chan'-til-le), . Chaiizy (Snon'-ze), . , . Chaos (Ka'-os), . . . , Chapultepec (Cha-pool'-te-pek) Charette (Shar-et'j, Charlemagne (,Shar'-le-mane), 119, 126 Charleroi (Shar-ler-waw'), Charles, 126, 129, 145, 146, 150, 151, 157, 158, 159, 165, 168, 171, Charles Felix (Fe'-lixj, Charles Martel(Mar-tel'), Charles the Courteous, . . Charles the Fair, , . . Charles the Fat, Charles the Simple, Charles the Wise, Charles the Victorious, . 155, 156 Charles I., of England, 234, 235, 236, Charles II., of England, . 243, 244, Charles II., of Spain, . . Charles III., of Spain, . , Charles IV., of Germany, Charles IV., of Spain, . . Charles V., of Germany., 171, 200, 201, 204, 205. 206, 207, Charles VI., of France, . Charles VI., of Germany, Charles VII., of Germany, . Charles IX., of France, . Charles IX., of Sweden, . . Charles X., of France, . 354. 360, Charles X., of Sweden, Charles XI., of Sweden, . Charles XII., ofSweden,273,274, 275, Charles XIII., of Sweden, . Charleston (Char!es'-ton), 265, 463, 469 474. 475. 494- 504, 508, 515, Charlestown (Charlcs'-town), . Charlotte (Shar'-lot) . . 461, Charlotte Corday (Kor'-da) . Charlottesville (Shar'-lots-vil) . Charolois (Sh.ar-o-lwaw'). Chartres (Shar'-ter), Chasse, .... Chasse (Shas-sa'), Chasu du Marne iShas'-su du Marn), Chateau (Shah-to'), Chateau Cambresis f Kong-bra-zee'), Chateau d' Eau (Shat'-o-do'), . Chateau Thierry (Ta-er'-re), . Chateaux (Shah-to'j, . . Chatillon (Shah-teel-yoang'), Chattanooga (Chat-ta-noo'-ga), Chaudiere (Sho-de-air'), . Chaumette (Shomet'), . • Chauncey (Chaun'-se), Cheatham (Cheet'-ham), Chen;rh (Che-nah'), . . Cheops (Ke'-ops), Cherbourg (Sher'-burg), Cherokee iCher-o-kee'), . . Cherry Valley, . . . . Cherub (Cher'-ub), Chesapeake (Ches-a-peek'), . 465, Chester (Ches'-ter), . 238,266, Chevaux-de-frise (She-vo-de-frise'^ 315, 420 • 349 466. 483 488, 4S9 , 416, 418 . S'4 487 • 374 511 . 410 36 447, 500 322 , 127, 128 129 351 154, 155. 200, 201 . 357 . 124, 126 157. '58 . 15', '52 129. '59 146 ■ '54 , 181, 182 237. 238, 239, 240 245, 246 . 268 • 291 . 168 339 202,203, , 208, 209 154. '55 . 272,282 283, 284 . 219, 220 . 212 36'. 363 . 232 232 276, 277, 278 • 341 , 470, 471 520, 521 258, 461 47', 528 . 321 5" . 156 221 . 523 363 . 419 405 206, 2l3 • 37' 349 • 3'4 349, 4'6 5'5, 516 462 • 323 486, 487 . 508 369 . 26 306, 494 469 • 49a 483, 488 267, 466 466 584 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Chickamauga (Chick-a-maw'-ga) Uhickasaws (Chick'-a-sa\vs), 46 Darius Notl.as (No- -thus), . . .51 Darling, Fort (D.-ir'-lini;), . . S'S Darnley, Lord (Darn'-le) . . .222 Daru ^Dar•oo'), .... 385 Datis ^Da'-tis), . . . .45 DauulDoun), . . 288,289,291,292 Dauphin (.Daw'fin), 152, 153, 155, 156,181, 212, 222, 362 Dauphiny (Daw'-fin-ne">, . .152, 156 D'Aurelles de Paladines (Do-rels'-der Pa- lah'-clong), .... 408 David (,Da-vid), . . . 3°. 3' Davis, Jefferson, (Jef-fer-son Da'-vis), 504,5<>5. 522 Davison (Da'-ve-son), . . . 224 Davoust tDah-voo'), , . . 337 Dearborn, Henry ( Deer'-born), 484, 484, 486, 4S7 DeatonsviUe (Dee-ions-vil), . . 521 Debonnaire, Louis the (^Deb-on-yare') . 129 Deborah ^Deb'orrah) . . .29 Debreczin (_De-bret'-sin), . 381, 382, 3S3 Decatur, Stephen (,Ste'-len De-ka'-ter), 481, 482, 485, 49°. 49" Decazes (Da'-ka'-za), . . .43' Deccan (Dek'-kan), ... 23 Decemvir (,De-sem-ver), . . '7' Decemvirs, . . . . 71, 72 Decius (De'-she-us), . . 74, 103, 104 Decoutrias (De-koo'-tre-ah), . . 371 Decrtield ^Deer'-field) . . .3"' De Grasse (De Gras') . . . 309, 474 De Heister i,De riise'-ler), . . .464 Deitzman (Ditze-man;, . . . 106 Dejoces ^Dej'-o-cees), . . -33 De Kalb (Da- Kalb'j, . . .465.47' Delaunay i,De-lo'-na) . . . 314 Delaware (Del'-a-wer), 264, 266, 267, 465, 466, 468 Delescluse (De-les'-klu-sa), . . 420 Delft, . . . . . .217 Delhi (Del'-le) . 215, 2S1, 300, 389, 390, 391 Delphi (Del'-le I, . . 30.39,53,6' De Marigny (Da Ma-reen'-ye), . 151 Dembinski ( Dem-bins'-kej 365. 381, 382, 383 Demetrius Bulgaris (De-me'-tre-us Bool- gar'-is), . . . . .39s Demetrius Phalereus (Fa-le'-re-us\ 60 Demetrius Poliorcetes (Po-le or-se'-te€s), . 60 Demosthenes (De-mos'-the-nees), . 59 De Monts (,Da-Mawng'), . . . 300 Denain (Da-nang) • . . 272 D'Enghein (.Dan-ge-aing'), . . .335 Denis. St. (Saint Den'-is), 219, 221, 373, 410 Denmark (Den'-mark), . . . 206 Dennewitz (Den'-ne-witz), . . .76 Derby (Der'-be),. . .367,399 DeReiz. Cardinal, (DerRetst, . . 250 Dermot Macmorrough (Der'-mot Mac-mur'- ro), . . . . .174 De Russey, Fort (De Rus'-se), . .517 De Ruyter (De-Ki-ter), . . 241 Derwentwater.Earl of (Der'-went-waw-ter), 278 Desai.\ (De'-za), . . . 330, 332 Deseze (De-saze'), .... 320 Desiderius (Des-e-de '-re-US ), . . 127 Desmoulins, CamiUe (Ka-meel' Da-mo- long'), . . . 313, 317, 3'8, 323 De Soto, Ferdinand (Fer'-de-nand De So'- to), '9- Dessau (Des'-sou), . . 228, 282, 28 D'Estaing (^Des-tang'), , , 468, 470 De Thou iDer-Too'), . . . 249 Detroit (De-troit'), . 300, 306, 484, 485 Dctiingcn (Det'-iing-en), . . 2S3, 284 De Witt, Cornelius (Kor-neel'-yus De Witt), 251 Dey^Da}, . . .355,361,480,491 Diana (Di-a'-na), ... 36 Diaz, Bartholomew (Bar-thol'-o-mu Di'-az), 193 Diaz, Porfirio (Por-tir -e-o), . , 45c Didius, Julianus (Did'-e-us Ju-le-an'-usj, . 101 Dido (Di'-do), .... 27 D'lberviUe, Lemoine (Lem-won' Deb-are- veel'), ..... 300 Diebitsch (De'-bitsh), . 346,360,364, 365 Dieskau (De-es'-ko), . . . 304 Dijon (De-zhong'), . . 408, 411 Dioclea (Di-o-kle'-a), . . .106 Diocletian (Di-o-kic'-she-an), . 105, 106 DlnwiJdie (Din-wid'-de), . . . 302 Directory (De-rek'-to-ry), 323,327,331, 481 Dirnstein (Dirn'-stine), . . . 336 Dismal Swamp, .... 462 Disraeli i,Dis-ra'-le\ . . 399, 432 Dissidents (Dis'-se-dents), . 293, 294 D'lssy (Dis'-se), 407, 409, 414, 416, 4J7, 418 Dixon (Di.x'-on), . . . 267 Dnieper (Neep'-er), . 109, iS3, 276, 294, 345 Dniester (Nees'-terJ, . . . 109 Doge (Doje), .... 138, 143 Dogger Bank 1 Dog'-ger), . . 309 Dolores (,Do-lor'-es), . . . 434 Dombrowski (Dom-brous'-ke), . 296, 420 Domingo. St. (Saint Do-min'-go\ . 194, 334 Dominican (Do-rain'-e-kan), . . 133 Dominicans, .... 133, 134 Dominicus ( Do-min'-e-kus), , . 133 Domitia (Do-mish'-e-a), . . -99 Domiiian (Do-mish'-e-an), . . 98, 99 Dom Remy (^Dome Rem'-e), . '55, loi Don Augtistin Iturbide (Au-gus'-tin E-toor'- be-da), . . . . .435 Don Carlos (Don Kar'-los), 215, 280, 367, 363, 421, 422, 427, 430 Don Cossacks (Don Kos'-sacks J, . . 29.4 Donelson (Don'-el-son), . . . 50^ Dongota (Don-go'-la), . . . 368 Doniphan ( Don'-e-fan), . . . 499 Don Juan (Don Ju'-an), , . 215, 217 Don .Miguel (Don Me'-gel), . . 356 Don Pedro (Don Pcd'-ro), . 356, 440 Donna Maria de Gloria (Don'-na Ma-ri'-a Da Glo're-ai, . . . 356 Donop (Don'-op), . . . 466 Doppel (Dop'-pel), .... 396 Dorchester (Dor-ches'-ter), . 258, 463 Doria Andrea (An'-dre-a Do'-re-a), 144, 204 Dorians (Do'-re-ans), . 37, 38, 39, 40, 41 Doris (Do'-ris), • . . 35, 38 Dorr, Thomas W. (Dore), . . 496 Dort, Synod of, . . . 216, 218 DorylsEum (Dor-e-le'-um1, . . 136 Dost Mohammed (Dost Mo-ham'-med), . 369 Douglas (Dug'-las), . . . 160 Douglas, Stephen A., . . 502, 504 Dover (Do'-ver), .... 261, 301 Dowlah, Surajah (Sur-aj'-ah Dow-lah'), . 299 Downie (Dow'-ne;, . . . 489 Draco (Dra'-ko;, . . . 42 Dragaschan ( Drah-ga-shan'), . . 358 Dragonnade (Drag-on-nade'), . 253, 254 Dresden (Dres'-den;, 284, 285, 287, 289, 291, ^ -^ 343, 347, 377 Dreux (Dm), .... 219 Drouet (Dru-a'), .... 316 Drummond (Drum'-mond), , . 488 Drummond William, . . , 264 Dry Tortugas (Tor-tu'-gas), . . 504 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 587 Dubienka fDu-be-en-ka), . • .295 Dublin (Dub'-lin I, . . .298 Ducrot (Du-kriy;, . . . .409 Dudley(Diid'-Ie) . . . . 212 Du Guesclin f Du Gwek'-lin), . .'54 Dumblain (Diim'-blainj, . . 178 Dumourier ( Du-moo'-re-a), 317, 319,3201 3^' Duna (Du'-na), . . . .274 Dunbar (Dun'-bar), . 176, 177, 240, 243 Dundalk (Dun'-dawk), . . .177 Dundee (Dun-dee'), . . • 242 Dunkirk (Dun'-kirk), 242, 244, 250, 323, 410 Dunmore, Lord (Dun'-more), . . 462 Duphot {Du--fo'), . . • 327 Dupont (Du-pont), . . . 339,508,515 Dupont de 1' Eure (Du-poang' DeUure'), . 371 Du Quesne (Du Kane'), 286, 289, 302, 302, 303, 305 Durango fDu-ran'-go), . . . 427 Durazzo (Du-rat'-soJ, . . . 145 Duiham (Dur'-ham), . . .178 Durlach, Baden (Bud'-en Dur'-lok), . 227 Duroc f Du-rok'), .... 347 Dusseldorf )Dus'-sel-dorf), . 226, 377 Dutch, 218, 225, 241, 244, 247, 251, 259,260,260, 262, 264, 272, 285, 308, 309, 323, 363, 364 E. Early, Jubal (Ju'-bal Er'-Ie), . 519, 520 East Haven (Ha'-ven), . . . 417 East Indies (In'-dees I, . . 287,308,309 Eastport (East'-port), . . . 489 Eaton, Theophilus (The-or-e-la"! E'-ton), 263 Ebro (Eb'-ro), . . . 78, 127, 340 Ecbatana (Ek-bat'-a-na), . 33, 35, 57, 59 Ecija (A-the'-hah), . . . 426 Eckmuhl (Ek'-mool,) . , . . 340 Ecuador (Ek'-wa-dor), . 436,438,440,441 Eden, Garden of (E'-den), . . .21 Edenton ( E'-den-ton), . . . 264 Edge Hill, ..... 237 Edinburgh (Ed'-in-bor-o), , 222, 235, 297 Edmund Ironside (Ed'-mund I'-ron-side) 172 Edward fEd'-ward), . . . 140 Edward the Confessor, . . .172 Edward I., . . . . 176, 177 Edward II., Edward III.,. Edward IV., Edward V., Edward VI., 177 152, 152, 177, 178, 179 . . 156, 183, 184 . 184 . 2tI,2I2 Edward, the Black Prince, 152, 153, 145, 178, 179 Effingham (Ef'-fing-ham) . . . 224 Egalite, Philip (A-gal-e-ta'), . .320,362 Egbert (Eg'-bert), . . . .171 Eger (Eg'-er,) , . . .283,292 Egeria )E-je'-re-a), . . . .67 Egmont (Eg'mont), . • . 216 Egypt ( E'-jipt;, 25, 26, 27, 28, 34, 46, 56, 6a, 64, 90, 92,93, 106, 122, 123, 137, 139, 140, 150,192, „ .. , , 328, 329, 330, 333, 359, 368 Egyptian (E-jip'-she-anj, 25, 26, 28, 34, 37, 368 Egyptians, . . . 25, 26, 34, 56 Ehud (Ude) . . . . .29 Eisleben flse-lee'-ben), . . ,199,207 Elatea I El-a-te'-a) . . . .53 Elba ( El'-ba), . . . .349,350 Elbe CElbj, . . . 199, 287, 348 Elberfeld ^El'-ber-feld), . . .377 Elbing (El'-bingi, .... 141 Eleanor (EUa-norO . . .140,148 Eli74 Enterprise, . . • • '488 Enzio ( Ain'-ze-o), . . • '^5 Epaminondas (E-pam-e-non'-das), . 52, 53 Epervier (E-per'-ve-a), . . . 490 Ephesus rEr-e-susj, . . .36, 55i 81 Ephori fEf-o'-ri), ... 4' Ephraim (E'-fra-im), . . .3' Epidaunis (Ep-e-daw'-rus), . . 358 Epirus(E-pi'-rus>, . 36.60,61,75,76,93 Episcopacy (E-pis'-ko-pa-sy), . . 232 Episcopal (E-pis'-ko-pal), . . 232, 235 Erasmus ("E-raz'-mus), . . • 209 Eresburg (E'-res-burg), . . .127 Eretria (E-re'-tre-a), . . • 45 Eric the Pious (Er'-ik), . . .186 Eric XIV., , ... 213 Ene^E'-re), .... 3021 486 Erie Canal, . . . .493 Erie, Fort, . . . * „ * ''^? Erie, Lake, . . . 485, 486 Ernest (EK-nest^ Joo Ernest Picard(Pe-karO, • • 4o6 Ernest von Mansfeld) (Mahns'-feld), 227, 228 ErskinefErs'-kin), . • • ^^^ Esau (E'-saw), . . . .28 EscosesfEs-ko'-sees), . . 44', 442 Eslingen (Es'-ling-en), . . ' ^ia Espartero (Es-par-ta'-ro), . • 368 Essex (Es'-sex). . 120, 179, 224, 225, 237, 238 Estaing, Count d', fDes-tang'), . 468. 47° Estanislao Figueras (Es-tan-is-Ia'-o Fig-oo- a'-ra-s) 42i, 422, 423 Estella(Es-tel'-la), . • • -429 Esthonia (^Es-tho'-ne-a), . . 186, 274, 278 Eszeck (Es'-zeki 381 Ethelred ( Eth-el-red'j, . . .172 Ethiopia (E-the-o'-pe-a), . . 25, 34 Etna ( Et'-na), . . * <:* o Is Etruria(Et-ni'-re-a) . . 65, 78, »S Etruscan f Et-rus'-kan), . . 68,69,72 Etruscans, . . .65, 68, 69, 73 Eubcea (U'-be-a) ... 35 Eudoxia (U-dox'^-a1, . . • "' Eugene (U-jeen'}, 253, 268, 270, 271, 272, 279, 200 Eugene Beatiharnais ^Bo-har'-na), . 335, 348 Eugene Pelletan(Pel-le-tong'j . . 400 Eugenie de Montijo (\j-je'-ne da Mon -te- yo), . . . • 386, 3891 4c6 Eugenius (U-je'-ne-us), . . 110,170 Eunus(U'-nus), . . ' r, 2 Eupatona (U-pa-to'-re-a), . 387, 38» Euphrates lU-fra'-teez), 21, 24, 27, 33. 56, 5», 59. 94 Eure, Dupont de 'I (Du-poang Del-ure'), . 371 588 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. ■ 75, 76 . . 410 402 , , 510 238 506 470 457 458 , • 443 445 217 414 Europe (U'-rope), 22, 34, 100, 119, 124, 130, 131, •33, 134, 137. '99. 269, 280, 293, 323, 353 European (U-ro-pe'-an), . , 130, 192 Eurybiades (U-re-bi'-a-deez), , . 46 Eurymedon (U-re-me'-don), . . 47 Eustace St, Pierre (Yoos'-tase Sang Pe-aire'), 152,178 Eutaw Springs (U'-taw), ... 474 Euxine Sea (Yoog-zeen'), . . 34 Evans (E'-vans), .... 508 Eve, . . . . . 21 Evesham (Eves'-ham), . . .176 Ewell (U'-el), .... 521 Exarch (Ex'-ark), . . . .118 Exchequer (Ex-chek'-er), , . 237 Exeter (Ex'-e-ter\ . . . 238,261 Exmouth, Lord (Ex'-muth), . . 355 Eylau (I'-lou), . . . .337 Eyre (Aire), . . . • 390 Eyre Coote (Koot), .... 299 Ezra (Ez'-ra), .... 33 F. Fabius Maximus (Fa'-be-us Max'-e-mus), 79, 80 Fabricius (Fa-bre'-she-us), Faidherbe ( Faid-her'-be), Failly (Fail'-ye), Fair Oaks, Fairfax, Lord (Fair'-fax), Fairfax Court House, Fairfield (Fair'-field), . Fanueil Hall (Fan'-il), Farias, Gomez (Go'-meth Fa'-re-as), Farnese Alexander (Far-neez'), Faron (Fa-roang'), . • Farragut, David G. (Far'-ra-gut), 509, 510, 519, 520 Faubourg du Temple (Fo'-boorg du Tem'- ple ..... Faubourg St. Antoine (Fo-boorg Sang Ang twa'-na), . . . . Faust (Foust), .... Fausta (Faus'-ta), .... Faust-recht (Foust'-rekt), Favre, Jules (Jule Fav-ra'), Fawkes, Guy (GyFawks), Fayette (Fa-et'), Fayctteville, Fear, Cape, Federalist (Fed'-er-al-ist), 443, 478, 481, 485, 492 Fcder-ilisLs, . . 445, 479, 480, 485, 490 Fehrbellin (Fair-be-leen'), . . 251, 252 Feodor (Fe'-o-dor), . . . 188 Ferdinand the Catholic (Fer'-de-nand), 157, 158 159, 202 Ferdinand De Soto (Da So'-to), . . 190 Ferdinand I. of Germany, . 206, 225 Ferdinand H., . 226, 227, 228, 229, 230 Ferdinand HL, .... 230 Ferdinand VI of Spain, . . . 291 Ferdinand of Austria. . . .3741376 Ferguson, Patrick (Pat-rick Fer'-gu-son), 471, 472 Fermor (Fer'-mor) .... 2S9 Ferhando Cortes (Fer-nan'-do Cor'-tes). 214 Ferozeshah ( Fe-roze'-shah) . . 369 Ferrez (,Fer'-rcth), .... 428 Ferrieres ( Fer-re-a'), ... 407 Ferrol ( Fer'-role), . . . .421 Ferry, Harper's (Har'-per's), , 503,505,511 Ferry, Jules (Jule Fer'-re), . . . 406 Ferry Stono (Sto'-no) ... 469 Feuda'ism (Fu'-dal-ism), . . . 185 Feudal System (Fu'-dab, . 130,171,173 Feversham ( Fe'-ver-sham), . . . 247 Field, Cyrus W., . , . 523 Fieschi (Fe-es'-ke), .... 370 Figueras, Estanislao, (Es-tan-is-la'-o Fig- oo-a'-ras), . . . 421, 422, 423 373 • 373 . 192 . . 107 168 406, 411, 412 233 • 303 512 »95, 264, 473 Fillmore, Millard (Mil'-lard Fill'-more"), 500, 501, 502 Finland, (Fin'-land), . . . 338, 341 Finlanders. ..... 126 Finns, ..... 266 Fisher, Fort (Fish'-er), . . . 521 Fisher's Hill, . . . 520 Fishing Creek, .... 471 Flamborough Head (Flam-bur'-o) , 470 Flaminius, Quintus (Quin'-tus Fla-min'-e- us), . . . . . 63, 81 Flanders (Flan'-ders), 136, 138, 139, 146, 147, i49i 150, i57i 252 Flavio Gioja (Fla'-ve-o Jo'-e-ah) . 193 Flavius Claudius (Fla'-ve-us Klaw'-de-us), 104, 105 Fleetwood (Fleet'-wood}, . . . 243 Flemings (Flem'-ings), . , 150, 151, 154 Flemish (Flem'-ish), . . . 154, 185 Fletcher (Fletch'-er), . . . 263 Fleurus (Flu'-rus), .... 324 Fleury (Flu'-re), .... 280 Flocon (Flo-koang'), . . . 372 Flodden Field (Flod'-den) . . 209 Florence (Flor'-ence), 110,111,143,144, 145,414 Florentine (Flor'-en-tine) . , 194, 195 Florian (Flo'-re-an), . . . 105 Florida (Flor'-e-da), 194, 264, 265, 266, 292, 489, 491, 494,495,497. 5o4, 5' 7 Florldas, .... 306, 492 P'lorus (Flo'-rus), ... 97 Flourens, Gustave (Gus'-tav Floo-raign'), . 413 Floyd, John B., . . 505, 507, 508 Fontainbleau (Fon-tain-blo'), . 349 Fontenaille (Fon-te-nel'), . . . 129 Fontenoy (Fon-te-noy'), . . . 285 Foote, Andrew H. (Foot), . . 508, 509 P"orbach (For'-bok), . . . 403 Forbes, John (Forbs), . . . 305 Forey, General (Fo'-re), . . 392, 449 F'ornova (For-no'-va), . . . 157 Forest, Napoleon Bonaparte (For'-rest), 517 Forth, . . . . .101 Fortress Monroe (Mon-ro') 504, 510, 518, 522 Fort Smith, ..... 515 Fort Wayne (Wain) . . . 479 Foster (Fos'-ter), .... 278 Foster, John G,, .... 514 Fouche (Foo-sha'), , . 323,331,352 Fouquet(Foo-ka'), . . . 291 Fouquier TinviUe (Foo-ke-a' Tang-veel'), 324, 420 Fowler (Fow'-ler), . . . 160 Fox, ..... 298 France (Frans), 124, 129, 146, 147, 148 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, i57,*i58, 178, i8r Franche Comte (Fransh Kong-ta'), . 217, 252 Francia, Dr. (Fran'-se-ah), . . 440, 441 Francis L, of France (Fran'-sis), 158, 195, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206 Francis L, of Germany, . . 284, 298 Francis H., of France, . . 212,219,222 Francis IL, of Germany, , . 298, 337 Francis, of Austria, . . 337, 341, 353 Francis Joseph, . . 376, 381, 382 Francis of Assisi (As-se'-si), . . 133 Francis of Guise (Geez). . 206,212,219 Franciscan (Fran-sis'-kan) . . 133, 134 Franciscans, ..... 133 Francisco Pizarro (Fran-sis'-ko Piz-ar'-ro), 214 Francisco Sforza (Sfor-tsa'), . . 143 Francisco, San, .... 500 Franconberg (Fran'-kon-berg), . . 2^3 Franconia (Fran-ko'-ne-a) . . 159, 160 Frank, . . 125, 126, 127, 128, 129 Frankfort (Frank'-fort), . 283, 290, 375, 376 Frankish (Frank'-ish), Franklin (Frank'-lin), Franklin, Benjamin, Franks, . . 126, 127, 128 520 303, 464 119, 124, 125,127 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 589 Frederic I., of Prussia, . • • 282 Frederic II., of Germany, . 139,164,165 Frederic III., of Denmark. . . 213 Frederic III., of Germany, . .170,171 Frederic IV., of Denmark, ' . 273, 274 Frederic Charles, 396, 398, 402, 403, 404, 407, 408, 410 Frederic the Great, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 297 Frederic William I., . . . 282 Frederic VViiliam II., . . 297, 298 Frederic William III., . . 337.353 Frederic William IV., . . 375, 377 Frederic William, the Great Elector, 251, 252, 281 Frederic Barbarossa (Bar-bar-os'-sa), 137, 149, 162, 163 Frederick, . . , . •519 Fredericksburg (Fred'-er-iks-burg), . 512 Frederickshall (Fred'-er-ik-shawl), . . 278 Fredericksham(Fred'-er-ik-sham), . 341 Fredericktown (Fred'-er-ik-town), . . 488 Frejus (Fra'-zhus), . • . 331, 350 Fremont, John Charles (Fre-mont'), 499, 502, 51°, 5" French, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154. 155, 156, 157. '58, 178, 181 French Mills, . . . .487 Frenchtown, . . . 485, 4S6 Freron ( Fra-roang'), . . . 322, 324 Friedland (Freed'-land), . 228, 229, 338 Friedlingen (Freed-ling'-en), . . 269 Frolic, ..... 485 Fronde (Frond), .... 250 Frontenac (Fron'-te-n.ak\ . 289, 305 Froschwiller (Frosh'-wil-ler), . . 403 Frossard (Fros-s.ird'), . . . 402, 403 Fructidor (Fruc-te-dor'), . . . 327 Fulda(Fur-da), . . . .128 Fulton, Robert (Ful'-ton), . . .482 Fundy (Fun'-de), . , . 303 Fulvia (Ful'-ve-a), . . , '92 G. Gades (Ga'-dees), _ . 27, 37 Gage, Thomas (Gaje), . 457i 459) 460, 461 Gaines, General (Gaines), 495 Gaines' Mill, . . 5" Galatia (Ga-la'-she-a'), . 61 Galba (Gal'-ba), . 96 Galenis (Ga-la'-rus), 425 Galerius (Ga-le'-re-us), 106, 107 Galesbrusch (Gales'-brush), 277 Galicia (Ga-lish'-e-a), . 294 Galician, . Gallia Cispadana (Gal'-le-a Sis-pad '-a-na), . 65 Gallia Traspadana (Trans-pad'-a-na), . 65 Gallic (Gal'-lik), . . .61, 73, 78 Gallienus (Gal-le-e'-nu.s), . . 104 Gallus (Gal'-lus), .... 104 Galvez (Gal'-veth), ... 428 Galway (Gal'-way), . . ■ . 270 Gama, Vasco de (Vas'-ko da Ga'-ma), 193 Gambetta, Leon (Le-oang'Gam-bet'-ta),4o6, 430 Gambler, Admiral Lord (Gam-beer'}, . 338 Ganges (Gan'-jees), . . , 58, 390 Garde Mobile (Gard Mo-beel'), . . 402 Garde Nationale (Gard Na-shun-ale'), . 402 Gardner (Gard'-ner), . . . 515 Garibaldi (Gar-e-bawl'-dah), 379, 380, 393, 394, 398, 412, 413 Gamier Pages (Gar-ne-a' Pa-zha'), 371, 372, 406 Gascoigne (Gas-koin'), . , . 181 Gascony (Gas'-ko-ne), . , . 146 Gaspe (Gas-pa'), .... 458 Gaspereau (Gas-pe-ro'), . . . 303 Gath, . . , . . .30 Gaugamela (Gaw-ga-me'-la), . . 56, 57 Gaul (Gawl), 72, 78, 89, loi, io8, no, 112, 125 Gauley (Gaw'-le), .... 507 61, 72, 73, 78 • 177 56, 139 . 124 58 . 378 189 . ii3 2t • 479 524, 525 41V Gauls, . . . Gaveston (Gaves'-ton), Gaza i^Ga'-Jia), Gebel-al Tarik (Geb-el-ail Tah'-rik), Gedrosia (^Ge-dro'-she-a), Gefion (Gef'-e-on),. . Geisa (Gi'-sa), . . Gelimer (Jel'-e-mer), . , Genesis (Jen'-e-sis), . Genet (Zhe-na'), . . , Geneva (Je-ne'-va\ Gennevilliers (Zhen-ne-veeI'-I&-a), . Genoa (Jen'-o-a), 141, 143, 144, 202, 204, 252, ,, , , 297, 327, 332, 352 Genoese (Jen -o-esei, . 144, 193, 204, 297 Genseric (Jen'-ser-ik), . . .112 Geoffrey Plantagenet (Jef'-fre Plan-taj'-e- net), . . . . ,173 George I. of England (Jorj'), . . 249, 278 George I. of Greece, .... 395 George II. of England, . 249, 278, 284, 296., 302 George III., . . . 292,296, 355,366 George IV., . . . . 366 George Cadoudal (Ka-doo'-dal), . . 335 Georgetown, .... 488 Georgia (Jor'-je-a), 267, 268, 306, 459, 469, 471, . 472» 493. 494. 504, 509, 5»8, 519, 522 Georgians, .... 267 Gepid» (Jep-e-dee'), . . . .119 Gerard (Zher-ard'), . . . 364 Gerhard of Franch-Comte (Zha-rar' of Fransh-Kong'-ta), , , . 217 Germain, St. (Sang Zher-mang'), . 219, 247 German (Jer'-man), 94, 112, 113, 115, 120, 129, 141, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168 Germanic ( Jer-man'-ik), . . • 83 Germanicus (Jer-man'-e-kus), . • 94, 95 Germans, .... 94, io3 Germantown, .... 466 Germany (Jer'-man-ne), 89, 126, 129, 137, 139, 1142, 143, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 199, 206, 226, 251 Gerrj', Elbridge (Ger'-re), . . . 485 Geryon (Ger'-yon), • • • 37 Gesler (Ges'-ler), . . . ,167 Geta (Ge'-ta), .... loi Gettysburg (Get'-tis-burg), . . . 514 Ghent (Gent), . . . 156, 217, 490 Ghibelline (Gib'-el-line), . . 162, 167 Ghibellines, , 142, 143, 144, 145, 162, 164, 165 Gibraltar (Jib-rawl'-ter), 124, 269, 270, 308, 309, 470 Gideon (Gid'-e-on), ... 29 Gilboa (Gil-bo'-a), . . . .30 Gillmore, Quincy Adams (Gill'-more), 509, 515 Gioja, Flavio (Fla'-ve-o Jo'-e-a), . . 193 Gironde (Zhe-roand'), . . , 317 Girondist (Zhe-roand'-ist), . 317, 318, 322 Girondists, . 316, 317, 320, 321, 324 Gladiator (Glad-e-a'-tor), . . .87 Gladiators, . . . 87, loi, 103 Gladstone, William E. (Glad'-stone), 399, 432 Glais Bizoin (Zhla Be-zwawn'), . . 406 Glencoe (Glen'-ko), . . . 248 Glendower, Owen (O'-wen Glen'-dow-er), 180 Gliessaw (Glees'-SDu), . . . 274 Gloucester (Glos'-ler), . , 180, 183, 184 Glucksburg (Glooks'-burg), . . . 396 Glycerius (Glis-e'-re-us), . 112, 113 Goa (Go'-a), ..... 193 Godfrey of Bouillon (God'-fre of Bool-yoang'), »35. 136, 143 Godoy (Go-doyO, . . . 338, 339 Goldsborough (Goulds-bur'-o), . . 521 Goliad (Go-le-ad'), .... 443 Goliath (Go-Ii'-ath), ... 30 Gomez Farias fGo'-meth Far'-e-as), 443, 445 Gonsalvo de Cordova (Gon-sal'-vo da Kor'- do-va), ..... 157 Gonzales (Gon-thah'-leth), . 422, 443 590 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. »93, 334 3^ 382, 383 362 . 21S 185 . 387 277, 279 . 28 Good Hope, Cape of, . Goojerat (Gooj-er-at'), . . Gorgey (Gor'-je), , . Goritz (Go-ritz'), . . Gormarists (Gor'-mar-ists), . Germ the Old, . . , Gortschakoff ( Gort'-sha-kof ), Gortz, Baron von, . . Goshen (Go'-shen), . Gosnold, Bartholomew (Bar-thol-o-mu Gos'- nold), ..... 257 Goth, ..... no, III Gotha, Saxe Cobourg (Sax Ko-burg Go'- tha), ..... 367 Gothic (Golh'-ik), . . . 103,111 Goths, . 103, 104, 105, log, no, ui, 112 Gracchi (Grak'-i\ ... 84 Gracchus, Ca'-iis Grak'-us), . . .84 Gracchus, Tiberias (Ti-be'-re-us Grak'-us), 84 Graham of Claverhouse(Gra'-hainof Klav'- er-house'), .... 248 Gramont, Duke de (Gra-mont'), . . 4or Granada (Gra-nah'-Ja), . . . 125, 159 Granada, New, . . 435, 436, 437, 440 Grand Tremblay (Grang Traing-bla), . 407 Granger, Gordon (Gor'-don Grain'-jer), 520 Granicus (Gran'-e-kus), . . 54, 55 Granson (Gran'-son\ . . . 157 Grant, Ulysses Simpson ( U-lis'-sees Sim'- son Grant), 508, 509, 514, 516, 517, 518, 519, 521, S^Si 524, 525 Granvella (Gran-vel'-ya), . . 216 Grasse, Count de (der Gras'), . 309, 474 Gratian (Gra'-she-an^, . . . no Gravelotte (Grav'-lot), . . 403, 404 Gravina (Gra-ve'-na), . . . 336 Great Britain (Brit'-en), 278, 292, 302, 306, 307, 308, 309, 348, 460, 463, 475, 484 Great Horse Shoe, .... 487 Great St. Bernard (Saint Ber'-nard), . 33-^ Greble, John T. (Greb'-el), . . . 506 Grecia, Alagna (M.ig'-na Gree'-she-a), 40, 65 Grecian (Gre'-she-an), 38, 39, 45, 46, 46, 48, 5»i 52. 53. 54, 62, Si Grecians, . . . . 39, 47 Greece (Grees), 34, 36, 37, 40, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50,51. 52, 53,54, 59, 60, 6», 63, 81,82,357, „ , 360, 394. 395 Greek, . 33, 34, 38, 40, 45, 47, 55, 357, 358, 359, 360, 394 Greeks, 38, 39, 44, 45, 46, 47, 357, 358, 359, 360 Greeley, Horace (Hor'-as Gree'-lei, , 525 Greene, Nathaniel (Na-than'-yel Green), 472, 473. 474 Greenland (Greeu'-land), . , . 130 Greenville (,Green'-viin, . , . 479 Greenwich ( Green'-wich), , , . 469 Gregory VU. (,Greg'-o-ry), . . 132, 161 Gregory IX., . ■• . . 164,165 Gregory Xni., .... 220 Grenadiers (Gren'-a-deers), , 326, 331 Grenoble (Gren-o'-bel), . . . 370 GrenviUe, George (,Gren-vill), , . 297 Grey (Gray), .... 466 Grey, Lord, ..... 184 Grey, Lady Elizabeth, , . . 1S3 Grey, Lady Jane, . . . .212 Gridley, Richard (Grid'-le), , . 461 Grisons (Gre-zoang^'), . . . 329 Griswold, Fort ^Gris'-wold), . . 474 Gros Beeren (Groce Beer'-en\ . . 347 Grotius, Hugo (Hu'-go Gro'-she-us), . 218 Groveton ^Grove'-ton), . . . 511 Guadaloupe Hidalgo (,Gaw-dah-lupe He- dal'-goi, .... 447, 500 Guadaloupe Victoria ( Vik-to'-re-a), 435,441 Guadalquiver (Gaw-dal-kee'-vcr;, . . 124 Guanahani 1 Gaw-na-haw'-na), . . 104 Guelph (Gelfi, . . . .162 Guelphic (Gelf-ik), . . . 165, 167 Guelphs, 142, 143, 144, 145, 162, 164, 165, 167 Guerra (Ger-ra'), .... 451 Guerrero (Ger-ra'-ro), , . , 442 Guerriere (Ger-e-aire'), . . . 485 Guiana (Ge-an'-a). , , Guienne iGe-en'), , • . 153^ 179 Guilford (Gil'-ford), . . , 473 Guillotine (Gil'-lo-tin), . . . 321 Guinea (Gin'-ne), , ' , , 432 Guiscard, Robert (Rob'-ert Gees'-kar), 145, 161 Guise, Duke of (,Geezj, 206, 212, 218, 219,220, 221 Guises, . * . . 219, 220, 221 Guizot (Ge-zo'), . . . 370, 371 Gustave Flourens (Gus-tav Floo'-raing), . 415 Gustavus Adolphus (Gus-ta'-vus A-dol'-fus\ 213, 229, 230, 232 Gustavus HL, . . . . 29s Gustavus IV., . . . 338, 341 Gustavus Vasa (Gus-ta'-vus Vas'-a), 186, 213 Guthrum (Guth'-rum), . . , 171 Guttenberg, John (Gut'-ten-berg,), . 192 Guy Fawkes iGi Fawks), . . . 233 Gwalior(Gwal'-e-or), . . 369.391 Habeas Corpus (Ha'-be-as Cor'-pus), 246, 354 Hagar i^Ha'-gar) . . . ,28 Halicarnassus ( Hal-e-car-nas'-sus), . 55 Halidon Hill (Hal'-e-don Hill), . 177,178 Halifax (Hal'-e-fax), . , . 463 Halleck, Henry W. (Hal'-lek), . 510, 511 Ham, .... 32, 24, 25 Hamburg (Ham'-burg), . . . 165 Hamilcar Barcas ;Ha-mil'kar Bar'-kas), 77 Hamilton, Alexander (Ham'-il-ton), 47S, 479, 483 Hamilton, Andrew, . . . 261 Hamlin, Hannibal (Han'-ne-bal Ham'-linl, 504 Hampden, John (Ham'-den), . 235, 236, 237 Hampshire, New (Nu Ham'-shir), 261, 301, 460, 501 Hampton (Ham'-ton), . . 462, 488 Hampton. Wade, . . 484, 485, 487 Hanau (Ha'-now), .... 348 Hancock, John (Han'-kok), . 457, 460, 461 Hanging Rock, .... 471 Hannibal (Han'-ne-bal), 78, 79,80,81,82 Hannibaliaiuis ( Han-ne-bal-e-an'-us), . 108 Hanno (Han'-noi, ... 77 Hanover (_Han'-o-ver\ 248, 273, 290, 334, 335, 337, 365, 366, 367, 374, 397 Hanover Court House, . . , 510 Hanoverian (Han-o'-ver-e-an), 288, 289, 290, 397, 398 Hanoverians, ..... 323 Hanseatic I-eague (Hahn-se-at'-iki, . 165 Hans Holbein (Hahns Hol'-bine), . , 210 Hans Muller I Hahns Mill'-er), . . 200 Hapsburg (Haps'-burg), 166, 170, 206, 229, 272 Hardee (Har-dec'), . . . 520 Hardicanuie (Har-de-ca-nute'), . .172 Hardy (Har'-de), . . .489 Harfleuri Har'-floorl, . . 154,181 Harlem Heights (,Har'-lem), . . 464 Harlem Plains, .... 464 Harmeri Har'-mer), . . . 479 Harinodius (Har-mo'-de-us), . . 44 Harold iHar'-oldi, . . . 172, 173 Harold Bluetooth, .... 186 Harold Fairhair, . . . 185 Harold Harefoot, .... 172 Haroun-al Raschid (Ha-roon'-al-Rask'-id), 125 Harper's Ferry (Har'-per's ;, . 503, 505, 511 Harrison (Har'-re-son). . . . 241 Harrison, William Henry, . 48=,, 486, 496 Hartford 1 Hart-f)rd ■, . 262, 26;, 490 Hasdrubal (Has'-dru-bal), . . 80,83 Hase iHah-za'). . . . .128 Haslerig, Sir Arthur (,Has'-ler-ig), . 23^-,, 236 ALPHA BE TIC A L INDEX. 591 Hassan (Has'-san), .... 141 Hastenbach \ Has'-ten-bok), Hastings, Battle oi (Haist'-ingsj, Hastings, Lord, . Hastings, Warren, Hatcher's Run (Hatch'-er's), Hatchie (Hatch'-ee), . Hatfield (Hat'-field), Hatteras, Fort (Hat'-ter-as), Hatteras Inlet, . . Havana (Ha-van'-a), . Havelock (Hav'-lock), . Haven, East (Ha'-ven;, . Haven, New Haverstraw (Hav'-er-straw), Havre de Grace ( Hav'-er-de-grass), Hawley (Haw'-le), . . . Hayne, Robert Y. (Hain), Hayraddin Barbarossa (Ha-rad'-din Bar ba-ros'-sa), . . Hayti (Ha'-te), Heart's Content, . Hebert (Ha'-baire), . . Hebrew (He'-broo), Hebrews (He'-broos), Hebron i Heb'-ron), . Hecker ' Heck'-er), . Hector (Hec'-tor), . Hegyes iHeg'-yes), . Heidelberg 1 Hi'-del-burg), Heiiborn (Hile'-born), . Hegira ( He-ji'-ra;, . Helen (^Hel'en), Helena (He-le'-na), Helena, St. (Saint He-le'-na), Heliogabalus ( He-le-o-gab'-a-lus), Heliopolis (He-le-op'-o-lis), . Hellas (Hel'-las;, Helle (Hel'-le), Hellenes (Hel-lee'-neez), Hellenic (Hel-len'-ik), , Hellespont (Hel'-les-pont), Helos (Hel'-os), Helots (Hel'-ots), Helsingtors ( Hei'-sing-fors), Helvetia 1 Hel-ve'-she-a), Helvetic (Hel-vet'-ikj, Hengist (Hen'-gist 1, . Henlcpen, Cape { Hen-lo'-pen), . Henrietta Maria (Hen-re-et'-ta Ma-ri'-a), 233 Henriot (Hang'-re-o), . 321, 324, 420 Henri Rochefort (Hen'-re Roash'-foar), 406, 420 Henry I. of England (,Hen'-rej, . . 173 Henry I. of France, . . . 147 Henry I, of Germany, , . . 160 Henry n. of England, . . 148,174 Henry n. of France, . . 206,218 Henry \\. of Germany, . . . 160 Henry HI. of England, . 150, 175, 176 Henry HI. of France, . , .220,221 Henry HI. of Germany, . . . 161 Henry IV. -bf England, . . .180,181 Henry IV. of France, , 221,222,249 Henry IV. of Germany, . . 161, 162 Henry V. of England, , 154, 181, 183 Henry V. of Germany, . . . 162 Henry VI. of England, . 155, 181, 182, 183 Henry VI. of Germany, . . 163, 164 Henry VII. of England, . , 185,209 Henry VII. of Germany, . . . 167 Henry VIII. of England, 185, 199, 202, 205, 209, 210, 211, 212, 222 Henry, Patrick (Pat'-rik Hen'-re), 455, 456, 461, 477 Henry Raspe' CRas-pa'), . . 165 Hepha;stion ^He-tes'-te-on), . . 59 Heptanomis ( Hep-lan'-o-mis), . . 25 Heraclidse (Her'-a-kli'-da), . , 38,40 Heraclius (He-rak'-le-uz), , . 119 172. >73 52 1 . 512 259 • 507 507 194, 492 39". 391 • 470 262, 263 • 472 488 . 285 494 204 . 194 523 321, 323 28, 29, 30 27, 28, 29 30 . 375 . 38, 56 . 383 237, 254 . 230 121 37,38 515 • 352 . 102 . . 122 35 . 38 37 39, 61 38, 40, 54, 191 • 41 . 41. 48 . 338 166 328, 329, 334 . 120 259 Herbois, CoUot d' (Ko-lo' Der-bwaw'), 321, 3231 324 Herculaneum (Her-cu-Ia'-ne-um), . 98 Hercules (Her'-kn-leez). . . 27,37,38 Herislal, Pepin d' (Pep'-in Der'-is-tal), . 126 Herkimer (Her'-ke-mer), . . 467 Hermanstadt (Her'-man-staht), . . 381 Hernani ( Her-nan'-e), . . . 429 Herrera f Her-ri'-ra), . . 446,447 Herron (Her'-ron), . . . 512 Heruli ( Her-u-li'J, . . . 113, 117 Hesse (Hes), . 126, 128, 200, 201, 206, 207, 208 Hesse-Cassel (Kas'-sel), 348, 365, 366, 374, 397 Hesse-Darmstadt (Darm'-staht), . . 399 Hessian (Hesh'-an), . . 464, 465 He.ssians, . . 307, 323, 463, 465, 466, 467 Hezekiah fHez-e-ki'-ahj, . . .32 Hidalgo (He-dal'-go), . . . 434 Hidalgo, Guadaloiipe;(Gawd'-a-lupe He-dal'- goj, ..... 447, 500 Hielsberg (Heels'-berg), . . 338 Hiempsal ( Hi-emp'-sal), . , .85 Hiero ( Hi'-e-ro), ... 76 Highlands (Hi'-lands), . . 463,467 Highlanders Hi'-land-ers), , . 248 Hildebrand (Hil'-de-brand), . 132, 161 Hill, S14 Hiller (Hil'-ler) 348 Hillsborough (Hils'-bur-o), . . 473 Hindman ( Hinde'-mau), , . . 512 Hindoo (Hin'-doo), . . 23,389,390 Hindoos, ... . 23, 27, 389 Hindoostan (Hin-doos-tan'), 23, 190, 215, 298, 299, 390 Hipparchus (Hip-par'-kus), . . 44 Hippias (Hip'-pe-as), . . . 44, 45 Hiram (Hi'-rami, . . . -31 Hobkirk's Hill (Hob-kirk's), . . 473 Hoboken (Ho-bo'-ken), . . . 260 Hochkirchen (Ho'-kirk-en), . . . 289 Hochstett (Hoak'-stet), . . 269,270 Hofer, Andreas (Ahn'-dre-as Hof-er), . 341 Hogoumont (Ho'-goo-mont), . . 351 Hogue, La (La Hogc'i, . . 254, 255 Hohenfriedberg (Ho-en-freed'-berg), . 284 Hohenlinden ( Ho-en-lin'-den), . . 33S Hohenlohe I Hu-en-lo'-he), . . . 337 Hohenstauffen (Ho-en-stouf-feu), 162, 163, 164, 163 Hohenstauffens, .... 162 Hohenzollern (Ho-en-tsol'-lern), 282, 408 HohenzoUern Sigmaringen (Sig-ma-ring'- en), .... 401, 402 Holbein, Hans (Hahns Hol'-bine), . 210 Holland (Hol-landj, 165, 216, 217, 218, 231, 241, 244, 245, 247, 251, 252, 254, 255, 260,268, 269, 282, 285, 298, 308, 309, 321, 325, 334, 336, 341, xr „ , 348, 363, 364 Hollanders, .... 363 Hollis (Hol'-lis), . . . .236 Holmes (Homes), . . . 262 Holstein (Hol'-stine), 120, 186, 274, 375, 377, 378, 396, 397 Holyrood (Ho'-ly-rood), . . . 362 Homer (Ho'-meri, ... 38 Homildon Hill (Hom'-il-don), . . 180 Hong Kong, .... 369 Honorius ( Ho-no'-re-us), . . 110,111 Hood, John B., . . 518,519,520 Hoogly (Hoog'-le), . ... 299 Hooker, Joseph (Hook'-er), . . 514, 516 Hooker, Thomas, . . 262 Hooper (Hoop'-er), . , . 212 Horatia ' Ho-ra'-she-a), . . 68 Horatii (Ho-ra'-she-i), ... 67 Horatius (Ho-ra'-she-iis), , . 67,68 Horatius Codes (Ko'-kleez), . . 69 Horn, Cape, ..... 498 Hornet, ..... 487 Horsa (Hor'-sa), .... lao 592 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Hortense Beaiiharnais (Or-tangs' Bo-har*- nal, . . . . . .386 Hosea (Ho se'-a), ... 31 Hoshea (Ho-she'-a), . . . .32 Hospitallers, .... 136 Hotel ties Invalides (Ho-tel' de In'-\'a-leeds\ 250. 352i 370 Hotel de Ville (Ho-tel' der Vll*), 324, 36^, 371, 373i 405. 4«6, 414) 4"9i 420 Hottentots (Hot'-ten-tots>, . . . 193 Houchard (Hoo-shard'), . .321,333 Houston, Samuel (Hews'-ton), . . 444 Howe, Lord (How), , . . 305 Howe, Admiral, . . . 464, 468 Howe, Robert, .... 469 Howe, William, 461, 463, 464, 465, 466, 46S Howard, John Eager (E'-ger How'-ard), . 473 Hubbardton (Hub' -bard-ton s • • 4^7 Hubertsburg vHoo' berts-burg), . 292,293 Hudson, Henry (Hud'-son), . . 259 Hudson, Lowe (,Lo'), .... 352 Hudson River. . 463, 464,467, 46S, 469, 472 Huser (Hu'-ger\ .... 471 Hugh(Hu) 146 Hugh Capet (Kah-pal, . . .146 Hugh Spenser (Spen'-ser), . . 177 Huguenots (Hu-ge'-nots), aiS, 319, 220, 221, 249. 253i 254. 265 Hull, Isaac, . . . . . 4S5 Hull. William, . . . 4S4, 4S5 Humayan vHoo-ma'-yan), . , . 215 Hungarian (Hung-ga -re-an), iSo, 190, 252, 269, 282, 3S0, 3S1, 3S2, 3S3, 384 Hungarians, . 119, 159, 160, 1S9, 252, 3S3, 3S0 Hungary (,Hung'-ga-re>, 129, 139, 1S9, 190, 192, 204, 25J, 253, 269, 282, 29S, 376, 380, 381,382, 3S3, 384 Hunnic ^Hun'-nik\ . . . 112 Hunniyades (Hun-ni'-a-deez), . 190, 19a Huns, .... 109, 112 Huntsville iHunts'-vil), . . . 509 Hurlbut (Hurl'-but), . . .512 Huron , Hu-ron'), . . . 300 Huss, John, ..... 169 Hussite (Huss'-ite\ . . . 169 Hussites, ..... 169 Hutin (Hu-tang'), , . . 151 Hutchinson (Hutch'-in-son), . . 45S Hutchinson, Ann, . . . 25S Hydaspes (Hi-das'-peez\ . . .58 Hyderabad 1 Hi-der-ah-bad'>, . . 369 Hyder Ali(Hi'-der Al'-e), . . .299 Hyphasis (Hir-a-sis\ ... 58 Hyrcanus. John (,Hir-ka'-nus\, . . 88 Hystaspes, Darius ^Da-ri'-us His-tas'-peei), 34, jj, 45. 46 I. Iberian (I-be'-re-an\ . . , 158 Iberville (^lb'-er-vil\ .... 306 Iber>'ille, Lemoine de (Lem-won' Per-bare- Ycel). ..... 300 Ibrahim Pacha (Ib'-rah-im Pa-shaw'\ 359, 36S Iceland : lce'-land\ .... 130 Iceni (I-sen-i"), .... 96 Iconium ^l-ko'-ne-um), . . . 137 Iglestrom (Ig'-el-stnjm\, . . 396 Ign-ttius Loyola (^Ig-na'-she-us Loy-o'-Ia), . aij, Incas, ..... 214, 439 Incitatus (In-se-ta'-tus), . . 95 Independents, . . 236, 237, 239 India (,In'-de-a), . 23, 24, 34, 58, 123, 193, 215, 2S1, 369, 389, 390, 391 Indian, .... 256, 2^9 Indiana (In-de-an'-a), . 484, 491, 515, 523 Indians, 23, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 262, 265, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 469, 470, 479, 485, 4S7, 489. 49". 493. 494. 495, 5«3, 5=5 Indies, East (In'-deez), . 2S7, 292, 30S, 309 Indies, West, . . 2S7, 29a, 308, 309 Indus (In'-dus^, . . . 58, 59 Ingolstadt ^Ing'-gol-staht), , 200, 250 Ingour (In-goot^), . . Ingria (In'-gre-a), Inkermann I In'-ker-man), . Innocent III., Innocent I\'., Innspnick ^Ins'-prook\ . Inquisition (In-que-sisn'-on\ Inquisitor i^ln-quis'-e-tor), Insurgente, L' ' Lang-soor-2hong'-ta\ . 480 Intransigentes (In-tran'-se-jents), 425, 426, 428 Inverness i^In-ver-ness'), . . . 2S3 Ionian (,I-o'-ne-an), ... 40 83 ^78 . 387 175 . .65 2o8, 375 159, 215, 216 216 lonians, Iowa i,r-o-wah), Ipsara (Ip-sa'-ra), Ipsus ', lp-sus>, Irish (Ire'-ish), . 37 497 359 60 Iguala (Ig-whah'-la), , . . , 435 Iliad (ir-e-ad), .... 38 Ilium (ir-e-um\ . . . .38 Illinois vll-le-nois'), 300, 306, 492, 494, 504. 523 iiio (ir-io\ .... 230 Illyria \ n-lir'.e-a\ . . . "94 Illyrian. ..... 7S lUyrians, . . . . 54, 78 Impcraior (Im-per-a'-tor'^, . . qi Inachus i ln'-a-kus\ . . . • 37 Inca (In'-kah), .... 214 174, 177. 22s, 236, 237, 040, 248, 298, 399. 400 Ireland (Ire'-land), 174, 177, 225, 236, 740, 24a, 248, 254, 298, 399, 400 Ireton ^Ire'-ton\ .... 23S Ironside, Edmund (Ed'-mund I'-ron-side), 172 Ironsides, .... 237, 283 Irun^^-^un), .... 429 Irwinsviile (Ir-wins-vil), . . . 52a Is.^.ac il'-zak), . . . . aS Isaac Aniielus ^An'-je-lus), . . . 138 Isabella 1 Is-a-bel'-la>, . 159, 103, 194, 20a Isabella It., . . 367,368,400 Isabel. Point 'Is'-a-bel), . . 497 Ishbosneth ^Ish'-bo-shelh), Ishmael ' Ish'-ma-el), . Islam (Is'-lami, Island No. 10, Ismael ^Is'-ma-el\ . Ismail (Is-ma-eel'), Ispahan (^Is'-pa-hahn'), Israel i,Is'-ra-cl\ . Israelites ( Is'-ra-el-ites), Issus (Is'-sus\ Issy, Fort d' i,Dis'-se\ Isthmian (Ist'-me-an*, Italian (It-al'-yan), . 65, 142, 143, 378, 391, 413 Italians, ... 65, 393, 39S Italica (I-tal'-e-ka), ... 85 Italy ^It'-a-le^. . 61,65,87,117,204,326,378 Ithaca (Ith'-a-ka\ ... 38 Ithome ^I-tho'-me\ . . • -48 Iturbide, Don Augustin (Don Au-gus-teen E-toor'-be-da\ .... 465 lukavl-yu'-ka). . . . .51a Ivan the Great il'-van"^, . . . i83 Ivan the Terrible, . . . iS3 liard (I-iard). . . , .488 J. Tabin (Ja'-bift\ lacinto, San (San Ja-sin'-to\ JSck Cade (Jak K.ade), JSckson (Jak'-son\ Jackson, Andrew, 2b, 120 . . 121, 123 5C9 . 215 295 . ai5 aS, 29, 30, 31, 33 24, 27. 28, 30 . 55, lOt 407, 409, 414, 416, 417 63, 8t . 29 444 . i8a ;t4 4S7, 4S9, 490,491,493, 41,4, 495 Tackson, Clay borne F., . . . 507 J.ackson, Thomas Jeflfctscn, 507, 510,511, 514 lacksonville, . . . . • 5'7 Jacob (.Ja'-kob), . . . . aS 4LrHABETICAL INDEX. 593 . • 273 a' Bo-nom'), • 153 29 ; • 330 187 . 187 . 242 • 232, 233.234 180, 181 246,247 248, 254, 269 . 209 Jacobin (Jak'-o-bin), . . 315, 317, 322, 324 Jacobins, . 316, 320, 321, 323, 324, 32 Jacobites (Jak'-o-bites), Jacquerie f Jak-ka'-ree), Jacques Bonhomme (Ja Jael (J ale), . affa, (Jaf-fa), fagello (Ya-gcl'-lo), Jagellos, Jamaica (Ja-ma'-ka), James I. ot England, James I. of Scotland, James II. of England, James IV. of Scotland, James V. of Scotland, James River, . Jamestown, , janiculum, Mt. f ja-nik'-u-lum). Janissaries (Zhah-nees-sah'-reez), . 191 Janus (Ja'-nus), . . . -67 Japan (Ja-pan'), .... 501, 502 Japheth (Jaf'-eth), . . . .22 Jaquelein, Laroche (La-roash' Zhah-lang'), 322 Jassy (Yah'-se), .... 295 Java fjav'-ah), . . . 2i3, 4S5 J-y, John (Ja), , . 478,479,480 Jebus (Jeb'-us), . . . . 31 Jebusites (Jeb'-us-ites), . . -St Iechoniah(Je-ko'-ne-ah), . . 32 efferson, Thomas (Jef-fer-son), 464, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 493 Jeffries fjer-frees), . . . 246 .215 32 376, 381, 382, 383 319 • 337 30 31. 32 338 255i 473' 510, 518 232, 255, 256, 257 Jehanghir (Jef-hang-yer), Jehoanoz (Je-ho'-a-hez), Jellachich(Ye['-la-kik), Jemappes (Shmap), ena fjen'-a), ephtnah ( " Jephthah (Jer-thah\ Jeroboam (Jer-o-bo'-am), . Jerome Bonaparte (Jer-ome' Bo'-na-part), Jerome of Prague (Praig), . . 169 Jersey, New (Jer'-se), 266, 464, 465, 466, 468, 472 Jersey City, .... 470 Jerusalem (jer-ru'-sa-Iem), 2^,31, 32, 33, 34, 56, 64, 88, 97, 98, 122, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 147, 164 Jessup(Jes'-sup), . . . .495 Jesuit (Jes'-u-it), . . . 214, 300 esuits, .... 213, 214 Jews, . . 24,33,34,64,97,98,176 Jiraena (He-ma'-na), . . . 426 Joab, ..... 31 Joachim Murat (Jo'-a-kim Mu-rah'), 331, 339, 348, 35' Joan of Arc (Jo'-an of Ark), . . 155, 181 John of Bohemia, . . . 152,178 John ol England, . . . 149, 175 John the Good of France, . 153, 154, 178, 179 John Frederic of Saxony, . . 207, 208 John XXII., . . . . .167 John XXIII. 169 John de Medici (Jon de Med'-e-che), . 199 John, St., . . . . . 462 Johnson (Jon'-son), .... 470 Johnson, Albert Sydney (Al'-bert Sid'-ne), 509 Johnson, Andrew, . . 520, 522, 523 Johnson, John, .... 467, 469 Johnson, (Rev'-er-de), . . 524 Johnson, Richard M., . . . 495 Johnson, William, . . . 304,305 Johnston, Joseph E., 503, 506, 507, 518, 521, 522 Joliet, Louis (,Loo'-e Zho-le-a'), . . 300 Jonah (Jo'-nah), . . . .32 Jonathan (Jon'-a-than), . . -30 Jones, John Paul, . . . 470 Joppa ijop'-pa), . . . 137.330 Jordan (Jor'-dan), . . .29, 330 Joseph (Jo'-sef ), . . . .28 Josephine (Jo'-sef-in), . . 525, 341 Joshua (Josh'-u-a), , . . . 29 I 38 Joubert (Zhoo-bare'), . . . 329 Jourdain (Zhoor-dang'), . 324, 326, 346 Jovian (Jo'-ve-an), . . . 109 Juan, Don (Don Ju'-an), . . 215, 217 Juarez, Benito (I5en'-e-to \Vhaw-ar'-eth), 448, 449. 4SO, 451 Juarists (Whaw-ar'-ists), . . . 449 Judah (Ju'-dahl, .... 31, 32 Judaism (Ju'-da-ism), . . . 120 judea(Ju-de'-a), . . . 33,64,88 Jugurtha (Ju-gur'-tha), . . .85 Jugurthine (Ju-gur'-thin), . . 85 Jules p'avre (Jule Fav'-er), . 406, 411, 412 Jules Ferry ( Jule Fer'-re), . . 406 Jules Simon (,Jule Si'-mon), . . . 406 Julia (Ju'-le-a), . . . . 92 Julian the Apostate (Ju'-le-an), . 108, 109 Julianus, Didius (Did'-e-us Ju-Ie-an'-iis), . loi Julius Agricola (Ju'-le-us Ag-re-ko'-lah), 98 Julius Cajsar (Se'-ser), . 87, 88, 89, 90, 91 Julius Vinde.K (Vin'-dex), . . 101 Jumonville (Zhu-moang-veel'), . , 303 Junin (Whoon'-in), . . . 440 Junius Brutus (Ju'-ne-us Bru'-tus), 68,69 Juno (Ju'-no), . . .36, 37, 73 Junot (Zhu-no'), . . 33°! 339. 34° Junta (Jun'-ta), . . 340, 435, 436, 449 Junt.-is, .... 339, 435 Jupiter (Ju'-pe-ler), . . • 36, 95 Jupiter, Amnion (Am'-mon), . 34,56 Justinian (Jus-tin'-e-an), . 117,118,119 Jutland (Jut'-land), .... 228 Juxon (Jux'-on), . . . 240 K. Kalb, De (De Kalb), . . 465.471 Kaled (Kah'-lcd), . . .121,122 K.alkreuth (Kahl'-kroil), . . . 338 Kalmuck Tartars (Kal'-muk Tar'-tars), 294 Kansas ( Kan'-zes), . . . 502, 503 Kappel (Kap'-pel), .... 201 Kapolna (Ka-pol'-na), . . .381,382 Kapstch.ak (Kahpt'-shok), . . . 18S Kara Mustapha (Ka-rah' Miis-taf-a), . 254 Karlowitz (Kar'-lo-witz), . . 253, 380 Kars, ..... 388 Kasan (Ka'-zan), . . . .188 Kaskaskia ( Kas-k.as'-ke-a), . 300, 470, 530 Katzbach (Kahtz'-bok), . . 291, 347 Kearney iKer'-ne), , . . 511 Kearney, Stephen VV., . . 498, 499 Kearsarge (Ke-ar'-sarj), . . 519 Kellerman (Kel'-ler-man), . . 319, 332 Kelly, Benjamin F. (Kel'-le), . . 506 Kelly's Ford, .... 516 Kenesaw Mountain (Ken'-e-saw), . 518 Kennebec (Ken'-ne-liek), . . . 462 Kent, ■ . . . 120, 182, 367 Kentuckians (Ken-tuk'-e-ans), . 486, 490 Kentucky (Ken-tuk'-e), 473,478,481, 495,502, 504, 505, 508, 512, 517 Kesselsdorf (Kes'-sels-dorfj, . . 284, 285 Kettle Creek, ..... 469 Kettle Run, .... 511 Kevenhuller (Kev'-en-hul-Ier), . . 283 Khan, .... 188, 433 Khiva (Kee'-vah), ... - 433 Khivan, ..... 433 Khivans, ..... 433 Khokand (Ko'-kand), . . . 433 Khosrou the Great (Kos'-roo), . . 118 Khosrou II., .... 119 Kieft, Sir William (Keeft), . . .260 Kiel (Keel), . . . .348 Kiev (Keev), .... 188, 190 Killicrankie (Kil-le-krank'-ee), . . 248 Kilpatrick, Judson (Jud'-son Kil'-pat'-rik), 517 Kinbiirn (Kin'-burn), . . . 388 Kinmuir (Kin'-moor), . , . 278 King, Samuel W., , , . 496 S94 King. William Rufus, King s Mountain, . Kingston JKings'-ton), Kinsky (Kins'-ke), Kittannin^ (Kit-tan'-ning), Klapka (Klap'-ka), ALPHABETICAL INDEX. . SOI . 471, 472 . 305 . 230 . 304 _^ . . , . • 383 Klebtr i_Kla-baire'), . . . 330, 333 Kniglits Errant (Kites Er'-ant), . 132 Kniijhts of St. John, • . .136,140 Knights Templars, . . 136, 140 Knowlton (Nolc'-ton), . . . 4^4 Knox, Henry (Nox), . . . 47^ Knox, John, . . . 222 Knoxville (Nox'-vil), . . . 5'6 Knyphausen (Kne-fou'-sen) . 464,471 Kolin(Ko'-lin) 2S8 Komorn (,Ko'-morn\ . . 3831384 Koniggratz ( Ken'-ig-gretsl. . . 398 Konigsburg ( Ken'-igs-burg), 141,281, 337 Konigseg (Ken'-ig-seg\ . . . 283 Kootub ( Koo'-tooD), . . . 389 Koran I Ko'-ran\ . . 121, 122, 133, 191 Koniofan t Kor-dof-an), . . . 368 Koreish ^Ko'-reesh\ .... 121 Koreishites (Ko-ree-shi'-tees\ . . 121 Kosciuszko, Thaddeus (Thad'-de-us Kos-se- uz'-ko) , . . . 295, 296, 465 Kossuth, Lcuis (Loo'-e Kos-shoot'), 380, 381, 38a. 3S3 Koiili Khan, (Koo'-le Khan) . • 281 Kr.isnii ( Kr.-»s-noi'), . . . 345 Kremlin ^Krem'-linl, . . 188, 344, 345 Kremsicr (^Krem'-seer), . . . 378 Kr.mstadt ( Krone'-staht), . . 381 Krukowiscki (Kru-kow-eek'-e\ . . 365 Kiulschuck Kainardche (Kood'-chook Ka- nards'-ke'*, .... 295 Kullman (Kool'-man\ . . . 434 Kunersdorf (Koo'-ners-dorf), . . 290 Kutais ( Ku-tais'), . . . 382 Kiitusoflf(_Kii'-tu-soflr), . 336, 344, 340 L. L.-»bedoyere (I,a-be-dwah-yer'), . 350, 352 La Boeuf ( La Buf ), . . .302 Labrador (Lab'-ra-dore), . . . 195 1-abyrinth (I«-ib-e-rinth), . . 25 Lacedacmon (Las-c-dc'-mon), 35, 37, 41. 44, 48, 52. 53. 59, 62 Lacedxmonian (L.-is-e-de-rao'-ne-an), 41, 49, 50, 59 L.icedaEmonians, . 42, 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53 Leclerc (Le-klare'l, .... 334 Laconia (La-ko'-ne-a\ . .35,37,41,42 La Corona ( La Ko-ro'-na) . . .379 L'Admirault (,Lad-me-ro') . . 4>o Lacviniis ^Le-vi'-nus\ . . •75 Lafavorita (La Fa-vor-it'-a), . . 326 Lafayette (Lah-fa-et'), 307i 3M, 315, 3«8 465, 466, 473, 474, 492 Laffeld (Lar-feld\ . . . .285 La Givonne (La Ge-vone')j . . 404 La Haye Sainte ( La Ha Sante'), . . 35' La Hogiie{La Hoag'), . . .254,255 Lainez (_Li'-nets), .... 214 Laird, 519 Lamachus ( Lara-ak'-us\ . . 49, 50 'Lamartine (Lam'-ar-tin), . 371,372)374 JLaniballe (Lara'-bal), . . . 319 Lamberg (Lam'-bergl, . . . 376 .Lambert (^Lam'-bert>, . . . 243 Lambert bimnel (^Lam'-bert Sim'-nel), 185 Lamia (Lam'-e-a), • . . •59 Laniiaa, < .... 59 Lamoticiore (La-mo-re'-se-a), . 371,373,466 .Lancaster (Lank'-as-ter), . 177,180,182,184, 185, 466 iLancastrian (Lan-kas'-tre-an), . 183 iLancastrians. .... 183 iLand-friede (Lahnd-frec'-da), « • '7' Landshut (Land'-shooti, . . .291 Langdale, Sir Marmaduke (Mar'-ma-duke Lang'-dale), .... 238 Langside (Lang'-side'*, . . . 223 Langiiedoc ^Lang'-ge-dok), . . . 2sq Lannes ^Lanz), . . . 332, 341, 392 Laon (La-oang'l, . . . 349,406 La Paz (,La Paz), . . . 430, 440 La Plata (La Flat'-a), . 195, 438, 440 I^ Piierta (La Pwair'-ta), . . 437 Laroche-Jaquelein (La-roash Zhak-lang'), 322 La Rothiere (La Ro-te-aire'), . 348, 349 Ixi Salle, Robert de (Rob'-ert de La Sal'), 300 Latimer (Lat'-e-mer), . . 211, 212 Latin (Lat'-in), .... 74 Latins, . . . 65, 66, 6S, 74, 86 Latinus (Lat'-e-nusi, ... 65 Latiiim (Lat'-e-um), . . . .65 Latour (Li-toor'), . . . 376 Laud (Laud). . . 234,235,236 Lauderdale (Law'-der-dale), . . 245 Laudon (Lou'-don), . 290,291,292,295 Lauenburg ( Lou'-en-burg), . . . 186 Laval (Lah-vahl'l, . . . 410 \a Vendee ( La Von'-dee\ ... 322 Lavinium (La-vin'-e-uni), . . 65 Law, John, .... 279, 301 Lawrence (Law'-rence\ . . 487, 488 Lawrence, St. (Saint Law'-rence), 195, 300, 303 462, 487 Laybach (Li'-bok), . • . 357 Lazzart>ni (Laz-za-ro'-ne), . 328, 329, 378 Lear (Leen, .... 482 Leavenworth (Lev'-en-worth), . . 498 Lebanon (Leb'-a-non), ... 26 Lebon(Le-boang'), .... 324 Lebrun ( Le-brung'), . . . 331 Lech (Lek), ..... 230 I^echfeld (Lek'-feldl, ... 160 Lecompte \ Lc-kong'-ta), ' . . 414 Lecompton ( Le-com'-ton\ . . 503 Leczinski, Stanislaus (Stan-is-la'-us Lek- zins'-ke), . . . 275, 276, 280 Ledochowski ( Le-do-chows'-ke), . . 431 Ledru Rollin (Le'-dru Rol'-lin), 371, 373, 374 Ledyard ( Led'-yard), . . . 474 Lee, Charles. . . . 463, 468 Lee, Henry, .... 470, 474 Lee, Richard Henry, . . . 463 Lee, Robert Edmund, 503, 507, 511, 512, 514, 516, 518, 521 Lefebvre (Le-fe'-ber\ . . . 338 Legendre (Le-jen'-derl, . . 317,323 Leger, St. (Saint Led'-jer), . . 467 Legitimists (Le-git'-e-mists), 370, 384, 411, 421 420 Lehwald (La'-wald), . . .288 Leicester (Les'-ter), . 176, 217, 224 Leipsic (,Lipe'-sik), 200, 207, 229, 231, 289, 347, 348 Leisler, Jacob (Lees'-ler), . 260, 261 Lelex (,Le'-lex\ . . . .37 Le Mans ( Le Mong\ , . . 410 Lemoine d' Iberville (Lem-won' Deb-are-veel') 300 Lepidus (Lep'-e-dus), . . -92 Leo (Le'o\ . . . 199,202.209 Leoben(La-o'-ben), . . 326,327 Leon ( Le-on'), .... 125 Leon Gambetta (Le-oang' Gam-bet'-ta), 406, 430 Leonid.as (Le-on'-e-das\ . . 46, 61 Leopold L, of Belgium (Le'-o-pold), . 363,364 Leopold L, of Germany, 251, 252, 353, 268, 270 Leopold n., . . . .298 LeopKjId of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen, 401, 402 Leosthenes (Le-os'-the-nees), . . 49 Lepanto (Le-pan'-tol, . . 102,215,217 Lerdo de Tej.ada ( I^ir'-dode Te-zha'-da), 451 Lerna, Hydra of (Ler'-na), . . 37 Le Tellier ^Le Tel'-le-a), . . .255 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 595 letters of Marque (Let'-ters of Mark). 505 Lettres de Cachet (Let'-ter de Ka-sha'j, 3'° Leuctra (Luc'-tra), . . . • 5* Leuthen (Loi'-ien;, . . 288,289 Levant (Lc-vant';, .... 49° Levi I Le'-vii, .... 306 Leviies (Le'-vites), . . . .29 Lewenhawpt (Lu'-en-houpt), . . 276 Lewes (Luse), . . . .176 Lewisiown (Lu'-is-town, . . 488 Lexington (L^x'-ing-ton;, . 307,460,507 Leydeu ! Li'-den). . . . 217 Leyva, Antonio de (An-to-ne-o' de Le'-va), 203 Lichowski (Lik-nows'-kej, . . . 376 Licinian Law (Li-sin'-e-an Law), . 74,84 Licinius (Li-sin'-e-us), . . .107 Licinius Stolo (Li-sin'-e-us Sto'-lo), . 74, 84 Liege (Leej), .... 156,162 Licgnitz I Leeg'-nits), . . . 190, 291 Lignanoi Lccn-yan'-o) . . .163 Ligny (Leen'-ye;, . . . 351 Liguria (Li-ju'-re-a), . . -64, 79 Ligurian Republic, . . . 327, 329 Lille n^eli, . . . . .271 Lincoln, Abraham, (Lin'-kon), 504, 505, 520, 521, 522 Lincoln, Benjamin, . 467, 469, 470, 471 L'Insurgente (Lang'-zur-zhong'j, . .480 Lintzi Lintsi, . • . .252,283 Lisbon ( Lis'-bon), 193, 339, 342, 356, 422 Lissa (Lis'-sal, .... 398 Leitch (Litch), .... 464 Lithuania 1 Lith-u-an'-e'a), . . . 187 Little Belt, .... 484 Little Crow, . . . . .513 Little Rock, . . . 515,527 Livius (Liv'-e-us), . . . .80 Livingston (Liv'-ings-ton), . . 464 Livonia (Liv-o'-ne-a), . 186,273,274,278 Livonian (Liv-o'-ne-an), . . 275 Llewellyn (Lu-el'-lin), . . . 176 Lobos ' Lo'-i)ol, .... 426 Lochleven (Lok-le'-ven), . . 223 Lork, John ' L, . . . -34 Long Island ' Long I'-land), . , 464 Long I~land Sound, .... 259 L/jngobards (Long'-go-bards), . . 119 Lotigstreet, James 'Long'-street), . . 514 Longwy (Long'-we), . . . 411 Lookout .Mountain, .... 516 Ix)pez, Francisco (Fran-sis'-ko Lo-pa'), 441 Ix>renzo de Medici (Lo-ren'-zode Med'-e- che), ..... 145 L' Orient (Lo-re-ong'), . . " . 328 I^rraine. Lor-rain'j, 135,155,159, 181, 205, 206. 212, 218, 252,253, 280, 282, 284, 318, 406, 408, Lot, . . . . . .21 Lothaire (Lo-taire') . . . 304 Loudon (Lou'-donj, .... 304 Louis Adoiphe Thiers CLoo'-e A'-dolf Tee'- a,. . . 370,385,411,415,420 Louis Blanc (Loo'e Blongj, . . 372, 374 Louis Bonaparte (Loo'-e Bo'-na-part), 336,341 Louis Kossuth, (Loo'-e Kos-shoot), 380, 381, 382, 383 Louis Moro (Loo'-e Mo-ro') . . . 143 Louis Napoleon (Loo'r Na-pole'-yon;, 370, 373, 374, 384, 585, 386 Louis of Zuniga 'Loo'-e of Zu-ne'-ga;, . 217 Louis Philippe (Loo'-e Fil'-teepi, 362, 363, 364, 370. 371, 37a Louis the Bavarian, . . . 167, i63 Louis the Debonnaire (Deb-on-yaire'), . 129 Louis the German, . . . 129 Louis IV., ..... 159 Louis v., ..... 146 Louis VI., . . . . .148 Louis VII., . . . 137,148,149 LouisVIlI., .... 141,150 Louis IX., or St, Louis, . 139, 140, X50 Louis X., ..... 151 Louis XL, . . . 156, 157, 184 Louis XII., .... 158,20a Louis XIII., . . . . 249 Louis XIV., 245, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 268, 269, 271, 273, 300 Louis XV., . 273, 280, 284, 286, 309, 310 Louis XVI., . . 310, 313, 316, 317, 320 Louis XVIII., . 310,349,350,352,353,354 Louis St. fSaint Loo'-e), . . . 506 Louisa (Loo-e '-sal, . . . 203 Louisa, Maria (Ma-ri'-a Loo-e'-sa), 341, 349 Louisburg (Loo'-is-burgi, . 285, 286, 302, 305 Louisiana (Loo-is-e-an'-a), 300, 301, 481, 489, 49°i 49I1 503. 504, 513. S14, 515. S>6. 517. 525, 527 Louisville (Loo'-e-vil), . . . 512 Louverture, Toussaint (Too-sang' Loo- ver-ture';, ..... 334 Louvois (Loo-ywaw'), . . . 250 Louvre (Loo'-ver;, . 149, 250, 362, 419, 420 Lovelace, Francis, (Fran-cis Love'-lasej, . 260 Lovell, Mansfield 'Mans'-field Lov'-ell;, . 509 Lowe, Sir Hudson (Hud'-son Lo;, . 352 Lowosiiz I Lou'-o-sits,i, . . . 287 Loyola, Ignatius ( Ig-na'-she-us Loy-o'-la), 213, 214 Lubec (Lu'-bek), . . 163, 165,228 Lucan (Lu'-kam, Lucania ( Lu-kan'-e-a\ . . • ^3 Lucerne 1 Lu-sem'), . . . 167 Lucien Bonaparte ' Lu'-she-en Bo'-na-part\ 331 Lucius SextiiLs Lateranus (Lu'-she-us Sek'- she-us Lat-er-an'-u-s ., . -74 Lucius Junius Brutus (Lu'-she-us Ju'-ne-us Bru'-tus), . . " . . .63 Lucius Quintus Cinciunatus (Quin'-tus Sin- sin-at'-usi, . . . . .7' Lucius Verus (Lu'-she-us Ve'-rus), . ico Lucknow (Luk'-no), Lucretia (Lu-kre'-she-a), . Lucullus I Lu-kul'-lus 1, . . Lundy's Lane 'Lun'-dy's Lane), Luneville (Lune'-vil I, Lupercalia, Feast of (Lu-pcr-kal'-e-a), Lusatia ' Lu-sa'-she-a^, Lusitanians (Lu-se-tan'-e-ans), . Luther, Martin (Mar'-tin Looth'-er), 39<>> 39» 63 483 • 333 • 91 231, 288 83 199, 200, 201, 207 • 2'3 213 . 228 23'', 347 Lutheran (Looth'-er-an), Lutheranism ( Looth'-er-an-ism), Lutter Lut'-tcr), Lutzen I Lutz'-en I, Luxembourg (Lux'-em-boorg), 250, 254, 324, 419, 420 Luxemburg (Lux'-era-burg), . 167, i63 Luzara ■ Lu-za'-ra), . . . 269 Lycurgxis ' Li-kur'-gus), . 40, 41, 42, 62 Lydia I Lid'-e-a., .... 33, 45 Lynchburg i Linch-burg), . . . 517 Lynn . Liii), .... 25 Lyon, Nathaniel (Na-than'-yel Ly'-on), 506, jo 596 Lyons (l.j''-ons\ , . . .101 Lysander ^Li-san'-der). . . . 50, 51 Lysiiuachus ^Li-se-mak'-us'), . . 60 M. Maccabeus, Jonathan ^Jon'-a-than Mak-ka- be'-us), . . . . .64 Maccabeus, Judas (Ju'-das^, . . ^4 Maccabeus, "Siinon vSi'-mon), . . 64 ^laccal^ees (,Mak'-ka-bees), . . 64 Maotonald i,Mak-^ion'-ald), . 329, 33a, 346, 35>' ]Maci.ionous;h ^Mak-do>n'-o\ . . 4S9 Macedon (Mas'-e-don), 34, 35, s?. 54. 55. 56,57. 60, 6t, 62, 63, Si Macedonia (,Mas-e-do'-ne-at, 61, 83, 93, no, na 35S Macedonian (Mas-e-do'-ne-an), . 53, 54, $?, 56, 57. 5S, 59, 6cs 6i, 6_:;, 64, Si, Sa Macetionians, . . 54. 55. 5^» 57i 5^ Machias vMa-ki" Mackeniie. William Lvon ^Mak-ken■-xee\ 495 Mackinaw iMak'-o-naw), . . . 4'H Macraorn.'>gh, Dermot (Der-mot Mac- mor-o), . . . • .174 Macomb (Ma-kome'), . . . 4S9 Macon iMa -kon), . . . • 5<>9 MacrinusT (Mak-re'-mis\ . . 103 Macriewice^Mak'-ze-wis), . . .296 Madeira ^Ma-de'-ra\ . . . 193 Madeleine (Mad'-e-lin), . . 37^,37' Madison, lames (Mad'-e-son'), 483,485,491 Madras ^^lad'-^asl, ... 298 Madrid (.Ma-drid't, 303, ajo, 339, 340, 342, 36S, 400, 401, 423, 423, 424. 43" Magaw (Ma-gnw'*, . . . 465 Magdeburs ( Mas'-de-buts\ 208, 229, 319 Masellan, Ferdinand ( Fer'-de-nand Ma-jel'- U»u). . . . • .195 Magenta (Ma-jen'-taV, . . . 394 Magi \Ma'-ji>. .... 35 Magna Charta ^^lag'-na Kar'-ta), . . 175 >lagna Orecia (Mag'-na Gre'-she-a\ 40, 65 M.Vgnesia iMag-ne'-she-a\ . . 65. Si Magyar (Mad -yar\ . . 381, 3S.-. 3S3 M.Vgyars, . 129, 159, i6cs TS9, 3S1, 3S2, 3S3 Maharajpore (,Mah-a-raj'-pore), . 3<>J Mahomet (.Ma-hom'-etl, . . . isi Mahratta ^Mah-ral'-ta\ . . 281, 300 Mahrattas, . . . 2S1, 299, 30CS 39S Main, .... 2\)o, 375, 37<5 Maine v,Main\ 149, sii, :6i, 47CS 4S9. 492i 49^i Maintenon (Main-te-non^'), . . 255 Maitland (,Mait'-land), . . . 353 Majorca (Ma-jor'-ca), . . . 15S Malacca (Mal-lac'-ca), , . . 193- Malaga ( Mal'-a-ga). . 4-4, 425. 4^^ M.\lakotr(Mar-.i.koff>, . . . 3SS Malcolm > Ma! -kow\ . . . 175 Maiden iMawl-den\ . . . 4S6 \falesheroes ^,^lal-Icrb'), . . 320, 323 Malmo (Mar-mo\ .... 375 Malo Yaraslaveti (Ma'-lo Ya-ras4a'-%'ets), 345 MalplaouetvMal-pla-ka'), . . .271 M.xlta (Mawl-ta ', '. . 140.328,^34 M.dvern Hill (M.\l'-\-emHiU\ . 5io> 5«» Mamelon vMam'-<-lon'>, . . ' . 3^8 Mameluke vMam'-e-luke), . . . 328 Mamelukes. . . 140, 192, 328, 36S Mamertines ^Mam'-e^-tines), . . 7^ Manassas Junction (Ma-nas'-sas Junk'- shun"», .... 506, 516 Manchester ^Man*-ches-ter">, . . 353 Manl'red vMan'-iVed). . . . 145, 165 Manhattan ^Man-hat'-tan), . 259, 260 Manheim (Man'-hime\ . 227,251,254 Manini ^Ma-ni'-ni\ . . . 3^ Manltus ^Man'4e-us), . . .74 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 73 74 227, aaS Sia 410, 411 • 5-, 53 . 320. 379 37S . 438 3'5. 3»7i 3»S, 331 4S . aoi >53 Manlius, Marcus (Mar'-kus Man'-le-us\ Manlius, Titus (Ti'-ius M,in'-le-us ), Mansfeld, Ernest von |,Er'-nest von Mans'- tela ,, Mansfield (Mans'-field), . Manteuffel ( M.\hn-toi'-fel), Mantinea ( Man-te-ne'-a>, Mantua vMan'-tu-a\ . Mar, Earl of. . Maracavbo i^Mar-a-ki'-bo), Marat ^Slah-rah">, Marathon 1 Mar'-a-thon\ Marburg 1 Mar-burg), Marcel ^Mar-sel'), MarcelUis Mar^el'-lus), . . 78,80 Marchteld ^March'-feld', . . 166 Marco Botzaris (Mar'-ko Bot-zar'-is), . 358 Marcomanni iMar-ko-man'-«i\ . 100 Marcus Aurelius (Mar'-kus Au-re'-le-us), . 100 Marcus Cr.^ssus (Kras'-sus), . 87,88,89 Marcus Junius Brutus ^Ju'-ne-us Bru'-tus), 91, 9» Marcus Manlius (Man'-le-us\, . . 73 ^I;l^clls TuUius Cicero ;Tul'-le-us Sis'-e-ro), 88, 92 Mardonius ( Mar-do'-ne-us), . . 45i 47 Marengo (Ma-reng'-gol. . . . 33a Marg.»U, Pi y 1, Pe' e M.-ir'-gawI\ 423, 434, 435 Margaret of An-jou (Mar'-£:a-ret of An-joo'), i8a, 18} Margareta of Denmark vMar-ga-ret'-a\ . iSo Margarita i,Mar-cah-re'-t.ih). . . 437 Maria Christina fSla-ri'-a Kns'-te-na), _ . 368 M.iria da Gloria, Donna (Don'-na M.»-ri'-^ da Glo'-re-a\ . . . .356 Maria Louisa (, Lou ■c'-sa\ . 54>.349 M.arta Theresa (,Te-re'-sa\ 3S0, 282, 283, 284, 285, 386, 297, 39S, 311 Marie (Mar'-re\ . ". . 37-. 373 Marie Antoinette (NLar'-re Ang-twaw-net'), 310, 3'9. 321 ' Marignano (Ma-rig-nan'-o^. . 143, ao3 Marion. Francis ^Fran-sis Mar'-«-on\ 471, 474 ! ^tarius (Ma'-re-us\ . . . 85,86 ] Mark Antony vM.irk .\n'-to-ne), 89,91, 92, 93 I Mark, St. iSaint Mark\ . . J43i 380 M.^rlborough (Marl-bur'.o\ 269,270,271,272 i Marmoni (Mar'-mont\ . 343, 350, 361, 362 I Marmora i,Mar-mo'-raK I Marvjuette, lames i^Mar-ket' ! Marviuei >>f-ir-kaze' , I Marrast ^Mah rah", Ma^s^M.-»^l , I Marseilles ^Mar-sails '>. . I Marsellaise ,Mar-sail-aise'^, Marshall. John iMar'-shal), Marsians ; ^lar'-se-ans^, Marsin (,Mar-s.-ing"i, . I Marston Moor i^Mars'-ton), I Martel, Charles vMar-tel'j, . I Martha's Vineyard (Mar'-tha's Vin'-yard), 257 1 Martin i,Mar'-tini, .... 160 I M,-irtiniti(>L»r-tin'-its\ . . . 226 I Martos vMar toce"), . . . .42a Mary of Burgundy ^Bur'-gun-de), . 157, 20a Marv of England, . . 212,213,221 Mary of Scot. and, 218, 210, mt, 223. 224, 23a Mar^-land i,Ma'-re-land\ 261, 262,473, 475, 489, I ■ 510, 511, 511, 514, 519' 529 Marj-'s, St - »«i Massachusetts-(M,is-sa-chu'-sets), 357, 258, »59, 861, 262, 263, 307. 455, 457, 45S, 459, 460, 463, 47S, 4S4, 4S5, 49, . . 257, 258 Massena ^XLis-sen'-na*, . 329, 333. 34a M.issinissa Mas-se-nis'-sa\ . . 80, 85 I Mastai (M.xs-ta-i'i, .... 379 I Matamoras i.Mat-.\-mo'-ras>, . 446, 449. 451 i Matilda ^Ma-til'.da> 473 ( Matthews (.Math'-use), . . . 47^ 300 . 44S 374 36, 6<5, 67, 91 9^ 303. 3=2, 354 405 . 4S0 86 . 27 237 124, 126 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 597 Mathias (Ma-thi'-as), . . . 226 Mathias Corvinus f kor-vi'-nus), . 190 Maubcrt, Place {Pl;ts Mo-baire';, . . 373 Maumce City (Maw'-niee), . . 479 Maurice of Orange (Maw'-ris), . 217,218 Maurice of Saxony, . . .207,208 Mauritania (Maw-re-tan'-e-a), . . 85 Mavrocordato (Mav-ro-kor-da'-to), . 358 Mawhood (Maw'-hood), . . . 465 Maxen (Max'-cn^ . . . 290 Maxontius (Max-en'-shc-us), . . 107 Maximilian I. (Max-e-mil'-yan), 144, 157, 158 J7I, 200, 202 Maximilian II., .... 223 Maximilian Joseph, . . . 297 Maxmilian of AiiHtria, . . 449,450 Maxmilian of Bavaria, 225, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231 Maxmilian, King of Bavaria, . . 374 Maximian (Max-im'-e-an), . . 106, 107 Maxiniin (Max'-e-min), . . 102, 103 Maximinus I Max-e-min'-us), . . 110 Maximus (Max'-e-mus), . . . 112 Mayence (MentsJ, i65, 170, 192, 254, 319, 323, 402 Maypu (Ma'-poo), . . , . 439 Mazarin iMaz-a-reen'), . . 242,249,250 Mazeppa (Ma-zep'-pa), . . 275, 276 Mazzini (Maz-ze'-nc), . . 379, 380 McClellan, George B. (Mak-Klcl'-lan), 507, 508, 510, 511, 512 McClernand (Mak-KIer'-nand), . 512, 513 McCliire (Mak-K.lurc') . . .487 McOiok (Mak-Kook') . . .512 Mc(Jullough, Ben (Mak-Kul'-io), 507, 508, 509 McDowell (Mak-l)ou'-el), . . 472 McDowell, Irwin flr'-win), . . . 506 McGregor (Mak-Gre'-gor^, . . 437 McHenry, Fort (Mak-Hen'-re), . . 489 MacMahon (Mak-Mahn';, 393, 402, 403. 404, 405 McPherson, James B. (Mak-Fer'-son) 518 Meade, George Gordon (Gor'-don Meed), 514, 517,5-8 Mecca (Mek'-a), . . , .121 Mechanicsville ( Me-kan' iks-vil), . 511 Mecklcnberg, (Mek'-len-burg), 186,408,461,462 Mecklenburg Schwerin (Schwair'-inj, . 407 Medes, (Meeds) .... 24, 35 Media (Me'-de-a), . , . -33 Medici (Med'-e-che), . . 145,199,280 Medici, Cosmo de (Kos'-mo de), . 145 Medici, Lorenzo de ( Lo-ren'-zo), . . 145 Medicis, Catharine de (Kaih'-a-rine de Med'-e-she), . . . 218, 219 Medicis, Mary de, .... 249 Medina (Me-de'-na), . . .121 Medina Sidonia (Me-de'-na Si-do'-nc-a), . 224 Mediterranean (Med-it-er-ra'-ne-an^, 26, 27, 37, 87, 144, 158, 349, 480, 481, 491 Meenit (Mee'-rut), . . . 390 Megalopolis (Meg-a-lop'-o-lis), . . 60 Mehemet All ("Me-hem'-et Al'-e), . 359, 360 Meigs, Fort (Meegs), . . .486 Meissen (Mi'-sen), . . . 290 Mejia (Ma-he'-a), .... 450 Melampiis (Me-lam'-pus), . . 483 Melanchthon, Philip (Fil'-ip Me-Iank'-thon),2oi, 207 Melas (Ma'-las). .... 332 Melcampo(Mel-kam'-po), . . 422 Melegnano (Me-leg-nan'-o), . . . 393 Melek-Kamel (Mcl'-ek Kam'-el), . 139 Memnon the Rhodian (Mam'-non the Ro'- de-an), . . . . . 54, 55 Memphis (Mem'-fis), . . 25, 56, 122, 510 Menehould, St. (Sang Ma-noo'), , 316 Menelaus(Men-e-la'-us), . . -38 Menenius Agrippa (\Ie-nen'-e-us A-grip'- pa), • .... 70 Menes (^Me'-necz), . . . .25 Menilmoiitant (Men-il-man-tong'), . 410 Menno (Mcn'-no), .... 207 Mennoniics I Men'-no-nites), . 207 McnzikofTlMentz'-ze-kofif;. . , , 276 Mercer, Hugh (Hu Mer'-ser), . . 465 Mercia (Mer'-she-a), . . . 120 Mercury (Mer'-ku-re), ... 36 Merida (Mcr'-e-dah), . . . . 124 Meroveus (Mc-ro'-vc-us), . . 126 Merovingian (Me-ro-vin'-jc-an;, . . 126 Merovingians, .... 135, 126 Merrimac (Mer'-re-mak), . . . 509 Merseberg ( Mer'-sc-burg), . . 160 Merscl-Kebir (Mcrs'-el-K.e'-ber), . .428 Messilla Valley I Mes-sil'-la), . . 501 Mesopotamia, (Mes-o-po-ta-me-a), 21, 29, 103, 105 Messalina fMes-sa-li'-na), . . .95 Messana (Mes-san'-a), . . 40, 42, 76 Messene fMes-se'-ne^, , . 63 Messenia (Mes-sc'-ne-a), . . .35 Messcnian, . . . . .42 Messenians, .... 42, 48 Messina (Mes-se'-na), . . . 378 Metacomet I'Met-a-kom'-et), . . 258 Mttaiirus(Me-taw'-rus}, ... 80 Metellus(Mc-tel'-lus), , . -85 Meiternich (Met'-ter-nik), . •. 357, 374 Metz (Melsj, 170, 206, 309, 402, 403, 404, 405, 407, 408 Metzler, George (Mets'-ler), . . . 200 Meung (Mc-oong'), . , , 408 Meusc(Muze), . ' . . 404 Mexia (Ma-he'-a1, . . . 444 Mexican (Mex'-c-kan), 434, 435, 441, 442, 443, 444. 445. 446, 447. 443, 449. 45°. 45^ Mexicans, . . 433, 444, 446, 447, 449 Mexico (Mex'-e-ko), 214, 434, 435, 441, 442, 444, 445, 446, 448, 449, 450, 451 Mexico, New, .... 447 Michael db la Pole (Mi'-kel de la Pole), . 180 Michael Paleologiis ( I'a-le-ol'-o-gus), . 139 Michael, Romanoff (Ro-man-ov'), . . 273 Michigan (Mish'-e-ganj, 300, 484, 485, 486, 495, 503, 522 Micislaus (Mis-is-la'-us), . . 160, i36 Micipsa (Mi-kip'-saj, . . .85 Middlcbrook (Mid'-dcl-brook), . . 468 Middescx (Mid'-del-sex), . . . 297 MIdianites (Mid'-e-an-itesJ, . . 29 Mierolawski ( Me-ro-lous'-lce), , . 377 Mifflin (Mif'-flin), . . .466 Miguel, Don (Don Me'-gel), . .356 Milan (Mil-an'), 109, iio, 142, 143, 158, 160, 163 202. 203, 204, 205, 272, 335, 378, 379, 393 Milanese (Mil-an-eez'j, . . . 143, 163 Milbourne (Mil'-bornl, . . 2(io, 261 Milessimo (Mil-la'-se-mo), . . 326 Miletus (Me-le'-tus), . . 44,35 Millcdgeville (.Mil'-lej-vil), . . 520 Mill Spring, ..... 508 Miltiades (Mil-ti'-a-deez), . . 45,46 Milvian Bridge (Mil'-ve-an), . . 107 Mimms, Fort, .... 487 Minden (Min-'den), .... 290 Minerva (Min-ner'-va), . . 37 Minnesota I Min-ne-so'-ta), . S03. 5'3, S31 Minorca (Min-or'-ka), . . 158, 287, 309 Minos (Mi'-nos), . . • .40 Minsk, ..... 365 Minuit, Peter (Pe'-ter Min'-u-it), 259, 260, 264 Mirabeau (Me-ra-bo'), . 312, 313, 316 Miramon (Mir'-a-mon), . . 448, 450 Misraim (.\Iis'-ram), . . . .25 Missionary Ridge, . . , 516 Mississippi (Mis-sis-sip'-pe), 195, 279,300, 475, 481, 492, 493, 494, 504, 508, 509, 510, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 530 Missolonghi (Mis-so-long'-gej, . . 358, 359 598 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Missouri (Mis-soo'-re), 492, 499, 506, 507, 508, 523. 525, 53° Missunde (Mis'-soond). . . . 396 Mitchell, Ormsby McKLnight (Orms'-be Malc- nite' (^Mil'-chel), .... 509 Milhridates (Mith-re-da'-teez), . 86, 87, 88 Mithridatic uMith-rc-da'-tik), . 86, 87 Mitylene (Mit-e-le'-ne), ... 44 Mnemon, Artaxerxes ^Ar-ta-zerk'-seez Ne'- mon), . . . . 51, 52 Moab (Mo'-ab), .... 29 Moawiyah (Mo-a-wi'-ah), . . . 123 ^i^)bile (Mo-beel'), . 300 489, 519 520 530 Modena (Mo-de'-na), 366 Mceris (Mc'-ris), , 26 Mtvsia (Me'-she-a), i°3 Mogul (,Mo'-gul), . 190, 91 215 281 Moj^uls, 190 Mohacz iMo'-hak), . 192 204 253 Mohammed 1 Mo-ham'-med), Mohammed II., . ISO, 121 123 124 191 Mohammedan, 132 123 125 Mohammedanism, . 253 357 ^lohammedans. 121 Mohammed, Dost, . 369 Mohawk (Mo'-hawk), '467 469 Mohawks, . . . 262 Mohegan (Mo-he'-gan"), 262 Molda vi» ( Mol-da'-ve-a), Mole iMo-la'), : 94 357i 386 37' Molino del Rey (Mol-Iee'-no del Ra ) 447, 500 Moloch (.Mo'-loki, 26 Moltke (.Mult'-ke>. 402, 406 Molucca I Mo-luk'-ka), Molvitz vMol'-vits), 193 282 Momoro i^Mo-rao-ro'), 323 Monachism ^Mon'-a-kism), 133. •34 Monasticism ^Mo-nas'-ti-sism ." 133 Moncey (Moang-se'), 339 Monckton vMonk'-ton), 303 Monitor, . 509 Monk. 41 243 244 Monk's Corner, . 47> Monmouth, Duke of (Mon'-muth), 246 ^{onInouth Court House, 46a Monocacy ^Mo-nok'-a-se), 5>9 Moiiongahela tMo-non'-ga-he -la). 303 Monro (,Mon-ro'), 304 Monroe, James (Mon-ro'), . 491, 492 Monscigneur (Mong-seen'-yure), 373, 419 Montana (Mon-tan'-a*, 532, 534 Montcalm (Mont'-kaml, 287, 289, 2 9o> 304, 306 Montebello iMon-te-bel'-lo), . 332, 392 Monticello,(^Mon-te-ser-lo), . Monlecuculi iMon-ta-koo'-kcx 493 -le). 251 Montenotte ^Mont-not'), 326 Montereau (Mon-te-ro'J, . 349 Monte Video (Mon-te Vid'-e- 0), 438 Montezuma (Alon-te-zu'-ma), 214 Moravia (Mo-ra'-ve-a), 166, 277, 2S2, 289, 336, 376, 393 Moravian, . . . . .170 Moraviantown, .... 486 Morea i,Mo-re'-a), 35, 192, 253. 294, 357, 359 Moreau (Mo-ro'). 325, 326, 329, 332, 335, 347 Morelos (Mo-ra'-los), Morgan, Daniel, (Mor'-gan), Morgan, John, . . Morgarten (Mor-gar'-ten), Morillo(Mo-rir-lo), . Moriones (Mo-re-on'-es), Mormons I Mor'-mons), Morocco (Mo-rok'-o), Moro, Louis (Loo'-e Mo-ro'), Morris, Lewis (Lu'-is Mor'-ris), Morristown, . Morse, Samuel Finley Breese(Fin'-le Biees Mors), . . .... 497 Mortier (Mor'-te-a\ . . . 345 Mortimer, Edmund i Ed'-mund Mor'-te-mer), 180 Mortimer, Roger (Roj'-eri, . 177, 178 Moscow (Mos'-ko), 18S, 190, 275, 294, 343, 344, 345 Moselle (Mo-zel'), ; Moses (Mo'-ses), I Mcskwa (Moask'-val, I Moslem (Mos'-lem), . { Moslems, .... I Moultrie, Foit (Moal'-tre), . Moultrie, William, Mount Algidus (,.'\r-je-dus), . Mount .'Vrarat (.\r'-a-rat), . Mount Casino i Kas'-se-no), . Mount Nebo (Ne'-bo\ . Mount Olympus 1 0-lim'-pus5f Mount Sinai (Si'-na^, Mount Tabor (Ta'-bor), Mount Vernon ^Ver'-non), Mount Zion ^Zi'-on), Mourad Bey (Moo'-rad Bay), . Mowbray, Thomas (Mow'-bray), Mover iAIoy'-er\ Muhlberg (ilool'-berg), Muhldorf ;Mool-dorf), . Mulier, Hans (Hahns Mil-lerX Mulligan (Mul'-le-gan), . Mummius (Mum'-me-us), Munda (Mun'-da), Mungarwar iMung-ar-war'), Munich (Mu'-niki, Munster (Muns'-ter), Munzer, Thomas (.Moontz'-er), . Mural Moo'-rah), Murat, Joachim ijo'-a-kira Mu-rah Montfort, Simon de(Si'-monde Mont'-fort), 175 176 Montgomery, Fort (Mont-gom'-e-re), . 467 Montgomery, Richard, . . . 462 Montijo, Eugenie de (_Eu-je'-ne da Mon'-te- ho), .... 386, 389, 406 Moiitijoi (Mon-te-yoy'), . . . 427 .>lontmartre iMont-mar'-ter), 349, 414, 416, 419 Montmedy ^j^Iont-me'-de), . . 404, 409 Montmirail (Mong me-rail'), . . 349 Montmorenci (,Mont-mo-ren'-se), 205, 219, 249, 306 Montreal (Mont-re-awl') 195, 301, 306, 307, 462, 487 Montrouge (Mon-troozh'), 407, 410, 416, 418 Moodkee ^Mood'-kee), . . . 369 Moore, Sir John ^More), . . 340 Moorish, ^Moor'-ish), . . . 124, 159 Moors, . . 106,140,158,304,215,216 Morales (Mo-rales'), . . . 437, 438 • 434 473 . 515 167 . 437 427 . 503 85, 400, 491 . M3 266 465. 473 402. 403 28, 29, 33 344 . 133 124 463. 495 4t>3 • 7> . ai • 133 . 36 38 ■ 330 475, 481 323 . i8a 243 . 207 167 . 200 507 63,82 90 • 391 63, 168, 283 207, 231 200 • 429 331, 339, 345, 351 i.8, 424, 425 • 5'3 223 291, 306 157 Murcia (Mur'-she-a% Murfreesborough ( Mur'-frecs-bur'-o Murray. Earl ot(Mur'-re), Murray, General. Murten (Mur'-ten), Muscovite (Mu-s'-co-vite), Mussa Pacha 1 Moos'-sah Pa-shaw'), . 387 Mussulman (Mus'-sul-man). . . . 124 Mustapha, Kara (K.a-rah' Mus-taP-ah\ 252 Mutius Scaevola (Mu'-she-us Sev'-o-la), . 69 Myciile iMi-ka-le'l, ... 47 Mysore (Mi-sore'), .... 299 Mystic (Mis'-tik), . . . 26a N. Nadir Shah (Na'-der Shah), . . 281 Nagy Sarlo (Na'-ge Sar'-lo>, . . 382 Namur (Na'-mur), . . . . 254 Nancy i^Nan'-se', . . 157,403,412 Nankin ; Nan '-km), . . . 368, 369 Nantes ^Nants\ . . 331,254 Nantucket (Nan-tuk'-et), . . . 257 Napier, Sir Charles (Na'-pe-cr), 369, 387, 388 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 599 Napier, Robert, .... 399 Naples (Na'-pels), 94,100, 145, 146, 157, 158, 165, 202, 272, 280, 285, 327, 328, 329 336, 356, 357. 378, 394 Napoleon (Na-po'-Ie-on), 322, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329.330, 33', 333. 334, 335. 33^, 337 Napoli de Romania (Nah'-po-le de Ro-iiian'- e-a), ..... 353 Narraganset Bay (Nar-ra-gan'-set), . 263 Narragansets, .... 259 Narses (Nar'-seez), . . . .118 Narva (Nar'-vahij . . . 274 Narvaez (Nar-van'-eth), . . . 368 Nascby (Naze'-be), . . . 238 Nashville (Nash'-vil), . . . 520 Nassau (Nas'-sou), . . 166,266,363 Natchez (Natch'-ez), . 300,301,510,530 Naupactus (Nau-pak'-tus), . . 48 Navajo (Nav'-a-hoi, .... 499 Navarctta (Nav-a-ret'-tah), . . 154 Navarino (Nav-a-re'-no), . . . 359 Navarre (Na-var'), 159, 202, 219, 220, 221, 427, 430 Naxus (Nax'-us), . . . .65 Nazareth i Naz'-a-reth), . . 330 Neapolitan (Ne-a-pol'-e-tan), 336, 351, 356, 357 394 Neapolitans, ..... 378 Nearchus (Ne-ar'-kus), ... 58 Nebo, Mount ( Ne'-bo), . . .26 Nebraska (Ne-bras'-ka), . 502, 523, 531 Nebuchadnezzar (Neb-u-kad-nez'-ar), 24, 27, 32 Necessity, Fort, .... 303 Necho, Phar.aoh (Fa'-ro Nek'-o), . 26, 27 Neckcr (Nek'-erj, . 3ii, 312, 3'3. 3'4 Neerwinden (Neer-win'-den), . 254,320 Nchemiah (Ne-he-mi'-ah), . . 33 Nelson, Admiral Lord (Nel'-son), 328, 333, 336 Nena Sahib (Na'-na Sah'-ibJ, . . 390 Nepos (Ne'-pos), . . . 113 Neptune (Nep'-lune), . . -36 Nero (Ne'-ro), ... 80, 95, 96 Nerva (Ner'-va), . . . -99 Netherlands (Neth'-er-lands), 202, 216,217,251, 254, 269, 270, 271, 272, 285, 298 Netherland, New, . 244, 259, 260, 264 Netherlanders, . . . 216,217 Neuberg (Noi'-berg), . , . 225 Neuilly (Nu-eel'-ye), . 371, 416, 417 Neustria (Nuse'-tre-a), . . . 126 Nevil (Nev'-il;, . . . ♦ . 182 Nevil's Cross, .... 178 Neva (Ne'-va), .... 275 Nevada (Nev-ah'-dah), . . , 520, 531 New Amsterdam (Nu Am'-ster-dam), r59, 260 Newark (Nu'-ark;, .... 487 Newbern (Nu'-bern), , . . 509 New Brunswick (Nu Bruns'-wik), . 300 Newbury (Nu-ber'-rej, ... 237 Newcastle (Nu-kas'-sel), . . . 237 New England (Nu Ing'-gland), 257, 258, 259, 459, 46a, 461, 489, 490 New Englanders, . . . 258, 302 Newfoundland N'u'-fund-land), , 195,523 New France ( Nu Frans), . . 195 Newgate (Nu'-gate), .... 297 New Granada (Nu Gra-nah'-dah), 435,436, 437, 440 New Hampshire (Nu Ham '•shir), 261, 301, 460, 529 New Haven (Nu Ha'-ven), . 258, 262, 263 New Jersey (Nu Jer'-se}, 266, 464, 465, 466, 468, 470, 472, 474, 529 New London (Nu Lon'-don), , . 474 New Mexico (Nu Mex'-e-ko), . 447, 500, 532 New Netherlands <^Nu Neth'-er-lands 1, 244, 259, 260, 264 New Orleans (Nu Or'Je-ans), 301, 489, 490, 509, 5'4, 5'7. 525, 527, 528 Newport (Nu -port), . . , 263, 468 New Scotland (Nu Skot-Iand), . . 301 New Spain, . . . .214,434 New ijlm, . . . ... 513 New York, 244, 260, 261, 263, 266, 301, 303, 456, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 469, 470, 471,472, 474. 475, 478, 482, 487, 488, 49'. 495, 49^, 503, 516, 529 Ney (Na), . 334, 345, 346, 350, 351, 352 Niagara (Ni-ag'-a-ra), 290, 303, 304, 305, 306, 485, 487, 488 Nicaea (Ni'-se-a), . . . .58 Nice(Nees), . . . 107,205,326 Nicholas (Nik'-o-las), . 364, 382, 386, 387 Nici.is ^Nlsh'-e-as), ... 49 Nicolaieff(Ne-ko-li-er) . . .389 Nicolls, Richard (Nik'-ols), . . 26a Nicomedia (Nik-o-me'-de-a), . . 107 Nicopolis (Nik-op'-o-lis), . . 191 Niel (Neel), ..... 393 Niemen (Nee'-men), . 141, 338, 343, 356 Nile, . . 25, 26, 90, 94, 328, 329 Niger, Pescennius (Pes-sen'-ne-us Ni'-jer;, loi Nimeguen (Nim'-e-gen), . . . 252 Nimrod (Nim'-rodj, ... 24 Ninety Six, Fort, .... 473 Nineveh (Nin'-e-va), ... 24 Ningpo (Ning'-po) .... 369 Ninus (Ni'-nus), ... 24 Nismes (Neem), . . . 249, 354 Nithsdale, Lord CNiths'-dale), . . 278 Nivillr I'Nee'-veel), .... 346 Noah (No'-ah), . . . . 21, 22 Noailles (No-al'-ye), . . . 284,323 Nogai Tartars (No'-ga-i Tar'-tars), . 295 Noisy (Nwaw'-se), . . 407, 409 Noralingen (Nord-ling'-en), . . 231 Norfolk (Nor'-folk), 180, 211, 223, 462, 469, 488, 506, 510 Noricum (N'or'-e-kum), . . .85 Norman (Nor'-man), . 136, 145, 173, i38 Normandy (Nor'-man-de), 130, 135, 136, 146, 147,148, 149, 172, 173, 175 Normans, . . 130, 145, 146, 159, 185 North, Lord, .... 458, 475 North America (^A-mer'-e-ka) 195, 232, 300, 306 Northampton, (North-am'-ton) . . 182 Northamptonshire f North-am'-ton-shire), 238 North Carolina (North Kar-o-li'-na;, 264, 265, 266, 458, 461, 471, 473 478, 506, 507, 508, 509, S'3, 5»4. 521, 522 Northmen (North'-men), . . . 130 North Point, .... 489 North Sea, .... 130, 309 Northumberland (North-um'-ber-Iand), 120, 180, 212 Norwalk (Nor'-wawk), . . . 470 Norway (Nor'-way;, 176, 185, 186, 213, 277, 278, 348 Nothus, Darius (Da-ri'-us No'-thus) . 51 Notre Dame, Church of (Not'-er Dahm), 335, 362, 385, 386 Nottingham (Not'-ting-ham), . . 236, 367 Nouvillas, (Nu-veel'-yah;, . . 422, 437 Novara (No-vah'-rah), . . 357,379,393 Nova Scotia (No'-vah Sko'-she-ah^, 272,286, 300, 301, 303, 463 Novgorod (Nov'-go-rod), . . . 188 Novi (No'-*i) .... 329 Noyons fNoy'-oang), . . . 146 Nubia (Nu'-be-a), . • . 26,368 Nujuffghur 'Nu-juf-gur), . . . 390 Numancia (Nu-man'-she-a), . . 428 Numantia (Nu-man'-she-a), . . . 83 Numantians, .... 83 Numa Pompilius (Nu'-ma Pom-pil'-e-us), . 67 Numean Lion (Nu-me'-anr, . . 37 Numerian ( Nu-meer'-e-an;, . , . 105 Numidia (Nu-mid'-e-a), . . 80, 85 Numidian, . . . . .84 Numitor (Nu'-me-tor), ... 66 6oo ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Nuremberg (Nu'-rem-burg), . Nursia (Nur'-she-a), Nystadt (Ne'-staht) . 0. Oak Grove, Gates, Titus (Ti'-tus Oats), Oaxaca (Wah-hah'-kah), Octavia (Oc-ta'-ve-a), . Octavius (Ok-ta'-ve us) . Oczakow (Otch-a-koo') Odenatus (Od-e-na'-tus), Oder (O'-der), Odessa (O-des'-sah 206, 230 133 . 278 5" . 246 451 • 93. 96 84, 92) 93. 94 • 295 . 104 186, 289, 290, 337 • 387 Odillon Barrot (O-deel'-yoang Bar'-ro), . 371 Odin (O'-din), .... i86 Odoacer (Od'-o-a'-ser) . . 113,117 CEnotrians (En'-o-tre-ans), . . 65 Ogdensburg (Og'-dens-burg) . . 487 Oglethorpe, James Edward (,0'-gel-thorpe), 267, 268 O'Higgins (O'Hig'-gins), . . 439 Ohio ^O-hi'-o), 2S6, 302, 303, 305, 471, 481, 484, 496, 503, 515, 529 Okechobee (O-kee-cho'-bee), . • . 495 Olaf Skotkonung(0'-laf Skot'-ko-nungi, . 186 Olaf the Saint, .... 186 Oldenburg, (Ol'-den-burg), . . 186, 348 Oliver Clissons (Ol'-e-ver Klees'-soang), . 154 Oliver Cromwell (Krora'-well;, 235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241 , 242, 243 Ollivier, Emile (A-meel' Ol-le-ve'-a), . 401 0!lo(01'.yo), . . . .427 Olmutz(Ol'-muts), . . 319.376,398 Olozaga (Ol-o-za'-gah), . . . 401 Olustee ^O-lus'-tee), .... 517 Olybrius (O-lib'-re-us), . . 112, 113 Olympia (O-lim'-pe-a), . . .39 Olympiad (Olim'-pi-ad), . , 39 Olympias (O-lim'-pe-as), . . .60 Olympic Festival (Olim'-pik), . . 39, 40 Olympic Games. . . . 40, 96 Olympias (O-lim'-pe-ns), . , m Olympus (O-lim'-pus), . . .36 Olynthian(O-lin'-the-an), . . 52 Olynthus (O-Iin'-thus), . . .52 Omaha (O'-ma-haw), . . . 524, 532 Omar (O'-mar), . . . 122,123 Omar Pacha (Pa-shaw'), . . 387, 388 0™miyades(Om-mi'-a-deez), . 123,124 Ontario (On-ta'-re-o), . 287, 289, 304, 486, 488 Opechancanough (Op-e-kan'-ka-no), . 256 Ophir(O'-fir) 31 Opimius (O-pim'-e-us), . . .84 Oporto (O-por'-to), . . 340,356 Oran (O'-ran), .... 428 Orange (Or'-anj), . 216, 217, 218, 247, 251, 254, 259, 260, 363 Orchard Knob, . . . .516 Of*^) .... 512, 521 Oregon (Or'-e-gon), 497, 503, 508, 525, 526, 531 Orense (O-ren'-sa), . . . 423 Orient L' ( Lo-re-ong'), . . . 328 Orinoco (O-re-no'-ko), . . . 194 Oriskany (O-ris'-ka-ne), . . . 467 Orizaba (Or-e-sah'-bah), . 448, 449 Orleanist (Or'-Ie-an-ists), . . 384, 410 Orleans (Or'-Ie-anz I, 155, 156, 158, 181, 182,219, 249i 273, 313, 317, 320, 321, 362, 407, 408 Orleans, New, 301, 489, 490, 509, 514, 517, 525. 527, 528 Ormond (Or'-mond), . . 240, 272 Ormuz (Or-muz), . . . 193, 215 Ormuzd (Or'-muzd), • • . 35 Orsini (^Or-se'-ne), . . . 142, 392 Ortega (Or-ta'-gah), . , . 449 Osceola (Os-e-o'-lah), , . .495 Osnaburg (Os'-na-burg), , , 231 Ostia (Os'-che-a), . , . .68 Ostrogoth (Os'-tro-goth), . . 117 Ostrogothic, .... 117, 118 Ostrogoths, . . . 109, 112, n8 Ostrolenka (Os-tro-Ienk'-ka), . . 363 Oswego (Os-we'.go), . 287, 304, 488 Othraan (Oth'-raan), . . 12^, iqi Othniel (Oth'-ne-el), .... 29 Otho the Great of Germany (O'-tho), . 160 Otho II., 160 Otho III ,60 Otho IV ,64 Otho of Greece, . . . 360,394,395 Utho 01 Rome, . . , 96 97 Otis, James (,0'-tis), . . . 455 Ottocar (Ot'-to-kar) . . . .166 Ottoman (Ot'-to-man), 190, 191. 192, 253, 294, 295, 328, 359, 360, 368, 386, 387, 389 Ottowa (Ot'-to-waw), . . . 306 Oude (Ood), . . . 389, 390 Oudenarde (Ood'-nard), . . . 271 Oudiiiot (Oo-de-no'), . . 347, 380, 384 Owen Glendower (O'-wen Glen'-dow-er), . 180 Oxenstiern, Axel (Ax'-el Ox-en-steern'), 230 Oxford (.Oy'-ford), . 171,209,238,272 P. Pacha (Pa-shaw'), . . 330, 356, 368 Pachomius (Pa-ko'-me-us), . . 133 Pacific Ocean (Pa-sif ik), 194, 195, 280, 497, 498, 502, 524, 526, 531 Paderborn (Pad'-er-bom), . . . 127 Paducah (Pa-du'-kah), . . . 517 Padus (Pa'-dus), . . . 65,85 Pages, Gamier (Gar-ne-a' Pa-zha'), 371,372, 406 Pakenhani (Pak'-en-ham\ . . . 490 Paladines, D'Aurelles (Do-rels' Der Pa-lah- dang') ..... 408 Palaeologus (Pa-Ie-ol'-o-gus), . . 139 Palafox (Pal'-a-fox), . . . 339, 340 Palais Royal (Pah-la' Rwaw'-yawl), 313, 371, 419, 420 Palais de Justice (Pah-la'-der Jus'-tis), 414 Palais de la Quai d'Orsay (Pah-la'-der la- Ka Dor'-sa), . . 419, 420 Palais d I'lndustrie (Pah-la' der Leen-dus- trce'), ..... 419 Palatinate (Pa-lat'-e-nate), 168, 226, 227, 251, 254i 297 Palatine Hill, (Pal'-a-tin), 66, 67, 73, 227, 237, 251 Paleriyo (Pa-lare'-mo), . . 77, 150, 378 Palestme (Pal'-es teen) , . . 33, 34 Palestro (Pal'-es-tro), . . . 303 Pallas (Pal '-las 1, . ... 36 Palmyra (PaUmi'-ra), . .104,105,122 Palo Alto (Pah-lo' Ahl'-to), . . 446, 498 Palos (Pa'-Iosi, .... 194 Pampeluna fPam-pe-lu'-na). . .127,346 Panama (Pan'-a-mah), . , 194, 440 Pandects (Pan'-dects) . . . 119 Pandours (Pan-dures'), . , . 283 Panniput (Pan'-ne-put), . . 281 Pannonia (Pan-no'-ne-a) . 94,103,119 Pannonian, .... 109 Panormus (Pa-nor'-mus), . . -77 Pantheon (Pan-the'-on) . . . 373 Pantin (Pan-tang') .... 419 Paoli, Massacre of (Pa-o'-le), . . 466 Paoli, Paschal (Pas'-kal), . . . 297 Papineau, Louis Joseph (Pa-pe-no'), . 495 Papirius Carbo (Pa-pir'-e-us Kar'-bo), 85 Papirius, Marcus (Mar'-kus Pa-pir'-e-us), . 73 Pappenheim (Pap'-pen-hime), . .. 230 Paraguay (Par'-a-gwi), . . 440,441 Paraguayan (Par-a-gwi'-an), . . 441 Paraguayans, ..... 441 Parades i^Pa-ra'-des), . . 445, 446 Paris, (Par'-is), 38, 125, 146, 149, 181,220, 271, 292, 306, 309, 313, 317, 320, 323, 333, 3S1, 370, 405, 407. 409j 414. 4'9> 4»<» ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 60 1 Parisian (Par-ish'-e.^n), . 153, 313, 319 Parisians, . 362, 385, 405, 406, 407,415 Park de Monceaux (Park der Mon-ko') . 420 Parker, Sir Peter (Pe'-ter Par'-ker), 308, 309, 234, 235. 236, 237) 241, 242, 245, 455, 460, 461, 462, 463, 464 Parliament (Par'-Ie-ment), . . 175, 176 Parliamentarian ( Par-le-men-ta'-re-an), . 238 Parliamentary ( Par-le-men'-ta-re), . 238 Parma i Par'-ma), . . . 366, 378 Parmenio (Par-men'-e-o), . . 54 Paros iPa'-ros), , . . .45 Parr, Catharine fKath'-a-rin Par), 210, 211 Parthenop ian Republic (Par-the-no-pe'- an), . . . 327, 328, 329 Parthia (I ar'-the-a), . . 89, 99 Parthian, . . . 64, 89, 100, 103 Parthians, . . . 89, 99, loo, 101 Paschal Paoli (Pas'-kal Pa-o'-le), . 297 Paskiewitsch (^Pas-ka'-vitsh), 359, 305, 382,383, Pasquasde Flores (Pas-koo'-ah daFlo'-res), 194 Passau (Pas'-sou\ . . 208, 225, 231 Passarovitz (Pas-sa'-ro-vits), . 278,279 Patkul (Pat'-kuli, . . .275 Patriarchs ' Pa'-tre-arks), . . .27 Patuxent (^Pa-tux'-cntJ, . . . 489 Paul, .... 296, 330, 333 Paulinus, Suetonius (Su-ton'.e-us Pau-li'- nus I, ..... 96 Paulus .lEmilius (Paul'-us E-mil'-e-us), 63, 82 Paulus Hook, . . . .470 Pausanius (Pau-sa'-ne-us), . . .47 Pavia (Pa'-ve-a), . 119, 127, 203, 378, 426, 427 Pawtucket ( Paw-tuk'-et 1, . . . 263 Peach Orchard Station, . . 511 Peacock, ..... 490 Pea Ridge, . . . 508, 509 Peck, . . . . • .514 Pedraza (Pa-drah'-zah), . . 442, 443 Pedro, Don (Don Ped'-ro), . . 356,440 Pedro Abanto (Ped'-ro A-ban'-to), . 429 Pegram f Pe'-gram), .... 506 Pekin (Pe'-kin), .... 389 Pelasgians (Pe-las'-je-anz), . . 37, 65 Pelican, ..... 488 Peliesier (Pel-is-se'-a\ ; . ,388 Pelletan, Eugene (U-jeen' Pel-Ie-tong'), 406 Pelopidas (Pel-op'-e-das), . . 52 Peloponnesian (Pel-op-on-ne'-she-an), 48, 49, 50 Peloponnesus (Pel-op-on-ne'-sus), . 35, 37, 38, 40, 49, 92, 192 Pelops (Pel'-ops), . . . .37 Pelusium (Pe-lu'-zhe um"), . . 26, 34 Pemberton (Pem'-ber-ton), . . . 514 Pembroke (Pem'-brokeJ, . . , 174 Penguin, ..... 490 Penn, Admiral, .... 242 Penn, William, . .' . 266, 267 Pennsylvania (Pen-sil-va'-ne-a), 266, 267, 302, 303, 3°4i 4641 465. 466, 4691 472, 479. 486, 497, 502,514,515,519,529 Pennsylvanian, .... 482 Pennsylvanians, .... 267 Pensacola (Pen-sa-ko'-la) . 489, 492, 504 Pepin d'Heristal (Pep'-in Der'-is-tal) . 126 Pepin the Little, . . . . 126 Peppereil, William, (Pep'-per-ell), . 286, 302 Pequod(Pe'-quod), .... 262 Pequods, . . . * , 262 Percy t Per'-se), . . . . 180 I Perdiccas (Per-dik'-kas\ . . 59, 60 i Pere Duchesne ( Pa-ra' Du-shain'), . 315 I Pere la Chaise (Pa-ra' la Shaise') . 416, 420 i Pergamus ( Per'-ga-mus),. . . 84 1 Pericles ' Per'-e-kleez I, . . 48,49 I Perkin Warbeck (Per'-kin War'-bek), . 185 Peronne (^Per-on') , . . 156 Perote ( Pa-ro'-tai, . . 442,499 Perry, Matthew C. (Per'-re), . . 502 Perry, Oliver Hazard, . . . 486 Perryville, .... 512 Persepolis (Per-sep'-o-Iis), . * . 57, 58 Perseus ( Per'-se-us), . . . 63, 82 Persia (Per-she-a), 25, 26, 27, 33, 34, 3Si 45» 46, 47, 5'i 52, 55? 57.. 58, 104, 10*. 109. 'i7) 122, 190, 191, 215, 281 Persian, 25, 26, 27, 33, 34, 35, 45, 46, 47, 51, 52, 54. 53i 56, 57i 59i 103, 104, 109, 118, 122, 215 Persians, 25, 26, 33, 34, 35, 45. 46,47. 5', 54. 55, 56, 57, 58, 103, 104, 108, 117, 118, 122, 136 Pertinax (Per'-te-nax), . . . 101 Peru I Pe-ru'i, . 214, 400, 439, 440, 441 Peruvians (Pe-ru'-ve-ans), . 214, 439 Pescennius Niger (Pes-sen'-ne-us Ni'-jer), 191 Peschiera ( Pesh-e-a'-ra), . . . 370 Pesth (Pestj, . . 380, 381, 382, 383 Peter II. of Russia, .... 278 Peter III. of Aragon, . . . 158 Peter III. of Russia (Roosh'-yah), . . 292 Peter the Cruel of Aragon, . . 150 Peter the Great, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278 Peter the Hermit, . . . 135, 147 Peterborough (Pe'-ter-bur-o), 270, 293, 333 Petersburg 1 Pe'-ters-burg), . 473, 518, 519, 521 Petersburg, St., .... 274, 275 Peterwardein 1 Pe-ter-war'-deen), . . 279 Petinn (Pa-te-oang'), . . . 321 Petrowski ( Pe-trous'-ke), ... 344 Pfalzburg (Pfahls'-burgi, . . 409 Phalereus, Demetrius ( De-me'-tre-us Fa- le'-re-usi, .... 60 Pharaoh (Fa'-ro), ... 25, 28 Pharaoh Necho (Nek'-o), . , 27, 32 Pharaohs, .... 25, 26 Pharnaces (Far-na'-seez), . . 90 Pharsalia ' Far-sa'-le-a), . . .90 Philadelphia (Fil-a-del'-fe-a), 267, 459, 462, 463, 466, 468, 473, 476, 478, 481 Philadelphus, Ptolemy (Tol'-e-me Fil-a-del'- fus), ..... 64, 90 Philip I. of France (Fil'-ip), . . 147, 148 Philip I. of Macedon, . . . 53,54 Philip II. of Macedon, . , 62,63,81 Philip II. of Spain, 206, 208, 212, 215, 216, 317, 218, 220, 224 Philip III. of Spain, . . . 216 Philip IV. of Spain, .... 250 Philip, Emperor of Rome, . . 103 Philip of Valois, . . 152,153,178 Philip the Fair, . . . 150, 151 Philip the Hardy, .... 150 Philip the Tall, .... 151 Philip Augustus (Au-gus'-tus), 137, 138, 149, 150, 163, 174, 17s Philip Egalite (A-gal-e-ta'), . . 320, 362 Philippa(Fil-ip'-pa), . . . 152, 178 Philippe, Louis (Loo'-e Fil-leep'), 362, 363, 364, 370. 371. 372. 384 Philippi (Fil-ip-pi''l, . . .92, 506 Philippine iFil'-ip-peen), . . . 292 Philistines ' Fe-lis'-teenz), . 29, 30, 31 Phillips (Fil'-ips), .... 473 Philopcemen ( Fil-o-pe'-men), . 62, 63, 82 Phipps, Sir William (Fips), . 259,301 Phocians (Fo'-she-ans), ... 53 Phocion I Fo'-she-on), . . .59 Phocis (Fo'-sis), .... 35, 53 Phoebe < Fe'-be), .... 490 Phoenicia (Fo-nish'-e-a), . 26, 27, 34, 55 Phoenician, .... 26, 27, 37 Phoenicians, . . • 26, 27, 76 Phraortes (Fra-or'teez), . . .33 Phrygia (Frij'-e-a), ... 37 Phryxus (Frix'-us), . . . .38 Piacenza (Pe-a-chent'-sa), . . 285 Piar (Pe-ar'), ..... 437 Piast (Pe'-ast), . . . .186,187 Piasts, . . . . .186 Piat (Pe-ah'), .... 420 I 602 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Picard Ernest (Er'-nest Pe-karO, Piceriuim ( Pik'-er-num), Pichegrii (^Peesh-gru'l, . Pickens, Andrew (Pik'-cns\ Pict'Mi, Sir Thomas ^Pik'-ton), Picts, .... Piedn>onnPced'-mont\ Piedmontese (, Peed-mont-ecz'), . Pierce, Franklin (Pecrce), . Pierce, General, .... Pierpont, Fr.»nk ( Peer'-pont), . Pierre, St. S.uig Pe-aire'), Pigot iPig'-ot\ Pike, Zebulon N. (Zeb'.ii-lon N. Pike), Pil.ue, P.nitius 1 Pon'-she-us Pi'-lat), Pillow, Fort ^ Pil'-lo), . Pillow, r«;neral, Pin:irus^Pin-a'-nis\ Pinchincha ( Pin-chin'-cha),. Pinckney, Charles Cotesworlh (Kotes'- . 406 65 3=4. 325. 335 469. 47'i 474 • 35a 109, 120 205, 357 357 . 5"' 506 • 507 46. 487 94 50S 5t7 55 43S worth Pink'-ne), Pindar (Pin'-der), Pinkie (Pink '-e\ Pira:iis I Pi-re'-iis), Periander i Per-c-an'-der), Pirna ( Pir'-na), . Pisa(Pe'-sa\ Pisistratiis ( Pi-sis'-tra-tusl, PitCiiirn, M.ijor (Pit'-kairn>, Pitt, William, the Elder. Pitt, William, the Younger, Pittacus ^Pit'-ta-kus\ Pittsburg (Pitts '-burg), Pittsburg Landing, Pius V!. i^Pi'-us), Pius VII., Pius IX Pi y Margall I Pe' e Mar'^awl\ 480, 481 54 . an 47 . 44 al?7 Mt. M4. i45i '67 - 43. 44 . 460 • 289, 304, 456 320. 336 44 . 305 5<9 326, 329 335, 34'. 34S 379, 380 423. 434. 4a Pizarro, Francisco (,Fran-sis'-ko Piz-z;tr'-o>, 214 Place dc Cliehy ^Plas di- Klish' e), 414, 419 Place de la B.istile ^ Plas de la B.is-teel'), 371, 373 Place de la Concord (Plas de la Kong'- kord i, .... 40s, 419 Place Maubert (Plas Mo-baire'), . 373 Placentft ^Pla-sen'-she<»\ . . .79 Place Vendome (Plas Ven-dome'), 414, 416, 4>8, 4'9 Plantagenet (Plan-taj'-e-net), . . 174 Plantai;enet, iV-oftVey (Jet'-fre), . 173 Plantagenet, Henry, . , 148, 174 Plantagcnets, . . . .174 Plassey (Plas'-sel, .... 399 Plata-a 1 Pla-te'-a), . . .47, 49 PIatotT(Pla'-totfi, . . . 345,346 Plattsburg (Piatts'-burg^, . 488,489 Plautius, Aulus ^.Au'-lus Plau'-she-us), . 93 Pleasant Hill, .... 517 Plessis (Ples'-se), .... 157 Pluto (Plu'-to\ .... 36 Plymouth ^Plim'-uth>, . 355, 3S7, 358, 3^9 Po, . . . . " . 65,85 Pocahontas (Po-ka-hon'-tas\ . 355,356 Podolia i,Po-do'.le-a\ . . . 353, 296 Point Au Trembles ^Point O Traing'-ble), 46a Point Isabel (,Is'-a-bel\ . . 407 Point, Crown, . . . 290, 305, 4(5o Point, Stony, .... 470 Point, Verplanck's (V'er'-planks), . 470 Point, West, .... 472 Poitiers (Pwa -te-a), 124, isj, 154, 156, 178, 179, 184, 1S5 Poland (Po'-land\ 160, 1S6, 1S7, 313, 273, 274, 275. aSo, 287, 293, 294, 395, 296, 337, 343. 395 Pole, . . . . . 3S1, 470 Poles, . 1S6, 1S7, 293, 296, 364, 365, 305, 465 Polignac, Jules de (Jule der Poleen-yak ), 360. 361 Poliorcetes, Demetrius (De-me'-tre-us Po- le-or-se'-tcei^, . . . .60 Polish fPo'-lish^, . 186, 187, 274, aSo, 293, 394, 295, 296, 364, 365, 395 Polk, James Knox, . . . 497 PoUentia ( Pol-len'-she-a\ . . . no Pollock (Por-lok\ . . .369 Pollux (Pol'-lux), . . . ■ . 38 Polydectes (Pol-e-dek'-tee2\ . . 40 Polysperchon (Pol-e-sper'-kon\ . . 60 Pomerania {Pom-er-an'-e-a\ 1S6, 228, sag, 231, 277,287, i88 Pompadour, Madame (Pom-pa-duie'), sS6, 310 Pompeii (Pom-pe'-ei), . . .98 Pompcy, Cnseus (Ne'-us Pom'-pet, 87, 88, 89 90 90 90, 92 473 • 499 '94 292, 308 417, 41S 306 74. 74 . 94 86,88 . 4" 5'« . 96 436 . 69 4.8 . 4l8 416, 41S 373 • 373 . 483, 490 509. 513. 521 510 . 514 515 . 510 300, 301, 508 . . 280 423 261, 263, 264 Pompey, Cneius (Ne-us Pom'-pe), Pompey, Sextus (Sex'-tus), . Pompton (Pom'-toul, Poncedc Leon (Pon'-tha da Le-on'), Ponce de Leon, John, Pondicherry (^Pon-de-sher'-re), Pont du Jour (Pont du Zhoor'), Pontiac (Pon'-te-ak), Pontic (Pon'-tiks, Pontius (Pon'-«he-us1, Pontius Pilate (Fon-she'-us Pi'-lat), Pontus (Pon'-tus^, Ponycr t^uertier (Poang'-yer Ker'-te-a\ Pope, John, .... Poppjca I Pop-pe'-a\ . . . Popayan ^Po-pi-ahn'), . Porsenna (Por-sen'-na>, Porte Uauphinc ( Port Dt>-feen''), Porte de l.i Meute ; Port dela Mute'), Porte Maillot (.Mar-yo\ Porte St. Denis (Sang Der-ne'), Porte St. Martin 'Sang Mar'-tin), . Porter, David (Por-.ter), Porter, David D., . Porter, Fitz John, Port Gibson ^Gib'-son), Port Hudson (Hud'-son), Port Republic, Port Royal, Porto Betio (Por'-to Bel'-lo^ Porto Rico (Por'-to Re'-ko), Portsmouth I Ports'-muth), . Portugal (Por'-tu-gal), . 125, 158, 193, 215, 244, 270, 292, 338,*339, 340, 356, 440 Portuguese (Por'-tu-geez>, . 193, 316, 270, 392, 334, 339, 342, 356. 440 Porus (Po'-nis), .... 518 Posen (Po'-ien), . . . 375, 431 Potemkin (Pv.>-tcm'-kin), . . . 295 Potid«e.i (Po-tid-e'-a), ... 49 Potomac (Po-to'-mak), 361, 475, 478, 507, 508, 510, 511, 513, 514, 516, 517, 518 Potosi (Po-to-se'j, . . . 438,439 Potosi, S.an Luis (San Lu-is Po-to-se), . 408 Potsdam I Pots'-dam), . . 297 Powhatan (Pow-a-tan'\ . . 355,257 Pra;tor (Pre'-tor), . , . 74,87 Praetorian Guards (Pre-to'-re-an), . 94,96, joi, 102, 103 Praga (Prah'-gah\ . . . 296,365 Pragmatic Sanction ^Prag-mat'-ik), 280, 2S2 Prague (.Praig\ 16S, 169, 170, 226, 227, 284, 287, 2S8, 347, 376, 398 Prairi.-il ( Pra-re-yal'>, . . . 324 Prairie Grove (Pra'-re\ . . . ^la Preble (Preb'-el' 481 PremonstrantsvPre-mon'-strants^, . 133 Prentiss (Pren'-tis), . . • . 5«S Prenilow ( Prents'-lou\ . . . 337 Presburg (Pres-burg\ . . 336,383 Presbyterian (Pres be-te'-re-an), . 232 Presbyterianism, .... 232 Presbyterians, . . 218, 236, 237, 239 Prescott, W"illi.im (Pres'-kot), • . 461 President, .... 484, 490 Presque Isle (Presk He'), . . . 303 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. ()Ol Preston (Pres'-ton), Preston Pans, Prevost ^Pre'-vost), Prevost, Sir George, Priam rPn'-am), . 457 . 285 469 . 489 38 Juintus Cassius rQuin'-tus Kash'-us), 89, 91, 92 Juintus Flaminius (Fla-min'-e-us;, . di Juirinus (Que-ri'-nus>, . . • \ 5uito(K.ce'-to), . . . 43 J. 433 mam ( rrr-aiii;, . • . ,• o Price, Stirling (Stir'-ling Price), 507. S^o, S" Pride, Colonel, . . • • ^39 Prideaux (Pre-do'), • • • 3^5 Prim, . . . ; „ , '»^' Jl°'' ""^^ Primo de Rivera fPre'-mo da Re'-ver-ah;, 429 Princeton (Prince'-ton), . • • 4J5 Pring, Martin, . . • • ^57 PritchardfPritch'-ard), . . • 5^2 ProbusfPro'bus;, . . ' '?! Procas (Pro'-kas^, . • • • °? Proctor ( Prok'-ter), . . . 4<» Propontis (Pro-pon'-tis), . • • 4o Prospect Hill, . . . • o ■♦" Protestant ( Prot'-est-ant), 206, 307, 208, 211, 212, 216, 222, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230 Protestanism, . • • , " » "^ Protesunts, 201, 206, 207,208, 214,216,218,223, 226, 228, 231 Provence rProv-once',) . i47, 3»o. 349 Providence fprov'-e-dense), . 263, 264, 45» Prussia fProosh-yah), . 252, 272, 278, 281, 265, 286, 292, 294, 337, 34^ 374, 39'^. 397. 40' Prussian, 283, 285, 287, 289, 290, 251, 337, 34«>, 396, 397, 400, if^, 405 Prussians, 141, 277. 284, 285, 287, 288, 337, 346, 396, 397) 4, . 405. 47^ B. . 31 28 . . Ill 3/9. 380 . 294 364, 365 . :-.37, 383 269 . 465 486 . 52' 232, 233,255 . 262 270 , 366 459 518 5»4 468 372 272 285 221 I1S Pulaski, Fort, . Pultowa (Pul-to'-wah), Pultusk f Pool'-toosk;, Punic (Pu'-nik;, Punjab fPun-jaub'), Runnier (Pun-ne-ar';, Pupienus ' Pu-pe'-BUS), Puritan f Pu'-re-tan;, Puritanism, • 509 276 . 337 76,77,78,81,82,83 . 58,369 • 369 '03 • 23s, 257, 258, 263 232, 234 Puritans. 218, 234, 236, 237, 245, 257, 25^, ^65 Putnam. Israel (Put'-nam;, . . 464, 4^^ Pym, John, f Pirn;, . . • 235.236 Pyramids ' Pir'-a-mids), . . 26, 32S Pyrenees ( Pir-e-neez';, 78, 80, 124, 126, 127 159, 250, 251, 268, 323, 340, 34«> Pyrrhus rPir'-rus), . • 61, 75, 76 Rabbah fRab'-bah), . Rachael (Ra'-chel), Radaeaisas 'Ra-da-ga-i'-sus), Radetzky (Ra-deLs'-ke;, Radovi (Ra-do'-ve;, . Radzivil ' Rad'-ze-veel;, . Raglan 'Rag'-lan), Ragotzky (Ra-gots'-ke), Rahl, . . • • Raisin, Raleieh fRaw'-Ie), . Raleigh, Sir Walter. . Rambouillet 'Ram-bool'-ya), Ramillies (Ram-il-cez'), Ramorino (Ram-o-re'-no), . . Randolph, Peyton (Pa'ton Ran'-doll;, Rapid Anna, . . , •, , " Rappahannock (Rap-pa-han'-nok;, Raritan fRar'-e-Wn;, 1 Raspail (Ras-pail'i, Rastadt 'Raw'-staht), Raucoux (^Ro-koo';, RavaiUac rRa-val-yahO, Ravenna f Ra-ven'-na), , RawdenfRaw'-den), . . • Raymond of Toulouse (Ra -mond of iooz'i, ... '3' Rayon ^Ra'-on), . Rebecca fRe-bek'-a), Redan rRc-dan'), Red River, . . • • Red Sea, . . • • Regensburg '^Ra'-gens-burg), Regulators 'Reg-u-la'-torsj, Rugulus fReg'-u-lusj, Rehoboam (Re-ho-bo'-am), Reindeer, .... Remus 'Re'-mus), Reno (Re'-no). . . • • 3" Resaca(Ra-sah'-kahl, . . • S'S Resaca de la Palma rRa-sah'-kah da la Pah - I mah), , ■. . • 446,498 Retaliation, . . . • 4<>^ Retz, Cardinal de, . • . • 230 Revere, Paul 'Re-vere^,», . • 460 Reynolds. John F. fRen'-olz), . • 5i4 Reynosa rRi-no'-sa;, ... 34" Rhaetia , Quesne, Fort Du (Du Kane^, 286, 289, 302, Quincy ("Quin'-se), Quintilius (Quin-til'-e-us), . 267 468 267 351 4'9 305, ,462 485 , 4«o 412 303, 305 493 , 105 Rhodes (Rodes), Rhodian ( Ro'-de-an;, . Rhone f Rone), Riall (Ri'-al;. Rialto(Re-awl'-to), . Rich, Richard the Lion-hearted, Richard II., Richard III Richardson ' Rich'-ard-son), . Richelieu TRish'-e-lu I, Richmond (Rich'-mond;, 184, 473, ; Rich Mountain, 1 RicimerfRis'-e-mer), . 1 Ridley (Rid'-le;, 55. 56, 123, 14a, 192 54 78 305 423 . ' . .143 243 . 137, 138. '49. '63, 174. '75 . 179, iSo . '84 5'2 229, 231, 249 506, 510, 511, 5'2, 5'8, 52t • 506 112 6o4 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Ridgefield (Rij'-field), . Ried(Reed), . Riga (^Re'-ga), .... Rigault (Re'-go), Riode la Hacha (Re'-o da la Hatch'-ah), Rio de la Plata (Re'-o da la Plat'-a) , Rio Grande (Re'-o Gran'-da), . 444, 446, 497, 498, 516 Rio Janiero (Re'-o Jan-e'-ro), . . 339 Ripley ^Rip'-leJ 488 Rivera, Primo de (Pre'-mo da Re'-ver-ah), 429 421, 450 . 184 326, 379 Riverc (Re'-ver-o), Riv&rs, Lord (Riv'-ers), Rivoli (Riv-o'-le), Rizzio, David, (Reet'-se-o), Roanoke (Ro-a-noke'), . Robert of France (Rob'-ert), Robert of Normandy, Robert Guiscard (Gees'-kar), Robespierre (Ro-bes-pe-aire'), 508 • '47 136, 147, 173 145,161 317) 3'8, 321, 323. 324 Robinson Rev. John (Rob'-in-son), . 257 Rocha (Ro'-cha), . . . 450, 451 Rochambeau, Count de(Ro-sham-bo'), 472, 474 Rochefort (Roash'-foar;, . . . 352 Rochefort, Henri, . . 406, 420 Rochelle, La (La Ro-shel') . . . 249 Rochester (Roch'-es-ter), . . 210 Rockingham, Marquis of (Rok'-ing-ham), 475 Rocky Mount, .... 471 Rocky Mountains, 195, 481, 492, 530, 531 Roderick (Rod'-er-ik), Rodgers (Roj'-ers), Rodman (Rod'-man), Rodney, Admiral, (Rod'-ne), Rodolph of Hapsburg, Rodolph IL, Roger \. (Roj'-er), . Roger IL. Roland (Ro'-land), . Roland, Madame, Rolfe, John (Rolf), . 124 484, 524 . 5" 308,309 . i66 225, 226 . MS 145 127, 3171 318, 321 3'7. 321 . 256 Rollin, Ledru (Le'-dru Rol'-lin), . 371, 372 Rollo (Rol'-lo), . . . 130,146 Roman fRo'-man), 65, 66, 69, 73, 77, 80, 86, 89, lot, 109, 113, 327, 379, 413 Romanoff (Ro-man-ov'), . . 364, 373 Romans, . 62, 63, 66, 67, 72, 77, 8i, 87, 95, 100, 110, 142, 204, 413 Romanzoff (Ro-man-zov), . . 294 Rome, 62, 63, 65, 65, 67, 71, 76, 84, 8;, 103, 111, 112, 128, 142, 204, 379, 380, 412, 413, 414 Romish Church (Roam'-ish;, 200, 201, 207, 386 Romney (Rom'-ne), . . . 506 Romulus (Rom'-u-lus), . . 66, 67, 113 Romulus Augustulus (Au-gus'-tu-lus), 112, 113 Roncesvalles (Ron-se-vals';, . . 127 Ronsin (Roang-sang'l, . . , 322 Rooke, Sir George (Rook), . . 269 Rosalie, Fort, (Ro-sa-le'j, . . 300 Ros»munda (Ro-sa-mun'-dah), Rosas (Ro'-sas), . Rosbach (Ros'-bok'), . Rosbecque(Ros'-bek), . Rosecrans (Ros'-e-kranz), Rosny (Ros'-ne), Ross, Rossi (Ros'-se), . Rossignol (Ros-seen-yoal'), . Rostopschin (Ros-top-shin'), Rothiere, La (La Ro-ie-aire'), Rotterdam (Rot'-ter-dam), Rouen (Roo'-en), Roundway Down (Round'-way Rouse (Rous), . . Rousseau (Roos'-so), Roxana (Rox-a'-na), Roxbury ( Rox-ber'-re), Rubicon (Ru-be'-kon), . 154 506, 507, 512, 513, S'S, 5>6 . 407, 409 119 440 379 . 322 344 348, 349 209 148, 156, 182 Down), . 237 . 242 3"i 5'2 . 57. So . 258 Rudiger (Ru'-de-jer), . , . 383 Rudiger von Stahremberg(Stah'-rem-berg), 252 Rudolph (Ru'-dolf), . . . . i6i Rue Castiglione (Kas-teel-yo'-na), 416, 418 Rue d' Amsterdam ^d' Am'-ster-dam), . 414 Rue de Clery (der K.ler'-e), . . 373 Rue de la Paix (der la Pa'), . . 418 Rue de la Roquette (der la Ro-ket'), . 373 Rue de Rosiere (der Ro-se-aire'j, . . 414 Rue du Faubourg St. Denis (du Fo'-boorg Sang Der'-ne), .... 375 Rue Lafayette (Lah-fa-et'), . . 420 Rue Royale (Rwaw'-ale), . 414, 419, 420 Rue St. Denis (Sang Der'-ne), . . 373 Rue St. Honore (Sang Ho'-nore), . . 418 Rue Villeneuve Bourbon (Vil'-le-nuve Boor'- bon), . . . , .373 Ruffo (Ruf-fo), . . . .329 Rugen (Ru'-jcn), . . 231,277,338 Runnymede (Run'-ne-meed), . 175 Rupert, Emperor of Germany (Ru'-pert), 168, 169 Rupert of the Palatinate, . 237, 238, 244, 245 Ruric (Ru'-rik), . . . .130,188 Russell, Lord John (Rus'-sel), 366, 367, 399 Russell, Lord William, . . . 246 Russia (Roosh'-yah), 188, 273, 275, 277, 278, 280,, 2&6, 292, 294, 295, 296, 329, 336, 3.(2, 364, 386 Russian, . 188, 273, 276, 278, 290, 295, 296, 329, 336, 345i 365, 386, 387, 388, 395, 39S Russians, 130, 188, 274, 275, 280, 289,294, 295, 296, 329, 336, 345, 365, 386, 387, 395 Ryswick (Ris'-wik), . . 248,255,301 s. Saabaism (Sa'-ab-ism), . Saalfeld (Sahl'-feld), Saarbrucken (Sahr'-brook-en), Sabine (Sa'-bine), . , Sabine Cross Roads (Sa-been'), Sabines, .... Sac (Sak), . . . Sachem (Sa'-kem), Sackett's Harbor (Sak'-et's), Sacramento (Sak-ra-nien'-to), , Sacramento City, . . Sadowa (Sah'-do-wa), . Saguntum (Sa-gun'-tum), Sahib, Nena(Na'-naSah'-ib), . Saib Tippoo (Tip'-poo Sah'-ib), Saladin (Sal'-a-din), . . Salamanca (Sal-a-man'-ka), . Salamis (Sal'-a-misi, Salankemen (Sa-lan'-ke-men), Salem (Sa'-lem ), Salic Law (Sa'-Iik), . 151, Salien Franks (Sal'-yan), Salisbury (Sals'-ber-re), Salle, Robei t de La (der La SaW) Salmeron, Nicholas (Nik'-o-las Sal'-me- ron), 424, Saltillo (Sahl-teel'-yo), Salzbach (SahlLs'-bok), , Samarcand (Sam-ar-kand'), . Samaria (S.i-ma'-re-a), . , Samnite (Sam'-nite), , Saranites, . . . Samnium (Sam'-ne-um), S.imson (Sam'-son), . , Samuel (Sam'-yel), . San Antonio (^San An-to'-ne-o), . San Antonio ae Bexar (Ba-har'), Sander's Creek (San'-ders), . . 471 Sandusky (San'-dus-ke), ... 486 Sandwich (Sand'-witch), . . 245 San Francisco (San Fran-sis'-ko), . . 500 San Jacinto (San Ja-sin'-to), . . 444 San Juan de UUoaiSan Wahn da Oo-loo'-a), 499 San Julian (San Ju'-le-an), . . 428 . 120 337 402, 405 . 66, 67 • 5'7 . 66, 67 • 494 257, 526 • 487 499 524 398 . 78 390 • 299 137, 138 • 342 46 ■ 253 58, 259, 266 52, 178, 367 151 522 300 425, 436, 427 498, 499 252 . 19a 3'i32 74,75 74,75 65, 75 29, 3" • 30 427. 447, 500 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 605 San Luis Potosi (San Lu'-is Po-to-se'), . 49S San Marino (San Ma-re'-no), . . 394 San Martin (San Mar'-tin), . . . 373 San Salvador (San Sal'-va-dore), . 194 Sanscrit (^San'-skrit), . . • ^3 San Sebastian (San Se-bas'-che-an), . 346, 400 Santa Anna ^San'-ta An'-na), 442, 443, 444, 443, 446, 447! 498, 499. 500» 501 Santa Cruz »San'-ta Kroozl, . . 441 Santa Fe (San'-ta Fa; . . 498, 499 Santa Guliana (San'-ta Gu-Ie-an'-a), . 429 Santa Martha (San'-ta Mar'-lha), . 436 Santee (,San'-tee) .... 474 Santerre (San-taire'), . . . 317, 320 Santiago (San-te-a'-go), . . . 439 Sapor (_Sa'-por), .... 104 Saracen (Sar'-a-sen), . 120, 122, 123, 124, 125 Saracens . 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 134, 160 Saragossa (Sar-a-gos'-sa;, 127, 271, 339, 340,400 Sarah (Sa'-rah), . . . .28 Saratoga (Sar-a-to'-ga), . . . 467 Sardanapalus (Sar-dan-a-pa'-Ius), . . 24 Sardinia ^Sar-din'-e-a), 65, 77, 92, 158, 282, 285, 326. 357, 379. 387. 388, 392, 393. 394 Sardinian, . . . . 370 Sardinians, . . 285, 323, 379, 388, 393 Sardis (Sar'-dis), . . 33, 45, 52, 55, 60 Sarmatians (Sar-ma'-she-ans), . . 105 Sassacus 1 Sas'-sa-kus ), . . . 262 Sassanidae (Sas-san'-e-de), . . 103, 122 Saturn (Sat'-urn), ... 36 Saul, . . , . . ' 2P Savage Station, . . . .511 Savannah (Sa-van'-nah), 267, 469, 470, 475, 503, 509. 530 Savona fSa-vo'-nah), .... 203 Savoy (Sa-voy') 203, 205, 253, 255, 268, 326 Saxe (Sax), .... 285 Saxe-Coburg (Sax-Ko'-burg), 363, 364, 367 Saxon (Sax'-on), 120, 127, 128, 159, 160, 161, 162, 171, 172 Saxon-Heptarchy (Hep-tark'e), 120, 171, 285, 287, 348 Saxons, . 109, 120, 127, 128, 189, 229, 275 Saxony (Sax-on'-ne), 159, 160, 161, 200, 206, 207, 208, 227, 229, 231,273, 275, 282,287, 337, 374, 377i 379 Say and Seale (Sa and Seel), . . 262 Saybrook (Sa'-brook), ... 262, 263 Sayle, William (Sale), . . . 265 ScsEvola, Mutius (Mu'-she-us Sev'-o-la), 69 Scandinavia (Skan-de-na'-ve-a), . 146, 186 Scandinavian, . 103, 130, 171, 185, 186, 213 Scandinavians, .... 184 Scarron, Madame (Skar'-on), . . 253 Schamyl (Sham'-mil), . . . 395 Scharnhorst (Sharn'-horst), . . 347 Scheldt fShelt I, .... 271 Schenectady (Ske-nek'-ta-de), . 301 Schleswig (^Shles'-wig), 120, 228, 273, 375, 377, 378, 396, 397.399 Schlusselburg ('Schlus'-sel-burg), . . 275 Schmalkald iShmahl'-kold), . 206, 207, 208 Schoeffer (Shef-fer), . . . 192 Schoenbrun (Shain'-brun), . . 341 Schofield (Sko'-feeld), . . 520, 521 Schoharie Valley (Sko-ha'-re), . . 469 Schuyler, Philip (Ski'-ler), . . 462, 467 Schuyler, Fort, .... 467 Schuylkill fSkool'-kill), . 266,267,466,468 Schwartz, Berthold (Bert'-old Shwarts) . 792 Schwartzenberg (Shwarts'-en-berg), 347, 348, Schweidnitz (Shwide'-nits), . 288, 292 Schwerin (Shwair'-in), . 186, 282, 287 Schwytz (Shwites), . , . . 167 Scinde ! Sind), .... 369 Scio (Si'-o), ..... 358 Sciots (Si'-ots), .... 358 Scipio (Sip'-e-o), . . . .79 Scipio yEmilianus (E-mil-e-an'-us), . 83 Scipio Africanus (Af-re-kan'-us), . 80, 81, 82 Scipio Nasica (Na'-se-ka), . . 84 Scone (Skone I, .... 177 Scots (Skots), . loi, 109, 176, 177, 211, 222 Scotch (Skotsh), 176, 178,211, 222, 223, 235,285 Scotland (Skot'-land;, 172, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, i8q, 209, 235, 278 Scott, Dred, .... 502 Scott, Winfield (Win'-feeld Skot), 485,488,494, 496, 498, 499, 500, 508 Scrope (Skrope), Scythia (Sith'-e-a), Scythian, . . Scythians, . Sea Islands, . Seballs (Se-balls'). Sebastian Cabot (Se-bas'-che-an Ka Sebastian, St., Seckeuheira (Sek'-en-hime), 34, 34, 57 • ^^ 104, 120 . 508 422, 427, 430 boti, . 195 346, 400 . 170 405, 406, 413 516. 518 Sedan ;Se-dong'), . . 404, Sedgwick (Sej'-wick), Sedition Law, . . Seine (^Saine), . . Sejanus (Se-jan'-us), . Seleucia (Se-lu'-she-a), . Seleucidae (Se-lu'-se-da), Seleucus, (Se-lu'- kus), . . Selim L of Turkey (Se'-lim), Selim n., .... Seljuk (Scl'-jook), Seminole (Sem'-e-nole), . . . Seminoles, Semiramis (Se-mir'-a-mis), Semmes, Raphael (Raf-a-el Serns) Sempach, (Scm'-pok/, Sempronius (Sem-pron'-e-us), Seneca (Sen'-e-ka, . . Sennacherib (Sen-na-ke'-rib), Sens, .... Sepoy (Se-poyO, Sepoys, .... Septimius (Sep-tim'-e-us), Septimius Severus (Sev'-e-rus), . Scrapis fSe-rap'-is'i, . Sergius Catiline (Ser'-je-us Kat'-e-l Seringapatam (Se-ring-ga-pa-tam') Serrano (Ser-ran'-o), 400, 401, 422, Serlorius (Ser-to'-re-usj, . Servia (Ser'-ve-a), Servian, . Servians, . . Servius Tullius fSer'-ve-us Tul'-le-us Sesia (Sesia (Se'-se-a), . . . 393 Sesostris (Se-sos'-tris), ... 26 Sevastopol ' Sev-as-to'-pol), . . 387, 388 Severus (Sev'-e-rus), . . . J02 Severus, Alexander I'Al-ex-an'-der), 102 Severus, Septimius (Sep-tira'-e-us;, . loi Sevier i Sev-eer'), . . . . 472 Seville (Sev'-il), . 158, 340, 424, 425, 426 Sevres (Sev'-er), .... 416 Sextius Lateranus (Sek'-she-us La-ter-an'-us), 78 Seymour (Se'-more), .... 212 Seymour, General, . . . 517 Seymour, Horatio, (Ho-ra'-she-o) . . 523 Seymour, Jane, . . . 210, 211 Sforza, Francisco (Fran-sis'-ko Sfor'-tsa), . 143 Shackleford (Shak'-el-ford), . . 515 Shaftesbury, Earl of (Shafts'-ber-re), 245, 246, 264 Shah Abbas, Shah Ab'-bas), . . 215, 281 Shah, Nadir (Na'-dir Shah), . .281 Shah Soojah (Shah Soo'-jah), . . 369 Shalmanesar (Shal-man-e'-ser), . . 24 Shannon (Shan'-non), . . . 488 Shawnoese (Shaw-no-ese'), . . , 484 Sheba (She'-ba), . •. . . 31 Shechem fShe'-kem), . . .31 Shelby (Shel'-be), . . .472 Shem, , . . . . 22, 24 I25i 373, 406 • 94 64, 89, 10 1 60, 64, 88 . 60, 64 . 192 192 • 134 ', 494, 495 • 495 . 24, 1 86 • 5'9 168 • 79 • 95, 9^ . 24 108 389. 39°. 391 389, 390. 391 . 90 lOI 470 ne),. 88 • 299 427. 42^ 429 87 . 191 380,381 . 380 ),. 68 6o6 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 298 .520 521 278 464 I'-sa) 5>2, , 521 529 502 . 123 . 509 • 21 , 22 »,303 304 180 ,'365, 395 . 513 150 378 145 150 Shenandoah Valley (Shen-an-do'-ah), 506, 510, 519, 520, 521 Sheridan (Sher'-e-dan), Sheridan, Philip H., Sheriff Muir (Sher'-if Moor), Sherman, Roger (Roj'-er Sher'-man\ Sherman, William Tecumseh (Te-kum 513. S16, 517, 518, 519, 520, Shields (Sheelds), Shiilcs (Shi'-ites), . , Shiluh (Shi'-lo), Shinar, Land of (Shi'-nar), , Shirley (^Shir'-le), . . 302, Shishak (Shi'-shak), Shreveport (Shreve'-port), . Shrewsbury (Shruse-ber'-re), Siberia ' Si-be'-re-a), . 188,276 Sibley, Henry H. (Sib'-le), Sicilian (Sis-il'-e-an), . . Sicilians, .... Sicilian Vespers, ... Sicily (Sis'-e-le), 40, 42, 49, 50,65, 76, 77, 78, 83. 145, 146, 165, 272, 279, 378, 394 Siculi (Sik'-u-li), . • . .65 Sicyon (Sish'-e-on), . . .61,62 Sidon iSi'-don), . . •27,55,137 Sidonians (Si-do'-ne-ans), . . 27 Sierra Morena (Se-a'-ra Mo-ra'-na), . 158 Sieyes (Se'-es), .... 312, 331 Sigel, Franz (Se'-gcl), . . . 507 Sigismund, of Germany (Sid'-jis-mund), 169, 170 Sigismund I. of Poland, . . . 187 Sigismund II. of Poland, . . 187 Sigmaringen (Sigma-ring'-en), . 401, 402 Sikh i^Seek), . . . 369, 390 Sikhs, ...... 369 Silesia (SeJee'-she-a), . . 190, 282, 285 Silesian, . . . 282, 284, 285 Silistria (Sil-is'-tre-a), . . . 359, 387 Silli ry (Sil'-Ier-re), . , . 291, 306 Silliman, (Sir-le-man\ . . . 465 Simnel, Lambert (Lam'-bert Sim'-nel), . 185 Simon de Montfort (Si'-monde Mont'-iort), 175, 176 Simon, Jules (Jule Si'-mon), . . 406 Simon, Maccabeus (^Mak-ka'-be-us), . 64 Simpson 'Sim'-son), .... 388 Sinai, Mount (Si'-na), ... 28 Sinope (Sin'-o-pee), .... 387 Sioux (Soo), .... 513 Sirmium (Sir'-me-um), , . . 105 Sisera' Sis'-e-ra), . ... 29 Siva iSi'-va), . . . . .23 Siwah ^Se-wah'), ... 34 Skippon (Skip'-pon), .... 238 Skrzynccki (Skshe-nets'-ke), . . 365 Slaves (Slaves), .... 129 Slavic (Sla'-vik), . . . 376, 3S0 Slavonia (Sla-vo'-ne-a), . . . 381 Slavonians, . . 118, 129, 159, 160, 186 Slavonic (Sla-von'-ik), . . . 186 Sleinmer, Adam J. (Slem'-mer), . 504 Sloat (Sloat), ..... 499 Sloughter, Henry (Slout'-er), . . 261 Smart, ...... 242 Smith, Andrew J., . . . 519 Smiih, E. Kirby (E. Kir'-be Smith), . 512 Smith, John, . . 255, 256, 257 Smith, Sydney (Sid'-ne Smith), . . 330 Smolensko (Smo-lens'-ko), . . 344 Sobieski, John (So-be-es'-ke), , 252,253 Sobraon (So-bra'-on), . . . 369 Sobrier (So-bre-a'), . . . 372 Socialism, ..... 372 Socrates (Sok'-ra-teez), ... 51 Sogdiana (Sog-de-an'-a), . . .57 Soissons (Swos-soang), . , 125, 349 Solferino (Sol-fer-e'-no), . . . 393 Solomon (Sol'-o-mon), . . . 31 Solon (So'-lon), . , , 42, 43, 44 SoltikofF f Sol'-te-kof ), ... 290 Solway Frith ^Sol'-way), . . •99 Sol way Moss, . . , .211 Solyman (Sol'-e-man), , . 192, 204 Somerset (Som'-er-set), . . 211,212,508 Somorrostro(So-mor-ros'-tro1, . . 428 Sonderburg Glucksburg, (Soon'-der-burg Glooks'-burg), .... 396 Sophia St. (Saint So-fe'-a), . 119, 191 Sorel, (Sor'-el), .... 462 Sorr, ..... 284 Sothel (Soth'-el), . . . .265 Soiibise (Soo-beez'), . . . 288 Soult (Soolt), . . . 340, 342, 346, 449 South America (South A-mer'-e-ka), . 194 South Carolina (South Kar-o-li'-na), 264, 265, 463. 471, 473, 494, 504, 505, 508, 515, 521 South Mountain, .... 511 Spain, 27, 37, 78, 80, 83,87,90,96, III, 124,127, 146, 156, 194, 215, 242, 269, 335, 339, 355 Spaniard (Span'-yard), . , . 194, 214 Spaniards, 143,145,242,265,268,340 Spanish (Span'-ish), 194, 195, 213, 268, 339, 342, 367, 400, 421 Sparta (Spar'-ta), 35, 37, 38, 40, 41, 48, 51, 52, 53,62 Spartacus (Spar'-ta-kus), . . '87 Spartan (Spar'-tan), 40, 41, 42, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52, 62 Spartans, . .41. 42, 46, 49, 50, 52, 62 Spenser, Hugh (Hu Spen'-ser), . • '77 Spicheren (Spik'-er-en), . . . 403 Spice Islands, .... 193 Spire, . . . 161, 166, 201, 354 Splugen (Splu'-jen), .... 332 Spotsylvania Court House (Spot-sil-va'- ne-a), ..... Ji8 Springfield (Spring'-feeld), . . 472, 507 St. Albans (Saint Awl'-bans), . . 184 St. Angelo (Saint An'-je-lo), . . 204 St. .^ntoine (Saint An-twaw'-na), . 250,373 St. Arn.iud (Sang Ar'-no), . . . 387 St, Aubin (Sang O'-been), . . 157 St. Augustine Saint Au'-gus-teen), . . 268 St. Avoid (Saint Av'-old), . . 403 St. Bartholomew (St. Bar-thol'-o-mew), 219, 220 St. Bernard (Saint Ber-nard'), . • '37 St. Clair (Saint K.lair), 466, 467, 479 St. Cloud (Sang Cloo'), . . 33', 393 St. Denis (Sang Der'-ne), 219, 221, 373, 410 St. Doinngo (Saint Do-ming'-o), . 184, 334 St. Germain (Sang Zher'-menI, . 219, 247 St. Germain I'Auxerrois (Sang Zher'-men Lo-zher-waw') .... 219 St. Helena (Saint He-le'-na), . . 352 St. Hon>)re (Sang Ho-ncre'), * . 418 St. John, .... 156, 140, 192 St. Just (Saint Just), . . . 208 St. Lawrence (Saint Law'-rence), 195.300, 302, 306, 462, 487 St. Leger (Saint Le'-jer), . St. Louis (Sang Loo'-e), . St. Mark (Saint Mark), . St. Mark's (Saint Mark's), . St. Mary's (Saint Ma'-ry's), St. Menehoiild (SangMa'-noo), St. Paul (Saint Paul), . St. Peter (Saint Pe'-ter), St. Petersburg (Saint Pe'-ters-burg^, 274, 275, 293. 333 St. Philip, Fort (Saint Fil'-ip), St. Pierre (Sang Pe-aire'), St. Pierre, Eustace (Use'-las), St. Quen (Sang Kain), . St. (Juentin (Sang Kain-tang'), St. Ruth, St. Salvador (Sal'-va-dore), St. Sophia (So-fe'-a>, . . Stadtholder (Staht'-hold-er), 216, 217, 218, 247, 251, 298 467 139, 140, 150 143 . 492 . 261 . 316 234 199, 200, 379 302 152, 178 419 212, 218, 410 . 248 194 119, 191 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 607 Stair, ..... 284 Stanhope (Stan'-hope\ , • . 271 Stanislaus Leczinski (Stan-is-la'-us Lek- zins'-ke), . . . 275, 276, 280 Stanislaus Poniatowski (Po-ne-a-tous'-keJ, 293 Stanley (Stan'-le), .... 184 Stanton, Edwin M. (Stan'-ton\ . 523 Stahremberg, Rudiger von (Ru'-de-jer von Stah'-rem-burg), . . 252,271,272 Stark, John, . . . • . 467 Staten Island (Sta'-ten), . . 464 Staiira (Sta-ti'-ra), . . . .58 Steadman, Fort (Sted'-man), . . 521 Steele, Frederic (Steel), . . . 515 Steinbock (Stine'-bok), . . . 277 Steinmetz (Stine'-mets), . . 403, 404 Stephen of England (Ste'-ven), . 173, 174 Stephen of Hungary, Sci;phens, Alexander H. (Ste'-vens), . 504 Stephenson, Fort (Ste'-ven-sonj, Steuben (Stu'-ben), Stevens (Ste'-vens), . Stewart Stu'-art), . . Stilicho (Stil'-e-ko), . Stirling (Stir'-ling), . . Stirling, Lord, . . Stockach (Stok'-ak), . Stockholm (Stok'-holm), . Stockton (Stok'-ton), . . Stofflet (Stof-fla'), Stone, .... Stoneman (Stone'-man), . Stone River, . . . Stono Ferry (Sto'-no), Stony Point, . . . Strafford 'Straf -ford), Stralsund (Strahl'-soond), 165, Strasburg (Stras'-burg), 108, 252, 370 406 Stratton Hill (Strat'-ton), Strelitzes (Strel'-its-es), . . Strieker iStrick'-er), . , Stringer I String'-er), . Stringham (String'-am), . Strode, .... Strongbow (Strong'-bo), Struve (Stru'-va), Stuart I Stu'-art), . 222, 232, Stiirgis Stur-jis), . Stuttgart (Stut'-gart), Stuyvesant (Sti-ves'-sant), . Styria ;Stir'-e-a), Suchet (Su-sha'), . Sucre Su-kra'), . . Suda (Su'-da\ Sudermania (Su-der-ma'-ne-a), Suetonius Paulinus(Su-ton'-e-us Pau Sueve iSweev), , Sueves, . . . Suffee (Suf-fee'^ Suffeean 1 Suf-fee'-an), Suffolk (SuP-folk), . Suliot ^Su'-le-ot), . Sullivan, John (Sul'-le-van), Sullivan's Island, Sully (Sul'-le), . Sultan (Sul'-tan), 137, 138, 191, 192,204 Sumter, Fort (Sum'-ter), . 504 Sumter, Thomas, . , . 471 Sunbury (Sun'-ber-re), Sunnites (Sun'-nites), Surajah Dowlah iSu-ra'-jah Dow'-lah) Suricy, Earl-of (Sur'-re), , Susa ^Su'-sa), Susiana ' Su-se-an'-a), Sussex 'Sus'-sex), Suwarrow (Su-wahr'-o), Swabia (Swaw'-be-a), Swabian League, Swanzy (Swan'-ze), 244 464 465 . 5" 490 no. III 177 . 464 329 186, 213 499 . 322 508 . 522 513 • 469 470 234. 235 277. 338 402, 403, 407, 412 . 237 188 . 489 242 • 507 236 • 174 373 474, 512 518 . 377 260 . 166 342 . 440 357 213, 341 nus), 96 . 112 III . 215 215 513. 514 358 468, 470 • 463 22t 359, 386 505, 515 472, 474 . 469 123 299 . 209, 211 35. 57i 59 • 57 . 120 295, 296, 329 159, 161, 162 . 170 258 Sweaborg (Swe'-borg), . . 338, 388 Swedes (Sweeds), . 229, 230, 252, 295 Sweden (Swe'-dcn), 185, 186, 213, 229, 273, 275, 277, 278, 2S1, 29s, 333, 338, 341, 342 Swedish (Sweed'-ish), . 213, 229, 251, 274, 276, 277,278,281,338, 347. Sweyn (Swain), . . , .172 Swiss, . . 157, 166, 167, 168,171, 334 Switzerland (Swits'-er-land), 167, 171, 201, 328, c • /c / ^ 334,411 Syagnus (Se-a'-gre-us), . . . 125 Sydney, Algernon (Al'-ger-non Sid'-ne), 246 Sydney Smith, .... 330 Sylvia (Sil'-ve-ah), ... 66 Syra (Sir'-ah), .... 394 Syrans (Sir'-ans), . . . 394 Syracusans (Sir-a-ku'-zans), . . . 50 Syracuse (Sir-a-kuze'), . 40, 50,63, 76, 80 Syria (Sir'-e-a), 33, 34, 55, 60, 63, 64, 81, 88, 89, 99, loi, 122, 134, 330, 368 Syrian, . . Syrians, Szecklers (Zek'-lers), Szigeth Zig'-eth), Szolnok ' Zol'-nok), Szonz (Zonts), . 31,63, 64, 88, 330 64 381 192 382 382 T. Tabor Hill (Ta'-bor), Tabor, Mount, Taborites (Ta'-bor-ites) Tacitus (Tas'-e-tus), Tacubaya ( Ta-koo-bi'-ya), . Talavera fTal-a-va'-ra), . Tallard (Tal-Iar'), . Talleyrand 1 Tal'-le-rand), Tallien (Tal-le-ong'), Tamasp (Tam-asp'), Tamaulipas iTa-mow'-Ie-pas), Tamerlane (Tara'-er-lane), . Taney (Taw'-ne), Tarentines (Ta-ren'-tins), . Tarentius Varro (Ta-ren'-she-us Tarentum (Ta-ren'-tum), Targowicz (Tar-go-vits'), . Tarik (Ta'-rik), . Tarleton (Tarl'-ton), . Tarpeia (Tar-pe'-a), . Tarpeian Rock, Tarquin the Elder (Tar'-quin), Tarquin the Proud, 9, 331 . 231 330 . 170 105 • 445 340 - 270 346, 349 323. 324 . 215 435, 498 . 191 S02 • 75 Var'-ro), 79 65, 75, 76, 80 295, 296 . 124 47J, 473 66 • 73 68 ,69 129 57, 123 295 • 517 18, 500, 501 Tarquinius Priscus (Tar-quin'-e-us Pris'- kus I, . . . . .68 Tarquinius Superbus (Su-per'-bus), 68, 69 Tarsus (Tar'-sus), . , . 55,92 Tartar (Tar'-tar), , . . 190 Tartaric (Tar-tar'-ik), . . . 189 Tartars, ..... Tartary (Tar'-ta-re), Tauris (Tau'-ris), Taylor, Richard (Ta'-Ior), . Taylor, Zachary (Zak'-a-re), 495, 497, Tchernaya (Cher-na'-ya), Teba(Te'-ba) 386 Tecumsch (Te-kum'-sa), . . 484, 486 Tegethoff (Tej'-et-hof ), . . 398 Tehuacan (Ta-wah'-kan), . . . 448 Tejada, Lerdo de (Lair'-do de Te-lia'-da), 450, 451 Tejas (Te'-jas), . . , .118 Tell, William 167 Temeswar, ( Tem-esh-var'), . 381, 383 Tennessee (Ten-nes-see'), . 480, 400, 491, 493, 497, 504, 506, 508, 509, 510, 515, 516, S17, 520, 523 Tennesseeans,'Ten-nes-see'-ans), . . 489 Tennis Court (Ten'-nis), . 313,317 Teran (Ta-ran'), .... 435 Ternay (Ter-na'), . . , 472 6o8 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Terska (Ters'-k.-i), .... 230 Teutones (Tu'-tones), ... 85 Tewksbiiry (Tukes'-ber-re), . . .183 Texan (Tex'-an), . . . 443, 444 Texans, ..... 444 Texas (Tex'-as), . 443, 446, 497, 498, 501, 504, 5131 516 Thaddeus Kosciuszko (Thad'-de-us Kos-se- uz'-ko), . . . 295, 296, 395, 465 Thales (Tha'-leez), ... 44 Thames (Temzi, . . . 175, 4S6 Thapsus (Thap'-sus), ... 90 Thassilo (Thas-sil'-lo), . . . 128 Thatcher (Thatch'-er), . . . 522 Thebais (The'-bais), . . -25 Theban (The'-ban), ... 48 Thebans, . . . . S^i 53, 54 Thebes, Egypt (Theebs), . . 25 Thebes, Greece, . 35, 37, 48, 52, 53, 54 Theiss (Tice), . . 129, 1S9, 382, 3S3 Themistocles (The-mis'-to-kleez), . 46, 47, 48 Theodore (The'-o-dore), . . 399 Theodorjc the Ostrogoth (The-od'-o-rik), 112, 117 Theodosius the Great (The-o-do'-she-us), . 110 Theophilus Eaton (The-of'-e-lus E'-ton), 363 Theresa, Maria (Ma-ri'-a Te-re'-sa), 250, 280, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 297, 298, 311 Thermia (Ther'-me-a), . . . 394 Thermidor (Ther'-me-dor), . . 323, 324 Thermopylie (^Ther-mop'-e-le), . 46, 6t, 358 Theseus tThe'-soost, • • • 37 Thespians (Thes-pi'-ans), . . .46 Thessalians (Thes-sa'-le-ans), . . S3 Thessaly fThes'-sa-le), . . 36, 90 Thibault tTe'-bo), . . .148 Thiers, Louis Adolphe (Loo-e A'-dolf Te'-a), 370, . 3*5, 4". 4i4i 415, 420. 430. 43' Thionville (Te-oang-veel'), . 402, 421, 408 Thomas (Tom'-asl, . . . 414 Thomas, George H., . 508, 516, 520 Thomas, John, .... 463 Thomson, Charles (Tom'-son), . . 459 Thompson (Tom'-son), . . . 495 Thomyris ;Thom'-e-ris), . . • 34 Thornton (Thorn'-ton), . . 446, 498 Thrace (Tnra'-sel . 40, 45, 60, 109, 112 Thr.\cian (Thra'-she-an), . . 102 Thracians, ..... 117 Thrasybulus CThras-ib'-u-lus), . . 51 Thuringia tThu-rin'-je-a), . . . 159 Thuringian, .... 166 Thurn, Count von (Toorn), . . . 226 Thymbra (Thim'-bra), ... 33 Tiber (Ti'-ber), . . 68, 69, 97, loi, 102 Tiberias, Lake (Ti-be'-re-as), . . 137 Tiberius (Ti-be'-re-us), . , 94, 95 Tiberius Gracchus (Grak'-kus), . 84 Ticino (Tis'-e-no), . . . 379, 392 Ticinus (Tis-i'-nus), ... 79 Ticonderoga (Ti-kon-der-o'-ga), 290, 305, 307, 460, 466 Tien-tsin ('Teen'-tsin), . . . 389 Tigris (Ti-gris), . . . 24,56,59,99 Tilly (Teel'-ye), . . 227, 228, 229, 230 Tilsit (Til'-sit), .... 338 Timour the Lame (Te-moor^, . . 191 Tinicum Island (Tin'-e-kum), . . 266 Tinville, Fouquir (Foo-ke-a' Tang-veel'), 324, 420 Tippecanoe (Tip-pe-ka-noo'), . . 484 Tippoo Saib (,Tip'-po Sah'-ib), . . 299 Tissaphernes (Tis-sa-fer'-nes), . . 52 Titans {Ti '-tans), ... 36 Titus (Ti'-tus), . • • 97i 98 Titus Alanlius (Ti'-tus Man'-le-us), . 74 Titus O.ites (,Oats), .... 246 Titus Tatius (Ta'-she-us), . . 67 Tohopeka (To-ho-pe'-ka), . . . 487 Tokay j^To-ka'), .... 3S3 Tokeli, Emmerick (Em'-er-ik To-ke'-le), 252, 853 Tolbiac (Tol'-be-ak), . . • '25 Tolenlino (To-len-te'-no), . 326, 351 Tolosa (To-lo'-sa), . . . 158, 428 Tompkins, Daniel D. (Dan'-yel D. Tom'- kiiis), .... 491, 492 Tomochichi (To-mo-ke'-ke), . . 267 Topeka (To-pe'-ka), . . . 503 Torgau (Tor'-gou), .... 291 Tories (To'-rees), . 246, 272, 297, 400, 432 Toronto iTo-ron'-to), . . . 486 Torres ('Tor'-res), . . . 435 Torres Vedras (Tor'-res Va'-dras), . . 342 Torstenson (Tors'-ten-son), . . 231 Tory (To'-re), . . 246,297,366,399 Tostig (Tos'-tig), . . . .172 Totila (To-ti'-la), . . 118 Toul Croon, .... 206, 208 Toulon (Too-lon'), 271, 322, 325, 361, 402 Toulouse (T00-I002'), 136, 141, 146, 149, 249, 349 Touraine (Too-raine'), . . . 149 Tourenne (Too-ren'), . . . 206 Tournay (Toor-na'), . . 158, 209 Tours (Toors), .... 124, 407 Tourville (Toor'-veel\ . . . 255 Toussaint Louverture (Too-sang' Loo-ver- ture'), . . . . .334 Trafalgar (Traf-al-gar'), . . 336 Trajan (Tra'-jan)' . . . -99 Transylvania (Tran-sil-va'-ne-a), 189, 192, 253, 380, 381, 382, 383 Transylvanian, .... 192 Trasimenus (Tras-im'-e-nus), . . 79 Tratin (Troun), .... 284 Travendal (Trav'-en-dal), . . 274 Trebia (Tre'-be-a), . . . 79 Trent (Trent), . . 207, 208, 398 Trenton (Tren-ton), . . . 465 Trevino (Tra-ve'-no), . . •45' Tribonian (Tre-bo'-ne-an), . . 119 Tribilhate (Trib'-u-nat), . . . 332 Tribune (Trib'-une), ... 84 Tribunes, . . 70, 71, 72, 89, 142 Tristany (Tris'-ta-ne), , . 422, 427 Tritels (Tre'-fels), . . ,138 Tripoli (Trip-'o-le). . . 192, 481, 482 Tripolitans (Tre-pol'-e-tans), . . 4S1 Tnpolitza (Trip-o-lit'-sa), . . 358 Triumvirate (Tri-um'-ver-ate), . 88, 92 Triumvirs (Tri-um'-vers), . . 88, 92 Trochu (Tro'-koo), . . 407, 409, 4to, 411 Trojan (Tro'-jan), . . •38. 65 Trojans. - . . . . .38 Tromp, Van (Van Tromp), . . 241 Tronchet (Tron-sha'), . . . 320 Troppau (.Trop'-pou), . . . 356 Troy, ..... 38 Troyes (Troy'-e), . loS, 154, 155, 181, 349 Truxton (Trux'-ton), . . . 480 Tryon (Try'-onl, . . 458, 465, 469, 470 Tudela (Too-da'-Ia), . . . 340 Tudor (Too'-der), . . . 184, 185 Tuileiies (Tweel-ree'), 315, 318, 321, 327, 362, 371. 385, 406, 419, 430 TuUia (Too'-Ie-a) 68 TuUus Hostilius (Tul'-lus Hos-til'-e-us\ 76 Tunes (Too'-nes\ ... 77 Tunis (Too'-nisi, . . 140,150,192,204 Tupac Amaru i,Too'-pa\vk Am'-a-ru), 433, 434 Turenne (Too-ren') . 231, 250, 251, 252 Turgot (Tur'-go'), . . . -3" Turin (Too'-rin), . . . 270, 357 Turkestan (Turk-es-tan'), . . 35, 58 Turkey (Turk'-e), 3^, 204, 276,278,280,294,295, 359. 3S6, 3S7, 383 Turkish (Turk'-ish), 136, 191, 192, 205, 206,252, 276, 294, 360, 388 Turks, 134, 135, 136, 191, 192, 206, 215, 252, 277, 294» 387. 388 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 609 Tuscany (Tus'-ka-ne). . . . 144, 280 Tuscarora (Tus-ka-ro -ra), , . . 265 Tuscaroras, .... 265 Twiggs, ..... 5°4 Tyler, John (Ti'-Ier), . . .496,497 Tyler, Wat I Wot Ti'-ler), . . .179 Tyndarus (Tin-da'-rus), . . 38 Tyne (Tin), . . . .99, 172 Tyre, . . . .27, 31, 55, 56 Tyrian (Tir'-e-an), . • . 56 Tyrians, . . . . • 5^ Tyrrhenians (Tir-re'-ne-ans), . . 65 Tyrol (TIr'-ol), . 207,208,341,375,398 Tyrolese (Tir-ol-e=e') . . . 341 Tyrone (ly-rone'), .... 225 Tyrtaeus (Tir-te'-us), ... 42 u. Uhrich (Oo'-rik), . . . 406, Ukraine (U'-krane), . . 253, 276, UUoa, San Juan de (San Whaun' da Oo-loo'- a) Ulm, i6s, Ulm, New, .... Ulric (Ool'-reek), . . Ulrica, Eleanora (Ool-re'-ka El-e-no'-ra), Ulric Zwingle (Ool'-reek Zwin'-gle), Ultramontane (Ul-tra-raon-tane'i, . 363, Ultramontanes, .... Ulysses (U-lis'-sees), Umbria (Um'-bre-aj, .... Umbrians, .... Union City, ..... United States, 455, 463, 475, 478, 484, 490, 498, 500, 504, Unstruth, (Oons'-troot), . Unterwalden (Oon'-ter-wol-den), . 167, Upsala (Up-sa'-la), Ural (U'-ral), Uranus (U'-ran-m), Urban (Ur'-ban), .... Uri(Oo'-re), .... Uriah (U-ri'-ah), .... Urrea (Oo-ra'-ah), . . . 444, Uruguay (Oo'-roo-gwi), . . 440, Utah (U'-tah), . . . .503, Utica (U'-te-ka) .... Utopia (U-to'-pe-a), Utrecht (U'-trekt), . 272, 280, 407 296 499 336 513 170 278 201 431 431 38 65 75 517 496, 524 161 168 213 129 36 135 167 31 445 441 532 90 210 302 V. Vadier (Va-de-aO, Valencia (Va-len'-she-a), 324 158, 339i 342. a,oo, 424. 425, 426 ■ 323 . 109, 1 10 109, no no III, 112 104 407, 410, 415 • 194 420 466, 468 3'9 441, 490 Valenciennes (Va-long-se-en'), Valens(Va'-lens), Valentinian I. (Val-en-tin'-e-an), Valentinian II., . Valentinian III., Valerian (Va-'.e'-re-an), . Valerien, Fort (Va-lar-re-aing') Valladolid (Val-la-do-lid'), . Valles (Vals), Valley Forge, . . Valmy (Val'-me), Valparaiso (Val-pa-ri'-so) Valois (Val-waw') . 152, 178, 187, 206, 221 Van ArtveldtfVan Art'-velt!, . . 154 Van Buren, Martin (Van Bu'-ren), . 494, 495 Vandal (Van'-dal), . . 112, 117, n8 Vandalism, .... 419 Vandals, . . 104, 112, 117, 118 Vandamme ^Van-dam'j, . . . 347 Van L)orn, Earl, . . 508, 512 Vane, Sir Henry, . . . 241 Van Home, ..... 484 Van Olden Barnveldt (Van Ol'-den Barn' veldt), ..... 218 Van Tromp, ..... 241 Van Twiller (Van Twil'-lerl, . . 260 39 316 323, 324 • 393 1911 359 • 94 186, 213 • '93 219 . S50 349 . 328 23 • 72 424 . 242 335 . 322 322 325 Vanvres (Van'-ver), 407, 409, 410, 414, 416,417, 418 Varangian (Va-ran'-je-an), . Varennes (Va-ren'), Varennes, Billaud (Beel'-yo Va-ren'), Varese I Va-rese'i, Varna (Var'-na), Varus ( Va'-rus), . . Vasa, Gustavus (Gus-ta'-vus Vas'-a), Vasco de Gama (Vas'-ko da Ga'-ma), Vassy (Vas'-se), . . . Vauban (Vo-bong') . Vauchamps (Vo-shong'), Vaud(Vo) Vedas (Ve'-das), . Veil (Ve'-e-i), Velarde (Va-lar'-da), Venables (Ven'-a-bles), Vendean ( Von-de'-an), . Vendeans, .... Vendee, La (La Von'-da), Vendemiaire (Vong-de-me-aire'), Vendome (Ven-dome'), 270, 271, 272, 410, 414, 416, 418 Veneti (Ven'-e-ti), .... 143 Venetia (Ve-ne'-she-a), . 65, 380, 393, 399 Venetian, . . . 143, 144, 327 Venetians, . . 138, 143, 144, 327 Venezia (Ve-ne'-ze-a), . . . 143 Venezuela (Ven-e-zu-e'-la), 436, 437, 438, 440, 441 Venice (Ven'-is), 112, 138, 141, 143, 144, 158, 192, 195, 253, 278, 279, 327, 380 Venus (Ve'-nus), . . . .36 Vera Cruz (Va'-rah Krooz), 444, 447, 448, 450, 499 Vercellae (Ver-sel'-Ie), ... 86 Verd, Cape de, .... 193 Verdun (Ver-dun'), 129, 159, 206, 208, 319, 403, 404 Vergniaud (Varn'-yo), . . 317, 318 Vermandois (Ver-man-dwaw'), . . 135 Vermont f Ver-moni'), . 300, 467, 478, 528 Vernon (Ver'-non), . . . 280 Vernon, Mount, . . . 475, 481 Verona, (Ve-ro'-na), . . i03) 393 Verplanck's Point (Ver-plank's), . 470 Verrazzani, John (^Ver-rat-sah'-ne), . 195 Versailles (Ver-sails'), . 250, 293, 312, 313, 315, 407,409,411,414,415,416,417,418 Versaillists (Vcr-sail'-ists). . 417,418,419,420 Verus, Lucius iLu'-she-us Ver'-us), . 100 Vespasian (Ves-pa'-she-an), . 97, q8 Vespucci, Amerigo (A-mer-e'-go Ves-poot'. she), ..... 19^ Vesta (Ves'-ta'i, .... 36 Vesuvius I Ve-su'-ve-iis), . . .74 Veturia i,Ve-tu'-re-a), ... 71 Vicksburg (Vicks'-burgl, . . 512, 514 Victor Emmanuel I. (Vik'-tor Em-mau'-u- el), 357 Victor Emmanuel II., 379, 392, 393, 394, 400, 413 Victoria, Alexandra (Al-ex-an'-dra Vik-to'- re-a), . . . . .367 Victoria, General, . . 435, 441 Vienna (Ve-en'-na), loo, 192, 204, 231, 252, 253, 336, 340, 341. 3501 374, 37<5, 378, 382, 383. 393, 396, 399 Vigo (Ve'-go) . . . . 269 VillagosfVeel' a-goash), . . . 383 Villars (Vil-yar'l, . . 269,371,272 Villa Franca (Vil'-la Fran'-ka\ . . 393 Villaviciosa (Vil-le-ve-se-os'-sa), . . 272 Viller Exel (Vil'-ler Ex'-el;, . . 410 Villeroi (Vil-yer-waw'), . . 268, 270 Villiers, George (Vil-ye-aire'). , . 232 Vimiera (Vini-e-a'-ra), . . 340 Vincennes (Vin-senz'), . 300, 335, 470, 530 Vindex, Julius Ju'-le-us Vin'-dexl, . 96 6io ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Vindya (Vind'-ya), . Vinoy (Ve-noy'), . Virginia (Vir-jin'-e-a), 71, 72, 255, 302, 303, 455, 459, 461, 462, 463, 474. 477. 481. 483, 488, 49'. 493, 506, 507, 512,514 Virginian, Virginians, . . 256, 258 Virginius (Vir-jin'-e-us), Viriathus (Vir-e-a'-tiius), Viridomarus (Vir-e-do-ma'-rus), . Visconti (Vis-kon'-te), Viscount (Vi'-kount), Vishnu (Vish'-nu), Visigothic (Vis-e-goth'-ik), Visigoths (Vis'-e-goths), Vistula (Vis-tu'-la). 141, 186, 188 Vitellius ( Vi-tel'-Ie-us), , Vitiges(Vit'-e-jees), . Vittoria ( Vit-to'-re-a), . Vitry (Vit'-re'), Vitry la Francais (Vit'-re la Fron Vizier (Ve-zeer'), . Vladimir (Lad'-e-mer), Vladislaus (Lad-is-la'-us), Voiwode (Voi'-wode), Volga, (Vol'--ga), . , Volhynia (Vol-hin'-e-a), Volscians (Vol'-se-ans), . Volumnia (Vo-lum'-ne-a), Von Der Tann (Fon Der Tahn'), Vosges (Voazh), . Vulcan (Vul'-kan), w. Wabash (Waw'-bash), Wadsworth ^Wods'-worth), . Wadsworth, General, Wagner, Fort i^Wag'-ner), . Wagram (Wawg'-ram'), . Wahawbees ( Wa-haw'-bees), Waibling (Wi'-bling), . Waitzen (Wite'-scn), . Wakefield (Wake'-feeld), Waldemar tWol'-de-mar), Wales, Walker, Fort (Waw'-ker), . . . 508 Walker, Sir Hovenden (Ho'-ven-den), 302 Wallace, Lewis ( Loo'-is Wol'-les), . 506, 518 Wallace, Sir William, . . . 177 Wallachia ( Wol-lok'-e-a), . 294, 357, 386 Wallachs (WolMoks) . Wallenstein (Wol'-len-stine), 227, 228, 229, 230, Walpole, Sir Robert (Rob'-ert Wol'-pole) 280 Walter the Penniless, (Wawl'-ter), . 135, 147 Walworth, Sir William (Wil'-yam Wol'- worth), ..... 179 Wampanoag (Wawm-pa-no'-ag\ . 257, 258 Warbeck, Perkin (Per'-kin War'-bek), . 185 Ward, Arteraas (Ar'-te-mas Ward), . 471 Warner, Seth (Seth War'-ner), . . 367 Warren, Joseph (Jo'-sef War'-ren), . 460, 461 Warrington ( War'-ring-ton\ . . 490 Warsaw (War'-saw\ 296, 337,338, 364, 365, 295 Wartburg ( Wart'-burg), . . . 200 Warwick, (War'-wick), . 182,183,262 Warwickshire (War'-wik-shir), . . 237 Washington (Wash'-ing-ton,, 481, 489, 496, 505, 506, 507, 508, 511, 514, 522, 524 Washington, Fort, . . . 464, 465 Washington, George, 286, 302, 303, 305, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 468, 472, 474, 475, 476, 478, 479, 480, 481 Washington, William A., . . 473 Wasp, ...... 49Q Waterford (Waw'-ter-ford\ . . 302 Waterloo (Waw'-ter-loo), . . 351, 352 Watertown (Waw'-ter-town) . . 258 • 23 415, 420 256, 257, 264, 464, 469, 473, 496, 503, 505, . 516, 5171 52' . 302 . 303, 3°5, 462 72, 526, 527 . 83 78 . 143 248 • 23 . Ill, 112 . 124 294, 296, 337 97 . 118 346 . 148 sais'), 408 253 . 188 .87 • 187, 275 . 109, 264 . 296 68, 70, 71 • 71 407, 408 409 . 36 120, 176, 180 Wat Tyler (Wot Ti'-Ier), . . .176 Waxaw (Wax'-aw), . . . 471 Wayne, Anthony (An'-tho-ne Wain), 466, 470, 473, 474, 479 Wayne, Fort (Fort Wain), . . . 471 Weathersfield (Weth'-ers-feeld), . 262, 263 Webb, ...... 304 Webster Daniel, (Web'-ster), . . 496 Weimar (Wi'-mar), .... 231 Weinsberg (Wines'-berg) . . 162 Weissenberg (Wi'-sen-berg'l, . . 227 Weissenbourg (Wi'-sen-boorg), . . 403 Weitzel, Godfrey (God'-fra Witze'-el), . 521 Welden (Wel'-den), . . .382 Weldon, (Wel'-don), . . . .162 Wellesley, Sir Arthur (Wel-les'-le), 299, 338, 340, 342 Wellington, Duke of (Wel'-ling-ton), 300, 342, 346, 348, 349> 351. 352, 366 Welsh, .... 176 Wenceslaus (Wen-ses-la'-us), Wentworth, General (Went'-worth), Wentworth, Thomas, Werder, General von (Wair'-der), 403, 406, Werther, Baron (Wair'-ter,) Wessex (Wes'-sex), . . . 120, Westermann (Wes'-ter-man), West Indies (In'-deez), 194, 508, 509, 334, 474, Westminister (West-min'-ster) Westmoreland (West-more'-land), Westphalia (West-fa'-le-a), 217, 231, 338, West Point, , ... West Virginia, (Vir-jin'-e-al, . . 507, Wheeler, Sir Hugh (Hu Wheel'er), . Wheeling (Wheel'-ing>, Wheelright, Rev. John (Wheel'-riie), . Whig, . . . 246, 366, 399, 68, 169 234 410 401 171 322 470, 246, Whigs, White, Colonel, While, Major, .... Whitehall (White' -hawl), . Whitemarsh (White '-marsh), . While Oak Swamp, . White Plains, Whitworth (Whit'-worth) . Wialopolski (Wi-al-o-pols'-ke), . Wickhffe, John ( Wik'-lif), . Wiesloch, (Wees'-lok), . Wight, Isle of (Wite), Wilderness, .... Wilhelmshohe (Wil'-helms-haa), Wilkes, John (Wilks\ . Wilkinson, James (Wil'-kin-son), William I. of Germany (Wil-yam), 398, 405, 406, 407, 408, William III. of England, 247, 248, 254, William IV. of England, William the Conqueror, . 136, 147, William Rufus (Ru'-fus), Williams, . . . • _ . . Williams, Roger (Roj'-er), . . 258, 263 Williams, Thomas, .... 511 Williamsburg, ... . . 487, 510 Willoughby (_Wir-lo-be), . . . 390 Wilmington ( Wil'-ming-ton), 264, 473, 474, 521 Wilna (.Wil'-na), .... 343 Wilson (Wll'-son), . , . 390 Wilson, Henry, , . • . 525 Wilson, J. H., . . .522 Wilson's Creek, .... 507 Wimpfen (Wim'-fen), . . . 227 Wimptlen (Wim'-fen\ . . . 405 Winchester (Win'-ches-ter), 486, 509, 510, 519, 520 Winder (Wine'-der), .... 489 , Windischgratz (Win'-dish-grots), 376,381,382 ' Windsor (Win'-zer), . . 175, 262, 263 343, 348 472 S16 390 507 258 432 459 242 508 241 466 5'i 468 334 395 181 227 239 518 412 ,297 487 404, .412 259, I 269 367 '73 173 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 6ii \Vinfried(\Vin'.freed), . . .126 Wiiikelried, Arnold (Ar'-nold Wink'-el- reed), . . . . .168 Winnebago (Win-ne-ba'-go), . • 494 Winslow (Win'-slo), .... 303 Winslow, John A., . . . 5'9 Winston (Wins'-ton), . . . 472 Winthrop, John (Win'-throp), . . 258 Winlhrop, Theodore (The'-o-dore), . 506 Winzingerode (Win'-zin-jer-rode), . 348 Wisconsin ( Wis-kon'-sin), . 500, 503, 531 Wise, Henry A., .... 507 Withlacoochie (With-la-koo'-chee), . 495 127, 120 . 163, 164 199, 200, 287 345, 346, 359 403, 409 382 . 36; Witikind (Wit'-e-kind), Wittelsbach f Wit'-tels-bok), Wittenberg (Wit-ten-berg'), Wittgenstein ( Wit'-gen-stine), Woerth (Worth), Wohlgemnth (Wol'-ge-mute), Wola (Wo'-!a), . . Wolesley, Sir Garnet (Gar'-netWol'-es-le), 432 Wolfe, James (Woolf), . 290, 305, 306 Wolsey, Thomas (Tom'-as Wool'-se), 202, 209, 210 Wool, John Ellis (El'-lis Wool), 485, 498, 499, 510 Wooster (Woos'-ter), . . . 465 Worcester (Woos'-ter), . 240, 241, 243 Worms (Werms), 162, 165, 166, 171, 200, 254 Wouter Van Twiller (Wou'-ter VanTwil'' ler), ...... 260 Wrangel (Ran'-gel), . . . 231 Wrede (Vra'-da), . . . .348 Wurmser (Werm'-ser), . . . 326 Wurtemberg (Wir'-tem-berg), 170,348, 374, 377, 399 Wurtembergers (Wir -tera-berg -ers), . 409 Wurzburg (Wurts'-burg), . . 326 Wyatt, Sir Thomas (Tom'-as Wi'-at), . 256 Wyoming, Massacre of (Wy-o'-ming), 469, 470 Wyoming Territory, .... 532 Xantippus (Zan-tip'-pus), . . -77 Xenophon (Zen'-o-fon), . . . 51, 52 Xeres dela Frontera (Ha-ras'de la Fron-ta'- ra), ...... 124 Xerzes (Zerk'-seez), . . .46, 47 Y. Yamasee (Yam-a-see') Yamasees, Yeamans, Sir John (Ye'-mans), Yermouk ( Yer-mook'), . Yesdijird (Vaze'-de-zherd), . Ynglians (Ing'-gle-ans), . Yorck (Yor'-rik), York, 107, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185 York, New, 244, 259, 260, 261, 263, 300, 462, 463, 464, 466, 468, 469, 474. Yorkinos ( York'-e-noes), . Yorkists (York'-ists), . Yorktown (York'-town), Ypsalanti, Alexander (Ip-sa-lan'-ti), Yucatan (Yii-ka-tan'), Yungay (Yoon'-gi) z. Zabala (Za-bal'-a), Zacatecas (Zak-a-ta'-kas), Zama (Za'-ma), Zanagra (Zan'-a-gra), Zara (Za'-ra), . Zealand (Zee'-land), Zedekiah (Zed-e-ki'-ah), Zend Avesta (Zend A-ves'-ta), Zenger, John Peter (Zeng'-erJ, Zenobia (Ze-no'-be-a), . Zenta (Zen'-ta), Zerubbabel (Ze-rub'-ba-bel), Ziethen (Tse'-ten), Zingis Knan (Zin'-jis Khan), Zion, Mount (Mount Zi'-on), Ziska, John (Zis'-ka), Znaym (Znah'-im), . Zollicoffer, Felix (Fe'-lix Zol'-le-kof- Zorilla (Zo-ril'-la), Zorndorf (Tsorn'-dorf), Zoroaster (Zo-ro-as'-ter), Zoutman (Zout'-man), Zug (Tsoog'), Zuloaga (Zoo-lo'-a-ga), Ziiniga (Zu-ne'-ga), Zurich (Tsu'-reek), . . 167, Zwingle, Ulric (Ool'-reek Zwing'-gle) Zwinglians (Zwin'-gle-ans), . . . 265 266 . 264 122 . 122 i8s • 346 246, 466 301,456, 475. 516 441, 442 . 182 308, 474 357i 358 • 445 441 • 429 451 . 81 48 . 138 274 32,33 35 . 261 104, 105 • 253 33 • 351 190, 191 31 169 . 341 , 508 422 . 289 35, 120 • 309 167 • 447 217 329, 393 20I, 218 , 201 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. ASSYRIAN KINGS. BABYLONIAN KI] ^GS. B. C. B. C. Nimrod, .... . 2217 Nabonassar, . 747 Semiramis, .... 2040 Asordanils, . . . 691 Ninus, .... . 2009 Aramels, 687 Ninias, .... 1765 Esarhaddon, . 687 Arius, .... . 1927 Axerdis, 670 Chedorlaomer, I9I2 Soosduchinus, . . 668 Araleus, .... • 1897 Asurukhbal, . 663 Baleus I., . 1857 Chyniladan, . . . . 648 Annanites, . 1827 Nabuchodonosor, . 648 Relochus I., . 1796 Sarac, . . . , . 628 Baleus XL, • 1754 Nabopolasar, 626 Altades, .... 1702 Nebuchadnezzar, . , 605 Mamitus, .... . 1670 Evilmerodach, 561 Manchaleus, .... 1640 Neridglissar, . 560 Spherus, .... . 1610 Belshazzar, • . 555 Mamilus, .... 1590 Sparetus, .... . 1560 Ascatades, .... 1520 PHARAOHS OR KINGS C )F EGYPT Amyntas, .... . 1480 Belochus II., 1435 Menes, .... . 2188 Bellepares, I4IO The Shepherd Kings, . 19CX) Lamprides, .... 1380 Horus, .... • 1587 Sosares, .... 1348 Rameses Miamum, 1577 Panyas, .... 1298 Acencheres, • 1549 Sosarmus, .... 1253 Achoris, 1537 Derceto, .... 1250 Cenchres, .... . 152S Mithrseus, .... 1234 Cherres, 1504 Tentamus, .... 1207 Menophis, . 1416 Divanukha, 1200 Sethos, 1376 Teutseus, .... 1 1 65 Rameses, .... • 1321 Phinseus, . . . . . "35 Menophtah and Sethos II., 1305 Mardokempad-Messessimordacus 1049 Ammanephthes, • 1255 Eupaples, . . . . . 1014 Ammenemes, 1215 Laosthenes, .... 1006 Sesostris, .... . I200 Adrammelech I., 1000 Thuoris, 1 189 Pyriatides, .... 961 Rhampsinitus, . . 1 1 24 Anaku-Merodach, 960 Cheops, 1082 Ophrateus, .... 931 Shishak, .... . 978 Ephecheres, . . . . 910 Nephercheres, 937 Divanuber, .... 875 Amemophthis, . • 933 Adrammelech II., 840 Osochor, 924 Baldasi, .... 800 Osorthon I., . . 853 Sardanapalus, . . . . 771 Taccollothis, 838 Tiglath Pileser, 747 Petubastes, . 825 Shalmanezar, . . . . 728 Osorthon II., 825 Sennacherib, .... 712 Psarnmes, .... 791 Esarhaddon, . 709 Bocchoris 781 r6i3) 014 SOfliJ^HIG.VS A.VD i:rL£j^s. B, C, Senechos. ..... 721 Stephinales, .... 6S7 Nechepsos, .... 663 Necho, .... 639 Apries, 594 Am3:5is, .... 572 Psartunenitus, .... 525 KINGS OF MEDIA. Dejoces, Phniortes, Cyaxares. Ast)-age5, KIN'GS OF PERSI A. Cyras the Great, . Cambj-^es, SmerdLs, Darius Hystaspes, Xerxes ihe Great, . Artabanus, -\naxerxes Longiman Xerxes II., Sc^ianus, Darius Nothus, . Arraxerxes Mnemon, Artaxerxes Ochus, Arses, . Darius Codomannus, HEBREW KINGS Saul. David, . Solomon, KINGS Rehoboam, Ahi-ah, AS3[. Jehoshaphat, Jehoram, . Joash. . Amaiiali, . Ugjah, Totham, . Ahax, . Hez^iah, Amon, Tosiah, Jehoahar, . Jehoiakin, T^oiacliim, Zed^ah, OF 710-C50 050-635 635-595 595~559 559-5-9 529-521 5-1 521-4S5 4S5-464 404 464-4^5 4^5-4^ 4^-4^3 4^3-404 404-35^ 35^337 33"~330 , S30-3JO 1095-1055 1055-1015 1015-075 TL'DAH. Q75-Q5S • 95^55 955-004 . 004-SSo S^s^7S . S7S-^39 S39-S09 • S09-759 74^-7-0 726-697 60: D42-CUI d4i-ocv) 609 600-50S 598-506 596-5S5 KINGS OF ISRAEL. Jefoboom, .... 975-054 Nadab, Baasha, Elah, Zimri, . Omri, Ahab, . Ahaziah, . Tehoram, Jehu, Jehoahez, Tehoash, . Jeroboam II., An Interregnum, Zachanah, Shallum. . Menahem, Pekaiah, . Pekah, . Hc<>ea, B. c, 954-953 953-9 KINGS OF MACEDON. Caranus, .... 795 Coenus, Thurvmas. Perdiccas I Arcaeus C Pfailip I. n -Eropus Ale^as 0) Am\Titas I., . . . c Alexander I., . •z Perdiccas II., 7i Archelaus, .... % Orestes, .... Pausanius, .... ^ Amyntas II., % Alexander II., Ptolemv Ferdic^ III., Philip the Great, ;cc- ''iZ'^ Alexander the Great. 53^ -3-^ Philip And.«us, 5^ -317 Caasander. .... 317 -20S Philip IV.,- 2QS-207 Alexander and Andppus, -97 -^^94 Demenritts I., . ^94 -2SS Lysimachus of Thrace, . :5^ _^^T Ptolemy Ceraunus, ;>2 -2iO Meleager, . . 280 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 615 B. C. Sosthenes, . . . 280-278 Antigonus Gonatas, . . 278-242 Demetrius II., . . . 242-232 Antigonus Doson, . . 232-220 Philip v., . , . . 220-178 Perseus, . . . .178-168 THE SELEUCID.E OF SYRIA. Seleucus Nicator, . . . 301-283 Antiochus Soter, , . 283-261 Antiochus Theos, . . . 261-246 Seleucus Callinicus, . . 246-226 Seleucus III., . . . 226-223 Antiochus the Great, . . 223-185 Seleucus Philopater, . . 185-175 Antiochus Epiphanes, . 175-162 Demetrius I., ... 162-150 Alexander I., ^ . . 150-146 Demetrius II., . . . 146-130 Antiochus VII., . . 130-127 Alexander II., . . . 127-123 Antiochus VIII., . . 123-112 Antiochus IX., . . . 112-95 Antiochus X., . . . 95^92 Antiochus XL, . . . 92-87 Antiochus XII., . . 87-83 Tigranes, .... 83-69 Antiochus XIII., . . 69-65 THE PTOLEMIES OF EGYPT. Ptolemy Lagus, . . 301-284 Ptolemy Philadelphus, . . 284-246 Ptolemy Evergetes, . . 246-221 Ptolemy Philopater, ; . 221-204 Ptolemy Epiphanes. . . 204-180 Ptolemy Philometer, . . 180-145 Ptolemy Physcon, . . 145-11 7 Ptolemy Lathyrus, . . II7-100 Ptolemy Alexander L, . 100-81 Cleopatra I., . . . . 81-80 Ptolemy Alexander II., . 80-65 Ptolemy Aitletes, . . • 65 Berenice, .... 65-55 Ptolemy ai;d Cleopatra II., . 55-45 Cleopatra II., . . . 45-30 THE ARSACID^ OF PARTHIA. Arsaces, Arsaces Artabainis, Mithridates I., . Orodes, L, Phraortes, . Phaaticus, Orodes II., Vonones I., . Artabanus III., . Tiridatus, 256-217 . 217-156 156 • 58-37 37-A. D. 13 A. D. • 13-14 14-15 15-18 18-35 35-45 A. D. Vardanus, 45 Gotarzes, 45-50 Vologeses L, . 50-60 Vonones II., 60-81 Artabanus IV., 81-90 Pacorus, .... 90-106 Khosroe I., . . 106-117 Parthanaspates, . "7-134 Vologeses II., . 134-189 Vologeses III., . 189-212 Artabanus V., . 212-223 THE MACCABEES OF JUDEA. B. C. Judas Maccabeas, . . 165-160 Jonathan Maccabeas, . 160-143 Simon Maccabeas, • 143-135 John Hyrcanus I., 135-106 Aristobulus I., 106-70 John Hyrcanus II., 70-67 Aristobulus II., 67-40 Antigonus, • 40-37 Herod the Great, . H. c . 37-A. D. 2 A. D. Archelaus, Ethnarch, . 2-6 ROMAN EMPERORS. The Casars. Augustus, . . . B. c. 30-A. D. 14 A. D. Tiljerius, • 14-37 Caligula, .... • 37-41 Claudius, 41-54 Nero, .... . 54-68 Galba, .... 68-69 Otho, .... . 69 Vitellius, . 69-70 Vespasian, . • 70-79 Titus • 79-81 Domitian, .... . 81-96 7^1? ^ive Good Ef/iperors. Nerva, . . 96 Trajan, .... . 96-117 Adrian, .... 1 17-138 Titus Antoninus Pius, . . 138-161 Marcus Aruelius Antoninus, 161-180 The Period of Military Despotism. Commodus, . . . 180- 1 93 Pertinax, . . . .193 Didius Julianus, . . 193 Septimius Severus, . . 193-212 Caracalla, . . . 2 12-2 1 7 Macrinus, .... 217-218 Heliogabalus, . . . 2 1 8-222 Alexander Severus, . . 222-235 Maximin, .... 235-238 6i6 SOVEJiEIGNS AND J^ULEJiS. Pupienus and Balbinus, Gordian, . Philip, . Decius, Gallus, . ,'EmiIianus, Valerian, Gallienus, . Flavius Claudius Aurelian, , Tacitus, P'lorian, Probus, . Carus, Caiinus and Numenan, Diocletian and Maximian, Constantius and Galcrius, Constantine the Great, Constantius II., Julian the Apostate, Jovian, . Roman Emperors of ih Valentinian I. . Gratian, Maximinus, . Valentinian II., Eugenius, Theodosius the Great, Honorius, Valentinian III., Maximus, Avitus, Marjorian, Severus, Anthemius, , Olybrius, . Glycerus, Nepos, Romulus Augustulus, ROMAN GOVERNORS OF Copinicus, Ambivinus, Valerius Flaccus, , Pontius Pilate, . Herod Agrippa, . . -37 Cuspius Fadus, . Tiberius Alexander, Ventidius Cumanus, Claudius Felix, Portius Festus, . Albinus, Gessiiis Florus, . THE SASSANID.F: of PERSIA. Artaxerxes, . . . 223-226 Sassan, 226-235 A. D, • 238 238-244 . 244-249 249-251 • 251-254 254 . 254-261 261-268 . 268-270 270-275 . 275-276 276-277 . 277-282 282-283 . 2S3-284 2S4-305 • 305-306 306-336 • 336-361 361-363 • 363-364 West. 364-375 375-383 383 383-38S 388-394 394-395 395-423 423-455 455 455-457 457-461 461-467 467-472 472-473 473 473-475 475-476 JUDEA. 6 A. D. Sapor I., . . . . 235-272 Hormisdas I., . . . 272 Varanes I., ... 272-276 Varanes II., .... 276-294 Narses, .... 294—309 Sapor II., . • . . 309-384 Sapor III., . . . 384-389 Varanes III., . , . 389-400 Indigertes I., . . . 400-420 Varanes IV., . . . 420-441 Indigertes II., or Varanes V., 441-482 Obalus, ..... 482-490 Cabades, .... 490-532 Chosroes the Great, . . 532-591 Chosroes II., . . . 591-627 Siroes, .... 627-632 Hormisdas II., . . 632-641 Yesdejird, .... 641-656 GREEK EMPERORS. Emperors of Different Valens, Theodosius the Great, Arcadius, Theodosius II., Marcian, a Thracian, jLeo the Thracian, Zeno, . Anastasius I., Justin I., Justinian I., Justin II., Tiberius, . Mauritius, Phoca.s, Heraclius I., Heraclius II., . Heracleonas, Constantine IV., Justinian II., Leontius, . Apsimarus Tiberius, Philipicus Bardanes, Anastasius II., Theodosius HI., Isauric Race Leo the Isarian, Constantine Copronymus, Leo the Iconoclast, Constantine V., . Irene, Empress, Nicephorus, . , Michael Curopalates, Leo the Armenian, Michael the Stammerer, Theophilus I., . . . Races. ■ 364-379 379-395 • 395-408 408-450 • 450-457 457-476 • 476-491 491-500 . 500-527 527-565 . 565-578 578-582 . 582-602 602-610 . 610-641 641 . 641-642 642-685 • 685-695 695-698 . 698-711 711-713 • 713-715 715-716 716-741 741-775 775-7S1 781-78S 7SS-802 802-811 811-813 8 1 3-820 S20-829 829-842 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 617 Michael the Drunkard, Basil I., , A. D. 842-867 867-SS6 886-911 Macedonian Race. Leo the Philosopher, . Constantine VI., and Alexan der, .... Romanus T., . Constantine VII. restored, . Romanus II., Nicephorus Phocas, . John Zenrisces, Basil II., .... Constantine VIII., Romanus III., . Michael IV., . Michael V., . . . Constantine IX., . Theodora, Empress, . Michael VI., The Comneni. Isaac Comnenus, . Constantine X., Roilianus Diogenes, Michael VII., . Nicephorus III., . Alexius I., Comnenus, John I., Comnenus, Manuel Comnenus, Alexius II., Comnenus, . Andronicus I., . Isaac Angleus, Alexius III., French or Latin Dynasty. Baldwin I., of Flanders, Henr}', Peter de Courtenay, . Baldwin II., . The Paleologi. Michael VIII., Paleologus, Andronicus II., Paleolog.us, Andronicus the Younger, . John v., Paleologus, John VI., .... Emanuel II., John VII., Constantine XII., Paleologus, GOTHIC KINGS OF ITALY. Theodoric, .... 493-526 911 -919 • 919 942 942 -959 • 959 -963 963-969 • 969-976 976- 1025 1025- 1028 1028- 1034 1034- 1 041 1041- 1042 1042- 1054 1054- 1056 1056- 1057 1057- 1059 1059- 1068 1068- 1 071 1071- 1078 1078- 1 081 1081- 1118 1118- "43 "43- 1 1 80 1 1 So- 1183 li 83- 1185 1185- 1203 1203- 1204 1204- 1206 1206- 1216 1216- 1228 1228- 1 261 1261- 1282 1282- 1328 1328- 1 341 1341- 1355 1355- 1391 1391- 1424 1424- 1448 1448- 1453 Athalaric, Theodatus, Vitiges, Heldibadus, Eraric, Totila, . 526-534 534-536 536-540 540-541 541 541-553 LOMBARD KINGS OF NORTHERN ITALY. A. D. Alboin, .... 568-573 Clephes, .... 573-575 An Interregnum, . . . 575-584 Antharis, . . • . 584-591 Agilulphus, .... 591-615 Adaloaldus, . . . 615-625 Arivoaldus 625-636 Rotharis, .... 636-652 Rodoaldus, .... 652-653 Aribertus I., . • . 653-660 Gundebertus, . . . 660-662 Grimoaldus, . . . 662-671 Pertharit, .... 671-686 Cunibert 686-701 Ragimbertus, . . . 701 Aribertus II., . . . 701-712 Ansprandus, . . . .712 Luitprandus, . . . 712-744 Hildebrandus, . . . 744 Rachisius, . . . 744-749 Artolphus, .... 749-756 Desiderius, . . . 756-774 MONARCHS OF THE FRANKS. The Merovingians. Pharamond, 420-428 Clodian, . . . . 428-448 Meroveus,. 448-458 Childeric I., . 458-486 Clovis I., . 486-511 Childebert, Thieriy, Clodomir and Clothaire I., 511-562 Charibert, Grothan, Chilperic I., and Sigebert, 562-5S4 Childebert II. and Clothaire II 5S4-628 Dagobert I., 628-638 Clovis 11. and Dagobert II., . 638-665 Clothaire II., . 665-673 Thierry II., . . . . 673-691 Clovis III 69 1 -7 1 1 Dagobert III., 7"-7i5 Chilperic II 715-720 Thierry IV., . . . . 72(^747 Childeric III., . 747-751 The Carlovingians. Pepin the Little, . . 751-768 Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, .... 768-814 Louis le Debonnaire, . . 814—840 THE POPES. Gregory the Great, . . 590-604 Sabinianus, .... 604-606 6i8 Boniface III., Boniface IV., Honorius I., Servius, John IV., . Theodore, Martin I., . Eugenius I., . Vitalianus, Adeodatus, Donus I., . Agatho, Benedict II., John v., Canon, Sergius, John VI., John VII., . isissinius, . Gregory II., . Gregory III., Zachary, Stephen II., Paul I., Stephen III., Adrian I., Leo III., . Stephen IV., Pascal I., . Eugenius II., Valentine, Gregory IV., Sergius II,, Leo IV., Benedict III., Nicholas I., . Adrian II., John VIII., . Martin II., Adrian III., . Stephen VI., Formosus, Stephen VII., John IX., . Benedict IV., Leo v., Sergius III., Anastasius III. Landon, John X., . Leo VI., Stephen VIII., John XL, . Leo VII., . Stephen IX., Martin III., Agapetus IL, John XII., Leo VIII., . SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. A. D. 606-607 607-625 625-640 640 640-642 642-649 649-655 655-657 657-672 672-676 676-678 678-683 683-685 685-686 686-687 687-701 701-705 705-707 707-715 715-731 731-741 741-750 750-757 757-767 767-772 772-795 795-816 816-817 817-824 824-827 827 827-844 844-847 847-855 855-858 858-867 867-872 872-8S2 882-S84 884 884-891 891-896 896-S97 897 897-903 903-904 904-912 912-913 913-914 9I4-92S 92S-929 929-931 931-936 936-939 939-942 942-946 946-955 955-964 964 Benedict V., John XIII., . Benedict VI., Donus II. , Benedict VII., John XIV., . John XV., Gregory V., . Sylvester II., John XVI., . John XVIL, Tohn XVIII., John XIX., Benedict IX., Gregory VI., Clement II., Benedict X., Damascus, Leo IX., . Victor II., Stephen IX., Nicholas II. , Alexander II., Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) Victor ill.. Urban II. , . Pascal 1 1., .Gelasius II., . Calixtus IL, Honorius II. , Innocent II. , Celestine II. , Lucius 1 1., Eugenius III., Anastasius IV., Adrian IV., . Alexander III., Lucius III., . I Urban III., j Gregory VIIL, Clement III., j Celestine III., I Innocent III., i Honorius III., , Gregory IX., ■ Celestine IV^., ' Innocent IV., ' Alexander IV., Urban IV., I Clement IV., j Gregory X., Innocent V., Adrian V., ! John XX., . \ Nicholas III., Martin IV., . Honorius IV., I Nicholas IV., Celestine V., A. D. 964-965 965-972 972-974 974-975 975-983 983-985 985-1000 000 000- 003 003- 004- 009- 033- 044- 046- 047 047- 048- 054- 057- 058- 061- 073- 086- 0S8- 099- iiS- 119- 124- 130- 143- 144- 145- 153- 154- 159- iSo- 185- 1S7 187- 191- 194- 226- 227- 241- 243- 254- 261- 265- 271- 276 276 276- 277- 281- 2S5- 28S- 294 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 619 Boniface VIII., Benedict XI„ Clement V., . John XXII., , Benedict XII., Clement VI., Innocent VI., Urban V., Gregory XI., Urban VI., . Boniface IX., Innocent VII., Gregory XII., Alexander V., John XXIII., Martin V., Eugenius IV., Nicholas V., , Calixtus III., Pius II., Paul II., . Sextus IV., . Innocent VIII., Alexander VI., Pius III., . Julius II., Leo X., . Adrian VI., . Clement VII., Paul III., Julius III., Marcellus, Paul IV., . Pius IV,, Pius v., . Gregory XIII., Sextus v., . Urban VII., . Gregory XIV., Innocent IX., . Clement VIII., Leo XL, Paul v., . Gregory XV., Urban VIII., Innocent X., . Alexander VII., Clement IX., Innocent XL, Clement X., . Alexander VIII Innocent XIL, Clement XL, Innocent XIII., Benedict XIII., Clement XIL, Benedict XIV., . Clement XIIL, A. D. 1 1294-1 303 1303-1 305 1305-' 316 I316-] 334 I 334- I 342 1342-1 352 1352-1 362 1362-1 370 1370-1 378 1378-1 389 1389-1 404 I 404- I 406 1406-1 409 I 409- I 410 1410-1 417 1417-1 431 1431-1 447 1447-1 455 1455-' 458 1458-1 464 1464-1 471 1471- 484 1484-1 492 1492- 503 1503 1503- 513 1513- 521 1521- 523 1523- 534 1534- 549 1549- 555 1555 1555- [559 1559- 565 1565- [572 1572- 585 1585- 590 1590 1590- 1591 1591 1591- [605 1605 1605- 1621 1621- 1623 1623- 1644 1644- 1655 1655- 1667 1667- 1676 1676- 1679 1679- 1689 1689- 691 1691- 1700 1700- 1721 1721- 1724 1724- 1730 1730- 1740 1740- 1758 175S- 1769 A. D. Clement XIV., . • 1769-1775 Pius VI., I775-1800 Pius VII., . . 1800-1823 Leo XIL, 1823-1829 Pius VIIL, . 1829-1831 Gregory XVI., 1831-1846 Pius IX., . . 1846 SARACEN CALIPHS. Race of Mol afiinied. Mohammed, 627-632 Abubekir, • 632-634 Omar, 634-644 Othman, . 644-655 Ali, . 655-660 The OtntTtiyades. Moawiyah, . 660-679 Yezid I., . • 679-683 Abdullah, 683-684 Merwan I., 684-689 Ab-al-Malib, . . 689-704 Walid I., . • 704-714 Solyman, ■ 714-717 Omar IL, . • 717-719 Yezid IL, . 719-723 Heshman, . . 723-743 Wall IL, . 743-744 Yezid III., 744 Merwan IL, . . 744-750 The Abbasides. Abul-Abbas, . • 750-754 Al-Mansur, 754-779 Al-Modi, . 779-784 Musa'1-Hadi, . 784-785 Haroun-al-Raschid, . 785-807 Al-Amin, . S07-813 Al-Mamun, . • . 813-833 Al-Motasem, . 833-841 Al-Wathek, . . 841-846 Al-Motawakkel, 846-861 Al-Montaser, . . 861-862 Al-Mostaim, 862-865 Al-Motaz, . 865-868 AlMohtadi, 868-869 Al-Motamed, . 869-892 Al Motaded, 892-901 Al-Moktasi, . . 901-907 Al-Moktador, . 907-932 Al-Kaher, • 932-933 Al-Radi, . 933-939 Al-Moktaki, . • 939-943 Al-Mnsktacsi, . 943-944 Al-Moti, . 944-973 Al-Tay, . 973-991 Al-Kader, 991-1031 Al-Kaymen, . 1031-1055 620 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. SARACEN CALIPHS OF SPAIN. Abderrahman I., Hashem I., . Abderrahman XL, Mohammed, . Abdalla, . Abderrahman III., Alhakem, . Hixem I., Hixem II., Hixem III., . A. D, 755-7S7 787-822 822-852 852-889 889-912 912-961 961-976 976- KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENG- LAND. Anglo-Saxon Kinzs. Egbert, . . ... Ethelwolf, Ethelbald, . Ethelbert, . Ethelred I Alfred the Great, Edward the Elder, Athelstan, . Edmund I., . Edred, Edwy, .... Edgar, Edward the Martyr, Danish Kings, Sweyn, .... Canute the Great, Harold Harefoot, . Hardicanute, Saxon Kings. Edward the Confessor, Harold, . 827-838 838-857 . 857-860 860-866 . 866-871 871-901 , 901-925 925-940 . 940-946 946-955 • 955-959 959-975 975-1014 1014-1017 1017-1036 I 036- I 039 1039-1041 1041-1066 1066 Norman Kings. William the Conqueror, . 1066-1087 William Rufus, . . . 1087-I100 Heniy I., . . . 1100-1135 .Stephen II35-I154 The Plantagenets. Heniy II., . . . 1154-1189 Richard the Lion-hearted, , 1 189-1199 John, .... 1199-1216 Henry III., . . . 1216-1272 Edward I., , . . 127 2- 1307 Edward II., . . 1307-1327 Edward III., . . . 1327-1377 Richard II., . . . 1377-1399 House of Lancaster. Henry IV., . . . 1399-1413 Henry v., .... 1413-1422 Henry VI., . . . 1422-1461 House of York, Edward IV., Edward V., Richard III., House of Tudor. Henry VII., . Henry VIII., Edward VI., . Mary, Elizabeth, House of Stuart. James I., . Charles I., The Commonwealth. Charles II., . James II., . William III., Anne. A. D, I461-I483 1483 I483-I485 I485-1509 I 509-1 547 1547-1553 1553-1558 I558-1603 . 1603-1625 1625-1649 . I 649- I 660 I 660- I 685 . 1685-1689 1689-1702 . I 702-1 7 14 House of Brunswick. George I., ... 1714-1727 George II., . , . 1727-1760 George III., . . . 1760-1820 George IV., . . . 1820-1830 William IV., . . . 1830-1837 Victoria, . . . 1837 KINGS AND QUEENS OF SCOT. LAND. House of Kenneth. Kenneth II., .... 843-859 Donald V., . . . 859-865 Constantine II., . . . 865-878 Ethus, .... 878-880 Gregory the Great, . . 8S0-892 Donald VI., . . . 892-903 Constantine HI., . . . 903-943 Malcolm I., . . . 943-958 Indulf, 95S-968 Duff, .... 968-972 Culen, ..... 972-977 Kenneth III., . . . 977-1003 Constantine IV., . . 1003 Kenneth the Grim, . . 1003-IO04 Malcolm II., . . 1004-1034 Duncan I., ... 1034-1040 Macbeth, . . . 1040-1057 Malcolm III., . . . 1057-1093 Donald the Bane, . . 1093-1 108 Edgar, . ... . 1108-11 17 Alexander I., . . 11 17- 1124 David the Saint, . . 1124-1153 Malcolm IV., . . 1153-1165 William the Lion, . . 1165-1214 Alexander II., . . 1214-1249 Alexander III., . . 1 249-1 285 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 621 Houses of Baliol and Bruce. A. D. 1285-1306 1 306- 1 3 29 1329-1332 1332-1342 1342-1370 John Baliol, Robert Bruce, David Bruce,* . Edward Baliol, David Bruce restored, House of Stuar Robert II., Robert III., . An Intenegnum James I., James II., James III., , James IV., James V., Mary, James VI., , 1370-1390 I 390- I 406 I 406- I 424 1424-1437 1437-1460 I 460- I 487 1487-1513 1513-1542 1542-1567 1567-1603 KINGS AND EMPERORS FRANCE. OF Carlovingian Kings. Charles the Bald, . Louis II., .... Louis III. and Carloman, Charles the Fat, . . Count Eudes, Charles the Simple, . , Raoul, ..... Louis IV., Lothaire, .... Louis v., .... House of Capet. Hugh Capet, Robert, Heniy I , . Philip I., . . . Louis the Fat, . Louis VII Philip Augustus, Louis VIII., Louis IX. or St. Louis, Philip the Bald, . Philip the Fair, . Louis X., Philip the Hardy, Charles the Fair, . House of Valois. Philip of Valois, . John the Good, Charles the Wise, . . Charles VI., Charles the Victorious, . Louis XI., Charles VIII., Louis XII. . 843-877 877-879 . 879-884 884-888 , 888-898 898-922 . 922-936 936-954 . 954-986 986-987 987-996 996-1031 1031-1060 1060-1108 1108-1137 1137-1180 11S0-1223 1223-1226 1226-1270 1270-1285 1285-1314 1314-1316 1316-1321 1321-1328 1328-1350 1350-1364 1364-13S0 1380-1422 1422-1461 1461-1483 1483-1498 1498-15 15 A. D. Francis I., . 1515- 1547 Heniy II., • 1547- 1559 Francis II., . 1559- i';6o Charles IX., . 1560-1574 Henry III., . 1574- 1589 House of Bourbon. Henry IV., . 1589- 1610 Louis XIII., , I 610-1643 Louis XIV., . 1643- 1715 Louis XV., • 1715- 1774 Louis XVI., . 1774- 1793 The First French Republic, 1793- 1804 The First French Empire. Napoleon I., . I 804- 1814 House of Bourbon. Louis XVIII., 1814- 1S24 Charles X., . 1824- 1830 House of Orleans. Louis Philippe, 1830-1848 The Second French Republic, 1848- 1852 The Second French Empire. Napoleon HI., 1852- 1870 The Third French Republic, 1870- EMPERORS OF GERMANY. Carlovingian Emperors. Louis the German and Loth- aire, • 843-855 Louis II., . 855-875 Charles the Fat, . 875-887 Arnolph, . 887-898 Louis the Child, . 898 -911 House of Franconia. Conrad I., . 911 -919 House of Saxony. Henry the Fowler, 919 -936 Otho the Great, • 91^ -973 Otho II., . 973 -983 Otho III., . 983- 1002 Henry the Saint, . 1002- 1024 House of Fran conia. Conrad II., . 1024- 1039 Henry HI., • 1039- 1056 HeniT IV., . 1056- 1 106 Henry V., . 1106- 1125 House of Saxony, Lothaire II., . II25- 1 1 38 622 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. Tke Hohenstauffens. A. D. Conrad III., . . . II38-I152 Frederic Barbarossa, , I152-I190 Henry VI., . . . 1190-1197 Otho IV. and Philip of Swabia, . . . 11 97-1 218 Frederic II., . . . 1 218-1250 An Interregnum, . . 1 250-1273 House of Hapsburg. Rodolph of Hapsburg, . 12 73- 1291 House of Nassau. Adolph, 1291-129S House of Austria. Albert, .... 1 298-1308 House of Luxemburg. Henry VII., . . . 1308-1313 House of Bavaria. Louis v., . . . . 1313-1347 House of Luxemburg. Charles IV., . . . 1 347-1 378 Wenceslaus, . . . 1 378-1400 House of the Palatinate. Rupert, . . . 1400-1414 House of Luxemburg. Sigismund, . . . 1414-1438 House of Hapsburg. Albert II., . Frederic III., . Maximilian I., Charles V., Ferdinand I., Maximilian II., Rodolph II., . Matthias, . Ferdinand II., Ferdinand III., Leopold I., . Joseph I., Charles VI., , House of Bavaria. Charles VII., . . 1741-1745 House of Lorraine. Francis 1 1 745-1 765 Joseph II., . , . 1765-1790 Leopold II., . . 1 790-1 792 Francis II., . . . 1 792-1 806 The Confederation of the Rhine, 1806-1815 1438-1440 I 440- I 493 1493-1519 1519-1556 1556-1564 1564-1576 1576-1612 1612-1619 1619-1637 1637-1657 1657-1705 1705-1711 1711-1741 A. D. The Germanic Confederation, 1815-1866 The North German Confederation, 1866- I 87 I House of HohenzoUern. William the Victorious, , 1871- KINGS OF POLAND. House of Fiast. Boleslaus I., Miceslaus II., Casimir I., Boleslaus II., Ladislaus the Cai"eless, Boleslaus III., Ladislaus II., Boleslaus IV., Miceslaus III., . Casimir the Just, . Lesko I., . Conrad of Masovia, Boleslaus V., Lesko the Black, . Przemislaus, Wenceslaus of Bohemia, Ladislaus IV., . Casimir the Great, Louis the Great, of Hungary, Ladislaus V., The Jagellos. Jagello, Ladislaus VI., . Casimir IV., John Albert, Alexander, . Sigismund the Great, Sigismund II., An Interregnum, House of Valois. Henry of Valois, An Interregnum, . Stephen, .... Sigismund III., Ladislaus VII., . John Casimir, . Michael Wisniovviecski, John Sobieski, P'rederic Augustus I., of Sax- ony, . ■ . Stanislaus Leczinski, Frederick Augustus I. re- stored, .... Frederick Augustus II.,. Stanislaus Augustus Poniat- owski, .... 1000-1025 1025-1041 1041-1058 1058-1079 1079-1102 1102-1139 1139-1146 1146-11 73 1173-1178 1178-1202 1202-1226 1226-1227 1227-1279 1279-1295 1295-1300 1300-1305 1305-1333 1333-1370 1370-1386 I386-I4tx) 1400-1434 1434-1447 1447-1492 1492-1501 1501-1506 1506-1548 1548-1572 1572-1573 1573-1574 1574-1575 1575-1587 1587-1632 1632-1648 1648-1669 1669-1674 1674-1697 I 697-1 704 1704-1709 1709-1733 1733-1764 I 764-1 795 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 623 KINGS AND QUEEN OF DEN- MARK. Dynasty of Skiold. Sweyii I., Canute the Great, Canute III., . Magnus the Good, of Nor way, . Harold VII., St. Canute, . Olaus II., . Eric III., Nicholas, . Eric IV., Eric v., . Sweyn II., . Canute V., Waldemar the Great, Canute VI., Waldemar the Conqueror, Eric VI., . Abel, . Christopher I., . Eric VII., . Eric VIII., Christopher II., Waldemar III.,. Olaus III., , Margareta, Eric XIII., . Christopher III., Oldenbti) House of Christian I., . John, Christian II., Frederic I., Christian III., Frederic II., Christian IV., Frederic III., Christian V., . Frederic IV., Christian. VI., Frederic V., Christian VII., Frederic VI., Christian VIII., Frederic VII., Christian IX., KINGS OF ARAGON. RamirizI 1035-1065 Sancho Ramiriz. . . 1065-1094 Peter I., .... 1094-1104 Alphonso the Warrior, . 1 104 11 24 Ramiriz the Monk, . . 1 124- 11 37 Protronilla, . . . 11 37-1 162 A. D. 1000-1016 1016-1036 1036-1045 1045-1074 1074-1076 1076-1087 1087-1095 1 095- 1 102 1102-1135 1135-1139 1139-1148 1148 1148-1157 1157-1182 1182-1202 1 202- 1 2 24 1224-1250 1250-1252 1252-1259 1 259-1 286 1286-1319 1319-1340 1340-1376 1376-1387 1387-1412 1412-1439 I 439- I 448 1448-1481 1481-1513 1513-1523 1523-1533 1533-1559 1559-1588 1 588-1 648 1 648-1 670 I 670- I 699 1699-1730 1730-1746 1 746-1 766 1 7 66- 1 808 I 808- I 839 I 839-1 848 I 848- I 863 1863- Alphonso II., . Peter II., James I., . Peter III., . Alphonso the Beneficent, James II., . Alphonso the Meek, . Peter the Ceremonious, . John I., . Martin, Ferdinand I., . Alphonso the Magnanimous John II Ferdinand the Catholic, . A. D. I162-1196 1196-1213 1213-1276 1 276-1 285 1285-1291 1291-1327 1327-1336 133^1387 1387- 1395 1395-1412 1412-1416 1416-1458 1458-1467 1467-1492 KINGS AND QUEEN Ferdinand I., Alphonso VII., . Urraca, Alphonso VIII., Sancho II., . Alphonso IX., . Henry I., Ferdinand the Saint, . Alphonso the Wise, Sancho the Brave, Ferdinand IV., Alphonso XL, . Peter the Cruel, Henry of Trastamara, John I., . Henry the Sickly, John II., . Henry IV., . Isabella, . OF CASTILE. 1035-1072 . 1072-1109 1109-1126 . 1126-1157 1157-1158 . 1158-1214 1214-1217 . 1217-1252 1252-1284 , 1 284- 1 295 1295-1312 , 1312-1350 . 1350-1368 1368-1379 . 1379-1390 I 390- I 406 . 1406-1454 1454-1464 . 1464-1492 KINGS AND QUEENS OF PORTUGAL. House of Burg.undy. Henry I., .... 1139-1185 Sancho II., . Alphonso II., . Sancho III., . Alphonso HI., . Dennis, Alphonso IV., . Pedro the Cruel, Ferdinand, John the Great, Edward, . Alphonso v., John the Perfect, Emmanuel the Great, John III., . Sebastian, . . Henry II., 1 185-1202 1 202-1 233 1 233-1 247 1247-1272 1272-1325 1325-1357 1357-1367 1367-1385 1385-1433 1433-1438 1438- I 48 I 1481-1485 1485-1521 1521-1557 1557-1578 1578-1580 United with Spain, I 580-1 640 624 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. House of Braga7tza. John IV., . Alphonso VI., Pedro II., . John v., Joseph Emmanuel, Pedro III. and Maria Maria I., . John VI., . Pedro IV., Maria II., Pedro v., . Louis II., I-, A. D. I640-I656 1656-1683 1683-1706 1706-1750 1750-1777 1777-1786 I786-I816 1816-1826 1826 1826-1853 1853-1861 1S6I KINGS AND QUEENS OF SWEDEN. Adolphus, . . . . 1212-1250 Waldemar, . . . 1 250-1 279 Magnus IL, . . . 1279-1290 Berger II. , . . . ■ 1290-1320 Magnus III., . . 1320-1363 Albert of Mecklenburg, . 1 363-1397 United with Denmark, 1397-1523 House of Vasa. Gustavus Vasa, Eric XIV., John III., Sigismund, Charles IX., Gustavus Adolphus, Christina, . Charles X., Charles XL, Charles XII., Ulrica Eleanora, Frederic I., . Adolphus Frederic, Gustavus III., Gustavus IV., . Charles XIIL, 1523-1556 1556-1569 1569-1592 1592-1600 1600-1611 1611-1632 1632-1654 1654-1660 1660-1697 1697-1718 1718-1721 1721-1751 1751-1771 1771-1792 1792-1809 1809-1818 House of Bernadotte. Charles XIV., . . 1818-1844 Oscar I., .... 1844-1859 Charles XV., . . 1859-1872 Oscar IL, .... 1872- DUKES OF BURGUNDY. Philip the Bold, . . 1363-1404 John the Fearless, . . 1404-14 19 Philip the Good, . . 1419-1467 Charles the Bold, . . 1467-1477 SULTANS OF TURKEY. Othman L, , . , 1299-1326 Orchan, . . . 1326-1360 A, D. Amurath I., . 1360- 1389 Bajazet I., . 1589- 1412 Mohammed I., . . 1412- 1421 Amurath IL, 1421- 1451 Mohammed II. , . 1451- 1481 Bajazet II. , . 1481- 1512 SeHm L, . • 1512- 1520 Solyman the Magnificent, 1520- 1566 Selim IL, . . 1566- 1574 Amurath III., 1574- 1595 Mohammed III., • 1595- 1603 Achmet I., . 1603- 1617 Mustapha I., . 1617- 1618 Othman II.,. 1618- 1622 Mustapha I. restored, . 1622- 1623 Amurath IV., 1623- 1640 Ibrahim, . . 1640- 1649 Mohammed IV., . 1649- 1687 Solyman 1 1., . 1687- 1691 Achmet IL, . 1691- 1695 Mustapha IL, . . 1695- 1703 Achmet III., 1703- 1730 Mohammed V., . • 1730- 1754 Othman III., 1754- 1757 Mustapha III., . • 1757- 1774 Achmet IV., 1774- 1789 Selim III., . 1789- 1807 Mustapha IV., 1807- 1808 Mohmoud II.,. . 180S- 1839 Abdul Medjid, 1839- 1861 Abdul Aziz, . 1861- SOVEREIGNS OF RUSSIA. House of R uric. Ivan the Great, . 1462- 1505 Vasily IV., . 1505- 1533 Ivan the Terrible, 1533- 1588 Feodor I., . . 1588- 1600 Boris Godonoff, 1600- 1604 Demetrius, 1604- 1606 Zuiski, .... 1606 An Interregnum, 1606- 1613 House of Roman #. Michael Romanoff, 1613- 1645 Alexis, 1645- 1676 Feodor II. , . 1676- 1682 Ivan V. and Peter, 1682- 1689 Peter the Great, 1689- 1725 Catharine I., 1725- 1727 Peter IL, 1727- 1730 Anna, 1730- 1740 Ivan VI., 1740- 1741 Elizabeth, . 1741- 1762 Peter III., . 1762 Catharine IL, . 1762- 1796 Paul, .... 1796- 1 801 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 625 Alexander I., Nicholas, Alexander II., A. D. 1801-1825 1825-1855 1855- KINGS AND QUEENS OF SPAIN. House of Trastamara. Ferdinand V. and Isabella I., 1479-15 17 House of Haps burg Charles I., Philip II., Philip III.. Philip IV., Charles II. 1517-1556 1556-1598 1598-1621 1621-1666 I 666-1 700 House of Bourbon. Philip v., of Anjou, . 1 700-1 745 Ferdinand VI., . . . I745-I759 Charles III., . . . 1759-1788 Charles IV., . . . 1788-180S House of Bonaparte. Joseph Bonaparte, . . 1808-1813 House of Bourbon. Ferdinand VII., . . 1813-1833 Isabella II., . . . 1 833-1 868 An Interregnum, . . 1868-1871 House of Savoy. Amadeo, .... 1871-1873 The Spanish Republic, 1873-1875 House of Bourbon. Alphonso XII., . . 1875- SHAHS OF PERSIA. Suffeean Dynasty. Ismael, . . . 1501-1519 Tamasp, .... 1519-1577 Mohammed the Pious, . 1577-1586 Shah Abbas the Great, , 15 86- 1643 Abbas IL, . . . 1643- 1666 Solyman, .... 1666— 1694 Hussien, . . . 1 694-1722 Mahmoud, . . , 1722-1725 Asharf, . . . 1725-1732 Abbas III., . . . 1732-1736 Nadir Shah, . . . 17 36- 1747 Anarchy, 1747-1800 Kadjar Dynasty, Futteh All Shah, . . 1800-1835 Mohammed Shah, . 1835-1848 Nasr-ul-Deen, . , . 184S- MOGUL EMPERORS OF INDIA. Baber, .... 1 525-1 530 Humayan, . . . 1530-1556 Akbar, .... 1556-1605 Jehanjrhir, Shah Jehan I., . Aurungzebe, . Bahadur Shah, . Farokhsir, Mohammed Shah, Ahmed Shah, Alamgir, . Shah Jehan II., , Shah Alum, A. D. 1605-1627 1627-1659 1659-1707 1707-1712 1712-1719 1719-1748 1748-1754 1754-1756 1756-1761 1761 MANTCHOO EMPERORS OF CHINA. Shun-che, . . . 1644-1662 Kang-hy, .... 1662-1722 Yong-tching, . . 1722- 1735 Kien-long, . . . i735-'795 Kea-king, . . . 1795-1820 Taou-kwang, . . . 1S20-1S50 Hien-fung, . . . 1850-1S62 Tsai-chun, . . . 1862-1875 New Emperor (name not known), . . . 1875- KINGS OF PRUSSIA. House of Hohemollern. Frederic I., . Frederic William 1., . Frederic the Great, Frederic William II., Frederic William III., Frederic William IV., William I., . 1701-1713 1 713-1740 1 740- 1 786 17S6-1797 1 797-1 840 1840-1861 1861- BRITISH GOVERNORS OF INDIA. Warren Hastings, . . 1 773-1 786 Lord Cornwallis, . . 1786-1792 Sir John Shore, . . 1792-1797 Marquis Wellesley, . . 1797-1S04 Lord Cornwallis, . . 1804-1S05 Lord Minto, . . . 1805-1813 Marquis of Hastings, . 1813-1S23 Lord Amherst, . . . 1823-1827 Lord William Bentnick, 1827-1835 Lord Auckland, . . 1835-1842 Lord EUenborough, . 1842-1843 Sir Henry Hardinge, . . 1843-1847 Lord Dalhousie, . . 1847- 1 856 Lord Canning, . . . 1 856- 1 858 Lord Elgin, . . . 1858-1863 Lord Mayo, . . . 1863-1872 Lord Northbrook, . . 1872-1876 Lord Lytton, , . .1876- PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. George Washington, . . 1789-1797 John Adams, . . 1797- 1801 626 SOVE/i£/GAS A.^D RULERS. Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, . John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren, William Henry Harrison, John Tyler, . James Knox Polk, Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore, Franklin rierce, . James Buchanan, Abraham Lincoln,. Andrew Johnson, Ulysses S. Grant, . A. D. 1801-1809 1809-1S17 1817-1S25 1825-1829 I 829- I 837 1837-1841 1 841 1S41-1845 I 845- I 849 1 849- 1 850 1850-1853 1857-1861 1861-1865 I 865- I 869 1869- PACHAS OF EGYPT Mehemet Ali, Ibrahim Pacha, Abbas Pacha, I 805- I 848 I 848- I 849 1849- EMPERORS OF AUSTRIA. House of Lorraine- Hapsburg. Francis I., . . . 1806- 1835 Ferdinand, Francis Jaseph, 1X35- 1848- KINGS OF HOLLAND. House of Nassau. William I., William IL, . William HI., 1814-1S40 I 840- I 649 1849- EMPERORS AND PRESIDENTS OF MEXICO. Emperor. Don Augustin Iturbide, . 1822-1823 Presidents. Guadalupe Victoria, Guerrera, . Bustamente, . 1825-1823 1829-1830 I 830- I 832 A. D. Pedraza, .... 1832-1833 Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, . . . 1833-1837 Bustamente, . . , 1 837-1 841 Santa Anna, . . . 1841-1845 Herrera, .... 1845-1846 Paredes, . . . 1846 Santa Anna, . . . 1 846- 1848 Herrera, . . . 1848-1851 Arista 185 1- 1853 Santa Anna, . . . 1853- 1854 Alvarez, , . . 1854-1S56 Comonfort, . . . 1856-1858 Zuloaga, . , . 1858-1860 Benito Juarez, . . . 1860-1864 Emperor and Presidents. Maximilian of Austria, Em- peror, . . . I 864- I 867 Benito Juarez, President, . 1864-1872 Lerdo de Tejada, . . 1872- EMPERORS OF BRAZIL. House of Braganza. Don Pedro I., . . 1822-1831 Don Pedro IL, 1831- KINGS OF BELGIUM. Hotise of Saxe-Coburg. Leopold I., . . . 1 830- 1 864 Leopold II 1864- KINGS OF GREECE. House of Bavaria. Otho, .... I 833-1 863 House of Denmark. George, . . . 1863- KING OF ITALY. House of Savoy. Victor Emmanuel, . . 1861- l5PJl78