i^Jli::;. ^:;r-:^ .d'OO LAND 180 480 c Class _iiri^S Book S^A. /f/3 Copyright N^ J^J^lP OF THE WOKLD SHOWING UNITED STATES AND ITS POSSESSIONS United States Possession e in Bed Scale of MUe4 on th« Equator c Pt.Sarrou 120 Loniltude 140 £ut from ICO Oreeiiwioh 130 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES BY HENRY ELDRIDGE BOURNE AND ELBERT JAY BENTON PROFESSORS OF HISTORY IN WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY D. C HEATH AND COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO BY BOURNE AND BENTON INTRODUCTORY AMERICAN HISTORY Presents the course recommended for the sixth grade by the Committee of Eight of the American Historical Association. Cloth. 271 pages. Maps and illustrations. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Gives prominence to the life and industries of the people, and to the development of the nation. Cloth. 598 pages. Maps and illustrations. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS Copyright, 19 13, by D. C. Heath & Company 113 X/.^ /?<,r. I A O .T W <> •> •» PREFACE This textbook is based on the plan of study recommended for the seventh and eighth grades by the Committee of Eight of the American Historical Association. The work for the sixth grade has been given in a shorter book, entitled Introductory American History. About two-thirds of that book concern the beginnings in Great Britain and Europe of the civilization which the people of the United States share with other peoples of European race. The remainder contains descriptions of the discoveries and early settlements of America, principally in the sixteenth century. This volume for the upper grades opens with a chapter which repeats briefly the story of early discovery and settlement. The chapter may be used as a review in those schools which use the Introductory American History. Teachers who do not use that book will find in the chapter the essential facts of the period. American history is so rich and varied that the most serious ques- tion which confronts the authors of a textbook is that of selection and emphasis. If space is to be found for adequate treat- ment of the most characteristic features of our national develop- ment, especially of those within the comprehension of the pupil of the seventh or eighth grade, certain phases of the political and military history of the country must be reserved for later study. The two great facts which the authors have emphasized in order to give unity to their treatment are (i) the migration of people from many different nations to America, and (2) the westward movement in America. Another fact emphasized is the effort of the settlers to reproduce in this country the ways of living to which they were accustomed at home. Their success in organiz- ing civilized life over so vast an area in three or four centuries has been a work the magnitude of which may well awaken the interest of every pupil. The geographical setting of American history has been kept con- stantly in mind. The pupil should be made to realize the impor- tance of geographical facts in the development of civilization and especially in the history of the United States. He has been study- ing geography for several years and should discover that his work iv PREFACE is of immediate utility in the study of a kindred subject. Certain great movements, like the Revolutionary War and the Civil War, cannot be understood without an appreciation of their geograph- ical setting. Geography and chronology have been called "the two eyes of history," but date lists are often emphasized far more than geographical conditions. In the Civil War the geographical features of Virginia and of the Mississippi Valley were determin- ing factors, and were always noted by the leaders. It is obvious that such facts must form the basis of the class-room study of the war. What is true of that war is equally true of other move- ments. The teacher will note the emphasis upon geographical facts in chapter iii. Exploring the Mississippi Valley; chapter viii, Dutch and English Rivalries; chapter x. The French Rivals, as well as in the chapters on the wars. In selecting the characteristic incidents which should be described the authors have again kept in mind the experience of the pupil. Only the simpler features of political institutions and controversies have been touched, while special attention has been given to occupations, industry, trade, manners, and customs. The European background, that is, the history of Great Brit- ain and Europe, has been explained whenever it furnishes a key to an understanding of events in America which were the direct out- growth of events in the Old World. The point of view is Amer- ican and the amount of European history included is necessarily small. The teacher can readily supplement what is contained in the text. The appendix gives a summary of the principal political events, with the names of Presidents and Vice-Presidents, and of defeated candidates for the Presidency, the dates of the admission of states, with their area and population. Tables of statistics are included, showing the rapid growth of the states and the development of industry and trade. The bibliographical lists at the close contain references which the teachers may use in guiding the reading of the pupils. A much longer list might have been given, but care has been exer- cised to make the list serviceable. The authors wish to express their thanks to those who have aided them with helpful criticisms. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I Discoverers and Explorers i II Gaining a Foothold on the Atlantic Shore . , 17 III Exploring the Mississippi Valley . . . . . 27 IV The Founding of Virginia 39 V The Exiles for Conscience Sake at Plymouth . 49 VI The Beginnings of New England 59 VII Maryland, A Refuge for English Catholics . 71 VIII Dutch and English Rivalries: Beginnings of a Great State 77 IX A Second Great Emigration 87 X The French Rivals 99 XI The Making of New Frontiers 11 1 XII How the Colonists Ltv^ed 121 XIII How the Colonies Were Governed .... 139 XIV Conquest of the French Colonies in America 148 XV Why the English Colonists Became Revolu- tionists 164 XVI The Outbreak of War 178 XVII The Birth of a New Nation 189 XVIII Life in War Time 203 XIX How THE French Helped the Colonists . . . 213 XX The Difficulties of the New Republic . . . 225 XXI Starting the New Government 238 XXII The United States and Europe 250 XXIII Rule of Jefferson: A New West 263 XXIV The United States and the Napoleonic Wars . 276 XXV The War of 1812 286 XXVI New Work and New Routes 297 XXVII The March of Population Westward . . .310 XXVIII Government by the People 323 XXIX Problems of the New Democracy 331 XXX Neighboring Countries Bring on New Ques- tions 345 XXXI How THE United States Won the Pacific Coast 354 vi CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XXXII A Great Domain, New Tools, and Willing Hands 363 XXXIII The Question of SLA\rERY 376 XXXIV A Drv'iDED Nation 390 XXXV The Beginning of Civil War 400 XXXVI Story of Victory and Defeat 412 XXXVII Conqxjering a Peace 425 XXXVin Peace and its Problems 433 XXXIX Neighbors akd Rivals 446 XL The Prairie States 454 XLI New Methods of Working 463 XLII The New South 475 XLIII The Last Barriers 483 XLIV Laborers of a Great Nation 491 XLV New Methods of Government 500 XLVI The New Education 513 XL VII The Republic and the Larger World . . . 522 Appendix Chronological Summary of American Political History . i Population at the Beginning of the Period of Independence x Area and Population of the States and Territories . . x Population of the United States by Races .... xii Place of Birth of Present Population xii Cities of the United States with Population over 200,000 xii Population of Countries of Europe xiii Progress of Education xiv Waste of Wealth in the United States xiv Table Showing Industrial Progress of the United States xv References for Teachers xvi Declaration of Independence xxxiii Constitution of the United States xxxvi Index xlix LIST OF MAPS PAGE Map of the World, showing the United States and its Possessions cover page 2 A Globe made before Columbus Discovered America .... 4 Map of the New World 6 The New World according to a Map-Maker of 1 540 .... 9 Map showing Five Famous Voyages of Exploration 15 Supposed Extent of North America 17 Parts of North America Occupied or Explored, about 1650 . . 25 The Great Mountain Barrier back of the English Settlements 27 Map showing Natural Features and Native Tribes of the United States between 30 and 31 Map of La Salle's Explorations 36 Map of Virginia 40 Captain John Smith's Map of New England 53 Plymouth Harbor 54 Country about Massachusetts Bay 62 Country about Narragansett Bay 64 New England in the Seventeenth Century 67 Early Settlements in Maryland 73 New Netherland in 1655 — According to the Dutch 81 West Indies 88 The Middle Colonies 92 The Carolina Coast 95 Charleston Harbor 96 Map of Portages in New France and the Illinois Country . . . 107 Where the German and ScotchTrish Emigrants Settled . . . 114 Settlements in Georgia 118 Eastern North America at the Beginning of the French and Indian War 149 The Ohio Country and the New French Forts 151 Route of Braddock's Expedition 155 The British Territory in 1763 161 Boston, Bunker Hill, and Charlestown 183 Reference Map for the Revolution — Northern and Middle States facing 196 viii LIST OF MAPS PAGE New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania 198 Mountain Trails and the Western Country 208 Reference Map for the Revolution — Southern States facing 218 Cornwallis's Wandering Campaign at the South 219 Our Country in 1783 225 Land Claims of the Thirteen Original States .... facing 232 The Northwest Territory after Wayne's Victory 247 The Louisiana Purchase 267 Lewis and Clark's Route 270 The United States in 1810-1 2 facing 272 Pike's Route 273 Europe at the Height of Napoleon's Power 284 Lake Erie and the Surrounding Country 288 Route of the National Road, 181 2-1840 305 Map of the Erie Canal 307 The United States in 1820, showing the Missouri Compromise. . 317 The United States in 1825 between 322 and 323 Map showing the Disputed Boundary of Maine ss3 The Republic of Texas 347 The Principal Western Trails 350 The Oregon Compromise 356 Map of the Mexican War 357 Territory acquired from Mexico as the Result of the War facing 358 Railroads in Operation in the Northern States in i860 .... 364 Territories from which Kansas and Nebraska were erected . . . 382 The United States in 1861 facing 392 Map of Forts in Charleston Harbor 395 Railroads and Navigable Waterways of the South, 1861 . . . 401 Map of Campaigns in Virginia 408 The Line of Defense in January, 1862 412 Reference Map for the Civil War, 1861-1865 . . between 414 and 415 The United States, Canada, and Mexico 449 Territorial Growth of the United States, 1783-1867 between 4 s° <^'^(^ 45^ Principal Railroads West of the Mississippi in 1884 454 The Cross-Roads of the Pacific 525 Relief Map of the Panama Canal 527 Map showing the Effect of the Panama Canal on Trade Routes . 528 Map of the United States and its Possessions . . . cover page 3 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES CHAPTER I DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS The Work of Three Centuries. — Three hundred years ago the whole of the United States was forest, prairie, and desert, the haunt of wild animals and Indians. Today nearly the whole country is settled. Highways and railroads extend in all directions. Farms and factories, schools and churches, libraries and theatres are found everywhere. What a great work to have been done in that time! If it had meant just cutting down trees, building houses, clearing the fields for crops, and making roads, that would have been a task big enough, but that is only a small part of what has been done. The early settlers wanted to Hve as their fathers had lived in England and Europe. This meant more work. As new inventions were made, or better ways of living were found, either in Europe or America, these were carried wherever the settlers went. All this work has been done not only by the early settlers, their children, and their children's children, but also by later emigrants.^ ^The word "emigrants," rather than "immigrants," is used here and in the chapters which follow as long as the principal thought is movement from England and Europe to America. When the colonies become the United States, the point of view is reversed. In treating the later movements from Europe, therefore, the word "immigrants" will be used. 2 DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS V/hat the Early Settlers had and what they did not have. — The earlier settlers might have done some of their work more rapidly if they had had the machines which men have since learned to make, like the steam shovel, the locomotive, and the electric motor. But they were much better off than the Indians that they found in America. Their ships were strong enough to withstand the storms of the Atlantic. They could fight against their enemies with guns and cannon. They had also many good tools which they had learned to use in England and Europe. They not only understood how to fight better than the Indians, but they had also learned to govern themselves wisely, and had brought with them many just laws and excellent customs. To understand just what sort of people they were, it is necessary to study the history of the countries from which they came. Some of the things which they knew they owed to the Greeks and the Romans, who Uved in Ancient Times. ^ Others they owed to the men of the Middle Ages in England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain. Three Great Discoveries. — The earhest period in American history is commonly called the Period of Discovery. It is not necessary to describe in detail the events of that period; it will be enough to state briefly the main facts.^ The most important voyages of that period were made by Bartholomew Diaz, Christopher Columbus, and Ferdinand Magellan. All three were in search of a route to the Indies, the Golden East about which Marco Polo, a Venetian traveler, had told the world. Europeans had usually obtained from the Venetians the spices, drugs, and silks of India, China, and of the islands off the coast of Asia. The Venetians purchased them 1 Ancient Times include the early history of Europe down to the fall of the Roman Empire about 400 a.d. The Middle Ages follow down to the time of Columbus. ''See Introdnclory American History for a fuller account of the discoveries and of the events which led to them. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS in the eastern Mediterranean, at ports where the ancient cara- van routes from the East ended. In the time of Columbus it was becoming dangerous, on account of the wars, to bring eastern goods overland, and all the bolder sailors were eager to find a sea route to the Indies. Bartholomew Diaz. — Diaz was a Portuguese captain. Many Portuguese before him had attempted to go far enough down the coast of Africa to find the southern point, and, passing it, turn north- ward again toward India. He was successful in 1487, although he did not reach India. As he had shown the way, another Portu- guese captain, Vasco da Gama, eleven years later reached India and brought back to Portugal a rich cargo of spices. Christopher Columbus. — Meanwhile Columbus, a Genoese sailor, who had once been in the service of Portugal, but now was in the service of Spain, formed a still more venturesome plan. He beHeved that he could find his way to spice-bearing islands, and even to the coasts of China and Japan, by saiHng westward across the Atlantic. Many sailors in those days feared the Atlantic as a "Sea of Darkness" full of dread- ful monsters, but Columbus had been on voyages with the great sea-captains of Genoa and Portugal, and no longer dreaded to go far out of sight of land. A Famous Voyage. — With three small ships Columbus left Spain on August 3, 1492. He visited the Canary Islands, and on September 6 turned the prows of his ships due west into the wide and unknown Atlantic. Columbus thought Christopher Columbus 4 DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS the earth smaller than it really is, and therefore that a voyage to the coast of Asia would be short. He also imag- ined that the Atlantic would contain many islands which he would find on the voyage. At first all went well, for the winds blew steadily from the east, wafting the ships along. But as the days passed, the sailors began to wonder how they This globe was made in Nuremberg in 1492, and is still preserved. It shows the Atlantic Ocean as Columbus thought of it could return against those winds. Columbus sometimes had great difficulty in keeping them from open mutiny. For nearly five weeks he kept saiHng westward. He encouraged the sailors by promises of a prize to the one who should first see land. Signs of land finally appeared, and on October 12 a small island was discovered. Columbus named it San Salvador. It was probably the present Watling Island. Columbus soon found many islands on every side. When he came upon a large body of land which the Indians called Cuba, he sent two messengers to search for the emperor of China, who, he thought, must live near. He was bitterly A FAMOUS VOYAGE 5 disappointed when they found neither an emperor, nor cities, nor gold, nor even spices. Misfortunes of Columbus. — However, when Columbus returned to Spain he was received with great rejoicing and was honored by the king and queen. He made three other voyages to America, discovering other islands in the West Indies and parts of the coast of South and Central America. Caravels of Columbus After the model shown at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 As he failed to gain great riches for himself or his followers, he became unpopular. Once he was taken back to Spain in chains Hke a common prisoner. Though his last days were saddened by misfortune, every one now regards him as the greatest of the discoverers. He had done more than start the search for another way to India — he had also started the exploration of a New World. Discovery of the South Sea. — In 15 13, seven years after the death of Columbus, a Spanish planter, named Balboa, discovered the Pacific Ocean, which Columbus had not even seen. Balboa and his followers marched from the shore of the Caribbean Sea through the dense forests of the Isthmus 6 DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS of Panama, taking twenty-two days to go forty-five miles. From the hill-tops they finally discovered a vast sea stretch- ing south and west. Balboa called it the South Sea, and this name was much used. The ocean which Balboa saw, Magellan soon afterward crossed. fr; Map of the New World Made after the discoveries of Columbus and Balboa Ferdinand Magellan. — Magellan was a Portuguese like Diaz and Da Gama, but like Columbus he had entered the service of the king of Spain. His object was to find a route to the Indies past the great continent which lay across the way that Columbus had chosen. The Portuguese were already trading not only in India, but also in the Spice Islands, and Magellan became familiar with that region while in their service. He sailed from Spain in 15 19 with five ships, and spent a year in searching the coast of South America for a passage into the ocean on the other side. At last he made his way through the strait since named for him, the Strait of Magellan, and sailed out into the Pacific or Peaceful Sea. His task was now to cross the Pacific, which was wider THE NAMING OF AMERICA ""' '■"^-»i^^?5^^»^ew8?<^; than he supposed. He succeeded, although his men suffered terribly before they reached the Ladrone Islands, where they obtained a supply of food. Soon afterward he reached the Philippines, but was killed in a fight with the natives. One of his ships found its way back to Spain by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope. Although Magellan died before the voyage was ended, the fame and honor of having sailed around the world, and having proved that America is not a part of Asia, but separated from it by a great ocean, belongs to him. The route to the Indies which he discovered was, however, not as convenient as that followed by Diaz !^J and Da Gama. The Naming of America. — It seems strange that America was not named for Columbus. A great river, many cities in the United states, the District of Columbia, in J'Z,,r^SLZ^\Z which Washington is situated, and i" a battle with the natives of the 1 . • Philippine Islands a country m South America, called the United States of Colombia, are named for him, but the American continents were named for another explorer, Ameri- cus Vespucius. Americus wrote about his discoveries much more than Columbus did. The people of the day either did not know what Columbus had done, or had forgotten it. One of them who was writing a geography suggested that the new lands be named for Americus. This was copied from one geography into another until everybody began to call the new continents America. A Passage to the South Sea. — When the early voyagers learned that America was not merely a group of islands off Magellan Monument on Mactan Island 8 DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS View of the "South Sea" from Panama the coast of Asia, they wished to explore it, partly to find a passage to the South Sea nearer than the Strait of Magellan, and partly to find gold, silver, precious stones, and other treas- __^^^__ ures which they heard about con- t i n u a 11 y . Some of these explorers ac- complished great things, while others were disap- pointed. Cortes, Conqueror of Mexico. — Two explorers were also conquerors. They were Cortes and Pizarro. A chief named Montezuma reigned in Mexico at that time over a people called the Aztecs. Montezuma had treasures of silver and gold in the city of Mexico, and these Cortes undertook to capture. After fighting for two years he was victorious. He then ruled over the country in the name of the Spanish king. Pizarro, Conqueror of Peru. — Pizarro did in Peru what Cortes had done in Mexico. The booty which the Spaniards seized in Peru was greater than they found in Mexico, amount-* ing to nearly seven million dollars in gold, besides a great quantity of silver. The mines of Peru, as well as of Mexico, were very rich, and the Spaniards were able to send silver and gold home to Spain. De Soto, Discoverer of the Mississippi. — Two other Spanish leaders were not so successful. They were De Soto, the governor of Cuba, and Coronado, a friend of the viceroy, or governor, of Mexico. In 1539 De Soto crossed over from Cuba to Florida, which was also a part of his dominions. He had heard tales of a country rich in gold mines, whose king DE SOTO 9 was sprinkled every morning with powdered gold, and he brought together a large band of followers in order to search for this Gilded Man or El Dorado. The army wandered for four years, much of the time in a half-starved condition, over a region now lying within eight southern states. They treated The New World according to a Map-Maker of 1540 the Indians cruelly and were repeatedly attacked by them. In these battles the Spaniards lost most of their baggage. It became necessary for them to use the skins of wild animals for clothing. Finally they discovered a great river which the Indians called the Mississippi. For another year the ex- plorers wandered west of the Mississippi through the almost endless forests and swamps now within Arkansas. Here, worn out by hardships and ill with malarial fever, De Soto died, and was buried secretly in the waters of the Mis- sissippi. His followers were afraid that the Indians, if they" lO DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS knew of the death of the leader, would murder the whole band. The explorers sought in vain for rich treasures such as Cortes had found in Mexico and Pizarro in Peru. Scarcely half of the original six hundred survived. The remnant of the once fine army built boats and floated down the Mississippi and found their way to Mexico. Coronado, Explorer of the Southwest. — Coro- nado and De Soto at one time nearly met on the plains west of the Missis- sippi. Coronado started in 1540 from western Mex- ico, near the Gulf of Cali- fornia. He planned to find the Seven Cities of Cibola, which he hoped would be as full of rich booty as Mexico or Peru. But the Seven Cities of Cibola existed only in the imagination of the Spaniards, who believed that centuries before seven Spanish bishops, fleeing before their heathen enemies, had crossed the ocean and built seven great cities. The only cities that Coronado found were the pueblos of the Indians — groups of houses made of stone and sun-dried clay. Coronado's army did not give up its search until it reached the region now included in Kansas. This was in 1541, when De Soto was distant only nine days' march. They then turned back, a sadly disappointed band of men. St. Augustine, the Oldest Town in the United States. — • None of Coronado's or De Soto's followers cared to settle in the lands which they had explored. They had not found that for which they were looking. The principal Spanish settle- Palisaded Indian Village ST. AUGUSTINE 11 ments for many years were in Mexico, Peru, and Cuba. About twenty years after De Soto's expedition the Spanish king sent Menendez to Florida to found settlements. In order to succeed he was obliged to drive away the French, who had recently built a fort near the mouth of the St. John's River. Menendez had another reason for attacking them; he was a Roman Catholic and they were Protestants. Most Frenchmen were Cathohcs, but these men were Protestants. In those days Catho- lics and Protes- tants could not live peaceably together. The French called the settlement Fort Caroline, 1 after the king who reigned in France. In the battles which took place Menendez was successful, and he either killed or drove away all the French. The settlement which he founded in 1565 was called St. Au- gustine, and it is the oldest town in the United States. Spanish Emigrants and Indians. — The king of Spain did not encourage his people to cross the Atlantic to his new lands, and the result was that the settlements grew slowly. But by the year 1600 about 200,000 Spaniards were living in America. Besides, there were 5,000,000 Indians on the main- land, many of whom they had taught to live like Christian ^ Named for King Charles, whose name in Latin was Carolus. The Old City Gate at St. Augustine 12 DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS men and women. Many of these Indians were gathered in villages or "missions," where they were taught by priests or monks. Unfortunately, most of the Indians in the islands of the West Indies soon died from disease and from the hard work which the early Spanish planters and gold-seekers had compelled them to do. To take their places the Spaniards had begun to carry negro slaves over from Africa. The Lachine Rapids of the St. Lawrence The rapids which stopped Cartier's voyage and convinced him that the St. Lawrence was not a passage way through to the Pacific Ocean First French Attempts at Settlement. — Fort Caroline was not the only settlement that the French had attempted to make. Thirty years earher, in 1534, Jacques Cartier had explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence and found the St. Lawrence River. In the following year he sailed nearly 400 miles up the great river until the Lachine or China Rapids blocked his way. SLx years later he returned with a band of settlers, but the intense cold and danger from the Indians made them anxious to return to France. So the colony was given up. First English Attempts. — The English had also tried to make settlements in America. In 1497, while Columbus was still living, John Cabot, another Italian, obtained a ship FRENCH AND ENGLISH EXPLORERS 13 from the English king and sailed westward across the stormy- North Atlantic. He reached the coast of North America, but just where is not known, except that it was in the region of Nova Scotia or Labrador. For many years the English seemed to forget about the lands which he had discovered and claimed for the king of England. But English sailors watched the Spaniards in the West Indies and in America, and envied them the riches they were Scene on the Coast of Labrador gaining. During this period also England and Spain were fast becoming enemies. Occasionally an English captain would plunder Spanish ships or towns just as if he was a pirate. The most famous captain in England at this time was Francis Drake, who sailed into the Pacific Ocean, robbed Spanish ships off the coast of South America, and finally found his way back to England by the route which Magellan's sailors had followed. Queen Elizabeth made him a knight to reward him for his success. Another Englishman, Sir Walter Raleigh, made several attempts to plant a colony on the coast of what is now North CaroHna. He called the region Virginia, in honor of Elizabeth, 14 DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS the "Virgin Queen." One of these colonies, led by John White in 1587, was made up of about 150 persons, including 25 women and children. While White was in England seek- ing to obtain supphes and aid for the colony, the settlers were either scattered or murdered by the Indians. No trace of them was ever found. A Century's Success. — Thus, at the end of a century of discovery and exploration, only one settlement, St. Augus- tine, existed within the present limits of the United States. But the knowledge of the earth had been wonderfully in- creased. It was certain also that in a few years the men of western Europe — English, Dutch, French, and Spaniards — would rival one another in founding settlements. QUESTIONS 1. What great work has been done by Americans in three hundred years of history? 2. In what ways were the explorers and early settlers better off than the Indians? 3. Where did the early emigrants to America obtain their knowledge? 4. Who were the three greatest discoverers? Why did they make their voyages? 5. Why was America named for Americus Vespucius rather than for Columbus? 6. Who conquered Mexico? What other Indian country was conquered at about the same time? 7. What portions of the United States did De Soto explore? Coronado? What settlement did the Spaniards later make in North America? 8. How did the Spaniards treat the Indians? Who took the place of the Indians in the West Indian Islands as laborers for the Spaniards? 9. What part of North America did the French explore? Who was their first great explorer? Why did he go up the St. Lawrence? Where did he attempt to settle? Why did he fail? 10. What part of North America did the English explore? Who were their explorers? Where did the English attempt to settle? Why did they fail? EXERCISES I. Make a list of the tools and machines which settlers had three hundred years ago and which we have now. u, i6 DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS 2. Prepare a list of the principal explorers and conquerors in the period of discoveries, with the places which they discovered or conquered, and the dates. 3. Study the maps of this chapter for the effect of discoveries and explorations on the knowledge of the New World. Make on the blackboard or in a notebook a copy of Behaim's globe, page 4; add coast lines and countries discovered or explored by Columbus, Magellan, De Soto, Coronado, Cabot, and Cartier, in order to show the growth of knowledge as a result of their combined work. Important Dales: I4Q2. The discovery of America by Columbus. 1521. One of Magellan's ships completes the first voyage around the world. 1541. The discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto. 1565. The founding of St. Augustine. Readings : A list of readings is given at the end of the book. i^ttmc^ Ship 01? 1492 CHAPTER II GAINING A FOOTHOLD ON THE ATLANTIC SHORE Unexplored America. — In 1600 most of the region now included in the United States was not even explored. The followers of the unfortunate De Soto had floated down the Mississippi to its mouth, and Coronado had marched '^^■^, s,i>r.nwren^. over much of the South- west, but neither they nor the other Spanish adven- turers attempted to explore the region thoroughly. The French had gone no further than the Lachine Rapids on the St. Law- rence. The vast plains and forests of the upper Mis- sissippi Valley had not been seen by white men. And yet these lands were a prize richer than Mexico or Peru, not because of silver arid gold in the treasure- houses of imaginary cities, Map showing where the English, Dutch, but because of the wealth and French explorers of about 1600 ex- Of soil, forest, and mine, P^cted to find the South Sea or Pacific Ocean which would some day give work to milHons of men and women. Supposed Extent of North America i8 SETTLEMENTS ON THE ATLANTIC SHORE The Rivals of the Spaniards. — When the new century opened the Spaniards were less able to struggle for the prize than in the days of Cortes, De Soto, and Coronado. It is true that they had conquered Portugal, and that their king now possessed the rich colonies which the Portuguese captains had founded in the East Indies. But at the same time the Spaniards had wasted much money and many lives in a quar- rel with the Dutch, who were once Spain's loyal subjects. The Dutch were hardy sailors and were not afraid to attack Spanish ships. Indeed, they were usually victorious in such battles. The English also had a strong fleet and had in 1588 nearly destroyed the "Invincible Armada," the largest fleet the Spaniards ever had. France was another dangerous rival of Spain, especially under her new king, Henry of Navarre, the first of the Bourbon line of kings, who would not allow the Spaniards to treat French settlements as Menendez did. Hindrances to Spanish Success. — Another thing hindered the Spaniards. Their king considered the colonies his own possessions, and no one could go to them without his consent. He was especially anxious to prevent any but steadfast Roman Catholic Christians from going. The ships for America set out always from a single port, at first Seville and later Cadiz. They were obliged to wait until there were enough to form a fleet. The enterprising seamen and merchants of other countries were hindered by no such restraints. Although the kings of England and of France considered newly discovered lands their possessions, they were wilHng to give any man, or any group of men, rich enough to fit out an expedition, per- mission to make settlements, to trade with the natives, and, sometimes, even to make war on rivals. The Dutch also acted in the same way. East India Companies. — Queen Elizabeth, in 1600, granted such a permission, called a charter, to the East India Company, which was to trade beyond the Cape of SPANISH, DUTCH, AND FRENCH 19 Good Hope. Dutch captains had been sailing to the East Indies for several years, and in 1602 the Dutch formed an East India Company. It was certain that the Dutch, the EngHsh, and the French would soon form companies to trade and make settlements in the Western Indies; that is, in what we call America. If they should, the Spaniards would have little chance of adding much to what they possessed, and might lose even that. Champlain's First Settlement. — Of the three rivals of Spain the French were the first to attempt a settlement. Samuel de Cham- plain, who had already visited the New World in the service of the Spanish king, sailed for America in 1604, this time under the author- ity of King Henry of France. He was in the employ of a nobleman named De Monts. De Monts had received from the king the right to settle and rule the region between what is now New Jersey and Nova Scotia. About 120 men were in Champlain's party. Unfortunately for them they attempted to settle on a barren island in the St. CroLx River, which is part of the present boundary between the United States and Canada. Many died the first winter, and the rest moved across the Bay of Fundy to a place they called Port Royal. Champlain misses an Opportunity. — Champlain carefully explored the coast to the southward, but missed the excel- lent harbors where the Enghsh afterward built Portland and Boston. He entered the harbor of what was soon to become Plymouth, and sailed around Cape Cod. He was again unlucky enough not to find Narragansett Bay, where New- port was built later, or to pass through Long Island Sound Samuel de Champlain 20 SETTLEMENTS ON THE ATLANTIC SHORE to the beautiful harbor now belonging to New York City. He concluded that there was a better chance for a colony in the region of the St. Lawrence River. He missed a great opportunity, leaving the way open for the English. The Virginia Company. — Meanwhile several Enghshmen had crossed the Atlantic, and one of them made such an enthusiastic report about the places he visited, which were on the Kennebec River, that his fellow coun- trymen were eager to found a colony. Raleigh's ill luck showed them that the best way was to form a company somewhat like the East India Company. Raleigh had spent on his ven- tures a sum almost equal to a million dol- lars, according to the present value of money, and yet he had failed, partly for the lack of more money. What might be called a stock company or corporation was therefore formed in 1606. Queen Elizabeth had died, and James I was on the throne. From him the company obtained the right to settle in America between the thirty-eighth and forty-fifth parallels of latitude. The region was still called Virginia, as Raleigh had named it. The company was, therefore, called the Virginia Company.^ It was made up of noblemen, wealthy landholders, and rich 1 The company was made up of two groups, one of Londoners, the other of men from the west of England. The first group was called the London Com- SiR Walter Raleigh THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY 21 merchants. Each one who gave a sum equal to $300 became owner or proprietor of a share, and was, of course, entitled to a part of the profits coming from trade with the Indians or from discoveries of gold. "Eastward Ho!" — Some members of the company bought shares in the enterprise because they thought it patriotic to obtain lands in America for the king. Others wanted to Christianize the Indians. Still others expected to increase their fortunes. A popular play, called Eastward Ho! put on the stage in 1605, spoke of Virginia as a land where gold was more plentiful than copper in England. This play also said that the natives went out on holidays to gather rubies and diamonds to hang on their children's coats and to stick in their caps. Such tales were Hke those which caused De Soto to search for the Gilded Man, and Coronado for the Seven Cities of Cibola. The Spaniards aroused. — Two years before the Virginia Company was formed King James had made peace with the king of Spain, so that the company's ships were not likely to be attacked on their way to America. But when the Span- iards heard that Englishmen were going to the New World, the Spanish ambassador at London declared that America was all a part of the Indies, which belonged to his king. King James listened politely, but said that there could be no wrong in settling on lands which the Spaniards had not occupied. The Settlement at Jamestown. — A large part of the year 1606 was spent by the managers of the company in obtaining men for their proposed colony. What promises they made and what sort of men they persuaded to go, will be told in another chapter. Here it is enough to show the importance of the colony in the struggle between the Spaniards, English, French, and Dutch, for the best parts of North America. pany, the second the Plymouth Company. It was the London Company which founded Jamestown. 22 SETTLEMENTS ON THE ATLANTIC SHORE The expedition set out just before Christmas, 1606. After five wearisome months on the ocean it reached Chesapeake Bay. The officers finally chose as a suitable place for their settlement a small peninsula running out into a stream which they called the James River. On May 14, 1607, the party landed and be- gan to build a village, naming i t Jamestown, after the king. Attempts to find the South Sea. — The set- tlers did not know that near- ly three thou- sand miles sep- arated them from the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, and while some were building houses others hurried off to see if Chesapeake Bay by any chance was the passage to the Indies for which so many sailors had looked. If it was, the founders of the colony would be well paid for the time and money they had expended. The most famous of these searchers after a route to the South Sea was Captain John Smith. Settlement at Quebec. — The next year Champlain made his first settlement on the St. Lawrence. It was situated at a point where the river, ordinarily very broad, narrows to less than a mile in width. The strait, or narrows, was called "Quebec" by the Indians, and this name was given to Cham- plain's village. Three years later he made the beginnings of another settlement farther up the river at Montreal. Ruins of the Brick Church Built at Jamestown in 1639 THE FRENCH AND DUTCH 23 Henry Hudson. — About the same time an Englishman, Henry Hudson, who had entered the service of the Dutch East India Company, reached America in search of a pas- sage to China. He sailed as far south as Chesapeake Bay, and then turned northward. Soon he entered the strait now called the Narrows, which separates New York harbor from the sea. He discovered the broad and beautiful river which The First View of Quebec stretches northward among the hills and which now bears his name. As the water was salt and the tides were strong, he thought this might be the passage for which he was looking. It is not strange that he was deceived. The Hudson for one hundred and fifty miles inland is not a true river, but a fiord or deep channel into the highlands, with a rock bottom below sea level. The Half Moon, Hudson's ship, aided by wind and tide, sailed or drifted until it was stopped by the shallows near the site of the present city of Albany. Hudson had not discovered a passage to China, but instead one of the most useful rivers in the world. Discovery of Hudson Bay. — Two years later Hudson lost his life, still bravely pursuing his search for a passage to the 24 SETTLEMENTS ON THE ATLANTIC SHORE Indies. This time he was exploring in the far north, and entered that great arm of the sea which, as Hudson Bay, bears his name. His sailors, enraged because of the sufferings his venture compelled them to endure, mutinied and set him adrift in a small boat. The "Half Moon" in the Hudson River Settlement of New Amsterdam. — Dutch traders soon visited the Hudson River, but fourteen years passed before a regular settlement was made. In 1623 a fort and a few houses were built on the southern end of Manhattan Island, and the place was called New Amsterdam. The Dutch made another small settlement up the river at Fort Orange, where Albany is now situated. Beginnings of Massachusetts. — The EngHsh had by this time founded another settlement, a small party having landed at Plymouth in 1620. Within a few years a group of English settlements was growing up on the shores of Massachusetts Bay, another group in Connecticut, another in Rhode Island, and still another in Maryland. EUROPEAN CLAIMS IN AMERICA 25 \ mbu9, H92. Parts of North America Occupied or Explored about 1650 26 SETTLEMENTS ON THE ATLANTIC SHORE A Foothold on the Atlantic Shore. — What Raleigh had failed to do had now been done several times. St. Augustine was no longer the only settlement on the Atlantic shore. The Enghsh had gained a foothold in several places. Their rivals, the Dutch and the French, were also there. But the Atlantic shore was only the fringe of the continent. QUESTIONS 1. What parts of North America had been explored by 1600? What parts were unknown? 2. Why were the Spaniards weaker rivals in 1600 than in the days of Cortes? Who were the great rivals of Spain? What hindered the growth of the Spanish colonies? 3. What were the East India companies formed to do? Why were trading companies likely to injure Spain? 4. Which rival of Spain was the first to found a settlement in North Amer- ica? Who led the expedition? Where was the settlement made? What coast did Champlain explore? 5. How did the English go to work to form a colony in the New World? Why was this method better than Raleigh's? What did the Spanish think of the plans of the Virginia Company? 6. What settlement did the Virginia Company make? What did the leaders of the colony hope to find near the settlement? 7. Where did Champlain make other French settlements? 8. What parts of America did the Dutch explore? Where did they make a settlement? 9. What English settlements were made about the time the Dutch made their settlement? EXERCISES 1. Prepare a list of reasons why the English wanted a colony in America. 2. Point out, on an outline map of North America, the regions the rivals had explored and the places where each had obtained a foothold. Important Dates : 1604. Beginning of a French colony at St. Croix. 1607. Settlement of EngUsh at Jamestown. 1608. Champlain founds a French colony at Quebec. 1620. Beginning of English settlement of New England. 1623. Dutch settlement at New Amsterdam. CHAPTER III EXPLORING THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY The Appalachian Barrier. — The more venturesome men of the early settlements in America were anxious to explore the country westward. A map- maker nearly fifty years after James- town was founded said that the "Sea of China and the Indies" was only ten days' march from the head of the James River. As Columbus had found a barrier continent in his attempt to reach Asia, so the settlers found a mountain barrier in their way. To understand their task it is necessary to see what sort of an obstacle this barrier offered. Jamestown was built upon the coastal plain, which rises only a few feet above sea- level. Back of the coastal plain, some- times as far as 150 The Great Moun- tain Barrier BACK OF THE English Settle- ments Note how far north and south this mountain barrier extends, making it difficult for the early settlers to move far to the west. 28 EXPLORING THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY miles, is a broken country, like New England in appearance, called the Piedmont,^ and still farther back, a range of mountains. This range, the Appalachian Mountains, pre- sented for 1,300 miles an almost unbroken wall to the advance of explorers or settlers. Nature of the Barrier. — The Appalachians do not form a single barrier, but a system of barriers. Their eastern ridges fall away into low hills in eastern Pennsylvania, the highlands of New Jersey, and the palisades of the Hudson. In Maryland, Virginia, and farther south, they form a moun- tain range, called the Blue Ridge. West of these ridges, or of the hills which prolong them, Hes the Appalachian Valley, also full of ridges difficult to cross. Still farther west rises the steep slope of the Alleghany and Cumberland plateau, a thousand or more feet in height. In Pennsylvania this is called the Alle- ghany Moun- t^'l — =:::^::=r-ri--=^^.— — tains, i he west- ern slope of the _ plateau falls i,^x' ^^ ""• away gradually "^^S& -c' *-'''' ^ •* ^ ."^,i.-»^-^iiA^-'^f # toward the Mis- ^'^m^^<^^^f%^tH^^^^mm- sissippi River or The Mohawk River the Great Lakes. The Mohawk Passage. — The only real break in the barrier is the valley of the Mohawk, a river which flows into the Hudson near Albany. There the barrier sinks to a height of only 445 feet above sea level. Farther south the passes or passage ways are from 1,500 to 3,000 feet high. The Westward Flowing Rivers. — In the south as well as the north the rivers show the natural routes across the moun- tains. Explorers going up stream along rivers which cross the coastal plain, passing through the rough Piedmont coun- ^ Piedmont: French for " foot of mountain." THE WESTWARD BARRIER 29 try, and climbing the mountains beyond, would find that they were not far from the head-waters of rivers flowing westward through mountain passes into the Mississippi Valley. For example, the upper waters of the James are near the streams which make up the Kanawha and flow finally into the Ohio. By following the course of other rivers, explorers could find the sources of the Tennessee, which makes its way into the Ohio near the Mississippi. But all this was very difficult, because in many places neither boats nor canoes could be used, and the journey must be made on foot, often through trackless for- ests or underbrush, and along steep and rocky hillsides. The Best Passages. — The Appalachian barrier explains why more than a century passed before the EngHsh settlers on the coast found their way, except in rare cases, to the valleys of the Ohio and the Mississippi. The French at Quebec and Montreal were much more conveniently situated. If they succeeded in opening a route to the Great Lakes, they could reach several places from which, by short carries or portages,^ they could go in canoes into the Mississippi. Had the Spaniards used the knowledge De Soto's followers carried back, they might have been still better off, and have entered the great valley from the south. The Dutch were better situated than the English, north and south of them, because from the Hudson they could follow up the valley of the Mohawk. But something besides the Appalachians kept the Dutch, as well as other settlers, from venturing far westward. This second obstacle was the Indian tribes. The Indian Barrier. — Columbus had seen Indians as soon as he discovered San Salvador. Cortes had conquered the Aztec Indians in Mexico. Coronado had visited the Zuni Indians of the southwest, and had seen others on the plains farther north. De Soto had fought with Indians many times in his struggle through the southern forests to the banks of ^ Places where two bodies of water are near together. 30 EXPLORING THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY the Mississippi. To meet or fight with Indians was, there- fore, nothing new for the settlers of America. How the Indians lived. — The northern Indians were more barbarous than the Zunis or Aztecs. They did not live in towns like the pueblos, or like those in Mexico. Most of their ..^^^j. -^ ^ houses were merely I / ^t^>A r rude tents of skins or -' ' ^-'o bark. They raised to- ^- i^ ' ^ bacco, corn, and a few •'^-^'ifj''^^'^ • ^ • vegetables, the women ^ 'W-^^'M$X:- ~ '''■ ' ' '' doing all the work. -'^'^' .' yiJ^^>ism\ W^MM\ ^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ■-^'•'''-//.^i^ii'tetlV > r hunt or fight neigh- ~~^'':;,:^:^^^^^<^-'IlJ«|^ boring tribes. Until -^- - -, ^a^.s_::^i3ts.^ ^hgy obtained guns Bark Wigwam of the Eastern Indians f^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ Indians used bows and arrows. Their arrow and spear-heads were of flint. Their axes and their bowls also were of stone. They were very glad to obtain steel knives and axes from the settlers, for stone tools are hard to work with. The Territories of the Indians ; the Iroquois. — The Indians had many chiefs, but no government Hke that of civilized peoples. A tribe might be made up of many villages. Its lands had no fixed boundaries or frontiers, but its members knew their hunting grounds, and were ready to fight against anyone who entered them. Sometimes tribes were united in a confederacy by agreements or treaties. Such a confederacy was the Iroquois, or "Five Nations," who lived in the region now included in New York, northern Pennsylvania, and northeastern Ohio. Had the settlers tried to force a way through the Mohawk Valley, the Iroquois would have disputed every step. Other Indian Tribes. — The Indians in Canada and what is now New England were Algonquins, enemies of the Iro- THE INDIANS 31 quois. The Indians whose lands lay just beyond the line of early southern settlements were the Cherokees, — related to the Iroquois, — and the Creeks and Choctaws, who belonged to another great family called the Muskogee. 'iT A Dwelling House of the Iroquois Champlain and the Indian Barrier. — Champlain first learned how strong was the Indian barrier. He wished to gain the good will of his Indian neighbors, the Algonquin tribes, and consented in 1609 to join a war-party against the Iroquois. The Indians carried him in their light birch- bark canoes up the St. Lawrence to the RicheUeu, and so to the lake which now bears his name. The Indians soon discovered a war-party of the enemy near where Ticonderoga now stands. Champlain's Fight with the Iroquois. — Champlain and his two white companions put on their armor and made ready their guns. His Indian allies put him at their head. "I marched," he said, "some twenty paces in advance of the rest, until I was within about thirty paces of the enemy, who at once noticed me, and, halting, gazed at me, as I did also at them. When I saw them making a move to fire at us, I rested my musket against my cheek, and aimed directly at one of the three chiefs. With the same shot, two fell to the ground; and one of their men was so wounded that he died 32 EXPLORING THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY sometime after. I had loaded my musket with four balls. When our side saw this shot so favorable for them, they began to raise such loud cries that one could not have heard it thunder. Meanwhile, the arrows flew on both sides. The Iroquois were greatly astonished that two men had been so quickly killed. ... As I was loading again, one of my com- panions fired a shot from the woods, which astonished them Champlain's Fight with the Iroquois After the drawing by Champlain in his Voyages anew to such a degree that, seeing their chiefs dead, they lost courage and took to flight, abandoning their camp and fort, and fleeing into the woods." A Costly Victory. — A few years later Champlain joined another Algonquin party which planned to attack a fortified village of the Iroquois near where Syracuse is situated. He was not so successful, and he and his friends were forced to retreat. These expeditions secured for the French the friend- ship of the Algonquins and the hatred of the Iroquois, who murdered all the Frenchmen they could lay hands on. Henry Hudson and the Iroquois. — It happened that a few weeks after Champlain's battle with the Iroquois, Henry DISCOVERY OF THE GREAT LAKES 33 Hudson was sailing up the river now named for him. He met other bands of Iroquois, received them on board the Half Moon, and gave them a feast. It is not surprising that the Iroquois liked the Dutch better than the French, especially as the Dutch settlers at New Amsterdam and Fort Orange were ready to trade knives, tools, guns, and liquors for furs. Discovery of the Great Lakes. — Champlain was not content with his exploration of the region now included in northern New York. Like all the others, he was arLxious to discover some passage to the South Sea. He visited Lake Ontario, but not Lake Erie, which was surrounded by the hunting grounds of the hostile Iroquois. His most wonderful journey took him to Lake Huron. He followed the Ottawa River to its source, crossed over to streams flowing westward through a chain of small lakes, and paddled down to Georgian Bay and on to Lake Huron. Before he died, in 1635, his men had discovered Lake Superior and Lake Michigan. ^ Father Marquette. — After the death of Champlain other Frenchmen pushed forward the work of exploring the west- ern country. Some of these were missionaries, especially Jesuits or members of the Society of Jesus, who went into this region to estabhsh mission stations among the Indians. Father Jacques Marquette was one of these. The Indians from time to time gave him reports of a great river beyond the Lakes. Marquette thought that this might lead to the South Sea. Statue of Marquette At Marquette, Mich. Y 34 EXPLORING THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY Discovery of the Mississippi. — In 1673, '^^ company with Louis Joliet, a fur trader, and five men, Marquette set out in search of the river. Their outfit consisted of two canoes and a supply of smoked beef and Indian corn. From Lake Michigan they turned into the Fox River. Near the head of the Fox, Indian guides showed them an easy path or portage to the head-waters of the Wisconsin River. They paddled down the Wisconsin until they reached the Missis- sippi, the great river that the Indians had described. Mar- quette followed its course for a month, passing the point where the swift but muddy waters of the Missouri joined it. He also saw the lonely forest which was to be the site of St. Louis, and passed the mouth of the Ohio. Near the mouth of the Arkansas River, not far from where De Soto had crossed the Mississippi more than a hundred years before, the little party turned back. They had discovered that the Mississippi would not carry them to the Pacific. In 1674 Marquette and two companions built a log-cabin where Chicago now stands and spent the winter there. His men killed deer, buffalo, and wild turkeys close to their hut. The friendly Indians occasionally visited them, bringing corn and game. La Salle. — The greatest of French explorers was La Salle. Moved by the story of Marquette's discovery, he resolved to trace the great river to its mouth and claim the whole region for his king and country. He had already had many Y adventures among the hostile Iroquois near Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. Once he had built a little vessel, the Griffin, at the eastern end of Lake Erie, for use in the fur trade on the Great Lakes, but this was soon destroyed in a storm on Lake Michigan. He always had some new plan for the fur trade and for exploration of the West. He was the first of his fellow countrymen to see the value of the Mississippi Valley for agriculture and commerce. Twice he attempted LA SALLE'S EXPLORATIONS 35 the long, difficult voyage from the St. Lawrence to the Missis- sippi in frail canoes, and twice he failed. The hostihty of the bands of Indians, the loss of supplies and canoes, the hardships of the northern winter, and the sickness of his men turned him back. Finally, in 1682, he was successful, but only after toiling through snow and over frozen fields, almost as if he were searching for the North Pole. La Salle explores the Missis- sippi. — La Salle's Uttle com- pany of French woodsmen and Indians left Lake Michigan in midwinter and dragged their canoes over the ice to the head- waters of the Illinois, and pad- dled down the dangerous stream, '^1 -/ — i., in the midst of breaking ice, to Robert Cavelier, Sieur . ...... . . , DE La Salle the Mississippi. After they reached the Mississippi their task was easier, although their frail canoes were often in peril. In the balmy spring of 1682, after a voyage of three months and a half, they arrived at the mouth of the river. La Salle solemnly took possession of the whole valley, including, he said, "all the nations, peoples, provinces, cities, towns, villages, mines, minerals, fisheries, streams, and rivers." This was a way explorers had of claiming everything. He set up a pole bearing the arms of France, with an inscription or writing giving the date and the king's name. He also buried a leaden plate simi- larly marked. A wooden cross was planted beside the pole. He named the region Louisiana in honor of King Louis XIV. . La Salle attempts to found a Settlement. — La Salle, not '^ content with discovering the mouth of the Mississippi, planned to build a fort and estabUsh reooilar settlements. This would 36 EXPLORING THE IVIISSISSIPPI VALLEY Map of La Salle's Exploration; s keep the Spaniards out, and would also become the center of a large trade with the Indians. After his return to France he fitted out an expedition and sailed for the New World. He tried to find his way through the Gulf of Mexico to the mouth of the Mississippi, but missed it and landed on the coast of Texas some four hundred miles west of his goal. His vessels were so greatly damaged that he abandoned them, and tried to reach the Mississippi by journeying on foot. ENGLISH ATTEMPTS TOWARD THE WEST 37 Buffalo meat made up what he called their "daily bread," and the skins replaced their worn-out clothing. For more than two years he struggled against obstacles. It was the old story of De Soto and his wanderings in the Mississippi Valley over again, except that La Salle was farther south and west. Great prairies, hostile Indians, swamps and bayous, and tangled and matted forests obstructed his way. The leader of the expedition finally lost his life on the journey. The Flat Land at the Mouth of the Mississippi His followers, weary of their hardships, mutinied and killed him. But not many years afterward other Frenchmen were more fortunate and made a settlement on the Gulf coast near the mouth of the Mississippi. The English Attempts to cross the Barrier. — The great Appalachian barrier, which faced the English settlements, kept the English from reaching the Mississippi Valley as soon as the French. But they made brave efforts, lured on by the hope of finding an "Indian Sea." In September, 1671, two Virginians, Captain Thomas Batts and Robert Fallam, after crossing the rough Piedmont country and climbing the Blue Ridge, discovered a river flowing northwest. This was the New River, which empties into the Kanawha. They went on until they reached a place near the present boundary 38 EXPLORING THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY of Virginia and West Virginia. Two years later James Needham succeeded in crossing the Blue Ridge farther south and reaching the head-waters of the Tennessee. Why the English could wait. — It was fortunate that few EngUshmen were tempted by such ventures. The settlements on the coast needed all who came from Europe to clear the fields, plant crops, build towns, and open trade with one another and with Europe. There would be time enough to conquer the Mississippi Valley after a newer England had grown up on the Atlantic coast. QUESTIONS 1. What barrier held back the early explorers and settlers? What was the Piedmont country? 2. What natural break was there in the barrier? Why were the Dutch and the French better situated than the English for entering the West? What other barrier kept back the Dutch? 3. How did the Indians live? Where were the Iroquois located? How did Champlain make enemies of the Iroquois? Why was Champlain's vic- tory a costly one for the French? 4. What other parts of North America did Champlain explore? By what route did Marquette find the Mississippi? 5. What part of North America did La Salle explore? What was he trying to do when he lost his life? 6. What Englishmen crossed the great barrier into the West? By what route? Was this before the French discovered the Mississippi? Why was it better for the English to remain longer east of the barrier? EXERCISES 1. Draw a map of the Appalachian barrier and of the routes across or around it to the Mississippi Valley. 2. Gather pictures of Indian objects, tools, houses, and the like, which show their manner of life. 3. Locate on an outline map of North America the hunting grounds of the Indian tribes which the early settlers knew. 4. How many years passed between De Soto's discovery of the Mississippi and Marquette's? 5. Trace on a map the explorations of Champlain, Marquette, and La Salle. 6. Trace the explorations of Fallam and Needham. CHAPTER IV THE FOUNDING OF VIRGINIA The First English Emigrants. — The first emigrants who went to Virginia were ill-prepared for the work before them. About half were young men belonging to the gentry, or lesser nobihty of England, who had never done a day's work. They were eager for gold and for adventure. Several of the emi- grants were carpenters, bricklayers, masons, and other skilled laborers. The remainder were poor workmen from the farm districts, with a few worthless criminals and vagabonds from London. No women went on this first voyage. All the men were offered free passage to Virginia, and food, clothing, and shelter while in the employ of the company. When the company should be dissolved, the emigrants were to share in the profits and receive a part of the land. The First Voyage. — The voyage to America was then very different from the voyage of emigrants nowadays. The ships were hardly bigger than those which Columbus had used a hundred years before. Instead of attempting to sail straight across the stormy North Atlantic, the sailors followed the route of the Spaniards, stopping at the Canary Islands and at several of the West India Islands. Contrary winds delayed them off the English coast for two months. Their provisions consisted mainly of salt meat and barley or wheat flour. Long before their five months' voyage was over the barley spoiled. Fortunately, in the islands where they stopped they caught fish and birds for food. But by the time they landed i6 of the 1 20 men had died. 40 THE FOUNDING OF VIRGINIA Settlement of Jamestown. — All were delighted to escape from the close, filthy quarters on shipboard and wander about on the Virginia shore that May morning in 1607. Even those who did not know how to work were willing at first to help in felling trees and clearing the land for tents and a fort. The fort was a rough affair, made by lay- ing trunks and branches of trees end to end around a half acre. Some cut out clapboards to send back to England when the ships returned Others planted a small field of wheat. They made a garden, but the season for planting was al- ready past, and the seeds did not do w;ell. This was a great misfortune, because they had little left on their ships to eat during the months before another season would open. In June the ships sailed back to England for suppHes, but it was seven months before they came again. Early Troubles at Jamestown. — Meanwhile two thirds of those left on shore died of hunger or disease. Jamestown was situated on a low tongue of land, with marshes all about. Soon malarial fever attacked the settlers. They had no pure water to drink, and were obliged to use the river water, which at high tide was salt and at low tide slimy. Most of them lived in bark or brush tents. The only buildings were a few rude huts, a storehouse, and a chapel. The Starving Time. — The arrival of the ships in January, 1608, helped for a while, because they had fresh supplies on Map of Virginia JAMESTOWN 41 board, but they also brought more emigrants, which meant more mouths to feed. Several times in the next few years the settlement was on the verge of ruin. The winter of 1609 and 1610 was long known as the Starving Time. After all supplies were consumed, the settlers ate their dogs and horses. Barely sixty men were living when spring came. During the first three years the com- pany sent out more than 300 emigrants, but at the end of that time only eighty were left. Captain John Smith. — The hero of those years of suffering was Captain John Smith. Every one knows the story of his capture by the Indians and of his rescue by Pocahontas, the chieftain's daughter. There are other things better worth remembering about him. Soon after his return to James- town he was made governor. He forced the idle and lazy to work, making the rule that "he who would not work should not eat." In a short time all were busy chopping down trees, hewing out lumber, and gathering pitch. The settlement took on an air of life and energy. Smith also saved the settlers from starvation by opening a profitable trade with the Indians. When the Indians saw that the colonists were in distress, they tried to drive hard bargains, offering only small pieces of bread or a few beans for a piece of copper or a hatchet. Smith found that the Indians liked colored beads. His men also learned to make chisels and hatchets from the iron they discovered in Virginia. When every other way Captain John Smith 42 THE FOUNDING OF VIRGINIA failed, he compelled the Indians to trade. They dared not refuse, for his guns were more dangerous than their bows and arrows. Unfortunately, in 1609 he was hurt by an explosion of powder, and went to England to have his wounds cared for. He never returned to Virginia. Jamestown not a Real Settlement. — In 16 10 the company sent over a harsh governor, who tried to make the colonists work better by introducing the strict discipline of an army post. The day's work began at six with beat of drum. When it closed in the afternoon, all were marched to the church for prayers. One reason why the men did not work well was that they were working for the company and not for them- selves. Whatever they produced went to the company's storehouse. The garden and the wheat fields belonged to the company. The men were fed and clothed from the common stock. Life at Jamestown was more like that of a lumber camp or a mining camp than of an ordinary town. Working for the Company. — The men who were not busy producing the food needed for the settlement worked to obtain loads for the company's ships. Lumber was about the only thing which could be produced at first. Once the Virginians thought they had found gold dust and sent part of a cargo of it to England. Not until the ship arrived at the wharf in England was it discovered that the gold dust was only yellow sand. A Change in the Company's Plans. — In 16 14 Governor Dale made an important change in the management of the settlement in order to encourage industry. He allotted to a few of the older colonists three acres of land apiece, expect- ing them to pay as rent two and one half barrels of corn an acre, and to work for the company thirty days each year. The plan was so successful that the company stopped send- ing men over to work for it directly. The company also LIFE IN VIRGINIA 43 encouraged rich men to take large farms in Virginia and supply their own laborers. Plantations. — These new settlers may be called planters and their farms plantations. Their number increased, while the number of men working for the company decreased. The company was obliged to content itself with the rent of its land, and the trade carried on between England and Virginia. Indentured Servants. — The planters obtained laborers by offering free passage, food, clothing, and shelter to men Jamestown in 1622 willing to go to Virginia, but who had no money to pay their expenses. These men in return agreed to become servants of the planters for four, five, six, or sometimes even seven years. They were commonly called indentured servants, because they gave a bond or indenture, pledging them to serve. When their term of service ended, they could work for wages. As land was plentiful they might soon be able to secure farms. Sometimes a poor but ambitious young man would choose this means of seeking his fortune in Virginia. The First Slaves. — The first settlers in Virginia did not follow the example of the Spaniards and make slaves of the Indians. The main reason was that it was so easy for them to run away and find refuge among the other Indians of the 44 THE FOUNDING OF VIRGINIA region. Indians were frequently hired to hunt and fish for the planters. In 1 619 a Dutch sea-captain stopped at James- town, having on board his ship some negroes whom he had stolen from the Spaniards in the West Indies. He sold 20 of them to the planters. But it was a long time before many negro slaves were brought into the colony. The cost of slaves varied from $100 to $250, while five, six, or seven years' service of an indentured servant cost from $50 to $75. Beginnings of Family Life at Jamestown. — Up to 16 19 few women had arrived at Jamestown. The settlers did not wish to marry Indian women, as many of the Spanish colo- nists had, although John Rolfe, a prosperous planter, married Pocahontas. The company now concluded, in the quaint phrase of the time, "that a plantation can never flourish till famihes be planted and . . . wives and children fix the people to the soil." Accordingly the company sent ninety young women to Virginia. The understanding was that a settler desiring a wife must gain the consent of the woman he chose and must pay her passage, which amounted to 120 pounds of tobacco. The plan was so successful that the company sent out many other young women. Growth of the Colony. — Life in Virginia gradually became more attractive. Whole famihes began to come from Eng- land of their own accord. The older settlers built larger houses in place of their rude huts. They sent for horses and cattle. The plantations increased in number as the new- comers settled along the river courses. On the James they spread as far as the falls where Richmond is situated. Rivers the Roads of Virginia. — The rivers were the high- ways connecting one plantation with another. Roads were almost unknown. Each planter had a wharf, at which sea- going ships could unload furniture, tools, cloth, and many other things, taking the planter's crop in exchange. In such a country market-towns were not needed and were very scarce. LIFE IN JAMESTOWN 45 Families used the river highways in visiting or going to church, being rowed by their servants or slaves. Finding Wealth. — The officers of the company expected to find the main profits of the enterprise in gold mines, just as the Spaniards had been made rich by the mines of Mexico and Peru. When their explorers discovered no mines, they tried to make a profit by sending pitch, tar, and other naval How THE Colonists built their new Homes supplies to England. The settlers in Virginia soon found something profitable to grow. This was tobacco. Raising Tobacco. — At first the tobacco which the Indians raised seemed too bitter, but John Rolfe learned how to cure it in such a manner that it found a ready sale in the London market. King James hated tobacco and tried to keep his subjects from using it. The governor of Virginia also thought that raising tobacco would take time from more useful labor and made a rule that no farmer should plant tobacco until he had planted two acres of corn. Still, tobacco fields spread in spite of the law. At Jamestown, in the spring of 1617, 46 THE FOUNDING OF VIRGINIA the market-place and even the borders of the streets were set with the plants. This is not surprising, for a single pound sometimes brought in London as much as $12 in present money. The price fell as more was raised, but tobacco con- tinued to be the chief product on which the planters depended for profit. The dried leaves were so convenient to handle that they became the money of the day, bound together in pound or hundred-pound packages. The price of everything was reckoned in pounds of tobacco. The salaries of public offi- cers and of clergymen, as well as all debts, were also paid with it. The First Virginia Assembly. — The officers of the Virginia Company had already decided to rent the land and sell it to planters, instead of managing it themselves. Soon they shared the government of the colony with the settlers. They hoped in this way to give the colonists a deeper interest in the welfare of the settlements. They were at the same time following closely in the footsteps of their ancestors. Far back in the Middle Ages the people of England had expected the king to ask the advice of representatives of the towns before he spent money which the towns raised. Why should the Englishmen who managed the affairs of the company be less just to their settlers than the king was obhged to be to them? Accordingly the company, in 1619, invited the chief settlements each to choose two delegates to form an assembly or little "parhament." This assembly assisted the governor of the colony and his council. At first it numbered 22 mem- bers, and met in the wooden church at Jamestown. It may appear Hke a small and unimportant body, but the Virginia Assembly of 16 19 was the forerunner of every state legisla- ture of the present day. The English Laws obeyed in Virginia. — The custom of governing themselves by representatives was not the only FIRST VIRGINIA ASSEMBLY 47 custom that the settlers brought over from England. The year after the meeting of the first Virginia Assembly, the company decided to select from the English laws those rules which might apply to ways a of living in the colony. A little later, the judges in Virginia were required to promise to "do justice as near as may be" to the way justice was done in England. Trial by jury was one way which was as old as parhament. Schools and Books. — Many of the early settlers were educated men and were anxious to have their children educated. They were at first obliged to engage private teachers or send their sons to English schools. They brought books with them from England. Some of them enjoyed reading books DESCRIPTION of 3S^ England: OR THE OBSERVATIONS, AND diTcouerieSjof Captain IohnSmith(Adm\Tall of that Country) in the North o(/1merica, rn the year pf OUT Lord 1 6 1 4: with the fufceffe of fixe Shifs, that went the nextyeare 1615; *ndthe acddenfsbcfell himamongthe French men ofwarrf. With the prooFe of the prcfent benefit this Countreyaffbordi: whitherlhis prefenlyearc, liliylifht voluntary Ship are font to makefurther Ir/ail. At LONDON Printed by Humfrey Lowm, for Robert Clerke; and are to be fould at his houfe called the Lodge, in Chancery lane, ouer againft Lin- colneslnne. \6\6. Reduced Facsimile of the Title-Page OF A Book that John Smith wrote written by the Greeks and Romans. The EngHshman in Virginia was much like the Enghshman who remained in England. He did his farming differently, and that was about all. Number of Virginians. — Nearly 7,000 settlers had come at one time or another since 1607, but most of them had perished of hardships and disease. The Indians surprised the settlers in 1622 and killed 347. In 1624 Virginia had a population of 1,232 colonists, including 23 negro slaves. 48 THE FOUNDING OF VIRGINIA End of the Virginia Company. — King James did not long permit the Virginia Company to manage the colony. In 1624 he took away its privileges, expecting to control the colony more directly. Neither he nor his successors inter- fered much with it. He appointed the governor, but the settlers usually managed their own affairs. QUESTIONS 1. Who were the first emigrants to Virginia? WTiy did thej- go out to settle under a trading company? What route did their ship follow? 2. What work did the early settlers do? Why did they suffer so much? What did Captain John Smith do for them? 3. In what ways was life at Jamestown more like a lumber camp or a min- ing camp than an ordinary town? What change in the company's plans did Governor Dale introduce? 4. What was an indentured servant? Did the}' cost more or less than slaves? Which worked for the planters the longer — slaves or servants? 5. What did the company do in order to introduce family life more fully into its colony? 6. What use did the settlers make of the rivers in Virginia? WTiat profit- able crop did they find? 7. Why did the Virginia Company share the government with the colo- nists? How large was the colony in 1624? Why had the colony gro\\-n slowly? 8. Why did King James deprive the Virginia Company of its privileges? Did he carry out his plan? EXERCISES 1. Learn about some one of the many state legislatures in the United States — where it holds its sessions, how many members it has, what it does — and then compare it with the first Virginia Assembly. 2. Find the Old- World customs which the V'irginians followed in their new country. Important Dates : 1607. The founding of Jamestown by the Virginia Company. 1619. The first Virginia Assembly at Jamestown. CHAPTER V THE EXILES FOR CONSCIENCE SAKE AT PLYMOUTH The Separatists. — Virginia had its origin in the plans of a trading company, and was in the main a business venture. Quite different was the beginning of Plymouth colony. Queen Elizabeth and her successor, King James, like most people of their time in England and Europe, thought that everybody ought to attend the reHgious services ordered by law. Some of their subjects, however, believed that they had a right to form congregations and manage their reUgious affairs undis- turbed by the government. This led to their being called "Independents" or "Separatists." They disliked, besides, the manner of conducting the ordinary services of the English Church. When they tried to organize small independent churches, where they could worship in their own way, royal officials hunted them out and punished them by fines and imprisonment. If after three months' imprisonment they refused to obey, they could be expelled from the kingdom and their property seized. Exiles in Holland. — In 1607 and 1608 rather than run the risk of losing all their property, as well as of being sent into exile, many Separatists, especially from the farming region near Lincoln and York, crossed the North Sea to the Dutch cities of Amsterdam and Leyden. They could worship as they chose in Holland, but they found that only by the sever- est toil, including the labor of their children, could they make a Living. They soon realized that their children were likely to forget the English language and English customs, 50 THE PILGRIMS AND PLYMOUTH A House in Leyden, in 1620 marry into Dutch families, and perhaps enter the Dutch army and navy. Some of the older people returned to Eng- land, preferring to risk imprisonment rather than cease being English. One con- gregation living at Leyden, of which John Robinson was the pastor, decided to go to America. They ex- pected to find land and a chance to worship as they beheved. They were, how- ever, too poor to go so far without help. Accordingly they sent two of their number to London to secure money to carry out their plan. The Plan to emigrate to America. — Some London mer- chants were persuaded to advance £1,200, equivalent to nearly $30,000 in money today, with which to hire ships and sailors and buy supplies. The understanding was that each subscriber of £10 was to own a share. Each of the Pilgrims, as the members of this emigrant band were called, was also to receive a share. Both people and money were needed to found a colony. All that the colonists could gain during the first seven years by labor or by trade with the Indians, except what was needed for their daily support, was to belong to the common stock. When the seven years were up, this stock was to be divided with the London merchants who had aided them. The Pilgrims, — Only a part of the Pilgrim congregation left Leyden in the first expedition. There was neither room on the ship nor money enough for all. Robinson remained in Leyden with the others, who needed him more. William Brewster, a printer and writer, and next to Robinson the THE "MAYFLOWER" AND PLYMOUTH 51 leading man of the congregation, joined the party of emi- grants and became their pastor. Among them was William Bradford, a born leader of men, and later the historian of the colony. Miles Standish, a soldier in Holland during the recent war with Spain, also joined the Pilgrims. Two others were John Alden and Priscilla Mullins, about whom the poet Longfellow has told a pretty story. Manor House at Scrooby, England William Brewster's Residence Their Voyage. — The Pilgrims left Holland in the summer of 1620. After many delays in England, a company of 102 sailed from Plymouth, September 6, in the ship Mayflower. For nine weeks the little company was tossed about on the rough seas of the North Atlantic, living in narrow, unwhole- some quarters, as the first emigrants to Virginia had done thirteen years before. Choosing a Place for Settlement. — The Pilgrims had planned to setlle somewhere in the neighborhood of the Hudson or the Delaware River, in what was then regarded as the northern part of Virginia. But after the Mayflower passed Cape Cod it came upon dangerous shoals. The stormy season had set in, and winter was fast coming on. The plan to go farther was, therefore, abandoned, and a site for a settlement was sought nearer at hand. 52 THE PILGRIMS AND PLYMOUTH The "Mayflower" Compact. — Steps were also taken to ensure orderly government in the colony after landing. The men held a meeting in the cabin of the Mayflower, chose one of their number, John Carver, to be their gov- ernor, and signed a solemn compact or agreement to submit to the laws which should be made by the majority. Departure of the Pilgrims from Delft Haven From a famous old Dutch painting Beginnings of Plymouth. — A party of explorers in a boat left the ship at Cape Cod and explored the coast. On Mon- day, December 21, 1620, they landed at a place which Captain John Smith had already seen. He had given the name New England to the region from Nova Scotia to Cape Cod, and the name Plymouth to the well-sheltered harbor into which the Pilgrims now sailed.^ This also happened to be 1 In 1614 Captain John Smith, having recovered from his accident in Vir- ginia, made a voyage of exploration along the American coast from JMaine to Cape Cod. He wrote a description of what he called New England, and also drew a map of the region. He presented the map to Prince Charles, then a boy of fifteen, who afterward became King Charles I. Charles and Smith changed about 30 barbarous Indian names to familiar English and Scotch SETTLEMENT AT PLYMOUTH 53 the name of the last EngHsh port which they had seen. They found a protected harbor, running brooks, and cleared land at Plymouth, and decided to locate there. Several days later the Mayflower came to anchor in the harbor and 'S\ NewEngland Captain John Smith's Map of New England the men began building the first houses. Lots were given to each family in proportion to the number of members. The women and children and the sick remained for weeks aboard the ship. Before the first winter was over several small houses had been built, with the sides of rudely squared logs and the roofs thatched with dry swamp grass. One served as a storehouse for tools and provisions. Into the others the families moved as soon as they were able. names, mostly places in which the young prince was interested. Accomacke was changed to Plymouth. 54 THE PILGRIMS AND PLYMOUTH Plymouth Harbor The First Winter. — Prolonged ship life and exposure in a strange chmate made havoc in the Pilgrim colony. When the first warm weather of the spring came barely half the colo- nists were living. Governor Carver died in April, 162 1. Eighteen married women had come over in the Mayflower ; only four of them still lived. The graves of the dead were carefully covered and planted with corn in the spring in order to conceal from the Indians the ravages of disease in the little colony Fear of the Indians. — The Pilgrims were fortunately free from trouble with the Indians. A recent pestilence had carried off most of those of the neighborhood, and left their cleared corn fields ready for the settlers to plant. The settlers were, however, always on their guard against attack. Whether in the field or wood, at church or at town meeting, each had his gun by his side. Their leader in arms was Captain Miles Standish, who, Hke Captain John Smith, was a brave and skilful soldier. Friendly Indians. — The colonists were surprised on a fair morning toward the end of March, while many were still sick, at the sudden appearance of a solitary Indian in their village. He advanced boldly, and gave them the good old Enghsh greeting of "Welcome!" He proved to be a chief from the far-off Maine coast who was visiting Indians nearby. His name was Samoset. He had learned English from the fishing vessels that annually visited his region. A few days afterward Samoset reappeared, bringing an Indian named Squanto, the only survivor of the tribe that had formerly THE COLONISTS AND THE INDIANS 55 inhabited the region around Plymouth. Squanto had once been captured and carried to England and had learned English. Samoset and Squanto brought a chieftain named Massasoit to visit the white men. In this way the Indians of the neighborhood became friendly with the settlers. Squanto made his home with the Pilgrims. He was their interpre- ter, explaining what the Indians said, and telHng the Indians what the Pilgrims said. He also taught them how to hunt, and where to get fish, and helped them to procure corn and furs from the Indians. He showed them how to plant corn, placing a fish in each hole in order to fertilize the poor soil. A Piece of Wampum A New Kind of Money. — In trading with the Indians the colonists learned to use, in place of money, strings of beads made from clam-shells. The shells were first broken into small pieces, then chipped and ground into a round form. A hole was bored through the center, and finally the polished beads were strung together on fibers of hemp or on sinews of deer. Six white beads, or three purple beads, were counted as worth a penny. The First Thanksgiving Day. — The settlers at first had no horses or oxen or even plows, but many of them were farmers and they were soon able to raise corn, wheat, rye, barley, and peas enough for their wants. When their first harvest was gathered, they decided to set apart a few days for rest and thanksgiving. Four hunters obtained enough game in one day to supply the colony for nearly a week. Massasoit and his tribe were asked to join them in the season of fes- tivity. Ninety Indians came to Plymouth. These native guests remained three days. They contributed five deer as 56 THE PILGRIMS AND PLYMOUTH their share. The Indians amused the white men with wild, frolicsome games, and the settlers in turn entertained them with military tactics and evolutions. Each day was opened with a religious service. This was the first Thanksgiving in New England. In 1623 the settlers were made happy by a rain which came in time to save their corn from drought, and they again set apart a special day for Thanksgiving. In this manner the new custom of a Thanksgiving time each fall grew up. Copyrighl, iSgi, by A. S. Burbank A View of Plymouth in 1622 End of the Partnership. — Emigrants joined the Pilgrims during the following years, so that the colony increased in numbers. The newcomers were in part from John Robin- son's church in Leyden, and in part directly from England, In 1624 some cattle were brought into the settlement. In one way, however, the colony did not seem successful. The colonists could find little except lumber or beaver skins to send to their partners in London. In 1627 they purchased the shares held there, agreeing to pay the London merchants in nine annual instalments. The Pilgrims managed to keep their agreement by establishing posts on the Kennebec GROWTH OF THE COLONY 57 River, Penobscot Bay, and the Connecticut River, from which they carried on a trade in furs with the more distant Indians. Dividing the Land. — The system of joint labor on common fields which had prevailed during the early years came to an end at about the same time. The better lands near Plymouth were divided by lot among the settlers in twenty-acre portions. The poorer land and the meadows at some distance away were left in common for a few years longer. The domestic animals, also owned in common, were distributed. There was not much to divide. Every thirteen persons secured a cow and two goats in the division. Growth of Plymouth. — The people who came later took up lands lying along ^ the coast north and south of Plymouth and sometimes at a considerable distance Plymouth Rock inland. For a time such frontier settlers The monument covers the took part in the town meetings at ^ "."/pl'i'.U'SS Plymouth and attended church there, but within a few years separate towns were organized and new churches built. An emigrant ship bound for Virginia was driven ashore at Plymouth. A few who "carried themselves very orderly" were allowed to remain, while the others, being "untoward people," were compelled to go on to Virginia. By 1643 there were ten towns in Plymouth colony, and a total population of 3,000. The town of Plymouth remained the center of the colony, the residence of the governor, and the place where the colonial assembly of delegates from the other towns held its sessions. 58 THE PILGRIMS AND PLYMOUTH QUESTIONS 1. What did the Separatists or Independents in England want to do? How were they treated when they tried to organize their own churches? Where did some of them go? Why did they soon grow discontented in the new loca- tion? Where did they decide to go? 2. Why were the Separatists who came to America called Pilgrims? How did they obtain money to pay their passage and start the settlement? Who were the leaders? Did all start from Holland? 3. Where had the Pil- grims planned to settle? Where did they decide to settle? Why did they choose Plymouth? 4. What did the Pilgrims do the first winter? How many lived till spring? Why had they met with such hardships and losses? In what ways did the Indians aid them? 5. What is the origin of Thanksgiving Day? 6. How did the Pilgrims finally arrange terms with their London partners? Was this the original plan? 7. What progress had the colony made by 1643? The "Mayflower" From the model in the Smithsonian Institute at Washington EXERCISES 1. How do the terms that the Pilgrims made with their partners in London differ from those that the Virginians made with the Virginia Company? 2. Learn all you can about Thanksgiving customs. Compare the mode of keeping the day now with the first Thanksgiving Day. Important Date : 1620. The Pilgrims begin a colony at Plymouth. CHAPTER VI THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND The Puritans or Nonconformists. — Many people in Eng- land sympathized with the Pilgrims in the desire that the church be "purified" of most of its ceremonies. For this reason they were called Puritans. They did not separate from the church, but often refused to worship as the law required. In other words, they would not ''conform," and were also called "Nonconformists." This made King James very angry, and he threatened to drive them out of the kingdom if they did not conform. King and Parliament. — The Puritans, and many other Englishmen, did not approve of the manner in which King James spent the royal income. Part of the money came from taxes or dues which the king had no right to collect without asking parliament. When his requests were laid before it, some members were sure to complain of what he was doing. He therefore seldom called parHament together. King James died before the quarrel became serious. Charles I tries to rule without Parliament. — Charles I, who became king in 1625, quarrelled with parHament more violently than his father. When he needed money, he also ordered the sheriffs to collect sums, which he called "loans," from all persons rich enough to pay. If they refused to pay, the royal officers threw them into prison. In 1628 parliament asked Charles to sign the "Petition of Right," which was really a promise not to do any of these things again. When he did not keep his promise, the quarrel grew 6o THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND fiercer than ever, and Charles dismissed parliament, resolving not to call it together again. Puritans begin to think of Emigration. — Charles also saw to it that the laws about worship were carried out, whether the people liked the laws or not. The Puritans, accordingly, had a double reason to be discontented with the way matters were going in England. Many be- gan to think of imitating the Pil- grims and emigrating to America. Several, of whom John Endicott was the leader, had already ob- tained lands north of the Plymouth settlement, extending as far as the present boundary of New Hamp- ^^ shire. They had also formed the Massachusetts Bay Company, hop- ing to make profits from the fish- eries and fur trade as well as to John Winthrop settle their lands. After the original in the Massa- The MaSSachuSCttS BaV Com- chusetts Senate Chamber pany. — In 1629, after Charles had angrily dismissed parliament, a large number of influ- ential Puritans resolved to emigrate to the lands of the Massachusetts Bay Company. Among them were some of the principal men in the company. The other members agreed that those who went should control the company's affairs. This was better than tr3dng to manage the settlement from England, three thousand miles away, as had been done at first in the case of Jamestown. John Winthrop was chosen governor. The First Emigration. — The emigration of Puritans began in the spring of 1630. Before the year was over about two thousand crossed to the Massachusetts shore. Many were "country gentlemen," well-to-do landowners, like Winthrop, ,^^ Gloucester Bay Concord n'^S~~~jBoston ^Massachusetts Watertown\\''"^''^j4L!,:m'^3fassachusetis ^\■af,rl.m^n ^Boston 16S0 A'oxluVy -D,n^rhcsler Bay \Hartford f' ' \lc7c''f i'Scj^l^onk . _^,„, ,_^_^ G O N N E\C T I C \}\) i O ^ S^'^=5 ' , „'!kt'i;'"''T ^Zs--^~~^^^ New England in the Seventeenth Century Education in Massachusetts. — Several of the leading men in the Massachusetts Bay colony had been educated in the EngHsh universities, especially at Cambridge. They expected their pastors to explain the Bible to the people, and thought that they could not discover the true meaning unless they could read it in the language in which it was written— the Old Testament in Hebrew and the New Testament in Greek. Besides, like many others in England and Europe, these Massachusetts leaders wished educated men to read Latin, the language of the ancient Romans. Brewster of Plymouth 68 THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND had a library of about 400 books, 62 of which were in Latin. Bradford could read not only Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, but also French and Dutch. It was not surprising, therefore, that among the first things the colonists cared for were schools and a college. In 1647 they decided that every town with 50 fam- iUes should support Time tuts dowrt all Boch great and fmall; a teacher. If a town had 100 families, it should provide for what would now be called a high school. The Massachusetts assembly gave 1,000 acres of land to each of the chief towns for the support of these schools. Harvard College founded. — Six years after John Winthrop and his companions landed on the shores of Massachusetts, the General Court voted to use part of the money which it col- lected from the settlers to found a college at Newtowne, John Harvard, one of the clergymen of the colony, dying two years later, left all his books and half his property to the college. The college was named for him, and the name of the town was changed to Cambridge in memory of the older university town of England. FamiHes in Massachusetts and Connecticut were asked to give a quarter of a bushel of corn every year for the college. ir«iiV/bcauteoujW iie Made David feck Ms Life. WJjahf in the Sea God's Voice obty. Xerxes the great di3 die, And (0 mull you & I* Touib forward flips Death foonell tilps. Zacbeus he £)id climb tfic Tree BoawiUft'i P'acsimile of a Page from the "New England Primer" AFFAIRS IN ENGLAND 69 Education at New Haven. — The founders of New Haven also planned for a college, but at first they could spare no money. They had brought a teacher with them, so that a school was begun at once. Finally one of their number, Edward Hopkins, who had returned to England, bequeathed some money to the colony for the college. The best they could do even then was to open what was called the Hopkins Grammar School, in which Latin and Greek, as well as read- ing, writing, and arithmetic were taught.. Parliament and King Charles. — The "Great Emigration" to Massachusetts came to an end in 1641, For nearly twenty years after that time the Puritans had the upper hand in England and felt Httle desire to emigrate to America. They gained the advantage in this way. King Charles attempted to force the Scotch to worship in the manner ordered in Eng- land. The Scotch rose in rebellion, and Charles was obliged to call parliament together to obtain money to pay his sol- diers. The members, instead of voting the money, complained of their grievances. He dismissed this "Short" ParHament, but soon called another which refused to be treated in the same way. It was nicknamed the ''Long" Parliament, because it lasted almost twenty years. Civil War in England. — In 1642 Charles and parliament quarrelled so violently that both raised armies and began a civil war. The members of the king's party were called CavaHers, because many of them were nobles or "country gentlemen." The Puritans were nicknamed "Roundheads," because some of them cropped their hair close. The king was defeated and captured, and the government fell into the hands of the victorious Puritan army under the leadership of Ohver Cromwell. When the king stirred up civil war again, he was tried, condemned, and executed. The Commonwealth. — OUver Cromwell now became real ruler of England. The government was called a Common- 70 THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND wealth and lasted until two years after Cromwell's death in 1658, when Charles II, son of the dead king, was called from exile to the throne. QUESTIONS 1. Who had formed the Massachusetts Bay Company? What was the com- pany plannmg to do? Why did the Puritans wish to leave England? 2. What arrangement did the members of the Massachusetts Bay Company make for those who went to America? 3. Who was the first governor of the Massachusetts settlement? Where did the Puritans make the first settlements? 4. Why did the settlers escape starving times like those in Virginia? Did they escape the other hardships of a new country? 5. How did the Puritans in Massachusetts come to think religious affairs should be managed? What name did they receive? Why this name? How did they differ from the Pilgrims in their ideas of church government? 6. What did Roger Williams teach? Why did these teachings alarm the Puritans in Massachusetts? Where did he and other exiles start a colony? What rights did they secure from England? 7. Where did Thomas Hooker and his congregation first settle? Why did they leave Massachusetts? Where did they form a new colony? What other settlements were made near the Connecticut towns? 8. Where did the New England colonists get their laws and customs? Why did the people of New Haven oppose trial by jury? How were new laws made? 9. Why did the Massachusetts Bay Company permit men who were not freemen or members to vote? Whom did they allow to become voters? 10. Why was a New England Confederation formed? What colonies com- posed it? What became of Plymouth and New Haven colonies? What useful work for New England did the Confederation accomplish? 11. Why were the Puritans of New England especially interested in edu- cation? What rule about schools did Massachusetts lay dov.n for towns? Tell the story of the founding of Harvard College and the Hopkins Grammar School. 12. Why did the Puritan or "Great Emigration" come to an end about 1641? EXERCISES 1. Find out what the constitution of your state and of the United States says about religion. Did any of the Puritan leaders hold the views which governments today maintain on this subject? 2. Find on the map, page 67, the location of the early settlements in New England, and tell why each was made and from where the settlers came. CHAPTER VII MARYLAND, A REFUGE FOR ENGLISH CATHOLICS Roman Catholics in England. — The English Roman Cath- olics were treated even more harshly than either the Sepa- ratists or the Puritans. Not only were they forced to pay heavy fines, but any priest who celebrated mass was threat- ened with death. Neverthe- less, influential Catholics were befriended by both James I and Charles I. Charles mar- ried a Catholic princess, Henri- etta Maria, daughter of the famous Henry of Navarre, the first Bourbon king of France. Lord Baltimore. — One of the influential CathoHcs whom King Charles chose to favor was Sir George Calvert, usually known by his title of Lord Baltimore. To him the king in 1632 gave 12,000 square miles of land on both sides of Chesapeake Bay. Baltimore was to pay the king one-fifth of the gold and silver which he mined, and was to send him every year two Indian arrows in proof of loyalty. The region was named "Mary Land" in honor of the queen. Maryland. — Lord Baltimore expected to make Maryland a great family estate, but he also wished to use it as a refuge Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore 72 MARYLAND for persecuted Catholics. Although he died before carrying out his plan, his son Cecil, the second Lord Baltimore, put it into effect. He equipped an expedition at an expense of £40,000, equal to a million dollars now, placing it under the leadership of his younger brother Leonard. The first party of emigrants was made up of about 20 country gentlemen, most of them Catholics, and about 200 artisans and laborers, chiefly Protestants. Two Jesuit priests joined the expedition as it passed the Isle of Wight. The First Settlement. — The ships were three months on the voyage, as they followed the older route through the West Indies. They reached Maryland in the early spring of 1634. Calvert chose as a site for his first settlement a long bluff near the mouth of the Potomac River. The Indians who occupied it were glad to share even their huts and their half-planted corn fields with the well-armed white men who might defend them from the fierce Susquehannocks living farther north. They received in payment axes, hoes, knives, and some cloth. After the harvest they agreed to give the settlers all the village and the land about it. One of the priests. Father White, took possession of an Indian cabin, and, "having dressed it a httle better," used it as a chapel. A few of the Indian famihes remained during the first year, the men teaching the settlers to hunt deer, partridges, and turkeys. The Indian squaws taught the white women how to prepare hominy and johnny-cake before an open fire. A Fortunate Colony. — The first settlement in Maryland was named St. Mary's for the Virgin Mary. A stockade was built around the Kttle fort which protected the town from attack. St. Mary's was more fortunate in its beginnings than either Jamestown or Plymouth. The climate was mild and healthful, and the first harvest was good. The Indian neighbors were gentle and friendly. The colonists at the end of the first season sent corn to New England in exchange THE FIRST SETTLEMENT 73 for salt fish and other things which they needed. They also began to trade with the Virginians, obtaining cattle, sheep, hogs, and hens, with which to stock their farms. Maryland and Virginia. — Their dealings with the Vir- ginians were not all friendly. The lands which King Charles had given Lord Baltimore were originally a part of Virginia, and the Virginians objected to the loss. Indeed some Virginians under the lead- ership of Wil- liam Claiborne had already set- tled on Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay and were carrying on a profitable trade with the Indians. They soon quarrelled with the settlers at St. Mary's, and a petty warfare was kept up for years, until the king decided in favor of Lord Baltimore. A "Proprietary" Colony. — Lord Baltimore was the ''Pro- prietor" or owner of Maryland. The country, therefore, formed a huge private estate, with the colonists as tenants. The proprietor exercised the rights of government over the colonists, much as if he were king. For this reason such a colony was called "Proprietary," just as Virginia was a "Royal" colony, and Massachusetts Bay a "Charter" colony. In Maryland the proprietor appointed the governor. He gave the settlers lands on easy terms, collecting one shilling rent for each fifty acres. Plantations of a thousand acres or more were called manors. A colonist who held a manor enjoyed certain powers exercised by nobles in England, act- Early Settlements in Maryland 74 MARYLAND ing as judge in case of disputes between his tenants, and punishing their offenses. A Representative Assembly. — Lord Baltimore had prom- ised to ask the opinions of his colonists in making laws, and by his orders an assembly met in 1635. The laws which were framed were sent to England for his approval. With the governor's consent they could be carried out without waiting for the answer, although the proprietor always kept the right to veto or forbid laws. The earher assemblies included all the freemen of the colony, while the later ones, as the settle- ments increased in number, were made up of representatives, like the assemblies of Virginia and Massachusetts. Religious Toleration. — ^Lord Baltimore sent Protestants as well as Catholics to Maryland. It was his wish that both should dwell together in peace. He gave strict orders to his governors and to the priests not to offend the Protestants. For a long time, however, the officers, as well as the clergy, were all Catholics. In 1649 Lord Baltimore's policy of religious toleration was embodied in a law, by vote of the assembly and assent of the proprietor. This was the well-known Toleration Act, which declared "that no person or persons whatsoever within this province, professing to beheve in Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth be any ways troubled ... or molested ... in respect to his or her religion." Lord Baltimore did not separate the church from the state, as did Roger Williams in Rhode Island, for in Maryland the government supported either CathoHc or Protestant worship, sometimes both. How the Colony first looked. — Many Puritans who had settled in Virginia, but who were not well treated, moved into Maryland after the Toleration Act. Some of them founded Annapolis, a town which later became the capital of the colony. Most of the people were scattered along the coasts or inland upon manors, plantations, and farms. St. BALTIMORE 75 Mary's was little more than thirty farm houses straggling for five miles along the banks of the St. Mary's River. Chesa- peake Bay, with its many coves, inlets, and rivers, served in place of roads. Ships, as in Virginia, came to the wharves of the farmers and exchanged EngHsh wares for tobacco and Baltimore in 1752 After an engraving in Scharf's History of Baltimore corn. Nearly a century passed before a town was founded at the head of the bay and named Baltimore in honor of the proprietor. QUESTIONS 1. How were Roman Catholics treated in England? 2. What territory in America did Lord Baltimore obtain? What did he wish to do with this? What kind of emigrants did he obtain? 3. How long did it take to make the voyage? Why did it take so long? 4. Where did Lord Baltimore's colonists settle? What bargain did they make with the Indians? In what ways did the Indians help them? Why was St. Mary's a fortunate colony? 5. What relation existed between the Proprietor of Maryland and the colonists? What privileges did the colonists enjoy? 6. What rights over his tenants did the holder of a manor have? What class in Europe did he somewhat resemble? 7. How did Lord Baltimore manage to keep religious peace in his colony? How did his method differ from the one Roger Williams put into practice in Rhode Island? 76 REVIEW REVIEW 1. The voyages of the three great discoverers — Diaz, Columbus, and Magellan. 2. The conquest of Mexico by Cortes and of Peru by Pizarro. 3. The exploration of North America by De Soto and Coronado. The dis- covery of the Mississippi by De Soto and of the St. Lawrence by Cartier. 4. The Spanish settlements in the New World, especially St. Augustine in Florida. 5. The first settlements of each of the rivals in North America. 6. The barriers keeping English and Dutch explorers from the interior of North America. 7. The French explorers of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley — Champlain, Marquette, and La Salle. 8. The settlement at Jamestown. The first work of a trading company and its laborers. 9. Virginia's growth into a prosperous colony. Finding new laborers. 10. English laws and customs carried to Virginia. 11. The Separatists become exiles. Their settlement at Plymouth. 12. The treatment of the Puritans in England. The plan of the Massachusetts Bay Company in America. The first Great Emigration, 1630-1641. Exiles from Massachusetts found Rhode Island. Emigrants from Massachusetts found Connecticut. The governments of New England — town, colony, and confederation. The provisions made for education in the colonies. 19. Lord Baltimore's colony of Maryland. 20. How Lord Baltimore managed the religion of his colony. 13- 14. 15- 16. 17- 18. Maryland Shilling CHAPTER VIII PUTCH AND ENGLISH RIVALRIES: BEGINNINGS OF A GREAT STATE Rivalries and Conquests. — Spaniards, Frenchmen, and Dutchmen were among the discoverers and explorers of what is now the United States. These rivals of the English also began settlements within the regions which they explored. As the English settlements grew and spread, Spanish, French, and Dutch settlements were in danger of being attacked and captured by the English. The United States, like most European countries, was to be built up in part by conquest. The Dutch were the first to suffer from this growth, or expansion, of the English settlements, and by 1664 had lost all that they claimed from Henry Hudson's discoveries. The Dutch and the English in the East. — The Dutch and the Enghsh first came into conflict in the East Indies, where the agents of the Enghsh and the Dutch East India Companies struggled to gain the rich trade of India, China, and the Spice Islands. The Dutch drove the Enghsh away from the Spice Islands, massacring some of them at Amboyna in 1623. The Enghsh never forgot the deed, but did nothing against the Dutch until their troubles with King Charles were ended. Founding New Amsterdam. — Henry Hudson had discov- ered the river which bears his name in 1609. He carried word to his employers, the merchants of the Dutch East India Company, that the Indians were ready to exchange valuable furs for knives, hatchets, beads, and similar cheap articles. 78 DUTCH AND ENGLISH RIVALRIES Although the East India Company took no great interest in the matter, merchants sent vessels over to the Hudson to trade with the Indians. In 1621 a Dutch West India Com- pany was formed, mainly to plunder the Spaniards on the sea or in the West Indies, for the Dutch were again at war with Spain. ^ This company received the sole right to the lands about the Hudson. Its agents built a trading post at the lower end of Manhattan Island, which soon became known as New Amsterdam, being named for the largest city in Holland. They established another post on the site of Albany, and called it Fort Orange. The whole colony was called New Netherland. Peter Minuit, who was sent over as governor of the colony, bought Manhattan Island from the Indians for about $24 worth of cloth, hatchets, kettles, knives, and other things. This seems a small price for the land on which New York City stands, but the Indians were well pleased with the bargain. New Amsterdam, like Jamestown at first, was the station or colony of a trading company rather than a real settlement. A few families arrived in 1623, and others followed year by year. Most of their members were employed by the company or rented farms, or "boweries," from it. Even the clergy- man who "comforted the sick" and preached on Sunday was paid by the company. Patroons. — Certain members of the West India Company were anxious that the settlement of their lands should go forward faster. It was accordingly agreed in 1629 that any member who should found a settlement of fifty adults within 'See Introductory American History, pages 210, 226. Dutch Patroon or Landed Proprietor NEW AMSTERDAM 79 four years might have a tract extending sixteen miles along the Hudson River, or eight miles, if it lay on both sides. No limits were set showing how far back these tracts should run. If the founder of the settlements, who was called a patroon or lord, should send out more colonists, he could have more land. The colonists were farm laborers or renters on the patroon's land. They could not hunt or fish without his consent. They must grind their grain at his mill and buy their cloth at the company's storehouse, for they were not allowed to weave. They were forbidden to trade with the Indians, though most of the early colonists soon obtained the permission of the patroon, and turned fur traders. Such a plan was not Hkely to succeed, especially when colo- nists might obtain land on better terms from the English. The most successful patroonship, or manor, was founded by Van Rensselaer, and included a region equal to two modern counties around Fort Orange. The settlement soon con- sisted of twenty-five or thirty houses scattered along the Hudson. It was called Rensselaerwyck. The Dutch and the Indians. — The Dutch settlers, like the company which sent them from Europe, were interested chiefly in trade, and especially the fur trade. If all had been con- tent with that, their relations with the Indians would have remained friendly, because they would not have desired to C - -'^^^^ ^ '^ 1 ■■^^z^^jjr > r ^^ ^.-^'. _ _ 5#*«W"^ f ''Tit Ancient Van Rensselaer Mansion At Greenbush, near Albany, N. Y. 8o DUTCH AND ENGLISH RIVALRIES Y occupy any of the Indian hunting grounds. But as soon as the good farm lands on Manhattan Island were taken, and the settlers sought more land east and west of the Hudson, the Indians were alarmed and angry. Both settlers and savages were guilty of murders. The Indians were made more reck- less by the liquor, or "firewater," which they bought of the traders. The consequence was that for years war raged between the settlers and the Indians, and that the Dutch held little but Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island. A wall of earth, four or five feet high, thrown up inside a closely-set row of pointed stakes twice as high, was built across the island north of the fields near the fort. This palisade formed some protection against an attack from the Indians, and later gave its name to Wall Street. New Settlements. — In 1646 peace was made with the Indians and the settlements began to spread once more. Weehawken and Hoboken were two of those on the west shore of the Hudson. Among the villages across the East River on Long Island was Breuckelen, or Brooklyn. The Dutch were not the only ones to emigrate to the company's terri- tories. So many EngHsh and French came that the decisions of the company's ofhcers were published in those languages as well as in Dutch. Wall Street Palisade from the East River NEW SETTLEMENTS Si SchencclaJy '; AWa,nj ] NEW I Fori aJml JJope,, -^ ; N e'th'e'r LA N DV'^<>r^ I <\, \ ^ _lv ^ o O^ Beyond the Delaware, where the Dutch had trading posts, the Swedes attempted in 1638 to found a colony. They too had a West India Company, and like the Dutch were mainly interested in the fur trade. The Dutch regarded the Swedes as intruders and in 1655 took possession of their settlements. Trading Stations. — As" the Dutch were in- terested chiefly in the fur trade, and as rivers offered the only routes for transporting furs, the Dutch tried to take possession of important points along the rivers. They had Fort Orange at the head of the deeper waters of the Hudson, and, somewhat later, pushed up the Mohawk River to the rapids, where Schenec- tady stands, and built another post. They also built a fort at the junction of the Schuylkill and the Delaware near the site of Philadelphia. They had built Fort Good Hope on the site of Hartford before Thomas Hooker and his followers arrived. The English Closing In. — The presence of the Dutch on the Connecticut injured the fur trade of the Plymouth colony, because the fur-bearing animals of the region near the coast were soon captured and it was necessary to go deeper into the woods for others. Even before the Newtowne con- gregation founded Hartford, the son of Governor Winthrop of Massachusetts Bay seized the mouth of the Connecticut NEW NETHERLAND IN 1655 AccorJiiig tu tlic Dutch 82 DUTCH AND ENGLISH RIVALRIES and thus prevented the Dutch from using it as a trade route. Still worse for the Dutch was the settlement of Springfield, which had been the meeting place of their traders and the Indians for ten years. Meanwhile English settlements were approaching New Amsterdam along Long Island Sound, and were within twenty-five miles of it by 1639. The Enghsh were also threatening the Dutch from the south. By 1631 Claiborne was pushing up the Susquehanna from Kent Island, in order to reach the sources of the supply of furs west of where the Dutch went to obtain them. Causes of War with the Dutch. — The troubles between the Dutch and the English came to a head when the Nether- lands and England went to war about the rights of trade on the ocean. Most of the ocean freight business was at that time in the hands of Dutch shipowners. The English par- liament tried to give English ships a better chance by passing a law that goods from other countries should be brought to England in Enghsh ships if not in the ships of the country sending them. This law, called a Navigation Act, further said that goods not produced in Europe, that is, goods from colonies or trading stations in the East or West, must be brought into England in Enghsh ships or the ships of the Enghsh colonists. This Act prevented the Dutch from carrying goods from other nations, or even the spices of the East Indies, to England or the Enghsh colonies. This and other causes of quarrel brought on war. New Amsterdam in Danger. — Never had the English Chan- nel seen such fighting, not even in the time of the Spanish Armada. The hero of the Dutch was Van Tromp, while the Enghsh hero was Blake, who had been one of Cromwell's generals. The English sent several ships to New England, expecting to raise a small army and capture New Amster- dam. The Massachusetts Bay people refused assistance, on the ground that the Dutch had not injured them. News ENGLISH ATTACK NEW AMSTERDAM 83 soon came that the war was over, and so New Amsterdam was saved for a while. - A New Attack on the Dutch. — When Charles II became king in England, parliament made more laws about trade on the sea, forbidding all foreign ships, the Dutch included, to trade with the English colonies. European goods must first be sent to England, in order that the English merchant and shipowner might share in the profits of the trade. The Dutch submitted, but soon discovered that it was impossible to New Amsterdam in 1655 After Van der Donck's New Netherlani satisfy the English, who next robbed them of their colony. The king's brother James was ''mad for war" with them, and asked Charles to grant him all the Dutch territory, Charles, generous with what he did not possess, agreed, giving James the whole region between the Connecticut and the Delaware, without even mentioning the Dutch. Seizure of New Amsterdam. — A few months later, in 1664, four ships of war, with many soldiers on board, appeared ]\ before New Amsterdam. The EngHsh demanded the sur- render of the place, but the governor, Peter Stuyvesant, tore up the letter containing the demand and attempted to defend the fort. His councillors, thinking that it was hopeless to fight, made him piece together the fragments. When they 84 DUTCH AND ENGLISH RIVALRIES saw the terms which the EngUsh offered, they compelled him to agree to them. Beginnings of New York. — Colonel Nicolls, the English commander, changed the name of New Amsterdam to New York, and the name of Fort Orange to Albany, in honor of James, who was both Duke of York and Duke of Albany. Stuyvesant continued to live on his farm, called the Great Bowery, until his death. The old church in the fort was used by the Dutch Sunday mornings, by the French Protestants at mid-day, and by the English in the afternoon. The English mode of government was introduced within a few years, in- cluding trial by jury and repre- sentative assemblies. The origi- nal Dutch inhabitants soon began to learn the English language, and became much like their English neighbors. New Jersey. — Before Colonel Nicolls had reached New Amsterdam the Duke of York had given to two friends. Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, all the land from the Hudson to the Delaware. It was named New Jersey because Sir George Carteret had bravely defended the island of Jer- sey against the Puritans during the English civil war. The proprietors were eager to attract settlers to their territory, and promised that each should worship as he wished. They offered 200 acres in every community for the support of the minister whom the settlers should choose. The Dutch at New York again. — The seizure of New Amsterdam hastened on war between England and the Netherlands. The Dutch made no attempt to recover New Peter Stuyvesant After the portrait in the posses- sion of the New York Historical Society ENGLISH HOLD THE ATLANTIC SHORE 85 York. Several years later, in another war with the EngHsh, they did recapture New York and held it for 15 months. They were obliged to restore it when peace was made. This was the last war between the Dutch and the English, who had already begun to see that the French and not the Dutch were their most dangerous rivals. The Stadt Huys, New York, 1679 The English hold the Atlantic Shore. — The capture of New Netherland gave the English control of the whole Atlan- tic coast from the St. CroLx River to the St. Mary's on the boundary of Spanish Florida. The settlement of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and the Carolinas, which was begun soon after New Amsterdam was taken, strengthened their hold on all this territory, for unoccupied land was always in danger of being seized by some rival nation. QUESTIONS I. What rivals had the English in colonizing what is now the United States? Wliich was the first rival to lose its American territories? 86 DUTCH AND ENGLISH RIVALRIES 2. For what purpose was the Dutch West India Company formed? Why did it want the lands about the Hudson? What settlements did the company make? In what ways was the Dutch colony at New Amsterdam like James- town? 3. How did the West India Company attempt to settle its land faster? How well did the plan succeed? 4. Why did the Dutch have trouble with the Indians? 5. What settlements did the Dutch niake near New Amsterdam? Who besides the Dutch settled in New Netherland? What outlying trading posts did the Dutch found? 6. At what points were the English settlers and traders closing in on the Dutch in New Netherland? 7. What restrictions did parliament place on the commerce of the English colonists? Whose trade did parliament intend to check? 8. ^\^lat changes did the English make after the conquest of the Dutch colony? 9. Who obtained the Duke of York's lands between the Hudson and the Delaware? What special privileges did the proprietors of New Jersey allow their settlers? 10. How much of the Atlantic coast did England hold after the conquest of New Netherland? EXERCISE Locate on a map (see map, page 92) the English settlements which were nearest New Amsterdam on the east and on the west, including Claiborne's trade route on the Susquehanna. Important Date : 1664. The English conquest of the Dutch colony of New Netherland. CHAPTER IX A SECOND GREAT EMIGRATION Virginia and the Commonwealth. — While civil war was raging in England few men thought of founding colonies in America. After the king's party was overthrown, many cav- aliers emigrated to Virginia. In 1649, 33° refugees arrived on one ship. Supported by them, Sir WilHam Berkeley, the governor, and the General Assembly condemned the exe- cution of Charles I and declared their loyalty to his son Charles II as king. The victorious Puritans and their par- liament sent out an expedition to bring the defiant colony to terms. When it reached Virginia in 1652, Berkeley put the militia, 1,200 strong, under arms and prepared to resist. The leaders of the expedition, partly by a show of force, partly by wilUngness to grant generous terms, persuaded the Virginians to promise obedience to the Commonwealth. Emigration of Royalists to Virginia. — The emigration of the royaUst party to Virginia, however, continued. A writer living at the time spoke of "civil, honorable, and men of great estates" flocking in. One of them was John Wash- ington, great-grandfather of George Washington. Within twenty years the population increased from 15,000 to 40,000. After 1660, when Charles II was restored to his father's throne, fewer of the royalist party came over. The West Indies.^ — Another region to which many emi- ^ It should be remembered that since the occupation of Porto Rico and the building of the Panama Canal the history of the West India Islands has become of great interest to the people of the United States. 88 A SECOND GREAT EMIGRATION grants went from England at about this time was the West Indies. The Spaniards did not make as much use of these islands as they did of Mexico and Peru, but they wished to keep out the sailors of other nations. Adventurers from every- where sailed the West Indian seas. They attacked Spanish treasure ships, loaded with gold and silver from the mines, and even cities like Vera Cruz and Panama. To obtain food they hunted wild cattle, smoking the meat over wood fires ^VnorosO Nassau'' ,,„ . » TSALVADOR V .. IWATLING I.) atanzas WEST INDIES SCALE OF MILES D lUO 200 300 A T L A N T I C jl»iw» OCEAN ^ ^ r - L L E S m'-a^^^n'IIue?. ^ -^ ) C A R I B ]i E A X S ]■: A called boucattes. This gave them the name "buccaneers." They were also called "freebooters" or "filibusters," from their swift ships, 2)/ie&(?o^ew or "flying boats." Some of them settled on unoccupied islands, the French at Martinique, Guadaloupe, and western Haiti, ^ the Dutch at Curasao, and the Enghsh at Barbados. About 1640 these settlers began to ' Columbus called this island Espanola, or " Little Spain." One of the chief towns was named Santo Domingo, and in time the English, French, and even the Spanish gave that name to the entire island. Early in the nineteenth century some leading writers on geography suggested the use of the original Indian name, Haiti, which meant "mountainous country," and this is now the usual one for the island. DISSENTERS 89 raise cane sugar. The Dutch, however, were mainly inter- ested in smuggHng. Their settlement at Curasao was the great market at which to obtain the products of Europe and the East Indies. Even Spanish colonists traded there, because the merchants of Spain asked higher prices than the Dutch. Jamaica. — At first the settlements in the West Indies received little help from European governments. A change took place under Oliver Cromwell and the Commonwealth. While England was at war with Spain Cromwell sent Admiral Penn and General Venables to attack the Spaniards in the West Indies. They failed to capture Haiti, but took Jamaica. One of its first governors was a Welshman named Morgan, who had begun his career as a hardy buccaneer. Planters came in from Barbados. Cromwell sent over from Scotland and Ireland many who opposed the Commonwealth. Dissenters. — Religious troubles again became the princi- pal reason for emigration as soon as Charles II was made king. He was surrounded by his father's friends and supporters, who insisted that the rules of the church made under Queen Elizabeth, James I, and Charles I, should be enforced. Rather than submit, 2,000 clergymen gave up their parishes. As they dissented from the methods of wor- ship ordered by law, they were from that time commonly called "Dissenters." The most numerous were the Presbyterians, the Independents or Congregationalists, and the Baptists. If they attempted to meet for worship, they were thrown into prison. The Society of Friends. — Another group of Dissenters was the Society of Friends, or the Quakers. The founder of A Quaker of the 17TH Century 90 A SECOND GREAT EMIGRATION William Penn the Quakers was George Fox. He thought that all God's children should be treated as brethren. He spoke with no greater respect to the magistrate than to ordinary men, refus- ing to give any man a title, and addressing each with "thee" and "thou." He and his followers would not take off their hats even in a court room. They believed so firmly in the brother- hood of man that they would neither bear arms themselves nor pay for the support of soldiers. As they would not obey laws of which their consciences disapproved, they were often arrested and thrown into prison. About 3,000 were arrested in the first two years of the reign of Charles II. William Penn. — The most prom- inent Quaker in England at this time was Wilham Penn, son of Admiral Penn, who was a favorite with King Charles 11. The old admiral was at first enraged when his son became a Quaker, but finally forgave him. On the death of the admiral in 1670, William inherited the family estate, which gave him an income equal to $25,000 or $30,000 at the present day. Six years later Penn purchased a share in New Jersey, which had already become a refuge for distressed Quakers. They settled mostly in the western part of the colony along the Delaware. By 1682 Penn and other wealthy Quakers owned all the shares of the original proprietors. Many Puri- tans had also come in from Connecticut and had selected farms in northern New Jersey. The "Holy Experiment." — Meanwhile Penn had become interested in another plan of colony building, which he called his "Holy Experiment." As King Charles owed him money PENNSYLVANIA 91 A brief AccouDt of the ^;obmceof^ettnfpl\)ama, K Lately Granted by (he G. I N Under the GREAT Seal of England, WILLIAM PENN AND HIS Heirs and Affii :ns. borrowed from his father, Penn asked for a grant of land west of the Delaware and north of Maryland. He proposed to call the country New Wales or Sylvania. The king granted the land, and insisted on the latter name, and, in honor of Ad- miral Penn, placed "Penn "before it, mak- ing "Pennsylvania," or ""Penn's Wood." Delaware. — The year after Penn had obtained Pennsylvania from the king, he in- duced the king's bro- ther, the Duke of York, to give him the land which now makes up the state of Dela- ware. Penn thus in 1 68 1 and 1682 pos- sessed all the lands along the west side of the Delaware River from its mouth almost to its source. Penn seeks for Emigrants. — Penn expected to find many settlers among the persecuted Quakers, but he wished also to obtain other industrious persons. In order to attract them to his colony he pre- pared an Account of the Province of Pennsylvania, which he sent to many places in the British Isles. He had it trans- lated into French, German, and Dutch, so that Europeans S Incc (by ihe good Providtnct ol CtJ, «nd ihe favour of th« Xm^) t Country in ^mtn(s is fallen to my Lot. I thought it not led my Ouiy, then my HoncD Intcrcl), to give fame publick notice of It to tbe Woild, ihot ihorc of our own or other Niiiunt, thit are incKn'd toTranfport Theffifelves orFam'ilies beyond the Seas, may find ano* thcT Country added lo their Choice ; (hat if they fhall happen to like the Place, Conditions, and Government, (fo far as the prcfcnt Infancy of things will allow us any profpeO) ihey nuy, if ihcy plcafc. fix with me i I the Pro- vince, hereafter dctcribcd. I. The KING'S Title to Ihu Couniry before he grinteit it. It is the Jhi Cini'imn, or Law of Nations, thai what ever Waflc, or uncul- ted Country, ii the Difcovcry of any Prince, it ij the right of that Prince that was at the Charge of the Diliravery: Now this PrivMt is a Member of that part of Amtric; which the King of inj/jni// AnceBois have been at the Charge of Dircoveting, and which they ud he have taken great care lo prcferve anl Improve. 1 1. William First Page of Penn's "Account of Pennsylvania " Reduced facsimile 92 A SECOND GREAT EMIGRATION X might read about the enterprise, and, perhaps, come to America and join the colony. A Proprietary Colony. — Penn was proprietor of his colony, as Lord Baltimore was of Maryland. Even before he had any settlers he wrote out a constitution, from the words of which it was clear that he was interested in something more than the prof- its of the enter- prise. Through councils and as- semblies he plan- ned to share the management of the colony with the settlers. In the laws which he drew up he showed that he was far ahead of most men of his day. For example, prisoners were not to be tormented and starved as The Middle Colonies ^j^^y ^ere in Eng- lish prisons at that time, but were to be fed and clothed. Penn believed that the aim should be to reform rather than simply to punish them. The Founding of Philadelphia, 1682. — Penn sent his cousin, Wilham Markham, to Pennsylvania in 1681 with a party of colonists. He followed, the next year, with about a hundred others, mostly Quakers from his own neighborhood in England. Others of the early settlers came from Wales and Ireland. The first party of colonists selected a site for a town about one hundred and twenty miles up the Delaware GROWTH OF THE COLONY 93 River. Broad streets and squares were laid out in a grove of pine trees on a low bluff along the river front. Penn called his town Philadelphia, a Greek word meaning "brotherly love." Growth of the Colony. — Penn's colony grew rapidly. As the lands about Philadelphia were soon taken, later comers scattered along the Delaware River within the Umits of Friends' Meeting House and the Old Court House Philadelphia Delaware and eastern Pennsylvania. One of the earHer settlers wrote an account of his experiences. "I settled," he wrote, "upon my tract of land, which I purchased of the Proprietor . . . and set up a house and a corn mill which was very useful to the country for several miles round. But there not being plenty of horses, people gener- ally brought their corn on their backs many miles; I remem- ber one man who had a bull so gentle that he used to bring his corn on him instead of a horse." Many of the settlers in the first years had neither horses nor plows. As the colo- nists were industrious and thrifty there was no starving time in Pennsylvania. Germantown. — Among the earlier bands of settlers were twelve or thirteen German families, mostly weavers, under 94 A SECOND GREAT EMIGRATION the leadership of Francis Daniel Pastorius. They reached Philadelphia in 1683 and were welcomed by Penn. They bought a tract of land a few miles north of the town, and began the settlement known as Germantown. Germantown in 1692 Penn's Treaties with the Indians. — Penn was much inter- ested in the Indians, and often traveled among them. In June, 1683, he met a large number of chiefs and their warriors under a great elm tree near Philadelphia and made a treaty with them. The spot where this Treaty Elm stood is now marked by a monument, and is within the present limits of the city. Penn described the treaty in a letter to his friends in England, — "great promises passed between us of kindness and good neighborhood, and that the Indians and English must live in love as long as the sun gave light." Penn purchased the land from the Indians, although the king had given it to him. He bought from a chief one tract of land as far back from the Delaware as a man could ride on horseback in two days. The chief was to receive "so much wampum, so many guns, shoes, stockings, looking-glasses, blankets, and other goods as William Penn shall please to give us." THE CAROLINAS 95 ' Jamrsloulh4i?X "^ NORTH CAROLINA ''>■ -r:J^^^ Penn's Return to England. — Penn was obliged to return to England in 1684, and, except for a brief visit many- years later, saw nothing more of his colonies. Most matters of government were left to the colonists themselves or to a commission, and later to a deputy governor who represented him as proprietor. Penn tried to manage matters by corre- spondence, but he was too far away. •The Carolinas. — During this period of rapid emigration from England to Pennsylvania many dissenters also went to the Carolinas. The settlements in northern and southern Carolina were not planned at first, like Pennsylvania, as a refuge for the oppressed. They were more like the original settle- ment of Virginia. Indeed, the first settlers came from Vir- ginia, following the Indian trails along the coast. They cleared land on the Chowan River near Albemarle Sound. They were already there when Charles II gave to eight noble- men all the territory from the southern boundary of Virginia to Spanish Florida. The region had long been known as Carolina, a name given it in honor of the king's father, Charles I. Charleston. — The proprietors of CaroKna were not con- tent with the small colony of Virginians on the Chowan River, and in 1670 they sent to southern Carolina a larger body of settlers, partly from England and partly from Barbados. The colonists began their settlement on an excellent harbor at the .^zsCkarleston 16S0 Savannah 1733 ^1 '■ ^' n Cl) \si.Augustine V -. r, The Carolina Coast 96 A SECOND GREAT EMIGRATION junction of the Ashley and Cooper Rivers. They named it for the king, Charles Town or Charleston. Some years later their settlement was moved to the site of the present city. The colonists at Charleston remembered the fate of the French colony at Fort CaroHne a hundred years before, and feared a similar attack from the Spaniards. Their fears were not groundless, for within a few weeks a Spanish vessel, sent to break up the settle- ment, appeared off the harbor. The Spaniards on board, find- ing the settlers on their guard, returned to St. Augustine without striking a blow. Some years later they de- stroyed a small Scotch settle- ment nearer the borders of Florida. Huguenots in South Caro- lina. — Charleston and the country around became a ref- uge for many Huguenots, or French Protestants, who had fled because Louis XIV would no ■^ longer allow them to worship as they believed right. The proprietors were glad to obtain such valuable settlers, and offered them full religious liberty. Merchants, goldsmiths, shipwrights, weavers, and men of other trades found employ- ment in Charleston. At least seventy families took up lands along the rivers back of the early settlements. Part of southern Carolina seemed for a while almost a French colony, as there were so many settlers who could not speak EngHsh. The Carolinas divided. — The proprietors did not con- sider the settlements on the Albemarle and at Charleston as two distinct colonies, but as parts of one. They were, how- ever, too far apart to have any dealings with each other. It Charleston Harbor THE CAROLINAS divided 91 Was nearly three hundred miles from one to the other, and by land only Indian trails connected them. Stormy Cape Hatteras projected into the ocean far enough to make the journey in small sailing vessels very dangerous. Each colony liked to manage its own affairs without much inter- ference from the proprietors. Years later, by 1729, the proprietors surrendered their rights in the colony to the Charleston in 1673 From an old print king. It was then divided into North Carolina and South Carohna. Size of the Second "Great Emigration." — By 1700, 5,090 colonists lived in southern Carolina, and 3,000 in northern Carolina. About 20,000 people had gone from Europe to Pennsylvania and Delaware; the majority of these were Quakers. About 14,000 had settled in New Jersey — the Quakers in the west, Puritans from New England in the north, and English and Scotch in the east, besides some Dutch on the banks of the Hudson, Meanwhile the popu- lation of New York had increased to 25,000, the city on 98 A SECOND GREAT EMIGRATION Manhattan Island numbering 5,000. Most of the early- emigration to Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and the Carolinas took place in the years from 1680 to 1690, and was due to reUgious troubles in England and Europe. This is the second great emigration in American history. QUESTIONS 1. Who came to America after the English Civil War? Where did these emigrants settle? What colony did Englishmen found in the West Indies? What one did they take from the Spaniards? 2. Who were the Dissenters? How were they treated in England? 3. Why did Penn become interested in America? Where did the Quakers at first settle? Who besides Quakers settled in New Jersey? 4. What was Penn's "Holy Experiment"? What lands did Penn secure in America? In what ways did Penn show himself liberal with his colonists? 5. Who formed Penn's first colonists? Where did they make their chief settlements? 6. How did Penn manage to keep the friendship of the Indians? 7. How did Penn govern his colony after returning to England? 8. Who first settled within what is now North Carolina? Who obtained the rights over the Carolinas? What other settlement did the proprietors make? 9. Who besides English Dissenters went to South Carolina? How were the Huguenots treated in South Carolina? 10. Why were the Carolinas separated? Who obtained the rights of the proprietors over the Carolinas? EXERCISES 1. Make three lists: (i) one of the colonies established by proprie- tors, (2) of those established by the eflfort of a trading company, and (3) of those planted by the volun- tary effort of the colonists. 2. What was the first great emigration in American history? Was its cause similar to that of the second great emigration? Where did the emigrants settle in each case? Penn's First Residence in America Important Dates : 1670. Settlement at Charleston (Albemarle Point). 1681, 1682. A colony in Pennsylvania. Philadelphia is founded. CHAPTER X THE FRENCH RIVALS The English and French as Rivals. — The rivalry of the English and the French was not keen at first because moun- tains and forests for hundreds of miles separated nearly all the settlements of the two peoples. To reach the St. Law- rence from the Enghsh settlements on the northern Atlantic coast a long and toilsome journey was required. The trav- eler had to paddle up the Kennebec, the Connecticut, or the Hudson, until he reached their head-waters. Then crossing mountain ridges he would find rivers which flowed into the St. Lawrence. The Hudson route was the best. It was easy to pass over into the Champlain Valley, and to go through Lake George and Lake Champlain into the Richelieu River. The RicheUeu flows into the St. Lawrence between Quebec and Montreal. Acadia. — The only place where the Enghsh and the French came directly into conflict was along the eastern coast of Maine and in Nova Scotia, r^ 'f-Km The French called the region Acadia. -^5^*^«i«^'^>ii^ As early as in 16 ka an Enghsh officer, ^""3fe==^^^II^ with soldiers collected chiefly in New England, captured Port Royal and '^ ^"^^"'^^ the other French settlements in Acadia. ^^^^'^': sk'ns were the staple in the fur trade The English gave them back thirteen years later. The reason for such troubles was the lack of any natural border or boundary between these settlements and the Enghsh settlements in Maine. lOO THE FRENCH RIVALS French Trading Companies. — The French, like the Eng- Hsh and the Dutch, formed companies to trade and to found colonies. Sometimes the king commanded rich nobles to take shares in order that these companies might have money enough to fit out ships and collect colonists. Unfor- tunately for the shareholders, most of the companies gained little profit. In this respect they did not differ from many of the English companies. In the St. Lawrence Valley a company with the pleasant name of the Hundred Associates at first had charge of Champlain's colony. Canadian Farms The farm houses in eastern Canada are still much the same as they ■ were 200 years ago The Lot of Canadian Farmers. — In Canada the houses of the settlers were scattered along the rivers, as were the houses of the first Virginians. The land was not given to the farmers directly, but to nobles, or seigniors, as such landlords were called in France. The seigniors divided the land into farms which they rented to the ordinary colonists. The rent was small and was paid either in money or in produce. A penny or so an acre, a few chickens, a dozen eggs, or a sack of wheat were the usual charges. Like the settlers on the estates of the Dutch patroons, the farmers must grind their grain at the seignior's mill, paying a fourteenth of the grain for the work. This was at first a benefit rather than a burden, for the farmers could not have FRENCH SETTLERS loi built mills for themselves. The farmers were commonly required to work three or four days each year on the seignior's land, at seed time or harvest. The lord occasionally demanded extra days, while his mill was being built, or the church repaired, or the roads improved. One fish in every eleven was taken by him for the privilege of fishing, if the colonists intended to sell the fish. The lord hved in a house befitting his wealth and power. The large log house with its slab roof — which was built in French Missionaries to the Indians From an old print the earlier years — gave way after a time to stately houses of stone. The peasant farmers continued to live in log houses, which they brightened with whitewash. Their fields ran back from the rivers in ribbon-like strips less than eight hundred feet wide, but extending as far as convenient. Jesuit Missionaries. — One purpose which the founders of the French colonies had was the conversion of the Indians to the Christian faith. Missionaries, accordingly, were promi- nent in the Canadian settlements. The Jesuits were espe- cially zealous, brave, and self-sacrificing. They pushed ahead of the other settlers, seeking new tribes near which to estab- lish stations. Their lives were often in danger. Some suffered untold tortures, and others were burned at the stake. The 102 THE FRENCH RIVALS world has no nobler story than the record of their labors and their martyrdom. The Beginnings of Canadian Towns. — An Indian mission station began with a chapel made of bark, which was soon replaced by a well-built church. The first missionaries, like the traders, lived among the Indians. As the mission prospered, separate homes were built for them near the church. If the governor of Canada deemed the settlement A View of Detroit in 1705 important, a few soldiers were stationed there. A store- house for traders was also built, and the whole group of houses surrounded by a paHsade to guard against sudden attack by hostile Indians. Usually the wigwams of friendly Indians stood not far away on the edge of a wood. Such was the beginning of many a Canadian town. Father Mar- quette had founded a station of this sort on the Straits of Mackinac. It was from there that he set out in search of the Mississippi River in 1673. Another station was estabhshed in 1 701 on the river which joins Lake Erie and Lake Huron, and was named Detroit. Fur Trade. — As the fur trade was profitable, about a third of the French colonists made no attempt to cultivate CONFLICT WITH THE ENGLISH 103 the soil. They pushed deeper and deeper into the woods in search of the best places at which to trade with the Indians. These wood-rangers, or coiireurs de hois as the French called them, lived with the Indians most of the year, and differed from them Uttle in dress and habits. The king's officers threatened to brand any who went among the Indians with- out a license, because they feared the farms would be abandoned, but many young men were fascinated by life in the woods and ran the risk. The Indians often brought their furs to the larger towns. Annual fairs were held at posts like Mackinac, Detroit, and Montreal. To them came throngs of Indians with heavily loaded canoes and set up their wigwams. The French Government and the Colonies. — The French king, Louis XIV, and his principal minister, Colbert, took a deep interest in the success of the colonists in Canada. Colbert wrote to Talon, who was the intendant, or man- ager, of the colony, that the king regarded his "Canadian subjects, from the highest to the lowest, almost as his own children," and urged Talon to "visit all their settlements, one after the other, in order to learn their true condition and to put them in the way of making some profit." Conflict with the English. — The French were not left long in undisturbed possession of Canada. The first quarrel was about the fur trade. In 1670 a number of English nobles, including the king's brother James, proprietor of New York, formed the Hudson Bay Company, and obtained A COUREUR DE BOIS I04 THE FRENCH RIVALS from Charles II the right to all the country drained by the rivers which flowed into Hudson Bay. Their agents estab- lished posts on the shores of the bay and began to take trade from the French by offering better prices to the In- dians. The French resolved to ruin these rivals, and in 1685 a war party started up the Ottawa River for Hudson Bay. But the EngHsh could not be driven away, and the French were finally obliged to leave the Hudson Bay Company's territory alone. The Iroquois become "English." — About the same time the French and the English began to struggle for the control of the Iroquois Indians, the powerful group of tribes which held all northern and western New York. French Jesuit missionaries had already gone among the Iroquois, but did not succeed in winning them as they won the Indians else- where. While Tames was still Duke of York and proprietor of this region, his agents met the Iroquois chiefs at Albany and persuaded them to acknowledge that they were subjects of the king of England. The English then hung up at the Indian towns and strongholds the coat of arms of Duke James, and warned French parties which attempted to enter the region that they were trespassing on Enghsh territory. Revolution in England. — In 1688 a revolution took place in England, which led to war with France in the colonies as well as in Europe. It happened in this way. Charles II died in 1685 and James became king. Soon most members of parliament and many other leading men suspected him of plotting to make England a Roman Catholic country again. At this very time Louis XIV, the cousin of James, took away from the French Protestants their rights of worship. The Huguenots who took refuge in England told of their suffer- ings. James had been on the throne only three years when his subjects rose in revolt. They offered the throne to his daughter Mary and her husband, William of Orange, the INDIAN MASSACRES 105 Dutch ruler, who were Protestants. James took refuge in France with Louis XIV. England in League against France. — William had already- formed a league of European governments against the French king. As he was now king of England the English entered the league. The war spread to America, where it was called King Wilham's War. Shortly after it closed a new struggle broke out, which is called Queen Anne's War. Queen Anne was the successor of King WiUiam. This war also caused fighting between the Enghsh and the French colonists.^ The Horrors of War. — In both King Wilham's and Queen Anne's wars the Enghsh and the French made use of Indian alhes in attacking one another, encouraging them to rob and murder in heartless fashion. In 1690 a party of French and Indians stole through the open gate of the frontier village of Schenectady at about eleven o '.clock on a cold win- ter night. In a short time they killed more than half of the inhabi- tants and carried away many as captives. The English soon had their revenge, for with a band of their Indian alhes they attacked a small village on the St. Lawrence opposite Montreal, burnt the houses, slaughtered the cattle, and killed or captured as many of the inhabitants as they could find. The Attack on Deerfield. — Fourteen years later, in Queen Anne's War, 200 Indians and 50 Canadians made their way in the dead of winter down into the Connecticut River Valley 1 In Europe these wars are called the War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697) and the War of the Spanish Succession (1702-17 13). Door of House attacked BY Indians In Deerfield Museum io6 THE FRENCH RIVALS as far as Deerfield, which was then one of the frontier settle- ments of Massachusetts. At two o'clock in the morning the invaders cHmbed the paUsades, and uttering their war-whoop, broke into all except the most securely guarded houses. The fate of the captives was worse than that of those slain, for any who became exhausted on the dreadful march back to Canada were tomahawked without mercy. The English were just as cruel. The legislature of Massa- chusetts offered $200 for every Indian scalp brought in. Soon afterwards an Indian village was surprised and five In- dians were scalped and the reward claimed. Conquest of Acadia. — Before these two wars were over the Enghsh gained one important territory. In 1710 an English army, with the aid of colonists, mainly from Boston, conquered Acadia. When peace was made three years later, the French gave up their claim to the country. The Enghsh changed its name to Nova Scotia, and called its capital Annap- olis instead of Port Royal. For a long time few Enghshmen cared to emigrate to Nova Scotia and the colony remained French, though ruled by English officers. The French in the Mississippi Valley. — While the English were slowly advancing upon the French from the north and the east, that is, from the shores of Hudson Bay and from Nova Scotia, the French strengthened their hold on the Mississippi Valley, especially at its southern end on the Gulf of Mexico. The man who won fame in this enterprise was Pierre le Moyne, commonly known as Iberville. He had led the French against the Enghsh on the shores of Hudson Bay. Now, in the interval between King Wilham's War and Queen Anne's War, with a little fleet of four vessels, having on board 200 colonists and soldiers, he sailed from France in search of the Mississippi. Iberville was a great admirer of La Salle and resolved to push forward the work which La Salle had FRENCH IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY 107 begun. In March, 1699, he discovered the Mississippi and rowed up its waters as far as the mouth of the Red River. Tonty, one of La Salle's men, who since his leader's death had remained at Fort St. Louis on the Illinois River, soon learned of the successful attempt of the French to take possession of the region at the mouth of the Mississippi, and sent messages and advice to them. Portages indicated thus :.^*« Map of Portages in New France and the Illinois Country The rivers and lakes, with their portages, were the highways for the missionaries, fur traders, and explorers The English Peril again. — Before the year was out a French party floating down the river suddenly came upon an English sixteen-gun ship a few miles below where New Orleans now stands. This ship had been sent out by one of the proprietors of Carolina to found settlements which should protect the western part of the region which the CaroHna proprietors supposed they owned. In the grants to pro- prietors or companies the Enghsh kings had usually said that their lands extended westward to the Pacific Ocean. Never- THE FRENCH RIVALS Ruins of Old Kaskaskia From a recent photograph theless, the captain of the ship was persuaded not to attempt a settlement, the French teUing him that they had a large force established farther up the river. A year later another party of Frenchmen discovered an EngHsh trader at the mouth of the Arkansas River. He also was from Carolina, one of those who with pack horses were making their way over the low southern ranges of the Appalachian barrier and trying to estab- lish a trade in furs with the Indians, even with the tribes beyond the southern Mississippi. The route was long and perilous and the French were in no great danger from this quarter. French Settlements on the Mississippi. — As the new cen- tury began the French were busily estabhshing settlements up and down the great valley. They extended from Cahokia and Kaskaskia in the Ilhnois country to Mobile on the coast. In 1 718 Bienville, Iberville's brother, founded New Orleans on a plain which was fairly dry, though surrounded by marshes. An embankment, or levee, was built around the little settlement to protect it from river floods. Already the settlements of the Ilhnois country had been placed under the governor of the new colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. New Orleans became the chief market, being much more easily reached than Montreal or Quebec. The men of the Ilhnois country loaded their furs, flour, and pork on wide, flat barges and floated down to New Orleans. The journey homeward was much more difficult, hundreds of miles against the cur- rent. They took back sugar, rice, cotton, tobacco, and articles from France. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 109 By the close of the first two or three decades of the eigh- teenth century it looked as if the French had outstripped the EngHsh in the discovery and occupation of the Mississippi Valley, the broadest and richest region within what is now the United States. The question was, could they hold it? New Orleans in 1718 QUESTIONS 1. Why was it so long after the early settlement of America before the rivalry of the French and English became keen? Where did the two peoples first come into conflict? Why? 2. How did the French found colonies in America? 3. What rights had French seigniors over the colonists on their lands? 4. What part did the Jesuits and traders have in the spread of French settlements? 5. Why did France have difficulty in obtaining farmers to cultivate the soil of Canada? How did the wood-rangers live? In what two ways did the French people carry on the fur trade with the Indians? 6. What French minister was much interested in the French colonies? WTiat did he instruct the manager or intendant of the colonies to do? 7. Why did the English form the Hudson Bay Company? What was the outcome of the struggle between the French in Canada and the Hudson Bay Company? 8. Why did both the French and the English try to win the friendship of the Iroquois? Which succeeded? 9. What change took place in England in 1688? 10. What part had the Indians in the border wars between the French and the English? no THE FRENCH RIVALS .<.'C!^, II. What colony did the Enf^lish take from the French by conquest in the war ending in 17 13? What name did the English give the conquered colony? ' 12. What new colony had the French just founded, making up for the loss of Acadia? Who had attempted before Iberville to found a colony on the lower Mississippi? What signs were there that the French settlements on the Mississippi were not entirely safe from attack? 13. How extensive were the French settlements in the West? How did the Illinois settlers carry on trade with those at New Orleans? Had the English any foothold in the Mississippi Valley? EXERCISES 1. By a review of the earlier chapters learn about land owners who had rights somewhat similar to those of the seigniors in Canada. 2. By use of the map, page 107, find the various waterways by which the French could travel from French Fxir Trader Canada to their settlements in the Mississippi Valley. Important Dates: , 1688. The English drive James II from the throne. 1 701. The French begin a settlement at Detroit within what is now the United States. 1 7 18. The founding of New Orleans by the French. CHAPTER XI THE MAKING OF NEW FRONTIERS .The Population of the Colonies. — In the first half of the eighteenth century the number of persons in the colonies increased steadily and rapidly. By 1750 there were nearly a milHon and a half, about five times as many as in 1700. In some parts of the country, in New England for example, the increase was due mainly to the growth of famiUes which had arrived in the earUer years of the settlements. Many con- tained seven or eight children, who left the old home to help found famines of their own. In other parts of the country the native famihes increased rapidly, and hundreds of emigrants from England, Scotland, Ireland, and Europe, or from the older colonies, arrived to swell the numbers. Beginnings of the Westward Movement. — The first settle- ments had been made on the coast or on the banks of some bay or river, at a place which sea-going ships might reach. As the population increased, the better lands were soon taken up, and newcomers as well as enterprising young men and women of the older settlements left the coast, moved farther up the rivers, or chmbed the foothills of the great Appa- lachian barrier. New frontiers were formed. In this way began the westward movement, which was not to stop until it reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean. German and Swiss Emigrants. — Events in England and Europe continued to drive many persons to America. Thou- sands emigrated from Germany and Switzerland. Many were Mennonites or Quakers, who, hearing that their brethren 112 THE MAKING OF NEW FRONTIERS were prospering in Penn's colony, desired to enjoy the same liberties. The unwilHngness of the Swiss Mennonites to bear arms made the magistrates of the Swiss cities ready to let them go. Indeed they forced some of them to leave. The "Poor Palatines." — The inhabitants of a German dis- trict along the Rhine called the Palatinate had several reasons for desiring to find a Redemptioners. peaceful refuge. For THERE ftiU remain on board tKe {hip Aurora i i i ^i from Amftcrdam, about 18 paffcngersTamongft ^ hundred years the whomare, Rhine country had Servant girls, gardeners, butchers, inafons, •' fugar bakers, bread bakers, i fhoeroaker, x filver been ravaged by War. fmith, I leatLer dreffer, 1 tobacconift, 1 palhy tt i, AH coob, and fome a, litiJe acquainted wJtH waiting r rcncn anQ Lrerman on families, as well as farming and tendiDghorfes, armies crOSSCd and rc- &c They are all in good heaJth. Any perfoQ 1 i • defu-oua of being accommodated In the above CrOSSed thlS region, branch eswlllpleafefpeedilytoapply to nlnndprincT and burn- Captain JOHN BOWLES, pmnaermg ana ourn 5n tKe Oream, off FeU'iPoint: ing. Thousands went Who offer J fn Sale, . ~r^ ^ ^ • r\ 80 ijoTNloond Water Calks to England m Queen 1 cheft elegant Fowling f*ieccs,finsle and don- Anne's time. In 17 10 lie barrelled 1^,000 Dutch Brick, and about 3, COO were ^"juiTmI'"^""^'*'^' shipped to New York, „ where the governor Advertisement of Servants for Sale ° thought they could be employed in making tar from pine trees. When this experi- ment failed, most of . them settled in the Mohawk Valley. Some emigrated later to Pennsylvania, moving down the Susquehanna from New York. A band of 500 Palatines, with a party of Swiss, went to North .Carolina, where they named their principal settlement New Berne from the Swiss city of Berne. Other German Emigrants. — Many reasons besides war and religion influenced Germans to seek a home in America. Like most Europeans they were divided into nobles, citi- zens or inhabitants of the towns, and peasants or farmers. In Europe a citizen was not expected to become a peasant, GERMANS AND SCOTCH-IRISH 113 even if he preferred farming to a trade. A peasant could not become a citizen. Indeed, he was generally obUged to remain on the little farm on which he was brought up. He must pay a part of his products to the noble who was lord of the community, and his children must serve for a time as domestic servants in the noble's family. These Germans had reason to be discontented and to emigrate to a country where they could obtain land, and by industry and thrift could become equal to any of their neighbors. " Newlanders." — When the shipowners found that many persons were eager to go to America, they thought they could increase their profits by sending men about to tell tales of the riches each person could easily gain there. These men had generally spent a short time in the colonies, so that their tales sounded true. They praised the new lands so much that they were called "Newlanders." They were also called ''soul stealers," because they frequently cheated the poor emigrants. The Pennsylvania Germans. — Most of the Germans went to Pennsylvania. Sometimes the emigrants who arrived at Philadelphia in a single year numbered 6,000, and the smallest number was 267. By the opening of the Revolutionary War over 100,000 Germans lived in Pennsylvania and made up more than a third of the population. Some of the frontier settlements were composed almost wholly of these new- comers, differing in language and customs from those of the older settlements. From Pennsylvania many Germans moved southward along the Appalachian ridges until they reached the fertile lands of the beautiful Shenandoah Valley in Virginia. Scotch-Irish. — Events in Great Britain also caused emigration to America. In 1715, and again in 1745, the heirs of King James II tried to regain the throne, but were defeated. The Scotch had fought loyally for these princes, 114 THE MAKING OF NEW FRONTIERS OHIO NEW YORIC^'>v:.;-riF, jr..;- 'J^;'^ s.uiar.-.V?^; ,(«!;.•;„ ASS. ,.;\3\, called the "Old Pretender" and the "Young Pretender," and many were obliged to seek refuge in America. After 1745 the English government attempted to break up the Scottish clans, and this also caused the Scotch to emigrate. During the same period many Scotch-Irish went to Amer- ica, because the Irish woolen industry was ruined by English laws which prevented the export of Irish woolen goods. These persons were called Scotch-Irish because they had emigrated originally from Scotland to the north of Ireland. The Scotch-Irish usually arrived either at Phila- delphia, Newcastle, or Charleston. Like the Germans, they settled on the frontier beyond the older settlements. Many settled in central Pennsylvania and moved southward up the Shenandoah Valley and even into North Carolina. Others, who entered at Charleston, went westward more slowly because of the wide belt of sandy pine barrens in the center of the southern states. Some of them in time met the frontier settlers from the north in the valleys of the Catawba and the Yadkin. It was not long before the foremost emigrants were pushing westward into the valleys sloping into Tennessee. Among those who came from Penn- sylvania was the father of Daniel Boone. <•■ ^""^ so U T hf ^'^• < \»'carol1na«>s ,<>t,'\L '•'/"' . Dots represent German homes. • C^.Xs/^"""" Crosses " Scotr!,. Irish homes. Where the German and Scotch-Irish Emigrants Settled " NATURALIZATION " 115 Scotch-Irish people formed fully a third of the settlers of Pennsylvania, Delaware, and North Carolina, and a half of South CaroHna. German and Scotch-Irish emigrants soon filled the back country with little settlements. Their eyes were ever turned toward newer lands beyond the ridges which hemmed them in. They were the first to bear the brunt of Indian attacks and were ready to struggle with the Indian for the possession of his hunting grounds. This Indenture made the ^^^^..^^ Day of^.y in the Yca^iJ oroiTR Lord one thoufand, fevcn hundred and i^j^^^^y^-^-^hTWEEN ^y fc^xJ-^ /f ^■'^^^'^^ of (he one Part, and ^J&;'b7y^^^^^Cc^<^?^<^^^i<'«,<, Years tp ferve in fuch Service and Employment as the laid r-^ff^^^'<^J)c.'-'rUe/ <»■ /^Ic^ Afligns -fhall there employ ,.,iccordingtp the ^luftom of the Country in the like Kind. In Confideration whereof the iai^/y^Jw^ (_^^^^i^i4^ doth hereby covenant and grant to, and with the idi^j^&au^ ^yj)e.ix^ to pay for /V^-e/^'af&ige, and to find allow/V<'?«Meat, Drink, Apparel and Lodging, -with other Neceflkiies, during the laidTercn j and at the End of the feid Term to pay unto ^U'?r%. the ufual Allowance, according to the Cuflom of the Country in the like Kind. IN WITNESS whereof the Parties above-menlioned to thcfe Indentures have interchangeably put their Hands and Seals, the Day and Year £rft above written. ^ Signed, Sealed, and Delivered, ~J ^^yy- yi\ /i / 7 A Redemptioner's Indenture Redemptioners. — Many of those who arrived in the colo- nies would not have been able to come had not some one lent them the money. Often they agreed to work a certain num- ber of years in return for it. In this case they were called "indentured servants," as at Jamestown, or quite as often "redemptioners," because they expected to redeem or free themselves by work. Many were cheated in making such bargains with the "soul stealers," who turned them over to in the Piefencc of ii6 THE MAKING OF NEW FRONTIERS ship captains. When the vessel reached the colonies, the cap- tains sold them to a contractor, who took them to regions in want of laborers, and sold them to the farmers. Fortunately the farmer-masters were generally kind, and taught the newcomer the things that he would need to know when he should become a farmer on his own account. When the Years of Service were over. — At the end of the years of service the indentured servant or redemptioner became free. He received a gift from his former master — clothing, wheat for seed, and a pig or calf for his future farm. The colony usually gave him a tract of land. The women received clothing. In this way by a few years of labor a man or woman, and even a boy or girl, became a free and prosperous colonist in the new country. "Naturalization." — ^ One difficulty seemed to hinder per- sons who were not subjects of the king of England from settling in the colonies. Governments at that time did not acknowledge that their subjects could become citizens of another country. Once a German, or once a Frenchman, always a German or a Frenchman. But governments, like men and women, sometimes do not keep their own rules, Frederick the Great of Prussia often invited the subjects of other kings to become his subjects. The Enghsh parlia- ment did the same, and passed acts which are now called Naturalization Laws. These laws said that foreigners who lived in the colonies for seven years should have the same rights as the native-born subjects of the English king. They could hold any office except those which the government itself filled. The assemblies of the colonies sometimes made the time of residence shorter. Parliament also did that, for it voted to naturalize the United Brethren or Moravians before they left Europe. The English and the Spaniards. — The Spaniards in Flor- ida watched jealously the increase of the settlements in the FOUNDING OF GEORGIA 117 Carolinas. They persuaded their Indian alhes to attack the Enghsh. The Enghsh in turn attacked the Spaniards or sent their own Indian alhes against them. It is no wonder that the inhabitants of South Carohna were glad when they heard that a new colony was to be estab- lished between their settlements and Florida. In 1732 James Oglethorpe and his friends in England obtained the right to found a colony south of the Savannah River. They King's Bench Prison, London, for Poor Debtors in the Eighteenth Century gave the name Georgia to the territory in honor of George II, who was then king of England. Oglethorpe's Plan to aid the Poor Debtors. — Oglethorpe was interested in any plan to help the poor. In those days the English law allowed a creditor to send to jail any one who owed him and could not pay the debt. The jails were horrible places, filthy, and overrun with vermin, where prisoners held for all sorts of crimes were herded together. The jailer was often cruel and cheated his prisoners, if he did not torture them. There was little chance that a poor ii8 THE MAKING OF NEW FRONTIERS debtor once sent to such a place would live to get out, Ogle- thorpe thought it better to send such persons to America where they might start anew. He chose as the motto of the colony, "Not for self, but for others." He expected no gain for himself; indeed, he used his own money to further the enterprise. Founding of Georgia. — Oglethorpe went to Georgia in 1733. He was accompanied by 35 poor families, selected out of a large number wilUng to go. They went up the Settlements in Georgia This map shows the size of the original grant of Georgia in 1732 Savannah River about ten miles and began a town which they called Savannah, using the Indian name of the river. Like William Penn and Roger WilUams, Oglethorpe first made peace with the Indians, buying the land from them. Savannah was laid out with broad streets and large parks. Fifty acres of land were given to each family. Oglethorpe received aid from the English government and from wealthy friends in buying arms, farm tools, seed, and supplies. The people of South Carohna sent loo head of cattle, a drove of hogs, a flock of sheep, and 20 barrels of rice. Several went to Savannah with their servants to aid the new colony in building houses. Everything seemed hopeful. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 119 The Troubles of Georgia. — Poor men who could not make a living in England were not well fitted for the hardships of a new country. Others came, but progress was slow. The colonists complained because they were not allowed at first to hold slaves, like the South Carolinians. They were ham- pered also by the size of the farms, which were too small to be treated as plantations. In 1734 some industrious Germans entered the colony, and two years later a band of Scotch Highlanders. Un- fortunately the colony was soon troubled by Spanish attacks, especially after Eng- land declared war on Spain for cruelly treating English sailors caught smuggling in the West Indies. In 1743 Oglethorpe returned to Eng- land discouraged. Nine years later he and his friends gave up their rights in the colony, which then came directly under control of the king. A small trading station at Augusta, far inland on the Savannah River, gave the Georgians a share in the fur trade with the Indians. Georgia remained during the colonial period the smallest and weakest of the colonies. Contemporary Portrait Showing Costume of German man and Woman QUESTIONS 1. How many people were there in the English colonies by 1750? What was the chief way in which New England increased in population after the first settlement? What large bodies of emigrants swelled the numbers in the other colonies? 2. Why did men leave the older settlements for the frontier? What name is given in American history to the constant movement of settlers toward the frontier? 3. Why did the Germans, the Scotch, and the Scotch-Irish come to America I20 THE MAKING OF NEW FRONTIERS in the eighteenth centurj'? What part had the Newlanders in securing emigrants for /Vmerica? 4. Where did the Germans settle? The Scotch-Irish? 5. Who were the defenders of the frontier from Indian attacks? 6. How could poor boys and girls get to America? What became of the indentured servants when their time was up? 7. How did foreigners become naturalized citizens of the English colonies? 8. What was Oglethorpe's plan for aiding English debtors? Why did the people of South Carolina welcome neighbors and help them? 9. Why did Georgia grow slowly? Who took Oglethorpe's place as head of the colony? EXERCISES 1. Can people without money enough to pay for their passage come to America now? (Any recent immigrant can answer.) 2. How can a foreigner become a naturalized citizen today? REVIEW Founding of the English Colonies 1607. The Virginia Company founds a colony at Jamestown. 1620. The Pilgrims settle at Plymouth. 1630. The Massachusetts Bay Company founds a colony at Boston and at other places on Massachusetts Bay. 1634. Baltimore starts a settlement at St. Mary's. 1636. Emigrants from Massachusetts begin the towns of Connecticut. 1636. Roger Williams and other exiles from Massachusetts found settle- ments in Rhode Island. 1638. Puritans from England found a colony at New Haven. 1665. The proprietors of New Jersey begin the active settlement of a new colony. Earlier settlers had established themselves at various places. 1670. The proprietors of the Carolinas found Charleston, though not the first settlement in the Carolinas. 1681. Penn sends a body of Quakers to Pennsylvania. Philadelphia founded in 1682. 1733. Oglethorpe begins a settlement at Savannah, Georgia. CHAPTER XII HOW THE COLONISTS LIVED Changes in Manner of Living. — As the colonists increased in number the principal settlements changed in appearance. Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and a few other places began to resemble EngHsh cities. The well-to-do built houses much hke those which were being built by the Lou- Home OF A Prosperous Colonist in the South don merchants of the time. Some of them are still standing.^ The cities, however, were small, Philadelphia, the largest, having only 20,000 inhabitants. On the new frontier the settlers lived like the first inhabi- tants of Plymouth or Jamestown. They hunted, fished, ^ Houses built in that style of architecture are called colonial. In Eng- land they are called Georgian, because built in the time of King George I or George II. The English Georgian houses were commonly of brick, while the colonial houses were often of wood. 122 HOW THE COLONISTS LIVED and raised a few articles of food. Some of them were busied with the fur trade, which was no longer carried on in the older settlements. Differences between the Colonies. — The colonies also differed from one another, because of differences in cUmate or in the nature of the soil. In South CaroHna rice, and later indigo and cotton, could be raised. In Virginia the main crop was tobacco. Both rice and tobacco were usually m^^^^' Colonial or Georgian House cultivated on large plantations. Farther north the soil and climate were not suited to such crops. The land was divided into small farms, and corn, wheat, oats, and beans were raised. The farmers lived in villages. In the South the people were not usually grouped in villages, except that the cabins of servants or slaves stood not far from the planter's house. What the Colonists did not have. — Many things now considered necessary, such as matches, kerosene, gas, elec- tricity, and telephones, the colonists did not have. Neither did the Europeans of that time have them, for they had not FARMING IN THE COLONIES 123 been invented. The ordinary settlers were without many things then common in Europe, but the planters and mer- chants often lived like well-to-do Europeans. Open fire-places served for both heating and cooking. Fires were carefully banked with ashes to keep them from going out, for if they went out the settler would be obliged to seek live coals at the house of a neighbor. Churches were not heated. People sometimes carried foot-warmers ■ -• • ' ,' / A Colonial Kitchen Fire-Place to church and kept on their hats, great-coats, and mittens during the service. The better houses were lighted by candles; in the others pine-knot torches were used. Frequently the light from the fire-place was enough. Rich people had lam^ps in which sperm oil was burned. These were lighted only on impor- tant occasions. Farming in the Colonies. — The colonists were mostly farmers or planters. Methods of farming used nowadays were unheard of even in Europe. The EngHsh or European 124 HOW THE COLONISTS LIVED farmer managed his land as his forefathers had for a thou- sand years. He knew that land, like everything else, wore out. He did not understand of what elements soils are com- posed, and what must be put into them each year in order to obtain large crops. He tried to keep the land in good condition by allowing it to lie uncultivated or fallow every third year, believing that it would rest and regain its strength. He tried what is called rotation of crops, that is, planting different crops, as the years came around, on the same piece of land. But he did not understand, as does the farmer of today, what crops serve this purpose best. Wooden Plow, Harrow, and Fork Settlers in America had one advantage — there was plenty of land. After a field became worn out they could plow up another, or move to a region where the soil was rich. The crops raised in the North did not exhaust the soil quickly, but planters in the South discovered that new fields must often be found for tobacco. Farming tools were simple and rude. Machinery had not been invented. The plow, mostly of wood, scratched a shallow furrow. A scythe or even a sickle was used to harvest grain. Threshing was done by a hand-flail or by the treading of horses or oxen on a hard floor. After the grain was beaten from the stalk, it was thrown into the air against the wind to blow out the chaff, and was finally passed through sieves. Plantations. — Farming on the great plantations of the South was very different. Some plantations contained many COLONIAL INDUSTRIES 125 thousand acres. The work of plowing, planting, hoeing, and gathering tobacco was done at first by indentured servants. In the eighteenth century it was done mostly by slaves. As slaves were ignorant, an overseer for every twenty negroes was necessary. The profits were often large. A few planters are said to have made the great sum of £20,000 to £80,000 a year. But the method was ruinous, because no attempt was made to put back into the soil what the tobacco plants were steadily taking out. After a time the fields were "dead." Rice growing on the planta- tions of South Carolina was not so profitable, because ex- penses were greater. Low, wet fields were needed, and the laborer must often stand in water or mud. The sun was hot, and malaria was a common disease. If slaves sickened and died, planters lost heavily. In the Piedmont region of the South the farms were often small, and the crops like those raised in the North. Spinning Wheel and Colonial Loom Carrying Tobacco to the Wharf in Virginia Colonial Industries. — Much was done on farms and plan- tations besides raising crops. Clothing, utensils, and house- 126 HOW THE COLONISTS LIVED Tinder Box, Flint, and Steel hold supplies must be prepared. The farmer's house was a workshop. Roads were few and poor. Rivers and the ocean were the natural highways. Little trade went on be- tween the settlements. This was not the only reason for household industries. In England and Europe many trades were still carried on in homes or in shops connected with them. There were no fac- ^ tories, for machinery and power to run it had not been invented. The English weaver got his thread or yarn from merchants, wove cloth at home, and sold it to the merchant. This was called the "domestic system." In the colonies the women spun the yarn, wove the cloth, and cut and finished the clothing for their families. Spinning wheels were found in every home. In Massachusetts in 1656 every family was required by law to teach its girls to spin. Each woman was expected to spin three pounds of yarn, cotton or wool, every week for thirty weeks of the year. If she failed she might be fined. Men made many things with ax and jack-knife. Plows and harrows were mostly of wood. Boys whittled butter paddles for the dairy, or box traps and "figure-four" traps for catching animals. Many things which the planter needed Mould for mak- were made by slaves, but other things he obtained in exchange for his rice or tobacco. The ships which came from England for these brought costly clothing, crockery, pictures, and furniture. The northern settler had RESTRICTIONS ON THE COLONISTS 127 little to send to England in exchange for such things except lumber and ship timber. At first he had furs to sell. To obtain what he wanted he must become a trader or manu- facture things himself. England and Colonial Industries. — After a time men as well as women engaged in weaving cloth. They began to make goods of finer quality. These were sold not only in T ' settlements near by, but also in Annoqninto. the South and in the West Indies. The EngKsh merchants GeOfgii II. RcglS. became alarmed, fearing that An Adl to prevent the Exportation oF Hats out of any of His Mijefty's Colonies or Planuti- ons in Avieriea, and to rcftrain the Number of Apprentices taken by the Hat-makers in thcfaid Colonies or Plantations, and for the better encouraging the making Hats in Gr^at Britain. they would be unable to sell their goods to the colonists. A governor of New York wrote to the ofhcials in England that he had "seen serge made upon Long Island that any man may wear." The English parliament, taking the side of the English cloth-makers and merchants, passed a "Woolen Act," which forbade woolen goods to be sent from one colony to another or even from one town to another. The attempts of the northern colonies to make beaver hats were treated in the same way. The colonists had an advan- tage over the Enghsh hatters, because beaver fur came from the colonies. Hats made in New England and New York were shipped as far as Spain. English hatters, like the cloth- makers, appealed to parliament, which replied by ordering that no hats should be sent by the colonists from one place to another and offered for sale under penalty of a fine of £500. ry of mshliig ij)aW "«s ftj fic^P fmair tfctuia, to tfte I>lftouta8niicnt of t!ie &10 'araDe, ant) Jjebarms Vt)t art SBmuCaauti; ; saijectfoje to? pjc- 5 C bentlrs Part of the Act forbidding SENDING Hats away Reduced facsimile 128 HOW THE COLONISTS LIVED The Shoe and Leather Trade. — The shoe and leather trade fared better. The Massachusetts government made laws to prevent the waste of hides. Shoe-makers who came from England taught the farmers to make shoes. The farmer spent part of the long winter days in making shoes for his family, but other men' gave all their time to making shoes _^________^ for sale. Soon after Lynn was settled it had many shoe-makers, Anno viccfimo tertio workiug in their homes or in small shops. Shoes made in Massachusetts were sold in the other colonies. The English government did not interfere with this trade. The Iron Industry. — Another trade which the English parlia- ment was wiUing to permit to some extent was the making of iron. The first furnaces used ore known as "bog iron," found in swampy regions. Later bet- Georgii II. Regis. An Aft to encourage the Importatioa of Pig and Bar Iron from His Majefty's Colonies in America; and to prevent the Ereftion of any Mill or other Engine for Slitting or Rolling of Iron ; or any Plateiug Forge to work with a Tilt Hammer ; or any Furnace for making Steel in any of the faid Colonies. J^nca* tte SmpQHation of 'Bat %tm from %\» ^aitOj'fl iffolo-- nits In America, into ttie )Po;t ; of London, anO iftc 3lmpo2ia= I tlou Of lf)ig 3ton. fwm tftc fflfi) , floromca, into anj Jpojt of Great Briuin, OnS ttie ^WH' \ faaute of mtj oSac anti Ipij Jton m Gicit Britain, toil! be S 1 jreat asoantage , rot onlt to t()e felB CToIoniM, Sut alio W tlji.t ttm?6ora, is (Utmlftrtij tti£ r"«Sl^S';.p'^aVfe%'S^/tabrr''S ter ore was found in the hills of feums of ®onct!, not) annuaUs paif fO! 3lion to #0= teijntrs, ttill tefawD to tfji£BitisOom, snUaSTMter p^^^v^ppf ,>,, f ISJp-H/ Vork Ppnn- £luantitp of the mooncn, ant) otfjet ©aimftiares o£ V^OniieCULUL, iNCW XUIK, ireilll 6 p * Great ... . , sylvania, and Virgmia. English Part op the Act forbidding j •> ^ ^ BUILDING Iron Mills in the iron manufacturers were glad to Colonies -^ • -^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ colonial Reduced facsimile -' i o ^ furnaces, for otherwise they must buy it from Swedes and Russians. They did not know what rich ores existed in England. Moreover, they did not understand how to use coal in melting the ores, and their sup- ply of charcoal was running low. They did not, however, wish the colonists to work up the pig iron into plates or tools of iron or steel which could be sold and thus lessen the sale of their own products. Parliament thought as they did and THE OLD COLONIAL SYSTEM 129 forbade the colonists to set up any iron or steel mills for such purposes. Many farmers, especially in New England, made nails and tacks and simple tools to sell to their neighbors. A hammer, an anvil, and a small furnace in the chimney-corner of the living-room formed the outfit necessary for this, which was another of the home or domestic industries of colonial times. Bounties for Naval Stores. — While the Enghsh govern- ment tried to keep the colonists from manufacturing things already made in England, it was ready to pay rewards or bounties on every ton of "naval stores," or material for use in building ships. An official was ordered to mark trees suitable for use in the navy. The bounty on turpentine was profitable to the Carolinas, which sent 60,000 barrels to England every year. Virginia and Maryland sent over an- nually a thousand tons of hemp. But New England could not raise hemp and could get better prices for her lumber in the West Indies than in England. The Old Colonial System. — Why did the Enghsh govern- ment attempt to say to the colonists what they should make and what they should not make? Modern governments Some Hats of Colonial Times permit the people of their colonies to manufacture what they please. The reason lay in the idea that the English govern- ment and other governments in the eighteenth century had of the purpose and use of colonies. Enghsh officials looked upon a colony as a man looks upon his farm or garden. He intends that its different parts shall furnish him the various things he needs. Cloth, hats, and steel produced in the colo- nies were not needed in England, while tobacco, rice, and I30 HOW THE COLONISTS LIVED naval stores were. The southern colonies were fortunate in offering what the EngUsh of the mother country were will- ing to take. The Enghsh government told the New Eng- landers and the other northern colonists that if they would not furnish naval stores they at least should not do what the Englishmen at home wanted to do. This meant that English- men in the colonies did not have the same rights as English- men in England. In other words, the colonies were managed for the interests of Enghsh merchants and shipowners rather than for the welfare of the colonists. The northern colonists disturbed the English merchants and shipowners because they wished to become traders. The northern coast was full of good harbors. Lumber was cheap. Men living near the ocean are always inchhed to become seamen. The profits of the colonial shipowners were seri- ously interfered with by the Navigation Acts which were first intended to injure the Dutch traders. A long list of articles, including sugar and tobacco, two of the most important articles of colonial trade, should, the Act said, be taken nowhere except to England. The colonial traders wished to take these articles not only to England, but also to Europe, where they could get higher prices. If Virginia tobacco was landed in England, all sorts of profits and dues were added to the cost, and the European was obliged to pay the Enghsh merchant more than he had to pay the colonial merchant. The Enghsh officials saw no wrong in this, for if the mother country could gain nothing from the colonies, why should she have colonies? Certainly not for the benefit of the colonists. But the colonists did not agree with the Enghsh officials. Many of the ship-masters paid no attention to the Navigation Laws, taking both sugar and tobacco to Europe. If they were arrested by ofiicers sent to the colonies for that purpose, colonial juries usually decided that they were not guilty. TRADE WITH THE WEST INDIES 131 Trade with the West Indies. — The northern colonies found trade with the West Indies very profitable. Planters in Bar- bados, Jamaica, and other English islands, gained such large profits from raising sugar that they did not take time to raise food or cut the timber they needed. They preferred to buy such things of the Atlantic coast settlers. Hundreds of ships went from New England, New York, and the Delaware River, loaded with horses, oxen, sheep, hogs, fish, corn, peas, beans, oats, and flour. Planters sometimes bought house- frames all ready to set up, and staves and hoops for sugar barrels. The northern ship-masters took in return sugar, mo- lasses, and usually some money. The money they found useful in buying in England articles which were not made in America. Colonial Smuggling, — Colonial traders carried on a sim- ilar trade with the French and Spanish West Indies. They found this more profitable, for the English islands taxed their products higher than the French islands, and so the colo- nial traders had to pay more for the sugar and molasses, and did not bring back so much money. Moreover, the English islands could not furnish them with half the molasses they wanted. They had no right to trade with foreign islands, for foreign governments, like the English government, in- sisted that trade with their colonies was for their merchants alone. French and Spanish planters, however, were usually ready to buy of the English colonists, because French and Spanish merchants could not sell food so cheaply. The consequence was that many colonial ship-masters became smugglers. When the Enghsh planters found that the colonists were buying so much sugar and molasses from the French, they complained to the home government, which attempted in 1733 to stop the trade by placing high taxes on such products brought into the northern colonies. Nevertheless, the smuggling went on, and the 132 HOW THE COLONISTS LIVED colonists paid little attention to the " Sugar Act," as the law was called. Fisheries. — Many sailors, especially in New England, were engaged in fishing for cod and mackerel off the coast or on the Banks of Newfoundland. Sailors learned to capture the sperm whale and to obtain oil from the blubber. Towns like Marblehead, Nantucket, and New Bedford were famous for their success in whaling. Money. — Money is needed to carry on business. Those who have something to exchange cannot readily find the per- son who wants it and who has something they are willing to receive. For this reason the first Plymouth colonists used pohshed shells and the Virginians used tobacco as money. EngHsh coins did not remain long in the colonies, chiefly because the colonists always bought more of the EngUsh merchants than they sold to them and were obliged to pay the difference in coin. Spanish coins were the most common. After 1728 the new Spanish "dollar," with its halves and quarters, and Portuguese coins were widely used. Paper Money. — During the wars with the French, Mas- sachusetts, having no money in its treasury to pay the sol- diers, ordered paper money, or promises to pay, to be given them. Massachusetts frequently chose this easy way of paying its debts. The same thing was done by most of the other col- 'jM^!^^^ ^^T^Y^.^9}:J^B§J}^§0^'^< '^^ Bl^''^ Law of the Colony of W^ New-Yort,-rH\% Bill shall W^ pafs current -^^ rot FIVE y.^ij POUNDS, m New York. (lie Second Day of April , One Thoufand Seven Hundred a))J Fif ly Nine. ^ //r-^;??7 -^ d /ja^c/a. C///M QoOJji^trr; 'JT^ "^ t^ 'i" Tis Death TO couRierfeit rhii BILL. New York Colonial Paper Money onies. The difficulty was that the promises to pay were not kept, and that it took at various times from seven to twenty- SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES ^33 six dollars in paper to obtain one dollar in coin. The Eng- lish government attempted to stop the issue of such money, but without much success. Colonial Schools. — One consequence of the lack of money was inability to provide good schools. In several colonies the legislatures had voted that schools should be estabHshed by all towns containing a certain number of families. Mas- sachusetts threatened to fine towns which did not obey the law. Twice the fines were doubled, but it was easier to pay them than to support teachers. In Pennsylvania parents who did not teach their children to read and write were threatened with a fine of £5. The growth of schools in the South was still slower, because the inhabitants were more scattered. In Virginia a few private schools were founded with money left by prosperous planters. Sons of planters were sent to England for their education or were taught by private teachers. Public schools in the colonies were only for boys. Girls sometimes learned to read and write in private schools. College of William and Mary After a drawing made about 1740 Colleges. — Harvard remained the only college until just at the close of the seventeenth century, when a college was founded in Virginia, and named William and Mary for the monarchs then reigning in England. A few years later, in 134 HOW THE COLONISTS LIVED 1 701, a college was established in Connecticut and named after Elihu Yale, a wealthy merchant who gave it a large sum. Soon other colleges were founded — at Princeton in New Jersey, at Providence in Rhode Island, and at Han- over in New Hampshire. Benjamin Frankhn was one of the founders of an "Academy" at Philadelphia, which later became the University of Pennsylvania. It differed from the other colleges in making the study of the Enghsh language as important as the study of Latin and Greek. The main purpose of the colleges was to train clergymen. For this reason older students in Yale were required to " read some part of the Old Testament out of Hebrew into Greek in the morning and to turn some part of the New Testament out of English or Latin into Greek at the time of the evening recitation." Dartmouth college was originally intended to train Indians to teach Christianity to their tribes. In Franklin's "Academy" other needs of the community were equally remem- bered. Even in Philadelphia, a young man wishing to study law or medicine had to do so in the ofhce of a lawyer or a doctor, and not at a college. Printing. — Most of the books in the colonies were brought from Eng- land and Europe, but a few books In the custody of the Smith- ^j^^ pamphlets wcrc printed in soman Institution 7 . . America. A printing press was set up in Massachusetts as early as 1638. Newspapers were rare. This is not surprising, because there were none in Eng- land until 1622. The Boston News Letter, begun in 1704, was the first in America. One was started in New York in 1725, and another, by Franklin, in Philadelphia, eight Franklin's Printing Press LANGUAGE IN THE COLONIES 135 Poor Richard, 1 73 3. years later. All these papers looked like small leaflets and were published once a week. Almanacs were very popular. One which Frankhn pub- lished was called Poor Richard's Almanac. It contained, be- sides the calendar and list of eclipses, many bits of history, proverbs, and practical advice. Books and newspapers were costly, but everybody could have Poor Richard's Almanac. Franklin's rhymes and jokes and quaint sayings taught his readers many things, above all to be frugal and industrious. One of his sayings was, "Sloth like Rust consumes faster than Labor wears;" another, everywhere familiar, " Early to bed, and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." Language in the Colo- nies. — Though many of the colonists came from the continent of Europe, English was the language spoken almost everywhere. It soon began to difTer some- what from the English spoken in England, because the colo- nists invented names for things in America which they had not seen in England or the names of which they had forgotten. For example, they called birds after their colors, like ''black- A N Almanack For the Year of Chrift Being the Firfl: after LEAP YEAR: j4nd makes Jinct tfr Crtalim Years By the Account of the Eaftern Greiki 7241 By the Latin Church, when G em. f 6932 By Hie Computarion of U^'.lV j^^j By the Rrnnut Chronology ^6%^ By the Jevi'ifi Rabbles j^j^j Wherein ts contained The Lunations, Eclipfes, Judgment of the Weather, Spring Tides, Planets Motions & mutual AfpeSs, Sun and Moon's Riflng and Set- ting, Length of Days, Time of High Water, Fairt, CouftT, and obfcrvable Days Fitted to the Latitude of Forty Degrees, and a Meridian of Five Hours Weft froin Lmdm, but may without fenfihle Error, feive all the ad- jacent Places, even from NewfcundknJ to Seuib- Caroliva. By RICHJRD SJUNDERS.Vhilom. PHILADELPHIA: Printed and fold by B. FR.jiNKLW, at the New ^^^^ Priming Office near the Marker. The Third ImpicIIioii. Reduced Facsimile of the Title-Page OF Poor Richard's Almanac 136 HOW THE COLONISTS LIVED bird" or "bluebird," or after their cry, like ''catbird" and "mocking-bird." From the Indians they borrowed many names, such as moose, chipmunk, pecan, tobacco, canoe, ham- mock. The Indian names for rivers and lakes were often kept. Religion. — The colonists were very religious. Virginia, Maryland, and the Carolinas adopted the Episcopal or English Church. Every one was obliged to pay for its services. Maryland had originally been planned as a refuge for the Roman Catholics, but the Protestants in time outnumbered them twelve to one. In Mas- sachusetts and Connecticut most people were CongregationaUsts. Baptists were numerous in Rhode Island and North Carolina, and Quakers in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Wher- ever the Scotch-Irish settled, Presbyterian churches were founded. Superstitions. — The colonists had many strange notions, now called super- stitions. One was a belief in witchcraft, which they brought over from England and Europe. There the belief in witches was widespread. If butter was slow in coming when cream was churned, the colonist thought that witches were in it and must be driven out by dropping a red-hot horse-shoe into the cream. If pigs were sick they were supposed to be bewitched. Horse-shoes or broomsticks were often placed over door- ways to keep out witches. To be a witch, that is, possessed by an evil spirit, was regarded as worse than a misfortune — it was a crime. Many hundreds had been put to death Old South Church, Boston COLONIAL AMUSEMENTS 137 in Europe as witches. Salem, Massachusetts, gained an unhappy fame because of a panic about witches which seized the village early in 1692. Certain girls, troubled with what is now called hysteria, said they were tormented by witches, and accused neighbors, chiefly poor, ignorant, old women. Before the panic was over twenty persons had been found guilty by the courts and executed. This superstition lingered ■a long time after the persecutions at Salem ceased. Amusements in the Colonies. — The colonists had much hard work to do, but they found time to play. When corn- husking season came, or the frame of a house was to be raised, the neighbors gathered to help. As soon as the work was done all sat down to tables loaded with good things. Some- times the men joined in a wolf hunt. The chase was always exciting and ended in the destruction of a dangerous pest. The planters enjoyed horse-racing and fox-hunting. The Dutch introduced several healthful sports — bowhng, skating, and sleigh riding. In Boston the boys kicked balls back and forth, somewhat after the manner of football. They had many other games such as boys play nowadays. In New York and the southern colonies an occasional band of actors from England played in the chief towns. The Puritans, like the Puritans in England, were opposed to the theatre, and would not allow plays in their towns. Dress. — The well-to-do colonists followed English fash- ions. The planters and merchants especially tried to dress like the London merchants with whom they dealt. On Sundays and holidays the men wore wigs of long, powdered hair, tied in a cue, three-cornered hats covered with lace, coats of plush or broadcloth, often in bright colors, embroidered vests, tight- fitting knee-breeches, long silk stockings, and pointed shoes with silver buckles. The Puritans and Quakers dressed more simply. Indeed, few of the colonists could afford finery, and most of them dressed in homespun or leather or deerskin. 138 HOW THE COLONISTS LIVED QUESTIONS 1. How did the appearance of the older settlements change? Where were colonists to be found who were living as the earlier settlers had lived? 2. Why did the colonies differ greatly in occupations and manner of life? In what ways did they differ? 3. Is it strange that the colonists did not have many things which we now have? Name some of the things that we use every day which they did not have. How were the houses heated and lighted? 4. Why were the colonists not as careful in farming as farmers today? 5. How was a plantation managed? What did the overseer do? Who were the laborers on plantations? What did they raise? In what part of the South was farming like that in the North? 6. Why did the colonists do so many things in their own houses instead of doing them in factories as today? What work was done in the homes as domestic industries? 7. What industries were forbidden in the colonies? Why did parliament teU the colonists what they should make and what they should not make? 8. Why did parliament pass the Navigation Acts in the first place? What limits did these place on trade in the "enumerated articles"? 9. What profitable trade did the northern colonies find? Why did par- liament try to stop part of this trade? Did the plan of parliament succeed? 10. What did the colonists use as money? Why was colonial paper money not a good kind of money? 11. Why were the colonial schools few in number? Why did the southern colonies have even fewer schools than the northern colonies? 12. What colleges were founded in colonial days? What was the main object of the people in founding colleges? In what way did Franklin's Acad- emy at Philadelphia differ from the others? 13. Why was Poor Richard's Almanac so widely read and so popular? What useful things did it teach the people? 14. How did the English language in the colonies differ from English as spoken in England? EXERCISES 1. Visit a museum and examine all articles which illustrate colonial life, and tell about these in class. 2. Gather pictures of colonial houses, money, farm tools, furniture, etc. 3. Make out a list of the domestic or home industries carried on by men and women in colonial times. Underscore any which are still found in the homes. 4. Collect examples of superstitions or strange notions still known, whether believed or not. 5. Make two lists of amusements — one for colonial times, another of those common in some part of the United States today. CHAPTER XIII HOW THE COLONIES WERE GOVERNED Another English Mistake. — It was a mistake for the rulers of England to act as if the colonists did not have the same rights of trade as the people who remained in England. They made another mistake in changing their plans of colonial government. At first they allowed the colonists to govern Great Seal granted to the New England Colonies in 1685 themselves almost independently. But after the colonies became large, the government interfered more often in the management of their affairs. This interference was carried so far that the colonists thought their rights were in danger. The disputes which took place were commonly about what the colonial governments should be permitted to do, rather than about the way in which they should be organized. Local Government. — The colonists, like Americans now- adays, had local governments, managing villages or cities or counties, and provincial governments, for whole colonies, corresponding to the present state governments. I40 HOW THE COLONIES WERE GOVERNED In New England the town meeting, a general meeting of the men, settled such matters as the care of the common fields, the roads, ferries, bridges, and fences. Boston retained the town form of government until long after the Revolution. At the town meeting were chosen the town officials — select- men, constables, fence-viewers, field-drivers, pound-keepers for stray cattle, and tithing-men to arrest loafers and Sabbath breakers and to keep order among the boys at church. In the southern colonies, including Maryland, as many of the settlers Hved on large farms or plantations, nothing like the town meeting was convenient. Instead, the governor of the colony appointed justices of the peace who managed the affairs of each county. The middle colonies, New York and Pennsylvania, used a mixture of the two systems. Both systems were famiHar to the colonists before they left England. Provincial Government. — Legislatures existed in every colony. They were modeled after the Enghsh parliament. At the head of the colonial government was a governor. In Connecticut and Rhode Island he was chosen by the people, in Pennsylvania ^ and Maryland he was appointed by the proprietor, and in the other colonies by the king. Massa- chusetts originally had the right to choose a governor, but lost it during the reign of Charles II. Laws adopted by the colonial legislatures might be vetoed by the governor or disapproved by the government in Eng- land. One difficulty was that it took two or three years to obtain either approval or disapproval from the Enghsh government. The decision, when made, sometimes annulled laws adopted many years before. For example, in 1754 the king disapproved of laws made by North CaroHna in 171 5. The Pennsylvanians were required by their charter to send each law to England for approval within five years of its pas- ^ Delaware had the same governor as Pennsylvania. PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT 141 sage, but they avoided the requirement by making the laws good for a period less than five years. Sometimes the vetoes disapproved bad laws, but often they annulled laws which were reasonable; for example, certain laws of Massachusetts which simply repeated rights claimed for Englishmen in the Great Charter five hundred years before. Faneuil Hall, Boston, in Colonial Times "The Cradle of Liberty" One thing which made such vetoes disagreeable to the colonists was the fact that the English kings ceased after 1707 to veto acts of parliament. Consequently the veto was used only to prevent colonial legislatures from making laws. This seemed unfair. If parHament could make laws for Englishmen at home, why should not the colonial assem- blies do the same for Englishmen in the colonies? As the kings had begun to rule through officials who re- mained in office only with the consent of a majority of the members of parliament, it was parliament, and not the king, that did the vetoing. Parliament became a many-headed 142 HOW THE COLONIES WERE GOVERNED monarch, which, unfortunately, was as likely to misunder- stand the needs of the colonies as ever Charles I or his two sons. Legislatures and Governors. — The legislatures of New York and Massachusetts had many disputes with the gover- nors. One New York governor spent upon his own pleasures money which the legislature had raised for new fortifications. The legislature then appointed a treasurer to take charge of expenditures, and was not very generous in the amounts which it voted. The governor threatened to have the taxes levied on the colony by parliament. The legislature finally declared that only the representatives chosen by the people had the right to vote away their money. This was the same language which parliament had used a hundred years before in its disputes with James I and Charles I. The legislators thought that a governor would be more likely to listen to their wishes if he depended upon them every year for his salary. In this practice they were simply following the example set by parhament in deahng with kings. One Massachusetts governor refused to accept the sums voted to him as salary because his orders from the home government declared that he must insist upon a permanent, rather than an annual, settlement of his salary. The English government made another blunder in faihng to entrust the management of colonial affairs to a single set of officials. Colonial business was distributed among diiTer- ent departments of the English administration, as English business was, and sometimes the two were badly confused. Attacks on Colonial Charters. — At dififerent times, some of them long before 1750, plans were proposed in England to make the colonies more dependent upon the will of officials appointed by the home government. Tn 1684 the charter^ 1 A charter described the rights of colonists, for example, their right to choose a governor or to select representatives to their assembly. ATTACK ON COLONIAL CHARTERS 143 of Massachusetts was taken away. The people of Connecti- cut feared the same misfortune. There is a story that when the royal agent went before the general assembly of Con- necticut to demand the charter, the debate was purposely prolonged until late in the evening. Finally the candles were blown out, and when they were relighted the charter had disappeared. Some one had carried it off and hidden it in the hollow of an oak, known thereafter as the Charter Oak. After James II became king he made Edmund Andros governor of all the colonies north and east of the Delaware River; that is, New Jersey, New York, and all New England. Andros was given power to make laws, raise taxes, and settle disputes in his own court. In this James was treat- ing the liberties of Englishmen in the colonies with the same con- tempt with which he treated their rights in England. The revolu- tion of 1688 soon sent the king into exile. In 1689, when the people of Massachusetts learned what was taking place in England, they seized Andros, threw him into Castle Wilham in Boston harbor, and then sent him back to England. Two years later Massachusetts received a new charter, but one which did not permit the people to choose their governor. Plymouth was at this time united with Massachusetts. Ten years later a party in parhament attempted to pass a bill taking away the charters of Rhode Island and Connecti- cut, the only colonies which could still elect their governors, and depriving the proprietors of other colonies of their con- SiR Edmund Andros After the portrait in the State Library at Hartford 144 HOW THE COLONIES WERE GOVERNED trol. The purpose was to weaken the Quakers and the Puri- tans, the first being strong in Pennsylvania, and the second in New England. Bacon's Rebellion. — Sometimes troubles in the colonies arose over what the governor left undone, rather than over what he did. Governor Berkeley of Virginia in 1676 neg- lected to defend from Indian attacks the planters on the fron- tier, then a short distance northwest of Richmond. He was apparently afraid of losing a profitable trade with the Indians. When the planters asked for protection he not only refused to Hsten to them, but ordered them to send no more petitions. The Virginians decided to help themselves, and under the leader- ship of Nathaniel Bacon, whose plantation had also suffered from Indian raids, marched against the Indians. No sooner were Bacon and his followers on the frontier fighting the Indians than Berkeley proclaimed them rebels for waging war against his will. Bacon prepared for war with the governor, and, it is said, suggested that Virginia, Maryland, and Carolina join together, choose their own gov- ernors, and manage their own affairs. He drove the governor out of Jamestown, and set fire to the village so that Berkeley might not again take refuge there. Bacon's sudden death deprived the Virginians of their leader and the rebellion ended. About thirty of his followers were put to death and their property seized. But the discontent was so great that Berkeley was recalled by the EngKsh government. Bacon Quarter Branch Where Bacon had a plantation near the falls of the James PUNISHMENTS 145 Customs Officials. — There were many other officers in the colonies besides the governors who were appointed by the king. The most unpopular were those whose duty it was to enforce the trade laws, like the Navigation Acts and the Sugar Act. When juries of colonists would not convict those who disobeyed these laws, the Enghsh government set up what were called "Admiralty Courts,"^ where a judge appointed by the king decided without a jury whether the person accused was guilty. This made the trade laws all the more unpopular, so that many men thought it was not wrong to disobey them. Punishments. — In the pun- ishment of ordinary offenses or crimes the colonial courts were less harsh than the English courts. In England about 200 crimes were punished with death. Among these were sheep steaUng, pocket picking, even if the amount was no more than a shilling, and stealing an article worth five shilKngs from a shop. In the colonies many crimes were also punished with death. Executions were public, and handbills were often circulated explaining the crime and holding up the fate of the criminal as a warning to evil-doers. The purpose of several of the more ordinary punishments was the disgrace of the wrong-doer in the sight of his neigh- bors. The whipping-post, the pillory, and the stocks were in common use. The maker of the first stocks in Boston was sentenced to sit in them an hour because the magistrates 1 Special courts to try offenses against the shipping laws. Whipping-Post 146 HOW THE COLONIES WERE GOVERNED thought he charged too much. A man in North Carolina who had stolen five dollars' worth of goods was sentenced to thirty-nine lashes on the bare back. In England he would have been hanged. French and Spanish Colonies. — The English colonies, notwithstanding their disputes with their governors or other officials, had a great many more rights of self-government than either the Spanish or the French. As ordinary Frenchmen had little or no share in the government at home, it is not surprising that they had none in the colonies. Each colony had a governor to command the soldiers and an intend- ant to manage affairs. The governor, intendant, and judges were appointed by the king. There were no juries. The Spanish colonists had town councils or cabildos, but no assembUes representing a whole colony. * QUESTIONS Pillory i- What two mistakes did the rulers of England make in governing their colonies? Upon what kind of subjects were the disputes between England and the colonists most common? 2. What did the New England town meeting do? What were the names of the chief oflkers in a town? Why was there no town meeting in the southern colonies? What took the place of it there? Where did the colonists get their ideas about local government? 3. Describe the general government of a colony. Who appointed the gov- ernors? Who chose the members of the legislatures or assemblies? Were the colonial legislatures completely free to make laws for the colonies? Why did the colonists think the veto of their laws by the English ministers unjust? 4. What disputes did the legislatures and governors have over the govern- ment of the colonies? How did the legislators manage to hold the governors in check? What words did the representatives of the colonists use which Eng- lishmen had used in quarrels with James I and Charles I? 5. What officials of England were concerned with the government of the QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 147 colonies? What additional blunder did England make in the management of colonial affairs? 6. What colonies lost their charters at one time or another? Why was it a disadvantage for a colony to lose its charter? 7. How did Massachusetts get rid of Edmund x\ndros? Why did the people of Massachusetts dislike him so much? 8. Why did theVirginians, led by Bacon, rebel against the rule of Berkeley? Did the rebels fail or succeed? 9. What was the purpose of the colonists in punishing wrong-doers? Which were more severe, the colonial or the English laws for punishing crime? Which had the more liberties, the English, French, or Spanish colonies? EXERCISES 1. Learn about the present local government in some part of the United States. Does this resemble most closely the local government in the northern, middle, or southern colonies? 2. Find out what town or city officers now perform the duties of the officers of an early New England town. 3. Make out a list of the officers, appointed by England, mentioned in this chapter, who had anything to do with governing the colonies. 4. Prepare a list of crimes which are now punished severely, and tell how the mode of treatment differs from the colonial method. In the Stocks CHAPTER XIV CONQUEST OF THE FRENCH COLONIES IN AMERICA Crossing the Appalachian Barrier. — Before 1750 there were few English settlers beyond the great Appalachian bar- rier. Traders from the Carolinas and Georgia had ventured westward as far as the Mississippi. Traders from Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New York were beginning to find their way across the mountains to the banks of the Ohio. As the population of the colonies on the coast increased, it was certain that emigrants would follow in the footsteps of the traders. A vast unoccupied region stretched between the Appalachians and the French villages in the Illinois country. Moreover, the French settlements were small, containing altogether about 500 inhabitants. Western Claims. — The region between the Appalachians and the Mississippi was not considered either by England or by France as vacant. The French claimed that their territory extended eastward to the mountains, while the English declared that they owned the whole country as far as the Pacific. According to the original charters of Virginia, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, their lands extended to the South Sea, which was supposed to be not far distant. When it was discovered how far away the Pacific Ocean was, the colonists simply lengthened their claims.^ After all, the ques- tion whether the region beyond the mountains belonged to the French or to the English had to be decided by force. ' When the Carolinas and Georgia received charters the Pacific Ocean was made their western border, although the royal government knew by that time how distant the Pacific Ocean was. ENGLISH AND FRENCH RIVALRY 149 French and English Rivalry. — In 1749 the French and Eng- Hsh were each wide awake to what the other was doing. They had just finished a war into which they had been drawn as alhes of Frederick II of Prussia and Maria Theresa of Austria. They had fought in India and America as well as in Europe. EASTERN NORTH AMERICA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR SCALE OF MILrS The territory occupied by the English is dotted The French governor of Canada and the EngHsh in Vir- ginia now took steps looking toward the occupation of the Ohio country. The French crossed from Lake Erie to Lake Chautauqua, and from there to the Allegheny River. They floated past the spot where Pittsburgh now stands, and went on as far as the Great Miami, returning to Lake Erie by the w 150 CONQUEST OF THE FRENCH COLONIES Maumee. Wherever they saw Enghsh traders, they warned them to leave the country. The Ohio Company. — While this expedition was complet- ing its work, some Virginians, among them Lawrence and Augustine Washington, brothers of George Washington, formed a land company. The company was granted half a milUon acres south of the Ohio, between the Monongahela and the Kanawha rivers, on the condition of setthng a hundred famihesin the region and of building and holding a fort. ,,,^.. _ . ^ _. . One of the best routes from Virginia into 3^^~.- -^^aa^ii^^^Bg^^^? & the Ohio coun- try lay along the upper Po- „ ,.. „r ) tomac to Cum- CUMBERLAND AND THE NARROWS OF WILL S Mountain, Maryland berland, Mary- The natural passage or gateway through the first range land whcre of mountains on the route to the Ohio country ttt-iii /-^ ^ Will s Creek breaks through the mountains. This route crossed the ridges into the valley of the Youghiogheny or of the Monongahela. In 1753 the Ohio Company prepared to construct a fort near where the Allegheny and the Monongahela join to form the Ohio. The spot was admirable as a half-way station and a gateway through which emigrants might pass on to the region lower down on the Ohio. At the same time a few daring Virginia families took up lands along the Monongahela. Advance of the French. — Meanwhile Governor Duquesne of Canada sent a thousand men to the Ohio country, order- ing them to build forts and hold the mountain passes against English intruders. They built a log fort at Presque Isle, near Erie, cut a road southward to French Creek, and seized an English trading post at the junction of French Creek and the Allegheny River. They were now ADVANCE OF THE FRENCH 151 only 120 miles from the Forks of the Ohio, where Pittsburgh is situated. The news alarmed the Ohio Company, which had not yet built its fort. The governor of Virginia decided to send a messenger to warn the French that they had entered territory which was not theirs, and to demand that they withdraw. For the perilous journey Major George Washing- ton was finally chosen. Although only twenty-one, he had The Ohio Country and the new French Forts Showing especially the rivers, mountain barrier, and new French posts already been several years on the Virginia frontier, engaged in surveying. He was a skilled woodsman and a hardy trav- eler. The death of his brother Lawrence had brought him an estate of 2,500 acres beautifully situated on the Potomac. Such a plantation gave him a position of influence in the colony. Washington started with several companions in October, 1753. Part of the way his route lay through trackless for- ests. The rivers were swollen and the ground was covered 152 CONQUEST OF THE FRENCH COLONIES by the early winter snows. The journey took six weeks. Washington found the French commander at Fort Le Boeuf, near the northern boundary of Pennsylvania. The response which he carried back to Governor Dinwiddle declared that the French king was '^^ master of all the country west of the Alleghany Mountains. Fort Duquesne. — A conflict was now certain. A body of Virginians was hurried forward to the Forks of the Ohio to build a fort. The French, not to be out- witted, descended the Allegheny River in canoes, drove away the workmen, and con- structed a strong fort. They named it Fort Duquesne in honor of the governor of Canada. Meanwhile a large force of Virginians had been raised to occupy this position. The advance, commanded by Washington, met a party of Frenchmen in the woods on the western slope of the mountains. A fight followed, in which the French claimed that the Virginians fired the first shots. Jumonville, the leader of the French, and 20 of his men were killed, and the rest surrendered. Soon afterwards Washington was attacked near the same spot at Fort Neces- sity, which he had hastily constructed. It was his turn to surrender, but the French permitted him to march back to Washington's Road Near where he met the French under Jumonville THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR 153 Virginia on the understanding that no attempt should be made within a year to estabhsh settlements west of the mountains. The Seven Years' War. — This was the beginning of the French and Indian War. In Europe, France and England were still at peace. Indeed, war was not declared for two years. It then became part of a struggle in which almost all European countries were engaged, and which was called the Seven Years' War. France and Russia combined with Maria Theresa of Austria to take from Frederick the Great of Prussia the territory which he had gained in the preceding war.^ England aided Frederick. This great European war accounts for the length of the French and Indian War in America. Both England and France were also fighting in India. The consequence was that neither could spare more than a small part of their troops for the conflict in America. The English had a navy which was larger and stronger than the French navy, a very important advantage in a struggle beyond the sea. The EngHsh had 130 battle-ships,^ while the French had only 63. Although the French had more soldiers than the English, they could not safely risk them on the ocean because they would probably be captured by the English fleet. It was therefore merely a question of time when the French in America would be overwhelmed. The only chance of the French was by crushing Frederick the Great, England's ally, on the Continent. But after a few successes they were badly beaten by the Prussian king. Indian Allies of France. — The Indians in the West took sides with the French. They looked upon the EngHsh beyond 'The War of the Austrian Succession, 1 740-1 748, in which Frederick had conquered Silesia; called King George's War in the colonies. ^ A battle-ship, or ship-of-the-line, at that time was, like other ships, made of wood. It ordinarily had three decks, and was armed with from 74 to 120 cannon. 154 CONQUEST OF THE FRENCH COLONIES the mountains as intruders. As English settlements increased, the hunting grounds were spoiled. The French were few in number and interfered Uttle with Indian lands. The fact that many of the Indians united with the French explains why the war was called "French and Indian." The Albany Congress. — The Enghsh were afraid that the Iroquois would join the western Indians against them, and arranged a conference at Albany in the summer of 1754. Commissioners from several colonies were present at this Albany conference or "Congress." They not only tried to strengthen the friendly attitude of the Iroquois, but also talked over plans of forming a union of the colonies. Franklin's Plan of Union. — Benjamin Frankhn, a dele- gate from Pennsylvania, was one of the first to see the need of uniting the colonies. In the Pennsylvania Gazette, his news- paper, he printed a picture of a wrigghng snake cut into pieces, with the initial letter of a colony on each piece. An old superstition said that if a snake was cut up and the pieces allowed to touch, they would knit together and the snake would live. Un- derneath the picture Frankhn printed the words, "Join or die." He meant that the colonies must unite or they would perish. Franklin's plan was favored by the delegates at Albany, but was not adopted by the colo- nies. Few persons had any interest in union at that time. Moreover, some of the colonists were not alarmed, as the Virginians were, by the advance of the French into the Ohio country. The Quakers, who were very influential in Penn- sylvania, were opposed to war of any kind, and especially a war for territory. The colonies south of Virginia stood in dread of the Spaniards or of the Indians on their frontier. Device printed in Franklin's " Pennsylvania G.azette " BRADDOCK'S DEFEAT 155 Something greater than a quarrel about a frontier post at the Forks of the Ohio would be required to move the colonies toward union. Braddock's Defeat. — In 1755 the English government sent two regiments across the Atlantic to assist the Virginians in seizing Fort Duquesne. The expedition was com- .manded by General Brad- dock, a soldier of courage and abihty, but wholly igno- rant of fighting in the wilder- ness against Indians and woodsmen. Washington was in command of the Virginians. After a difficult march through the forest, during which ax-men were con- stantly busy cutting down trees in order to widen the trail, Braddock reached and crossed the Monongahela about eight miles above Fort Duquesne. While his army J.-I 1 -j^ Route of Braddock's Expedition was movmg through a wide bushy ravine, a French force with many Indians suddenly attacked it on all sides. Washington and the Virginians wished to scatter in the forest and fight behind trees in Indian fashion, but Braddock thought such a method cowardly and tried to keep his men in line, after the manner of fighting in Europe. The result was disaster. After having four horses shot under him, Braddock fell mortally wounded. Washington lost two horses, and four times bullets tore through his clothes. Sixty-three out of eighty-six officers and two-thirds of the 156 CONQUEST OF THE FRENCH COLONIES soldiers were killed or disabled. Washington led the wreck of the army back to the nearest refuge. Daniel Boone, a young woodsman from North Carolina, was among the fleeing wagon drivers. Washington's Defence of the Frontier. — The French and their Indian allies now raided the frontier settlements of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. The French com- mander boasted that all these settlements were destroyed, adding that "the Indian villages are full of prisoners of every >/,.c age. The enemy has lost more since the bat- tle than on the day of his defeat." It was three years =!?=?=■'■ before another expe- V' ~ !i^[""^|^^iJ«H.'l"^ dition was ready to 'f^f'f^ ' start against Fort Du- ^ did not convince the colonists. They ' beheved that a legislature which voted A Stamp of 1765 taxes must be chosen by the persons who paid the taxes. They declared that there should be, "No taxation without representation." In England multitudes of tax-payers could not vote. If a town centuries before had not been big enough to send members to parliament, it could not now send members, however big it was. At the same time towns which once had received the right to send mem- bers and had grown small did not lose the right. If now the same lord owned all the property in a town or in three or four of them, he chose the members. Scores of members were in reaHty named by great lords or by the king. The colonists would not have endured a legislature like that. Their objection, however, was that parliament did not represent them in the sense in which they understood representation. The Stamp Act was passed in 1765. It was modeled upon a statute then successfully enforced in England. Stamps varying in value from one cent to $50 must be placed upon 1 In 1765 the colonists did not object so much to indirect taxes like those in the Sugar Act as to direct taxes like those in the Stamp Act. But after the repeal of the Stamp Act they became convinced that any tax levied by parliament, instead of by their own legislatures, was injurious to them. RESISTANCE TO THE STAMP ACT 167 every almanac, newspaper, pamphlet, marriage license, and college diploma, as well as upon a multitude of legal docu- ments. Officials were to be appointed to sell the stamps. Resistance to the Stamp Act. — Patrick Henry of Virginia and James Otis of Massachusetts were again the boldest advocates of colonial rights. Henry's resolutions against parliamentary taxation, passed in the Virginia assembly, were copied in colony after colon3\ Town -meetings and county assemblies, ministers in their sermions, and newspapers in their editorials, joined in the effort to awaken the whole people. A storm of declarations of rights, remonstrances, and peti- tions swept the country. The legislatures of Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Virginia protested against the Stamp Act. James Otis suggested a general Congress of delegates from the colonies. In October, 1765, representatives from nine met in the city hall at New York. Other colonies sent letters of sympathy. The Congress at New York, usually called the Stamp Act Congress, decided to publish a statement of the colonial side of the controversy and to petition the king and parhament. Franklin's device, the wriggling snake with the motto, ''Join or die," reappeared at the head of the newspapers. Such events showed that a spirit of union was growing rapidly. Long before the Congress met at New York, the people had decided the fate of the Stamp Act. The merchants of the chief towns canceled their orders and refused to buy any more goods of British make until Patrick Henry i68 WHY THE COLONISTS BEGAN THE REVOLUTION parliament should repeal the Stamp Act. Women bound themselves to wear nothing but homespun, and conducted spinning matches where they offered prizes for the fastest and best work. Many zealous patriots in Boston and Phila- delphia circulated pledges to eat no lamb in order to increase the amount of wool. Secret societies, which called themselves Sons of Liberty, laid plans to destroy the stamps and drive the distributors from office. Posters or handbills on the doors or street-corners threatened all who tried to sell stamps or to use them. The Sons of Liberty of New York scattered broadcast a handbill which said, "The first man that either distributes or makes use of Stampt Paper let him take Care of His House, Person, and Effects." The Stamp Act was to go into effect on the first day of November, 1765, When the day arrived the stamp distributors had quietly resigned and no stamps could be found. — ^Repeal of the Stamp Act, 1766. — The refusal to buy or use British-made goods or to trade with British merchants — a sort of boycott — accompHshed all that the colonists hoped for. The merchants, manufacturers, and even the artisans, in Great Britain soon began to suffer from the loss of colonial business. ParHament hesitated to drive the col- onies into open rebellion and ruin its own merchants besides. In March, 1766, the famous Stamp Act was repealed. The news of the repeal was received with rejoicing in Eng- land and America alike. Bells were rung and banquets were held in London as well as in the chief colonial towns. As Pitt had urged repeal, the colonists, forgetting his enforce- ment of the Sugar Act, displayed his portrait in shop windows. New York and South Carolina voted him a statue. Even the king, though opposed to repeal, enjoyed a brief popularity. The Philadelphia Quakers decided to celebrate his birthday by dressing in new suits of Enghsh make, giving their home- spun clothing to the poor. STAMP ACT REPEALED 169 New difficulties soon arose over the Quartering Act, which required the colonies to furnish the royal troops stationed in the different places with lodgings, fuel, and food. The colonial leaders considered this a mere substitute for taxation. New York, Boston, and Charleston refused to comply. The dis- pute with New York lasted three years. Its governor refused to allow the legislature to sit until the colony finally yielded and furnished the soldiers with quarters. The Townshend Acts. — In 1767, barely a year after the repeal of the Stamp Act, parliament under the leadership of Charles Townshend passed other acts to raise money from America. The acts put taxes on glass, lead, paper, and tea shipped to the colonies. Besides these duties, the colonists were still paying, as required by the Sugar Act, taxes on sugar, molasses, coffee, wine, and indigo. Altogether the Hst was a long one, and the colo- nial leaders were convinced that parliament intended to estabhsh a permanent system of taxation. They liked the law still less when they were told that the income from the new taxes would be used partly to pay the salaries of colo- nial governors and judges, who would thus be more independent of the colonial legislatures. Resistance to the Townshend Duties. — Samuel Adams, a citizen ^^"^^^ ^^^^ of Boston, like Otis, now revived the pledges against buying or using British-made goods. "We will form," he ex- claimed, "an immediate and universal combination to eat nothing, drink nothing, wear nothing, imported from Great Britain." Washington wrote to his agent in London telling him not to send any articles taxed by parliament, for, said he, lyo WHY THE COLONISTS BEGAN THE REVOLUTION h A LIST of the Names of iho/e ^ h who AUDAriousi vcontinuetocounlerafl theUNiT- Ij 1, EDSENtrMtNTsof iheBooY cifMtrchanisthro'oul i, Ij NORTHAMtRlCA : by imponing Brililh Goods Ij b contfarjr to the Ag'cement. h i John Bernard, ^ 1, (InKing Sirfrt, almoftoppofileVemon'iHiad. ,j 5 James McMaJlers, ^ b •' -^ (On Trut'i Wharf. ^ b Talrick McMaJlers, t, b (Opfofitt the Sjgn of ihe Lamb. 1, 6 lohn Melt, \ ^ (Oppof.ipihr Whiie-Horfe, anilinKjDg-Slrttt. ^ h Ji^{ymoted with it. •vs^t Icnow him -weU, and have calcuJated to a Gill and a Feaiher, bow much it i • i wlU .f,u„e u> Ct hm, for a. A^rrwa,, EM:uon. And we hope, not one of your tea On WhlCh 5, tSiX Body w)U behsuve io ill, as to oblige Ui to cUp him m the Cart aloag Side oj (he We mua rrpeai, thai the S H I P P O L I. Y is an oW itidk %>, of about Two Hundred and FiJ'iy Tons burLhen tjuJu^uc a. ikad, and vjuAeui Qriuuninliy and, thac CAPTAIN AYRES \% a. Ihck chimJf) Fellow. — Ai iiich, T*ia: CyUit lo AfOU) TH£M. YoUE. OlD FutWDS, ^The COMMITTIE roi TAKRING aid rEATHERTTTO^ plan about the tea trade which aimed to accomplish three things — tempt the colonists to buy How Philadelphia Citizens prevented THE Landing of Tea Reduced facsimile was paid, put an end to colonial smuggling in tea/ and help the East India Company sell its tea. The company then had 17,000,000 pounds of tea in its warehouses. The plan was to permit the company to send a certain amount of tea to America without first selling it to the English merchants. Thus the price would be very low in the colonies because the merchant's profits would not be included. This would ' At this time most of the tea used in the colonies was smuggled in. Colo- nial vessels regularly bought tea in the East Indies or in Holland and found ways of slipping it into the ports without paying the British tax. Georgli III. Regis. PUNISHMENT OF BOSTON 173 make the colonists forget about the tax. At the same time the smuggler would lose the business. Several ships loaded with tea were sent to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. The news aroused great indignation in the colonies. In Philadelphia and New York committees of citizens persuaded the captains of the ships to return to London with- out entering the harbors. ^^^° decimo (^.uarto At Charleston the royal officers stored the tea in the cellars of the custom house. There it re- mained. No agent of the East c a. p. xix. India Company dared to pay the An^a to difcommue, in fuch Manner, and for ■^ '■ "^ lucn. Time as are therdn mentioned, tho duty and offer it for sale. Three landmg and difcharging, ladmg orlhipping, of Goods, Wares, and Merchandiie, at the years later, when war had begun. Town, and within the Harbour, of ^.A«, in „,,„ T 11^1 ^ ^ the Travince of Mafa:/>ufii's£,^y, in JVbriA bouth Carohna sold the tea to ^^-erica. pay war expenses. fM:^S|^if«f««3a tan^noM .roratnoKon* ^^S^M Q ^^ 'JnfuticitiQTus bant bftn foraenteB In Boston the roval officials ^^^ig^? ^^ """ '" ""* '^'""' °' ^°'^'"'- '" «45^?%S^^ ""^ !Pl0\jitlCf of MsDacbufct's Bay, In were determined to land the tea. f^^a ^'"^"^'ri.l'''"r''"Jl'^"''"^''' i\ gredL puuiic meeting was neia 3pfa», ana jooti ©i^ or tf)c aid (Towr; inxooc^ • j.V,„ r^lJ C iU 1\T <-■ XJ jDauM^ the governor that the ships must Fikst Page of the Boston , , ^T- 1 ^ 1 • Port Bill be sent away. Night having come ^^^^^^^ ^^^^.^^^ on, the crowd rushed to the wharves. Forty or fifty men, disguised as Indians, boarded the ships. By nine o'clock every chest of tea had been broken open and the contents thrown into the sea. Punishment of Boston. — The royal government now attempted to punish Boston as an object lesson to all the colonies. The port was closed and the custom house removed to Salem until the citizens should pay the East India Com- pany about $75,000, the value of the tea which had been 174 WHY THE COLONISTS BEGAN THE REVOLUTION destroyed. A little later the government of the colony was so changed that the colonists could not hold a town meet- ing without the governor's consent. Their juries also were selected by sheriffs appointed by the governor. These laws were called the "Intolerable Acts." ^ They excited the Mas- sachusetts people so much that General Gage, the new gov- ernor, who had arrived with four more regiments, was obliged to fortify the narrow neck of land which connected Boston with the surrounding country. The distress of Boston, with its trade ruined, stirred the sympathy of the other colonies. Salem offered the free use of its wharves and warehouses to the Boston merchants. The towns of Massachusetts and other colonies sent suppHes. Israel Putnam, a veteran of the French and Indian War, drove to Boston a flock of sheep from his Connecticut town. Washington headed a subscription in Fairfax County, Vir- ginia, with a gift of $250, promising also to raise a thousand men, maintain them at his own expense, and march to the relief of Boston. The Continental Congress, 1774. — Parliament and King George had counted on dealing with Massachusetts alone. Never was a graver mistake made. The other colonies declared that Boston was "suffering in the common cause." The members of the Virginia assembly, Washington, Patrick Henry, and Thomas Jefferson among them, suggested that a general Congress, like the Stamp Act Congress of 1765, should be held. The Virginians sent their plan to the other colonies and invited Massachusetts to name the date and place. On September 5, 1774, the Congress met in the 1 In 1774 the colonists were also excited by the passage of the Quebec Act, for the government of that province; first, because the i^rovince was extended southward to the Ohio River, notwithstanding the land claims of the colonies on the coast, and second, because no provision was made for a provincial assem- bly representing the inhabitants. FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS 175 Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia. It was called the Conti- nental Congress, and included delegates from twelve colonies. The Continental Congress, like the Stamp Act Congress, drew up a declaration of the rights of the colonies and a statement of their griev- ances. Their list of griev- ances had grown much longer. The "Intolerable Acts" were called "un- poHtic, unjust, and cruel." Two decisions of the Con- gress were particularly im- portant. By the first the members agreed to sus- pend all trade with Great Britain. No one was either to import or consume tea or any other British goods. After one year no Ameri- can should sell or export his goods to England. Committees should be ap- pointed in every county or town to see that the agreement was faithfully kept. By the second decision Congress, when it adjourned, proposed that a second Continental Congress should meet in May, 1775. Two Parties in America. — • Many colonists thought that resistance to the English government had gone too far. They believed that parliament in repeahng the Stamp Act and most of the taxes in the Townshend acts had treated the colonies fairly. They also thought that the frequent attacks on the English officials, who tried to enforce the laws, justified meas- ures like the Intolerable Acts. The merchants had grown tired of the steady loss of trade. Among the friends of Great Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia, 1774 Where the first Continental Congess met 176 WHY THE COLONISTS BEGAN THE REVOLUTION Britain in the colonies were, of course, many office holders. All who sided with Great Britain were called loyalists or Tories. Their opponents called themselves patriots, and American historians have usually given this name to them. The EngUsh leaders had other names for them — dema- gogues and rebels. QUESTIONS 1. Why were the colonies and mother country more likely to have trouble after the French and Indian War? What was the chief danger when England began making new plans? 2. What was Grenville's plan? Why was this unfair to the colonists? 3. What was the main objection of the colonists to the Stamp Act? How were many members of parliament chosen? Who voted for members of the legislatures in the colonies? 4. How did the colonists prevent the enforcement of the Stamp Act? Who were their leaders in resisting it? 5. Why did parliament repeal the Stamp Act? What grounds of dispute still remained? 6. What taxes did Townshend add to those already in force? Make a list of the taxes that parliament required of the colonies during 1768. Why did the colonies dislike Townshend's acts even more than Grenville's? 7. What methods did the colonists use to resist Townshend's duties? Why did parliament send soldiers to Boston? What warning did Franklin give the king's advisers? 8. Why did parliament repeal most of the Townshend duties? What taxes did the colonists still have to pay? What method did Samuel Adams invent in order to inform the colonists about the acts of parliament? What addition did Virginia propose to his method? Why did Virginia make its proposal? 9. What change did parliament make in 1773 with regard to tea? How did the colonists prevent the payment of the tea tax? 10. How did parliament try to punish Boston for the destruction of the tea? What steps did the other colonies take to aid Boston? 11. What two decisions did the Continental Congress at Philadelphia form? How was the first decision or agreement to be enforced? 12. Did all American colonists agree with those leaders who resisted the acts of parliament? What names were given to those who sided with Great Britain? To those who supported the colonial resistance? What had parlia- ment done which ihe loyalists believed should satisfy the patriots? What acts of the patriots did the loyalists condemn? QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 177 EXERCISES 1. Make a list of the acts of parliament mentioned in this chapter and in previous chapters, especially Chapter XIII, which were the occasion of disputes with the colonies. 2. Who can vote in your state today for members of the legislature? Who could have voted in the colonies for the members of the legislatures? 3. Find out, by asking some one who knows, how taxes are raised in the Phihppine Islands under the United States government. Do the people of the Philippine Islands have any grievances like those of the American colonies? Important Dates : 1765. Parliament under Grenville's leadership passes the Stamp Act. 1767. Townshend places further taxes on the colonies. 1774. Meeting of the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. The Petition sent by the Colonists to King George III The rejection of which led to the Revolution Reduced facsimile of original in the British Public Record Office, London CHAPTER XVI THE OUTBREAK OF WAR Preparations for War. — One of the consequences of the Intolerable Acts in 1774 was that the Massachusetts House of Representatives reorganized itself as a Provincial Con- gress. A committee of safety which it appointed began to prepare for armed resistance. All over New England com- panies of miUtia were formed and were drilled regularly. Every fourth man was pledged to take the field at a minute's notice and was called the "minute-man." Mili- tary stores were collected. Other colonies also appointed committees of safety and prepared for a struggle. Early in September it looked as if war would begin at once. General Gage sent troops to seize 300 barrels of pow- der stored a few miles from Boston. The report spread that the soldiers had killed six colonists. Before it was disproved 40,000 men had seized their guns and started for Boston. A similar expedition in April, 1775, l^d to fighting. Lexington and Concord. — General Gage wished to destroy the military stores which the colonists had collected at Con- cord, eighteen miles northwest of Boston. Every effort was made to keep the expedition a secret. It left Boston late at night on April 18, and marched by unfrequented paths until well on the way to Lexington and Concord. The Bos- ton "patriots," among them Dr. Joseph Warren, heard of the plan early in the evening, and sent messengers to warn the colonists. Paul Revere was one of the messengers. LEXINGTON AND CONCORD 179 Before leaving he asked a friend to hang two lanterns in the tower of the North Church as a signal to patriots in Charlestown that the British had started. Revere and other messengers were soon riding madly through the country-side calHng the villagers to arms. The ringing of bells, the beating of drums, and the firing of guns told the British soldiers that the secret was out. They reached Lexington, twelve miles on their way to Concord, The Battle at Lexington, April 19, 1775 After an engraving made by two Continental militia-men who were in the battle just as day was breaking. On the village green stood fifty or sixty minute-men. Resistance was out of the question and their leader ordered them to withdraw. But in the confusion a shot was fired, and soon the firing became general. The colonial mihtia retreated after eight of their number were killed and ten wounded. Only one or two of the British were wounded. At Concord the British found few stores, because most of these had been hidden securely or removed to neighboring towns. They destroyed thirty or forty barrels of flour, spiked two or three cannon, and threw some cannon balls into a mill- i8o THE OUTBREAK OF WAR pond. Meanwhile the minute-men were assembling rapidly on the hills about the town. A large body soon attacked and drove off the British soldiers who had been stationed at the North Bridge. A Disastrous Retreat. — Fighting began in earnest about noon when the British started on their return march to Bos- _. ^ , „ ^^ ton. From behind every hill, —^-g um, Maffachujm, April 35. ,77s ~ ^^^^6, or stouc Wall the mmutc- TheBritifh piUageJ almolt every houfe they mCU aud farmCrS shot at thc paffed by, breaking and deftroying doors, . , ,. ^t-m windows, glai'fes, f«f., and carrying off cloth- COlumU Of SOldierS. The march ing and other valuable effects. It appeared to be their defign to burn and deftroy all ^^g gOOU chano^cd iutO a dlS" before them; and nothing but our vigorous *-> frr!,t'ein';"pri"t:cu1[on'."'^^Butt''h"eTat Orderly flight. Rcinforcemcnts :^:unL^Vun'atrbrefh^'en"Xfellt°llm^^^^^ from Bostou mct thc British incredible; not contented with fhooting ,t • , T>i „„*ji down the unarmed, aged, and infirm, they at LCXmgtOU. iiUt SO rapiCliy difregarded the cries of the wounded, killing ,., - •!•,• ,i .1 them without mercy, and mangling their did thC milltia gather On thC bodies in the moft fhocking manner. i 1 1 i c Part of the Account of the ^^o^te that the whole body of Battles of Lexington and Con- British soldiers barely escaped cord in a Colonial Newspaper t-. • • 1 1 capture. Panic-stricken and exhausted, they found refuge at nightfall under the guns of the British ships near Charlestown. Meaning of Lexington and Concord. — The losses on both sides in this struggle were heavy, although the British losses were three times those of the colonists. The chances of a peaceful settlement of the controversy between parliament and the colonies were now slight. Blood had been shed and the fighting spirit was increased by the tales spread in Eng- land and the colonies. The colonists were told that the British had begun the battle and, besides, had destroyed property and maltreated families along their route. The English heard that the wrongs were all on the other side. It was clear, at all events, that the colonial militia would fight to defend their rights. "I never beheved," said a British officer sadly, "that they would have attacked the king's troops." Lexington and Concord were not riots like the SIEGE OF BOSTON i8i ''Boston Massacre," but the opening battles of a great revolution. Siege of Boston. — The minute-men who had driven the British into Boston did not return home, but remained en- camped in a great circle about the city. They meant that General Gage should send no more expeditions to seize their stores. They soon determined to drive him out of Boston. On the return of the troops from Other companies of militia .^XltXe^lfX^dZX'! came in from towns too far by the rebels finng from behind walls, , , • i 1 ditches, trees, and other ambufhes; but away to have a share m the the brigade, under the command of first day's fighting. John \^°"^ P^^^y-. J>^^'"s Jo'"^^ them at o o ./ Lexmgton with two pieces or cannon. Stark, a veteran of the French the rebels were for a while difperfed; wars, led the New Hampshire 'Zl'Tyr^lX^i:'':^'^ iti^, militia. Israel Putnam rode f^m behind ftone walls and houfes, . 1 J J ^^'^ l^^Pt up in that manner a fcatter- from Connecticut, one hundred ing fire during the whole of their march miles, in eighteen hours, reach- °^ fifteen miles, by which means feveral ° ^ were killed and wounded; and luch was ing the camp on the morning the cruelty and barbarity of the rebels, r » •! TT u J 1 J-*- that they fcalped and cut off the ears Ot April 21. He had lett ^f ^^^^ ^f the wounded men who fell orders for his men to follow into their hands. immediatelv. Part of a British Account of '^ ' , Concord and Lexington Armies are not created in „ ., r ^ ^ „ t rrom the London Gazelle, June lo, 1775 a day. Military leaders now believe that men must be taught at least two years before they can be called trained soldiers. At first, therefore, the minute-men at Cambridge and other towns around Boston formed an armed crowd rather than an army. Each man had brought his own gun, with a small stock of powder and bullets. Few were in uniform, most of the men being dressed as they were when the alarm sounded. It was astonishing that they had assembled so rapidly. It seemed as if they had sprung out of the ground at the stamp of some great leader's foot. The ''patriots," with their committees of correspondence, had made plans 1 82 THE OUTBREAK OF WAR to meet just such an event as General Gage's ill-fated expedition. Second Continental Congress, May, 1775. — The Second Continental Congress met on May 10, 1775, in Philadelphia, at the Old State House. Thirteen colonies from New Hamp- shire to Georgia were represented. Nova Scotia, Quebec, and the Floridas held off. C hamber or Sunplits, Watertown, June 18, 177 c. rrii • • i i • i i ctNTtEMEN. Iheir mhabitants had no THE Welfare of our Country agajn induces us to urge your exertions in fendmf; to the Magazine in this place what intCrCSt lu thc CaUSC wWch can be procured of the following Articles.Salt Pork, Beans,. Peas, Vinegar and Blankets, the prizes whereof as wellas t.to c K r 1 n tri n fT tViP nfVi^r theCariingfhallbeallowedaccordmg to the Cuttom of your Place Wab Ullllglllg UlC UUiei which v/e defire you to certify — It is of the utmoft Impotunce thac i • . , i yy the Army fhould be fupplied agreeable to the Relblve of the Con- COlOniCS tOgCt nCr . xlOW grefs more efpecially with thefe Articles, the four fijft of which are ^ . . i i i neceffaty for the Subfiflence as well as the Health of the Men, and thC COndltlOnS had Chang- the other for their Comfort — The occaflon of the Deficiency tn Blc^hu B moftly owing to a number of Men enlifled from Boilon g^J slnCC thC firSt CongrCSS Antj other Towns which have been vacated, and they all mult be t3 procuredimmediatelyor GUI worthy Countrymen will fulTer.— mpt in ^Pnfpmhpr PlVVlt As the Country affords every ihjng in plenty necelfary to fobfift iHCL 111 OCpLClllUCl, ClgllL the Army, and we cannot at prefent obtain many things but by your .-i ]• ■ rr\\_ 1 1 Adidance, we afTureourfelyes ihatyou w.ll act your pattsas wonhily mOUtnS earUCr ! 1 nC Clele- as you have done and hope that the Event of all our exertions will be the Salvation of our Country. gatcs wcrc assemblcd now, To rht SiUflmert and Commttee <,fCorrcfpmdrn»JorthtTo^r, ROt tO dCvlse WaVS Of of 1 1 1 ' ■ 11 •'^ t/rm yf^^Sy^y David Cheever, per Order of •' .aU^- Committee of Supplies. compelHug Grcat Britain Call for Food and Bl.\nkets to repeal the " intolerable " June i8, 1775 laws, but to manage a war which had actually begun. This was more serious business. Congress decided to make the cause of Massachusetts that of all the colonies. It promptly adopted the New England militia encamped around Boston as a "Continental" army. Steps were taken to raise other troops and find food and sup- plies for all. A delegate from Virginia, the foremost soldier in America, George Washington, was unanimously chosen commander-in-chief. Washington set out for Cambridge, the headquarters of the army, on June 21. He had proceeded scarcely twenty miles from Philadelphia when a rider hurry- ing with messages to Congress gave him the news of another battle with the British. Bunker Hill, June 17. — Boston could not be attacked directly except by a narrow neck of land, called Boston Neck, BUNKER HILL 183 which General Gage had covered with batteries. On the north and on the south, however, were two peninsulas, crowned by hills, which reached out toward the city. These hills were called Bunker Hill and Dorchester Heights. Batteries placed on them could soon destroy Boston. To forestall such a danger Gen- eral Gage de- cided to occupy them on June 18. The Ameri- can leaders learned of the British plans and determined to act first. On the night of June 16 Col- onel William Prescott with 1,200 men stole quietly along the neck of the northern peninsula and over Bunker Hill to Breed's Hill, which was somewhat lower but nearer Boston. His men could hear the regular monotonous cry of "All's well" uttered by sentinels on the ships in the Charles River. Silently and rapidly, with pick and shovel, they threw up earthworks. Within these they constructed low platforms of earth or boards to enable them to fire across the top. The British could scarcely beUeve their eyes when morning dawned. The British officers did not think that raw mihtia would resist a direct attack. They might have seized the neck of Boston, Btjnker Hill, and Charlestown 1 84 THE OUTBREAK OF WAR the peninsula and occupied Bunker Hill, which would have turned the tables on the colonial troops. But they -decided to attack in front. Prescott, when he saw their red lines advancing up the hill, knowing that his men had few bayonets and only a small stock of powder, told his men to wait until they saw "the whites of their eyes," to "aim at the handsome coats," and to "pick off the commanders." At the first fire whole lines of British went down, and their comrades fell back in disorder. Again they ad- vanced in the face of a mur- derous fire, and again they fell back, leaving the ground covered with dead and wounded. General Howe, who was in command, order- ed a third attack. Suddenly the firing from the redoubt slackened and ceased. The powder of the colonial soldiers was used up. They had nothing left save the butts of their muskets and stones. The consequence was that the British soon drove them back across Bunker Hill and out of the peninsula. The British paid dearly for their victory, losing over a thousand men in killed and wounded. No wonder one of the colonial officers remarked that they would like to sell another hill at the same price! Making an Army. — Washington arrived at Cambridge on July 2, about two weeks after the battle, and took com- mand of the army the following day. His first task was to begin the soldierly training of the bands of farmers and Bunker Hill Monument MAKING AN ARMY i8s mechanics which made up the revolutionary force. He must also procure powder, bullets, and cannon. Many cannon and a large amount of powder had already been seized by Ethan Allen and a band of "Green Mountain Boys" at Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain. The cannon could not be brought to Cambridge until the snows of the next winter made it easy to haul them. Other needed supplies were obtained by the capture of a British store- ship as it was nearing Boston. Washington showed great pa- tience and tact, as well as firm- ness, in the tedious work of preparing the army for war. Among the soldiers were many Irish, Scotch-Irish, and German immigrants.^ Whole companies, especially in Pennsylvania, con- tained few or no English col- onists. Some of the soldiers had seen service in European armies, others in the recent war with the French and Indians. Many of the farmers, accus- tomed to life on the frontier or to hunting, readily learned the lessons of warfare. While Washington was busy with his task at Cambridge, George Washington in 1775 After the portrait by Peale 1 By the Revolution the thirteen colonies ceased to be dependencies of Eng- land. They became instead parts of a new nation formed in North America. From this time the people leaving Europe for America are thought of, not so much as emigrants from Europe and subjects of a European kingdom, as immigrants into the United States and members of the Republic. For this reason the words " immigrant " and immigration " will now be used where ' emigrant " and " emigration " have been used. i86 THE OUTBREAK OF WAR an attempt was made to invade Canada and seize Quebec. The colonial troops reached Quebec but failed to cap- ture it. Their attempt had one important consequence: it alarmed the British government so much that the army brought together to subdue the rebellious colonists was divided and a part sent to Canada. This lessened the number of troops which Washington had to deal with directly. General Howe, who had taken the place of General Gage, made no attempt to attack Washington's camps about Bos- ton. Washington did not com- plete his preparations until win- ter had come and almost gone. On the night of March 4, 1776, he made a move similar to the seizure of Bunker Hill. His soldiers occupied Dorches- ter Heights and built two redoubts. General Howe re- marked, when morning came and he saw the forts through his glass, "The rebels have done more in one night than my whole army would have done in a month." The British admiral said, "If they retain pos- session of the heights I cannot keep a ship in the harbor." Howe decided at once that he must either storm forts far stronger than Prescott's defences on Bunker Hill or with- draw from Boston. He chose the latter course, and on March 17 the British fleet, with his army aboard, left the city, bound for Hahfax. Boston after the Siege. — Nearly a thousand inhabitants of Boston left with the British. Among them were the former officials of the king in the colony and many of the older famines, who formed the aristocracy of the town. They went into voluntary exile because they sympathized with the One of the Guns Drawn from TiCONDEROGA TO BoSTON FOR THE Siege QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 187 British cause and feared to remain in Boston without the protection of the soldiers. Boston's direct experience with war was over. The in- habitants had suffered hardships from famine and disease. Charlestown, a neighboring town, burned during the battle of Bun- ker Hill, was still a scene of utter desolation. The people bravely went to work to make Boston secure against another British in- vasion. Every able-bodied man ,1 I. 1 i. J Flag of the United Colo- gave two days each week toward j^ies in 1775-1777 rebuilding the fort in the harbor and strengthening the other defenses. In a few days Wash- ington, with the main body of his army, departed for New York, which he thought the British would soon attempt to seize. The capture of Boston was Washington's first victory. QUESTIONS 1. In what ways did the colonists prepare for war with the mother country? 2. Why did the British commander at Boston send an expedition to Con- cord? What happened during the journey? Why was it harder after this to make a peaceful settlement? 3. How was it possible for the patriots so quickly to gather a body of men for the siege of Boston? Why is this body of men called "an armed crowd" rather than an army? 4. What colonies sent representatives to the Second Continental Congress? Why did some English colonies fail to send representatives? What was the difiference between the work of the First Continental Congress and the Second? 5. Why did the colonists occupy a position near Bunker Hill? Which side was victorious in the Battle of Bunker Hill? 6. How did Washington secure additional materials of war? What impor- tant result came from the attempt to seize Quebec? 7. How did Washington finally drive the British army out of Boston? What inhabitants of Boston sided with the mother country and went into exile? THE OUTBREAK OF WAR EXERCISES 1. Locate on an outline map of Boston and the vicinity all places men- tioned in this chapter, and tell what happened at each. 2. Examine the two old accounts of the Battle of Lexington on pages i8o and i8i and tell in what ways they differ. Important Dates : April 19, 1775. Battles of Lexington and Concord. Beginning of the Revolution. May 10, 1775. The Second Continental Congress meets at Philadelphia and takes over the conduct of the war. June 17, 1775. The Battle of Bunker Hill. March 17,1776. General Gage, with his entire army and 1,000 loyalists, abandons Boston. First Flag of the United States Adopted by Congress in 1777 CHAPTER XVII THE BIRTH OF A NEW NATION Great Britain and the Colonial Rebellion. — Washington's success in driving the British army from Boston did not convince either parliament or King George that the time had come for conciHatory measures. It made them only more anxious to put forth every effort to subdue the rebellious colonists. They had already refused to reply to a petition of the Continental Congress for a friendly settlement of the difficulties. They had also made the blunder of hiring Ger- man soldiers to swell the numbers of their army, forgetting the fact that a little over a hundred years before the attempt to use foreign soldiers to subdue Englishmen had cost Charles I and his principal minister their heads. Parha- ment also passed an act cutting off the colonies from all trade while the "rebellion" lasted. Thinking about Separation. — The colonists had begun to think that there was little hope of fair treatment from parHa- ment and king. At first only a few leaders Uke Samuel Adams, John Adams, and Patrick Henry thought it useless to expect parliament to change its manner of dealing. Most of the colonists would have been glad to return to friendly relations with the mother country. Washington, when on his way to Cambridge in 1775, had promised the members of the New York provincial congress that he would work toward that end. As the winter passed with no better news from England, feeling changed. The colonists asked one another why, if they could not govern themselves in the British empire, they should not try to govern themselves out of it? If they must fight, why not fight for independence? IQO THE BIRTH OF A NEW NATION Paine's Common Sense. — Thomas Paine, an Englishman who had recently settled in Philadelphia, published a remark- able pamphlet early in 1776. He called it Common Sense. Many of the colonists held kings in great reverence, believing that George III was their God-given ruler. Paine ridiculed such ideas. He bluntly called kings "sceptred savages" and "royal brutes." "Of more worth," he declared, "is one honest man to society . . . than all the crowned ruffians t^Lh€. /VJ'wc*~^<*.^i&^ pr\-e. cL^Ji^ Xio Cm. cX t^AjB/^^- crvfv Facsimile of the Conclusion of the Declaration of Independence In the writing of Jefferson, with the first three signatures. that ever Hved." Monarchy instead of being the best form of government was, he said, the worst. And how absurd, he wrote, "to be always running three or four thousand miles with ... a petition, waiting four or five months for an answer," "or to suppose that a continent should be governed by an island." "The blood of the slain," he added, "cries, "Tis time to part.'" Much that Paine wrote was so simple, so convincing, such "common sense," that thousands read it and concluded that separation was necessary. The Declaration of Independence. — The colonies one by one advised their delegates in Congress to work for independ- THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 191 ence. Finally, on July 2, 1776, Congress voted ''that these United Colonies are, and of a right ought to be, free and independent states; . , . that all political connection be- tween them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." Two days later, July 4, Congress adopted a formal Declaration of Independence, which Thomas Jefferson had written, announcing to the world the new purpose of the colonies. It stated the right to "life, 1 11 . li, Room in which the Declaration was Signed liberty, and the pursuit of happiness," which the colonists had claimed for themselves all along, and added a start- ling Ust of charges against the king. These were given as the reason for seeking independence. Perhaps some of the charges were not fair, for Jefferson was making a plea, and not writing a history. Most of them, however, were true. The Royalists or Tories. — About one-third of the inhab- itants of the thirteen colonies opposed separation from Great Britain. In New York and Pennsylvania the loyaHsts and patriots were about equally divided. The Quakers were opposed to war for any purpose. Many loyalists declared 192 THE BIRTH OF A NEW NATION that if the colonies should win their independence from Great Britain, they would only fall victims to discord and desola- tion. The loyahsts thought the patriot leaders self-seeking lawyers and shop-keepers, or debtors who wished to escape paying their British creditors. Independence Hall, PiiiLADELPHiA Where the Continental Congress met Making New Governments. — The decision to separate from Great Britain compelled the colonists to remodel their provincial governments. Each colony now became a "state." The royal governors and other officers had already fled to England or taken refuge with the nearest British garrisons or fleets. William Frankhn, the royalist governor of New Jersey, though the son of Benjamin Frankhn, had been seized by the revolutionists and sent to a Connecticut prison. Not only must the vacant offices be filled, but the governments must be changed in part. John Adams said that the manu- facture of governments was as much talked of as saltpeter had been at the outbreak of war when powder was needed. The only governments which required little change were those of Connecticut and Rhode Island. There the people COLONIAL CONSTITUTIONS 193 had been permitted by the colonial charters to choose their officers, including their governors. The local government in town and country was left undisturbed. Colonial Constitutions. — In the other colonies the new form or frame of government was set forth in a document called a constitution. This was decided upon in a congress or convention of delegates representing the colony. In some cases it was re- ferred to the voters themselves. The first plan of a constitution in Massachusetts was rejected by the voters five to one. Each constitution explained not only what the officers could do, but what they could not do. The colonists had learned, either from bitter experience with their Eng- hsh officers, or from their reading of European history, to distrust officials. Bills or lists of rights which the people claimed and which their officers must respect were inserted in each constitution. Many of these rights Englishmen had claimed as far back as the time of the Magna Charta. Others, far-sighted Enghshmen and Europeans had only begun to claim in the seventeenth or eighteenth century. The principal ones were "Trial by Jury," "No Taxation without Representation," "Freedom of the Press," "Freedom of Elections," and the "Right of Assembly and Petition." Governors and Legislators. — Governors chosen by the people, or by their legislatures, took the place of royal gov- ernors. The colonists, fearing "one-man" power, were care- ful not to give their governors much authority. Most of the powers which the royal governors had exercised were now 7- -r-?'; John Adams 194 THE BIRTH OF A NEW NATION given to the legislatures. The legislators were elected for only one or two years, to keep any of them from becoming overbearing or tyrannical through long enjoyment of oifice. Besides, the constitution-makers scattered the various powers among the law-makers, the governors, and the judges in such a way that one set of officials might act as a check upon another. Great care was taken to break away from many old-world customs. No kings, no nobles, no class with special privileges because of birth, such as existed almost everywhere in Europe, were permitted by any of the American constitutions. WTien some one in Virginia urged that the eldest son ought, at least, to have a double share of his father's estate, Jefferson replied, "Not until he can eat a double allowance of food and do a double allowance of work." ^ The work of making these constitutions interested not only the colonists but many Europeans, especially thoughtful Frenchmen. Twice during the war, first in 1778 and again in 1 78 1, collections of the constitutions were translated into French and pubhshed in Paris. The second collection was translated by a nobleman at the request of Benjamin Franklin. The First Union of the States. — To Congress belonged the harder task of making a frame of government which should bind the states together. Unlike the state conventions it could not simply remodel a government with which all were familiar. Although it began its work in June, 1776, it was not until the close of the following year that Con- gress agreed upon a constitution, called the ''Articles of Confederation." One difficulty was the jealousy which the delegates from some of the states felt of the influence which other states appeared to have. This partly accounted for 1 Before the Revolution the eldest son in Virginia, as in Great Britain, inherited the larger share of the father's estate. FIRST UNION OF THE STATES 195 the long delay of the states in accepting the "Articles," which went into force in 1781. They did not give the government much power. The "United States" was still little more than a name. The powers which the states con- sented to give the government of the Confederation were exercised by a Congress similar to the Continental Congress. The delegates had such a horror of kings that they did not even provide for a president. The formation of these new governments marks an epoch in the history of the world. The rights of the people were more carefully guarded than by any other governments that had ever existed. The work which John Adams, John Dickinson, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Ben- jamin Frankhn, and other leaders did in the Continental Congress and in the state conventions was as important as the work of Washington's army in the field. Among the ablest was John Adams. No man had more good ideas on constitu- tion making. No one worked harder for the common good. He was busy from four o'clock in the morning until ten at night, and earned the title of the "Statesman of the Revolution." Chances of Success. — The colonists had two very differ- ent tasks. It was one thing to make over their colonial gov- ernments and suit them to new conditions. It was another to win their independence on the battle field. More than once as the Revolutionary War went on the chances of final success seemed against the colonists. The mother country had nearly all the advantages. She possessed a strong war John Dickinson 196 THE BIRTH OF A NEW NATION fleet. Her army, though small, was well trained. Her gov- ernment owed a great deal of money, but had no difficulty in borrowing more, because it always paid its debts. The course of the war was influenced by the geographical situation, which gave the colonists one great advantage. This was their distance from England. In those days the voyage across the ocean took about sLx weeks, sometimes more than twice as long. Often an entire season passed be- fore England could send needed supplies or reinforcements to her armies. Furthermore, the colonies were stretched out in a straggling line over 1,300 miles between the sea and the mountains. The mountain barrier offered them a safe re- treat in case their armies were hard pressed. This was another advantage. For the British, the sea was naturally the base of opera- tions, that is, the place from which all expeditions started. On the sea they could assemble at any time a fleet of war ships and transports strong enough to carry the army any- where up and down the long coast. If their army marching inland was defeated or seriously threatened, it could hastily return to the coast, reorganize, and start again. By such waterways as Chesapeake Bay and the Hudson River their ships could go far into the interior. The Hudson and Cham- plain valleys together almost made a highway from New York to Canada, where the colonists had not risen in revolt. These valleys also separated one group of colonies from another. Capture of New York. — New York, lying at the gateway of the Hudson and possessing an excellent harbor, was marked by nature as the place which a sea-power like Great Britain would attempt to seize. If captured, it would become the center from which to carry on the work of subduing the rebelhous colonists. Before General Howe's reinforcements reached him at Halifax and he was ready to sail to New York, REFERENCE MAP FOR THE REVOLUTION NORTHERN AND MIDDLE STATES. WASHINGTON AT TRENTON 197 an attempt was made by the British to gain a foothold at Charieston, South CaroHna, near the southern end of the colonial line. The attack was beaten off. In August, 1776, Howe appeared before New York. His army was larger, better equipped, and better disciplined than Washington's army. In a series of battles beginning on Brooklyn Heights and ending at Fort Washington, at the northern end of Manhattan Island^ the colonial army was defeated and forced to retreat into New Jersey. Washington finally took refuge behind the Delaware River. As winter came on his army, half-starved and scantily clothed, dwindled away. Only about 6,000 disheartened soldiers re- mained. Alarmed at the approach of the British, Con- gress withdrew from Philadelphia to Baltimore. Many of the Philadelphians hid their money and silver and sent their families into the country. Their fears were needless, for General Howe, on December 13, ordered his army into winter quarters in different New Jersey towns. He went back to New York to spend the hohdays among loyalist friends. Some of the British thought that the war was over and began to talk of returning to England. Washington's Victory at Trenton. — ^A part of Howe's army was stationed at Trenton. It was made up of Germans, hired of their prince, the ruler of Hesse-Cassel, for $36 apiece. Washington formed a plan to capture them. He crossed the Delaware eight or nine miles above Trenton on Christmas night. The passage was difficult and dangerous because of the ice, and a part of his troops did not succeed in crossing at all. After they reached the eastern bank the soldiers marched on in the blinding storm. ''The snow," writes one, "was tinged here and there with blood from the feet of the men who wore broken shoes." In the early morning Trenton was surrounded, and about one thousand Hessians were taken prisoners. Not an American was killed. It was 198 THE BIRTH OF A NEW NATION a victory which put new courage into the army and raised the hopes of the colonists again. Princeton. — Washington gave the British another surprise a week later. Alarmed by the capture of the Hessians, Howe ordered General Cornwallis to unite the different bodies of troops. Meanwhile Washington, who had first returned to Philadelphia with his prisoners, had crossed the Dela- ware again. On Map of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania January 2 CornwalHs thought that he had caught Washing- ton with his back to the river, which it was impossible to recross in the presence of a hostile army. Cornwallis exclaimed, "At last we have run down the old fox, and we will bag him in the morning." Instead, Washington, leaving his campfires burning to deceive the British, marched around their lines toward Princeton. At Princeton he put to flight three regiments of British on their way to join Corn- walHs, and took many prisoners. At daybreak Cornwallis faced an empty camp, while the THE CAMPAIGN OF 1777 199 booming of cannon in the direction of Princeton revealed to him the game that the "old fox" had played. Washington marched to the hills about Morris town, and the British con- cluded that it was wise to withdraw toward the Hudson. Few events have had a greater influence than the small battles at Trenton and Princeton. No one, in America or Europe, any longer doubted the skill and courage of the commander who could accomplish such wonders with a broken army. The Campaign of 1777. — General Howe had large plans for 1777. If the government gave him the reinforcements for which he asked, he would have 35,000 soldiers. These would be enough for two important expeditions. One would march toward Boston from Newport, in Rhode Island, which had been seized the fall before. The other would march upon Philadelphia, and, perhaps, after taking that, enter Virginia. But the government could not furnish the troops. The best it could do was to give him 8,000 of the soldiers who had been sent to Canada after the colonists had attacked Quebec. The safest way would have been to transport them by sea, but the government feared that the colonists would take advantage of their absence to make another attack on Canada. It was decided, therefore, that they should attempt to reach New York by the Champlain, Hudson, and Mohawk valleys. Burgoyne's Expedition. — The expedition from Canada was led by Sir John Burgoyne. He expected General Howe to send a force up the Hudson to meet him, but letters went so slowly in those days that before General Howe learned of the government's final plans he had left New York by sea, and was nearing the head of Chesapeake Bay, from which he intended to march on Philadelphia. He could not now turn back, and so Burgoyne was left to carry out the other plan alone. Burgoyne set out in June, 1777. He advanced by Lake 200 THE BIRTH OF A NEW NATION Champlain, and easily took Ticonderoga, the frontier fortress of northern New York. All went well until August, when the army began to cross the portage from Lake George to the Hudson River. General Schuyler, who commanded the colonial forces in New York, put the axes and spades of his men to good use. He blocked the roads in every direction with fallen trees; he choked the rivers with earth and trees until they were impassable for boats with supplies; and he drove off the sheep and cattle. All food was destroyed or carted away. A British army, made up partly of Canadians, loyaHsts, and Indians, tried to join Burgoyne by way of the Mohawk Valley, but the German settlers drove it back with the help of a force under Benedict Arnold that had been sent by the colonial army. Another force of i,ooo men Burgoyne, in desperate need of supplies, sent to Bennington, Vermont. This army was almost totally destroyed by John Stark's New Hampshire minute-men and their neighbors, the " Green Mountain Boys." On October 17, 1777, near Saratoga, Burgoyne surrendered, though not until he had made several desperate efforts to fight his way out of the trap. His army, of which 6,000 men remained, half of them Germans, became prisoners. All sorts of supplies also fell into the hands of the colonial troops. The capture of an entire British army filled the colonists with enthusiastic hopes. It encouraged the enemies of Great Britain in Europe. The credit of the victory belonged to General Schuyler, but it was given to General Gates, whom Congress had placed in command before the campaign ended. Capture of Philadelphia. — Meanwhile General Howe had succeeded in his campaign against Philadelphia. He had begun his march from the head of Chesapeake Bay about the first of September. Washington attempted to check him at CAPTURE OF PHILADELPHIA 20I Brandywine Creek, but was badly defeated. Nevertheless, he afterward managed his army so well that it took Howe two weeks to march the last twenty-six miles. Philadelphia was occupied September 26. It was now too late to go to Burgoyne's relief. In 1777 the British took a city and lost an army. QUESTIONS 1. What did the colonists thinlc in 1775 about separation from England? What things changed their minds by 1776? 2. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? What did it say? Who opposed independence? Why did they oppose independence? Were there many of them? 3. Why did the colonists have to make over their governments? Why did the people of Connect- icut and Rhode Island need to make fewer changes in government? 4. What did the colonists put in their consti- tutions? Why did they take many powers away from their governors and give them to the legislatures? Why did they fix short terms for their legislators? How else did they guard against overbearing or tyrannical officers? What old-world customs did they keep out? 5. Why was the task of Congress in making a frame of government harder than that of the states? Why did the delegates in Congress give the new government of the "United States" so little power? Why did they not pro- vide for a president? 6. What advantages did the British have in the Revolution? What two advantages were on the side of the colonists? 7. What region did the British seize before the end of 1776 which made up for the loss of Boston in March? Why were the small battles of Trenton and Princeton of great importance to the colonists? 8. What was General Howe's plan for 1777? Why was General Burgoyne sent from Canada to New York? Why was he sent by the Champlain-Hudson route? 9. Why did not General Howe help Burgoyne more? How was Burgoyne captured? 10. What had the British gained during the third year of the war? What had they lost? A Continental Sol- dier IN 1777 202 THE BIRTH OF A NEW NATION EXERCISES 1. Make a list of the arguments that patriot leaders like John Adams and Thomas Paine gave for complete separation from Great Britain, and another list of the arguments that the loyalists used against the step. 2. Find out from one who knows whether the frame of government of the states today resembles that made during the Revolution, and in what way it ■ dififers. 3. Make out a list of the gains of each side during the years 1775, 1776, and 1777. Important Dates: 1776. July 4. The Declaration of Independence. 1776. December 26. The Battle of Trenton. 1777. September 26. Howe enters Philadelphia. 1777. October 17. The surrender of General Burgoyne. The Liberty Bell In Independence Hall, Philadelphia CHAPTER XVIII LIFE IN WAR TIME What the War Did Not Do. — The Revolutionary War lasted seven years and yet few regions in the colonies saw an army of either friend or foe. The march to Concord or to Bennington was the longest expedition the British made in New England. They ravaged one or two Connecticut towns, burned Falmouth, Maine, and occupied Newport, and that was all the New Englanders saw of them after Boston was abandoned. Until 1780 life on the Vir- ginia plantations went on as usual, except that it was hard- er to market tobacco. The same is true of the colonies farther south. New Jersey and the Hudson River Valley suffered most. Even there the mischief was commonly done by bands of patri- ots or of loyalists determined to bring destruction upon one another. The presence of the British army did not always mean ruin to a neighborhood, for the officers frequently paid the farmers in gold and silver for the meat, flour, and vege- tables which they brought into camp. While General Howe's army was quartered in Philadelphia the farmers of eastern >i «•■ IXCEL L ENC r GEORGE WASHINGTON, Esquire. CENER.AL .nJ COMMANDER m CHIEF of th< Fo»cu of the Ukitkd Statu or Amsuca. O Y Virtue of the Po-wtr and Direction to Me efpe- JJ cially given, I hereby enjoin and require all Perfoni reGding within feventy Miles of my Head Quarters to threfli one Half of their Grain by tlie ift Day of February, ?nd the other Half by the ift Day of March next eniiung, on Pain, in Cafe of Fadure, of having all that Ciall re- main in Sheaves after the Period above mentioned, feijed by the Comnuflaries and Quarter-Maflers of the Army, and paid for as Straw. GIVEN unJtr my Hand, at Head Sjurters, luar the Vattiy Forgt, m Phikdelfhia County, this loti Daj of Decemher, ly-j-j. G. WASHINGTON. By His Excellency's Command, KosERT H. Harrison, Sec'y- La H C A t T E II ru>TU •• JOHN OUNLAE Washington's Orders to the Farmers Living near Valley Forge 204 LIFE IN WAR TIME • At Pennsylvania had no trouble in selling their produce at good prices. Army Supplies. — The armies were likely to suffer for food as soon as they moved far from the waterways. The coun- try was thinly settled and Httle food could be found in any one region. The roads were poor and there were few wagons. In 1778 a cargo of clothing, sorely needed by the colonial soldiers, reached a port in North Caro- lina, but it was necessary to send to Pennsylvania for wagons. The next year Philadelphia had more flour than it could sell, while Washington's sol- diers in eastern New Jersey and on the Hudson were starving. One difficulty was that the officers whom Congress put in charge of supplies did not understand how to manage the matter. Valley Forge. — ■ This partly accounts for the sufferings of Washington's army while Howe occupied Philadelphia. Washington's camp was at Valley Forge, a village twenty- five miles northwest of the city. The soldiers lived in huts such as frontiersmen usually built, but they were in want of blankets, clothing, shoes, and even food. About Christmas Washington wrote to Congress that 2,898 men were unfit for duty because of lack of clothing. Many whose shoes had worn out cut blankets into strips and wound these around their feet. Sometimes the only food they had was dough baked in their fire-places. Washington was surprised that his soldiers did not all abandon him. Indeed 2,300 did desert and joined the British army in Philadelphia, where Washington's Headquarters at Valley Forge MONEY AND INDUSTRIES 205 At the close they were sure of food. Others went home of the winter only 5,000 remained. Paper Money. — One reason why General Howe could obtain plenty of food for his army, while Washington's sol- diers were on the verge of starvation, was that the British could pay in gold and silver. Washington was not so for- tunate. Congress could not raise enough money by taxation fflONt SIXTH OF DOLLAR Accordmgrm. to a Refolix- tionoJQo's- G R ESS, faf- \fedat?h\- adelphia, . February V], 1 776. Bjm ?One Sixth of a Dollar J Printed by Hall & Sellers, ^ in Philadelphia. 1776. g Face Back Paper Money of the Revolution Reduced facsimile and tried to pay expenses with paper money, as the colonies had done many times before. The states also issued paper money. This money sometimes lost a tenth of its value in a single month. Prices as a result rose rapidly. In 1781 a pair of shoes cost $100 in paper money, a bushel of potatoes $24, a bushel of corn $40, and a cow $1,200. It is not surprising that the Pennsylvania farmers were ready to exchange their products for British gold. Industries during the War. — When the colonies declared themselves independent, it was no longer necessary to obey 2o6 LIFE IN WAR TIME the British laws forbidding the manufacture of hats, cloths, and steel. At the same time the demand for them increased because trade with Europe was either cut off or was carried on with great difficulty. Most people dressed in homespun, as they had done in the earUer time. Makers of guns, saddles, and powder were kept busy. Towns like Springfield, Massa- chusetts, and Waterbury, Connecticut, became famous for gun making. At the Principio Iron Works in Maryland can- non balls were cast for the Continental army. It was very difficult to obtain enough salt, since the supply from Europe was interrupted. The salt wells near Syracuse, New York, were known, but salt from them was not marketed until several years later. Under the circumstances it was neces- sary to evaporate sea water. For this purpose tanks were constructed at New Bedford and on Cape Cod. Commerce. — The war did not put an end to foreign trade. This trade must have been large, for in the first four years of the war the English captured over 500 vessels, most of them near the coast. About 200 were engaged in trade with Europe or the West Indies. American merchants often armed their vessels, receiving from Congress letters author- izing them to capture vessels of the enemy. These armed ships owned by private persons were called privateers. They scoured the seas for English merchant vessels, which they took to Europe for sale. They also carried cargoes. With the money so obtained they bought European goods needed in the states. The trade with the French and Dutch West Indies was especially lively. The Dutch were glad to exchange salt- peter, from which powder was made, for Virginia tobacco. If the mouth of Chesapeake Bay was too closely watched by British cruisers, the tobacco was hauled in wagons to the North Carolina coast, and shipped from there to the West Indies. In 1 781, when the British admiral captured the Dutch THE LOYALISTS 207 island of St. Eustatia, he found hogsheads of tobacco and casks of rice piled up on the shore by the hundred. Some of this tobacco was owned by British merchants who were making money rapidly in trading with the "rebels." Within four years twenty-four milHon pounds of Chesapeake tobacco found their way to the English market. From 1779 until the war closed trade with Europe brought to the states nearly all the commodities they needed. Travelers were astonished to see that the colonists were prospering in spite of the war. Sufferings of the Loyalists. — The Revolution was a civil war for two reasons. In the first place, EngUsh colonists were fighting against Englishmen from the mother country. In the second place, the colonists were fighting against one another. Before the war ended nearly 50,000 colonists served on the British side either as militia or as regular sol- diers. Some in small bands, especially in South CaroHna and Georgia, waged war with their neighbors. Such bands, whether of loyaUsts or patriots, were more cruel than the regular troops of either side. In the end the loyaHsts lost nearly everything they owned. Their lands were seized by the states and commonly used to reward the Continental soldiers. In many regions they were fortunate if they escaped being tarred and feathered. Exiles in Canada. — Many of the loyalists were driven into exile. They went principally to Nova Scotia or to the western part of the province of Quebec. The British government treated them generously, giving heads of famiUes 500 acres of land and single men 300. They were also given tools with which to work. Two Other Migrations. — During the war there were two other migrations. One was from the coast towns to the interior of the states. The trade of many coast towns was ruined by the nearness of British ships, cruising off shore on the watch for colonial vessels. A part of their inhabitants 2o8 LIFE IN WAR TIME were obliged to find employment elsewhere. Others moved to safer places, taking their industries with them. The result was, as a French traveller remarked, that the colonists gained not only freedom, but a more even spread of their population. The second migration was more important. It passed over the mountains into the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. Its beginnings go back to the French and Indian War. • ^NEW YORK ^-...n.lLi; V» 7 ,. pENNSYUVANlV i( \ / .N. . R T H '" , C A R O xt- I N A*=5p^ie ~^^~7^ T SOUTH CAROLINAX N ^'• Mountain Trails and the Western Country Hunters and trappers paid Httle attention to the rule of the British government concerning the great Indian territory west of the Appalachians. 1 Three mountain trails led from the older settlements toward the west. One was Braddock's road to Pittsburgh. Another led to the "blue grass " region of Ken- tucky through Cumberland Gap, where Virginia, Tennessee, and Kentucky now meet. The third followed the Holston River or the French Broad into the valley of the Tennessee. The story of the pioneers who crossed the mountains, espe- cially that of Daniel Boone, the greatest of frontier hunters and fighters, is thrilling. 1 See page 160. KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE 209 Beginnings of Kentucky. — In 1769 Boone explored the trail through Cumberland Gap into Kentucky, then a part of Virginia. The colonial assembly planned to make it the regular highway into their western lands, but it long remained simply a path. In 1774 James Harrod and thirty compan- ions laid out Harrodsburg on the Kentucky River, and the year following Cumberland Gap Boone founded Boo nes bor - ough near by. Each settler marked off his own f arm . The land was plentiful and it made little difference whether he took 400 or 1,000 acres. Most of the early settlers in Kentucky depended upon hunting and trapping to obtain furs, which they sold in the colonies or states. Tennessee. — The story of early Tennessee was similar. In 1769 a family settled on Watauga Creek in eastern Ten- nessee. The following year James Robertson, whom the people of Tennessee Hke to call the "father" of their state, settled in the same region. Many others soon joined the new settlements. The Revolutionary War instead of delaying the growth of the western settlements, helped them. Many colonists, leaving the regions threatened by war, took their way over the mountains. The great danger came from Indian attacks supported by the British garrison at Detroit or at other posts taken from France in 1763. The Indians did not require much urging, (or the settlers were invading their hunting grounds. ^id LIFE IN WAR TIME Wyoming Massacre. — The Germans and Scotch-Irish of western Pennsylvania and New York suffered the most. One band of Indians fell upon the settlements in the Wyoming Valley, where the Susquehanna River breaks through the mountains of northern Pennsylvania. The Indians drove from the valley those whom they did not kill, burned their homes, and laid waste their fields. The people of the frontier were obhged to protect them- selves. Washington could not spare any of his troops. The struggle was especially fierce in 1777 and 1778. The Indian, Hke the white man, was fighting for his home. Both used the knife, the tomahawk, and the gun. Their warfare was more cruel than even that of loyalists and patriots near the coast. The Conqueror of the North- west. — In 1778 George Rogers Clark, one of the greatest hun- ters and Indian fighters in Ken- tucky, formed the plan of driving the British garrisons out of the Northwest; that is, from the region lying between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes. Clark thought it was time to attack the real enemy behind the Indian. He gathered a small force of Indian fighters, mostly mountaineers and hunters, from the western part of Virginia. Governor Patrick Henry of Virginia encouraged him with money and good words. In May, 1778, Clark's Httle army of 150 men boarded sev- eral flat-boats and rowed or drifted down the Ohio River. Nearly opposite the Tennessee River, Clark landed and led his force northward across the level plains to the old French George Rogers Clark CLARK AND THE NORTHWEST 211 villages in Illinois. He reached the first, Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi River, on the evening of July 4, 1778, surprised the unsuspecting garrison, and occupied the town. It proved easy to induce the French to accept American rule, particu- larly since Clark could tell them, what they had not yet heard, that the French king had recently become the ally of the United States. Some of the adventurous young French- men joined Clark's force. The Indians, who called him the "Big Knife Chief," were overawed by the union of Ameri- cans and French and ceased to oppose him. Clark's greatest exploit was the recapture of Fort Vincennes on the Wabash, which the British commander at Detroit had seized in the preceding winter. The rivers were full and the lowlands flooded. Clark's men while on their march were often obliged to wade in icy water. Sometimes it was up to their chins. He surprised the British garrison and compelled it to surrender. His success not only protected the settlers on the frontier and in Kentucky, but also gave the United States a claim to the Northwest when peace was made. For this reason Clark is called the conqueror of the Northwest.^ QUESTIONS 1. Where did the war do great damage? Why did the colonial armies some- times suffer from want? Why did the British armies fare better? 2. Why did Congress use paper money? Give examples of prices because of its use. 3. What new industries were started during the Revolution? 4. What trade was stopped and what trade was continued or started during the war? 5. Give two reasons why the Revolution may be called a "Civil" war. How many colonists served in the British armies? 6. How were the loyalists treated? What did many of them do? 7. Describe three emigrations that went on during the Revolution. Why did the westward movement go on faster than ever? 1 The region which Clark had seized was nearly as large as the thirteen colonies. They contained 341,752 square miles, while the Northwest contained 265,878. 212 LIFE IN WAR TIME 8. How did the pioneers in the West live? Why were they in great danger? Who were their leaders? What happened in the Wyoming Valley? 9. What plan did George Rogers Clark form in 1778? What did he accom- plish? Why did the French of the Illinois country submit readily and some of them join Clark? EXERCISES 1. On an outline map shade the regions that saw British armies before 1780. 2. Visit any museum having Revolutionary relics and describe the objects used in everyday life of those days. 3. Collect pictures of Revolutionary relics. 4. Locate on the map, page 208, the three roads to the West and the route of George Rogers Clark. 5. What states now form the region won for the United States by Clark? A Frontier Settlement — Boonesborough CHAPTER XIX HOW THE FRENCH HELPED THE COLONISTS Good News from France. — In the winter of 1 777-1 778 the outlook for the colonial cause seemed dark. Not only was the Continental army at Valley Forge in distress from lack of food and clothing, but a group of ofiEicers and members of Congress plotted to get rid of Washington and put Gates in his place. Their plan came to nothing, and with spring news arrived that on February 6 King Louis XVI of France had become the ally of the young repubhc. From the beginning of the troubles between England and her colonies the French had looked on with increasing inter- est. Many Frenchmen were eager for a chance of revenge on account of the losses which their country had suffered in the recent war. Others were interested in the cause of the colo- nists. They were ready to cheer on men who claimed the right to govern themselves. They admired the Americans also because the colonial farmers and planters appeared to be living more natural lives than Europeans. In America there were no princes or lords. Every man seemed to have an equal opportunity to make the most of himself. As soon as the war broke out Congress sent agents to the countries of Europe, hoping for aid against Great Britain. Fortunately one of the commissioners to France was Ben- jamin FrankHn. His homely sayings in Poor Richard's Almanac, his clever inventions, like the stove, and his dis- covery, by means of a kite, that lightning is electricity, had already made him famous. He was regarded as a scientist 214 THE FRENCH HELPED THE COLONIES and a philosopher. His simple manners and dress helped win the love of the French, who were growing weary of wigs and laces and rufifles. Frankhn styles, Frankhn caps, Frankhn snuff-boxes, and Franklin walking-sticks became the craze in Paris. His portraits and busts appeared everywhere, until he declared to his daugh- ter that her "father's face was as well known as the moon." The French first aided the colonies secretly, giving cloth- ing, powder, and guns for the Continental army to Frankhn or the other commissioners. Similar aid was obtained from Spain. Besides, several million dollars were lent to the Uni- ted States, to be repaid when peace was made. Some influential officials thought the time had now come for an attack upon the ancient enemy of France. Others wished to wait until the colonial troops gained a decisive victory. The news of the capture of Burgoyne and his army put an end to their hesitation, and Louis XVI agreed to a treaty of alliance. Lafayette and Steuben. — Many young Frenchmen had already come to America on their own account to help the colonists, some in search of adventure or glory, others because, like the Americans, they wanted to fight for "Kberty." No other became so famous or gave so much valuable service as the Marquis de Lafayette, a young nobleman of great wealth and influential family. Lafayette was barely twenty years of age in 1777 when he joined Washington's army. He had been educated in a mihtary school and was given a high rank in the Continental army. He generously served Benjamin Franklin After the portrait by Duplessis, 1783 VALUE OF THE FRENCH ALLIANCE 215 without pay. Washington came to love him as if he were a son. His name is still remembered with affection by Americans. Another foreigner who was of much assistance was Baron Steuben, a Prussian nobleman. Steuben was an experienced officer, having served, long under Frederick the Great, the most famous general of the time. During the dreary winter at Valley Forge Steuben organized and trained the soldiers in the European mode of fighting. It was not enough that each man should fight by himself after the Indian manner, the soldiers must learn to move in Hne or in column and to use the bayonet with effect. Value of the French Alliance. - the colonists on the sea, where they were weakest. Ever since the disasters of the French and Indian War, France had been busy rebuilding her ruined fleet. In 1778 she had nearly as many battle-ships as England. A year later the French persuaded the Spaniards to join them in the war, and then their united fleets were able to dispute the mastery of the seas with the British. From 1778, and especially from 1779, the English were too busy defending their colo- nies in the West Indies and in the East Indies, and their fortress of Gibraltar at the entrance of the Mediterranean, to give the greatest part of their attention to the war in America. As soon as the British government knew that war with France was certain, General Clinton, who had taken Howe's place at Philadelphia, was ordered to return to New York and Marquis de Lafayette The French strengthened 2i6 THE FRENCH HELPED THE COLONIES to send 8,000 of his troops to the West Indies to attempt the conquest of the French islands. Washington pursued the British, attacked them at Monmouth, and hastened their retreat. He then encamped at White Plains, near New York. He was not strong enough to attack the city. A French fleet appeared off the coast, but did not attempt to force an entrance to the harbor. It finally sailed for the West Indies after a storm had prevented an attack upon Newport. General Clinton, however, soon withdrew the Newport garrison to New York. New Enemies of Great Britain. — Before long the British government added to the number of its enemies. British war ships claimed the right to search the merchant ships of other countries in order to see if they were supplying the enemy with powder, guns, or anything else needed in war. In doing this they paid so Httle attention to the rights of other nations that the Dutch, the Danes, the Prussians, the Swedes, and the Russians prepared to resist by force. With the Dutch the quarrel led to war. All this was fortunate for Washington and the colonial cause. Congress and the army were in a desperate situation. The paper money was fast losing its value. Another mis- fortune added to Washington's trials. Benedict Arnold, one of the ablest and bravest of his ofhcers, whom he had trusted as a friend, went over to the British. What made Arnold's treachery still blacker was his attempt to betray the fortifications at West Point, the strongest position on the Hudson. His plans were discovered in time to save West Point, but he escaped to New York. He served under the British flag until the end of the war, ravaging parts of Connecticut and Virginia, and making his name a by-word among his fellow countrymen. Exploits on the Sea. — The only war ships that the Ameri- cans possessed were remodeled merchant vessels. No one of EXPLOITS ON THE SEA 217 them was large enough to engage in battle with an English ship-of-the-line. The British fleet soon drove from the sea the few ships that Congress had armed. If the control of the Atlantic Ocean as a base of operations was to be taken from the British, it must be by the French fleets. Neverthe- less, captains of American privateers, occasionally of war ships, did great harm to British trade, capturing 320 merchant vessels in 1777 alone. The hero of the greatest exploit of the little colonial navy was John Paul Jones. In 1779 the French king lent Jones a large remodeled merchant vessel, in order that he might attack British merchant ships as they were entering or leav- ing their home ports. Jones called his ship the Bon Homme Richard, in honor of his friend Franklin and Frankhn's famous almanac. In September, 1779, the Richard had a terrible fight with the British frigate ^ Serapis near the mouth of the Humber River, on the eastern coast of England. The Serapis was stronger and swifter. The only chance of victory for Jones was to close with his enemy and lash the two ships together. This he did after the Bon Homme Richard was on fire. His men then boarded the Serapis and compelled the British to surrender. The Richard was now sinking, and Jones trans- ferred his crew and those who had been wounded to the Serapis. A few hours later the Richard sank, carrying down the brave men who had fallen in the struggle. War in the South, 1778-1781. — In 1778 Clinton took John Paul Jones After the etching by A. Varan ^ A ship-of-the-line is a battle-ship. 44 guns. The Serapis carried 44. A frigate was smaller, carrying 28 to 2i8 THE FRENCH HELPED THE COLONIES advantage of the absence of the French fleet in the West Indies to shift the war to the southern states. Washington could not send the southern patriots much help. For a time the British had things their own way in Georgia and South Carolina. They took Savannah in 1778, and Charles- ton in 1780. The revolutionary army in these states was either captured or broken up. The conquest of the CaroHnas was far from complete, as Major Ferguson, commander of the best loyahst regiment in the British service, learned to his cost. Within a few weeks after a Continental army under General Gates had been dis- persed at Camden, Ferguson ventured into the mountains. The settlers assembled quickly under the leadership of Sevier and other pioneers, surrounded Ferguson at King's Mountain October 7, 1780, and killed or captured his whole force. Marion, Pickens, and Sumter. — Other fearless patriots like Francis Marion, Andrew Pickens, and Thomas Sumter kept the flame of revolution burning in the South. They formed small bands of volunteers, who came and went as they wished, and served at their own expense. Their men were wretchedly equipped and clothed, but full of zeal and patriotism. Such a band would lie hidden in the deep forests and mountain valleys until an opportunity came to surprise a party of British foragers or their loyalist allies. Marks- men then stealthily approached the British camps and shot the soldiers as they went about their ordinary pursuits. It was a new kind of warfare and greatly annoyed the British. Cornwallis, who was in command of the British army at the South, wrote home calling Sumter "the greatest plague in the country." "But for Sumter and Marion," he said, "South CaroUna would be at peace." What Greene accomplished. — After the defeat of Gates, Washington sent Nathaniel Greene, his best general, with a REFERENCE MAP FOR THE REVOLUTION SOUTHERN STATES THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 219 Uua/ori% Crj~"' .A-; ChaMtle The'Couipen\.? L, 'vfe'o u t'h, \ oNinetySix^Camder?^ ■ CAROLINA small army to the Carolinas. Although Morgan, one of his ofi&cers, promptly broke up a British force at Cowpens and Greene himself checked Cornwallis at Guilford Court House, his army was not strong enough to defeat the British in open battle. But the result of his skilful management was that Cornwallis was obliged to withdraw to the coast to obtain sup- plies and reinforce- ments. Cornwallis in Vir- ginia. — In the spring of 1 78 1 Cornwallis abandoned the half- finished conquest of the Carolinas and marched into Virginia, which he regarded as the center of colonial resistance. If Virginia were subdued, he thought, the king's authority would again be respected. Already a British force was fighting in Virginia against a Continental army under Lafayette. While Cornwallis marched northward, Greene began a campaign which ended in the recovery of the Carolinas and Georgia. British garrisons held only Charleston and Savannah. The Allies plan to Capture Cornwallis. — Meanwhile a French army of 5,500 soldiers, led by excellent officers and commanded by the Count de Rochambeau, had reached America. In the winter of 1 779-1 780 Lafayette had visited France and had persuaded the king to send this aid. Wash- ington wished the French army and the French fleet to unite with him in an attack on New York, but Rochambeau thought this too difficult. Cornwallis's appearance in Vir- ginia seemed to offer a better chance of success. Word was Cornwallis's Wandering Campaign AT THE South 220 THE FRENCH HELPED THE COLONIES received from the Count de Grasse, commander of a large French fleet in the West Indies, that he would be on the coast of Virginia by September i, 1781. Cornwallis had fortified Yorktown, from which he expected to keep open communication by sea with New York. York- town would thus serve as a starting point for the conquest of Virginia. Washington and Rochambeau believed that with the help of a fleet Cornwallis could be captured before Clin- ton could send him aid. Washington left a small force to watch Clinton at New York, and with Rochambeau crossed New Jersey on the way to Virginia. De Grasse kept his promise and by August 29 was on the Virginia coast. A British fleet which sailed from New York was so crippled in battle with the French that it was obliged to return to New York for repairs. Before it had a chance to refit and sail to Virginia again, Washington and Rochambeau had forced Cornwallis to surrender On October 19, 1781, Corn- wallis and his army, numbering more than 7,000 men, became prisoners of war. End of the War. — The surrender of Cornwallis ended the Revolutionary War. When Lord North, the English prime minister, heard the news, he exclaimed, " It is all over ! It is all over ! " He and the other ministers became anxious to withdraw the garrisons from New York, Charleston, and Savannah, before they, too, should be lost. These soldiers might be needed to defend England against the gathering hosts of European enemies. Before anything could be done Lord North, whose failure to subdue the rebellious colonists had lost him the confidence of parliament, was obliged to resign. Men who disapproved of the plans of dealing with the colonists now became the advisers of George III. They sent word to Franklin in Paris that they were ready to talk about terms of peace. An Independent Nation. — It was nearly two years before AN INDEPENDENT NATION 221 terms of peace were agreed upon. The interests of France, Spain, and Holland, as well as of the American states, had to be provided for in the final agreements. Fortunately for Great Britain a fleet under Rodney defeated De Grasse in the West Indies in the spring of 1782, after which the French did not demand hard terms of Great Britain. According to the treaty of peace, signed in Paris in A GENERAL PEACE September, 1783, the inde- NEiv-roRK. Mara^^, ^,Zi pendence of the United States late la/i N^gn, an express from Nev,--jy> tion. C»ta, ..l^ Di/fi-H- •• the CoTunmai Cotj^f/,, mlormrny ihtin, ihai urt Monday llH Iwenlioh J GENERAL PEACE, Amtrtia^ wcrt: ♦lo^^b «i Par.j, b, *\\ \.ht Comnaiilnmer* l.om ihctt Puner* , t j'vfw Ji>WtdotlOjj cbel wem.eih Day o( htbruary , and lu AffienL.,oft iiinti t>4> ol IvUrtN, u. the ^rrlcnt >cai Ur.« Thoulu»4 I highly Ttint •f^OM/ loicUigvnce wht U(l Ni|;hi annound giMi hijOKimgB ai Eliiabnb T«*n.— KcTpctMng »hij ifx hourly cipr^lccL Tb^'id^jv THIi t'*tl^,d/^ J.met R., < Ktag • Moff EnatlUn Ma^fy.\ »*«)^Mi. A Broadside Announcing Peace Reduced facsimile 22 2 THE FRENCH HELPED THE COLONIES remembered as a generous nation which had come to their aid when the colonial cause was darkest. Washington's Services. — Washington did one more great service to his country before he returned to Mount Vernon as a private citizen. Both soldiers and officers in the army were discontented because Congress had left them unpaid. Many men feared that they would refuse to go home now that the war was over, but would remain together and take by force Mount Vernon what they could not obtain peacefully from the bankrupt government. It was even whispered about that some of them wished to make Washington a king as their only hope of fair treatment. When Washington heard of this, he was much distressed. He used his influence with the officer^ and with the members of Congress to such good effect that a just agree- ment was made. Soldiers and officers went home quietly. Washington now resigned his commission in the army and returned to Mount Vernon, from which he had been absent more than eight years. He accepted no salary for his ser- vices, nor would he take any reward after the war was over, although his plantation had suffered from neglect. His QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 223 place was secure in the hearts of his countrymen. With him Franklin, Adams, Jefferson, and many others were gratefully remembered. QUESTIONS 1. What causes had the colonists for discouragement in the winter of 1 777-1 778? What news encouraged them? 2. Why did the French join the colonial cause? In what different ways did the French aid the colonies? Why was the coming of Lafayette and Steuben particularly fortunate for Washington? 3. In what way was the French alliance of the greatest value to the colo- nies? What change did the British make in the conduct of the war because of the alliance? 4. What enemies did England make in the course of the Revolution? Why did the Spaniards and Dutch also go to war with England? How did Eng- land's other wars affect the colonial cause? 5. Did the colonies have a navy? What were the privateers doing to help the colonial cause? 6. Tell the story of John Paul Jones's battle with the Serapis. 7. Where did Clinton try to carry on the war after 1778? What success did he have? Why did he fail to conquer completely the southern colonies? What did General Greene accomplish? 8. What further aid did France give the colonies in 1780? What plan did Washington and Rochambeau form? 9. Describe the capture of Cornwallis at Yorktown. Why did the loss of the army of Cornwallis greatly alarm the British ministers? What were they ready to do? 10. Why did it take nearly two years after the battle of Yorktown to arrange the terms of peace? 11. What did Spain and France gain from their war with England? 12. What was Washington's service to his country just before retiring from the Revolutionary army? EXERCISES 1. Write an account of the help that the French gave the United States during the Revolution. 2. Make a list of the gains besides independence secured by the United States in the treaty of peace. Important Dates: 1778. French alliance. 1781. October. Capture of Yorktown. 1783. Treaty of Peace. 2 24 THE FRENCH HELPED THE COLONIES REVIEW OF THE REVOLUTION 1754-63. The French and Indian War. Frontiersmen seeking the western lands encroached on territory claimed by the French. The French lost not only the lands in dispute, but also their other American colonies. 1763-65. England (i) continued her old policy of interfering with the free- dom of the trade of the colonies, enforcing near the close of the French War and afterward laws which had never before been en- forced in the colonies, (2) attempted to maintain a regular army in the colonies, and (3) passed laws like the Stamp Act to raise money for the support of the army. 1765-75. The colonists resisted the British policy by refusing to trade with England, by destroying stamps, burning ships sent to enforce the trade laws, and by other means, like throwing the tea overboard. 1768. England punished the colonies by increasing the regular army, and in 1774 by closing the port of Boston and taking away some of Mas- sachusetts's powers of self-government. 1774. The colonists at the Continental Congress united in resisting such acts, formed a general agreement not to trade with England, and prepared for defense if war came. 1775. The battles of Lexington and Concord began the war of the Revolution. 1776. The British evacuated Boston and seized New York City. Congress set forth a Declaration of Independence and the colonies began making permanent state governments. 1777. The colonial forces captured Burgoyne's army, and the British took Philadelphia. During the war the colonies created new industries and spread westward. 1778. George Rogers Clark conquered the Northwest. The French formed an alliance with the colonies. 1779. Spain joined France in the war. 1780. England also went to war with Holland. Clinton carried the Ameri- can war into the southern colonies. A French army landed in America, under Count de Rochambeau, to help Washington. 1 78 1. The United Colonies adopted a constitution, the Articles of Confedera- tion. Cornwallis was captured by the combined work of Washing- ton, Rochambeau, and the French fleet. 1783. A treaty of peace was agreed to. Thirteen English colonies finally became both united and independent. CHAPTER XX THE DIFFICULTIES OF THE NEW REPUBLIC Our Country in 1783. — The United States of 1783 was in area only about one-fourth as large as it is to-day. More than half lay west of the Appalachian Mountains. This part, save for a few settlements, was uninhabited by white men. Even the region east of the moun- tains was thinly settled. The greater part of the population Hved near the coast and in the richer farm- ing valleys. It is impossible to say exactly how many inhabitants the country had, for no census had ever been taken. But probably about 3,250,000 persons lived in the United States, not counting 100,000 or 200,000 Indians. About one-fifth of the people were negro slaves. The present state of Pennsylvania has more than twice as many people as the whole United States had in 1783; New York City has one and one-half times as many. The United States was not only the youngest but also one of the smallest nations in the world. Great Britain, including Ireland, num- bered nearly four times as many inhabitants; Spain more than three times; and France eight times. Our Country in 1783 Black dots show the settled regions in the United States; circles show the regions of Canada in settlement; crosses show the Spanish settlements; the white shows the unoccupied territory 226 DIFFICULTIES OF THE NEW REPUBLIC North American Neighbors. — The neighbors of the United States in North America were few. Small Enghsh settle- ments existed in Nova Scotia. Possibly 60,000 French people Uved in the colony of Quebec. About 40,000 loyalists, who fled from the United States during the Revolution, formed the main part of the population in two new British provinces of New Brunswick and Upper Canada.^ The people of the United States looked upon these people as living in the "frozen north." n J vJJTi- Plan of a Spanish Mission Settlement Spain had five colonies or provinces within what is now the United States. These colonies were Florida and Loui- siana on the south and west, some small mission settlements in Texas and New Mexico forming the out-posts of Mexico, and a new colony, CaHfornia, in the far west. In 1769 a party of Spanish missionaries and soldiers had entered Cah- fornia and estabhshed an Indian mission at San Diego. Seven years later they estabhshed a mission which was the beginning of San Francisco, the great city of the Golden Gate. Some pushed on into the interior, and estabhshed other missions, placing them in fertile valleys where Indian tribes might be reached. The good monk, Junipero Serra, was at the head of the movement. He gloried even in his ^ In 1 791 Canada was divided into Upper and Lower Canada, which were permitted to have provincial assembhes. NORTH AMERICAN NEIGHBORS 227 sufferings as he tramped across terrible deserts or visited hostile Indians. The news that a mission had been founded was received in Mexico with rejoicing and the ringing of bells. Proclama- tions of the government carried the story to the humblest hamlet and even to far- away Spain. The CaUfor- nia missions, at first simple places of wor- ship and resi- dence for priests and their helpers, became in a short time thriving col- onies. Beau- tiful buildings were erected, ruins of which may still be seen in many places throughout California. Indians were persuaded to abandon their wandering life and settle on the mission farms, or work in the mission kitchens or workshops. Each mission was an Indian colony with a few Spanish mis- sionaries and army officers. Soldiers stationed near the missions were almost the only other Spaniards. There were, however, two or three towns for ordinary settlers. Los Angeles was begun in 1781. The total Spanish population in California was probably less than a tenth of the Indian population Hving at the mis- sions. The sturdy peasants and skilled laborers of Spain did not go there any more than they did to Mexico or the West Indies or any other Spanish colony in the New World. A California Mission San Luis Rey 228 DIFFICULTIES OF THE NEW REPUBLIC Except along the borders of Florida the settlements of the new republic were separated from those of its neighbors by vast stretches of unoccupied land. The Spaniards advancing into the Southwest and the people of the states moving into the Ohio Valley would not come into conflict for many years. In reaUty, however, they were entered upon a new race, this time for the possession of the Great West. Danger from Disunion. — In 1783 the danger to the people of the states came from their lack of union rather than from the rivalry of foreign settle- ments. As yet they had little to do with one an- other. The roads were few, ;^,sss!««s^ =SS55'5«^S5? To the PUBLIC. THE FLYING MACHINE, kept Djr John Mercer«au, at the New Blazing-Star- Feny, near New. York, fets off from Powles Hook every Mon> day, Wednefday, and Friday Mornings, for Philadelphia, and performs the Journey in a Day and a Half, for the Summer Seafon, till the iftof November ; from that Time to go twice a Week till the firft of May, when they again perform it three Times a Week. When the Stages go only ttvice aWeek, they fet off Mondays and Thurf- days. The Waggons in Philadelphia fet out from the Sign of the George, in Second. (Ireet, the fame Morning. The PalTengers are deOred tocrofslhe Ferry the Evening rudcly made, WlthoUt mUCh before, as the Stages mult fet on early the next Morning. •' ' The Price foreach Pa(^engeT\sTiventy Shillings, Proc. and Goods as ufual. Paffengers going Part of the Way to pay in Proportion. As the Propnetor has made fuch Improvements upon the Machines, one of which is in Imitation of a Coach, he hopes lo merit the Favour of the Publick. JOHN MERCEREAU. JfeWa-k GaicOt ijjl Stage-Co.a.ch Announcement attempt at grading. The vessels which plied from port to port sailed on no regular schedule. Travelers ordinarily went on horse- back or by stage coach. Several stage-coaches made the journey each week between Boston and New York, New York and Philadelphia, Phil- adelphia and Baltimore, and a few smaller places. The coach was really a stage-wagon, something like the covered light wagons in common use to-day. It took three days, starting at three o'clock in the morning and traveUng until ten at night, to go from Philadelphia to New York, or six days from New York to Boston. No bridges spanned the large rivers, for the bridge-makers or carpenters of that time had not learned how to build long spans. If a river was DANGER FROM DISUNION 229 shallow it could be forded; if wide and deep, the coach could be carried across on a ferry boat. Even short journeys were full of excitement, hardship, and danger. The ordinary man seldom traveled beyond the boundaries of his county. The New Englander only on the rarest occa- sions traveled south of the Potomac, or the Southerner to the North. Dress, social customs, and even uses of words and phrases varied in different states. Besides, the Dutch in New York, the Germans in Pennsylvania, and the French in Detroit and the Illinois country still kept the language and ways of their fathers in the Old World. Why the People knew so Little of One Another. — The newspapers were more enterprising than they had been before the war, but they were not distributed through the post - offices, and were therefore hard to obtain. The post-offices handled only letters. Post- riders carried the Httle mail there was in saddle-bags attached to the saddles. A pair of saddle-bags was enough to carry the mail on any trip be- tween New York and Philadelphia or Boston and New York. People living in small towns seldom received mail oftener than once a week. It was harder and much more expensive to send a letter to many a backwoods or frontier town than it is to-day to send it into the interior of China. The post- riders usually left the mail at the town inns. Would the Republic endure? — Many persons wondered how long a repubhc, the parts of which were so loosely con- POST-RIDER OF THE OlDEN TiMES 230 DIFFICULTIES OF THE NEW REPUBLIC nected with one another, would hold together. It was really thirteen republics, for the Continental Congress had httle power, and this Congress was the only central authority. A shrewd Frenchman called the United States "a giant with- out bones." He probably meant that the repubUc had no king or nobles to manage its afifairs. Enghsh people thought that the Americans would repent of their separation and return to their allegiance to George HI. Many Americans still thought independence a mistake. They beheved that it meant thirteen small, jealous, quarrel- ing republics, helpless before the first enemy who should attack them. Some talked about dividing the United States into three groups, one made up of the New England states, another of the middle states from New York to Maryland, and a third of the southern states. A few wished to have a king, and when Washington spurned the idea that he should become king, they suggested a son of George HI or of a brother of Frederick the Great. The majority, however, had faith in their experiment with a repubhcan form of government and a union of all the states. What Congress accomplished. — The Congress of the Confederation accompUshed some things of great value, in spite of the fact that it possessed Httle authority. With the aid of Washington it carried the war to a successful end- ing. Its agents made an advantageous peace with Great Britain. When the war, which had furnished the strongest reasons for union, was over, Congress kept the states together until they became accustomed to united action. What in 1781 seemed merely a "league of friendship" began to grow into a deep and lasting union for the common good. A New System of Money. — Even after the close of the war seven states issued paper money. Like the earUer issues most of this was never redeemed in coin. Paper money was the cause of many disputes about the payment of debts. THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY 231 Still there was another difficulty. The people used foreign silver and gold coins in ordinary trade, for Congress coined no money. These foreign coins — crowns, doubloons, guineas, Johanneses, moidores, pistoles, shilHngs, and Spanish dollars — often varied in value. Many were counterfeited or had their edges cUpped. Washington said it , , , Copper Cent Coined in 1783 would soon be neces- sary to carry about scales in order to weigh such coins. Although Congress was unable to remedy these evils, it provided a system of money in which all coins could be given a place or value. The system might be used in planning for new coins when a mint was established. It was called the decimal system because the cent, the second measure of value, was ten times the mill, which was the first ; while the dime was ten times the cent; and the dollar was ten times the dime. The Northwest Territory. — Congress invented a way of managing its western lands which helped to unite the states. George Rogers Clark had conquered the lands northwest of the Ohio in 1778. The United States had been allowed to retain these in the treaty of peace with Great Britain. But several old states, Virginia, New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts, laid claim to the region. Maryland refused to join in any union if the others were to keep great tracts of western lands. Finally the states that claimed western lands gave up most of them.^ These lands became the com- mon territory of all, the first territory of the United States. ^ Connecticut kept back or reserved a tract 120 miles long, lying west of Pennsylvania and south of Lake Erie, called the Western Reserve. In time Connecticut gave part of this land to its citizens who had suffered from British raids during the Revolution and sold part to a land company, using the money for the benefit of public schools. Virginia also retained, besides the Kentucky 232 DIFFICULTIES OF THE NEW REPUBLIC Surveying Lands in the "Northwest." — In 1785 Congress adopted a plan of surveying the western lands. Land in the old colonies had been loosely and carelessly surveyed. The frontier settlers often made their own boundaries by toma- hawk marks on the trees. This led to innumerable disputes between farmers. It left the Hnes between farms crooked and made many strange-shaped pieces of land which nobody wanted. The new way was to survey the western territory into squares six miles on a side, called townships, and to divide these into smaller squares called sections, one mile on a side. These were again divided into smaller squares called "quarters," 160 acres in extent. In this plan four quarters formed a section, and thirty-six sections a township. Each section and township was numbered so that any piece of land could be readily located. The land was to be sold at $1 an acre.^ Congress promised the settlers to give the six- teenth section in every township for the support of public schools. The Ordinance of 1787. — In 1787, Congress provided a way of governing the Northwest Territory. Many Revolu- tionary soldiers wished to locate within it the lands which Congress had promised them. Several officers belonged to the Ohio Company, which was formed to buy land of Con- gress and sell it to settlers. Both wished a stable govern- ment in the territory, capable of protecting the property of the settlers and of deciding disputes between them. Such a government was provided by a law called the Ordinance of 1787. Congress was to appoint a governor and judges to rule until the territory numbered 5,000 inhabitants. The territory was then to have an assembly of its own. As soon as any part of the territory had 60,000 people or more, it was region, some lands north of the Ohio River, sometimes called the Virginia Military Reserve, for its citizens who had served as soldiers in the Revolution. ^ In 1796 the price was raised to $2. ^2:::J BEGINNINGS OF OHIO ^2>2> to become a state equal in all respects to the older states. The new state would also become a part of the union. Con- gress promised that the inhabitants should always have free- dom of religion, right of trial by jury, and free republican state governments. It also declared that no laborers should be held as slaves. By the survey act of 1785 and the Ordi- nance of 1787 Congress adopted the poHcy of encouraging free laborers, promising them cheap land and poHtical equaHty. The Settlement at the "Point" at Marietta in 1790 Beginnings of Ohio. — The Ohio Company immediately took advantage of the new plan. It purchased from Con- gress several hundred thousand acres in the southeastern part of the present state of Ohio. In the spring of 1788 General Rufus Putnam and a band of New Englanders reached the spot where the Muskingum River flows into the Ohio River. By the middle of summer many acres of growing corn, several log huts, and a block-house marked the progress of the new settlement. Out of gratitude to the French for aid during the war, the settlers named the village Marietta, a shortened form of Marie Antoinette, Queen of France. Another company purchased lands farther down the Ohio, including the site of Cincinnati. Emigration to the West. — The settlem.ents south of the Ohio River, in the present state of Kentuckyj were growing 234 DIFFICULTIES OF THE NEW REPUBLIC An Emigrant's Flatboat rapidly. Twelve thousand persons entered the region in a single year. Louisville soon became a thriving village. Emi- grants to the Ohio country, whether north or south of the river, crossed the moun- tains in covered wagons, sleeping in these at night and cooking their food by the roadside. The route led to Pittsburgh, if they were from New England or the middle states, and to Wheeling, if from Maryland or Virginia. At the bank of the Ohio they obtained flatboats, large enough to carry wagons, livestock, and household stuff. The current of the river carried them on at the rate of four or five miles an hour. When the place was reached to which the settlers were going, they used the planks of the boat for buildings. Distress in the States. — One reason why so many people moved to the Ohio country was the distress in the states. A sudden change from war to peace is often as ruinous to business as a change from peace to war. Industries which profited by the war lost the market for their goods. Chan- nels of trade which the war opened were closed. Even rich men could not obtain money enough to pay their ordinary debts. In 1788 Washington had to put off the tax collector because a man who owed him could not pay. Common debtors came to look upon judges as their enemies, since it was the decisions of judges which compelled them to pay or go to jail. In certain Massachusetts towns mobs hindered meetings of the courts. Finally the discontented, including many debtors from the western part of the state, assembled under the leadership of Captain Daniel Shays and attempted TROUBLE FROM DEBTS 235 to capture the arsenal at Springfield. The rioters were soon dispersed. The Rhode Island legislature tried to help debtors by issuing great quantities of paper money and com- pelling creditors to accept the worthless bills. It also threat- ened storekeepers with loss of political rights if they did not sell their goods at low prices fixed in paper money. Trade after the War. — The merchants and ship owners, who had been growing rich on the trade with France and Spain during the later years of the war, were distressed to discover that at its close they could no longer trade with the French or Spanish West Indies. The British West Indies were also closed, because the Americans were now foreigners. The French in the commercial treaty of 1778 had promised the Americans only as good treatment as that granted to any other foreigners. While the war lasted the French govern- ment gave special privileges to American ships in order to injure the EngHsh, but withdrew these privileges in 1783. Fortunately for the American merchants the French planters cried out that they were the ones principally hurt, for they could no longer get cheap food for their plantation hands. By 1785, therefore, the French government reopened the trade in a few products. The EngHsh planters obtained similar privileges of trade with the United States, so that by 1786 the West Indian trade was again on the road to prosperity. The stopping of the West Indian trade for two or three years made it hard for the American merchants to pay for what they bought in Europe and especially in England. They had few products except tobacco and rice which they could offer in exchange. The EngHsh government added to the diffi- culty by insisting that ships could bring no goods except those of the state where the ship was owned. A New Englander, therefore, could not carry South CaroHna rice or Virginia tobacco to England. The aim, of course, was to give this business to English ships. 236 DIFFICULTIES OF THE NEW REPUBLIC Congress and Trade. — Another difficulty grew out of the fact that Congress did not have the right to make rules of trade for all the states. Each state had its own set of laws and levied such taxes as it pleased on articles which its mer- chants bought. States sometimes tried to take vengeance on England because the EngHsh government treated American merchants badly. States also taxed articles brought in from other states. New Jersey was so angry at the taxes New York levied on articles sent to New York that the state tried to levy a tax of £30 a month on a Httle land at Sandy Hook which the New Yorkers had bought for a hght-house. The Mississippi Question. — Still greater dangers arose over the navigation of the Mississippi. The lower part of the river for 200 miles flowed through Spanish territory. The Americans, like the EngHsh from 1763 to the Revolution- ary War, claimed the right to sail down the Mississippi and out into the Gulf of Mexico without interference from the Spaniards. But the Spaniards disputed the claim. They wanted to check the growth of the western settlements. One way to accompHsh this was by cutting off the only outlet for trade. They therefore offered valuable privileges of trade with Spain and the Spanish West Indies, if the United States would give up the claim to the use of the lower Mississippi. Some men in Congress were ready to obtain trade privileges at this price. When the settlers in Kentucky and on the Ten- nessee heard of it, they threatened to secede if it were done. Need of a Stronger Union. — It had already become clear that the states needed a stronger government if they were to deal successfully with foreign nations. By 1787 even so friendly a government as France thought the repubhc was falling to pieces. The British would not withdraw their garrisons from the northern frontier posts. ^ 1 British garrisons still held Detroit, Mackinac, Erie, Niagara, and Oswego, though these posts now belonged to the United States. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 237 Congress was unable to collect money enough to pay the ordinary expenses of the government. It was obHged to ask the states to send money for such purposes. In 1782 and 1783 Congress asked for $10,000,000, but received less than $1,500,000. Delaware, Georgia, and North Carolina paid noth- ing, while New Hampshire paid $3,000 instead of $450,000. QUESTIONS 1. Describe the United States in 1783. What neighbors had it? 2. Why did the Spanish colonies grow slowly? Who made up the inhab- itants of these? 3. Upon what new race were the English and Spanish people starting as rivals ? Why was the outcome of the race a long way oQ? 4. Why was there danger that the new republic would break up? Why did the people of the United States know so little of one another? 5. What did Congress accomplish? What kind of money was used? De- scribe the system of money adopted. 6. What arrangement did Congress and the states make regarding the west- ern land claims? What plan did Congress adopt for the survey of these lands? What plan for the government of the Northwest Territory? 7. What western settlements were formed? How did the emigrants reach the western colonies? Why did people leave the old settlements for the West? 8. How did the coming of peace after the Revolution affect the trade of the colonies? How did the people finally secure a profitable foreign trade? 9. Why was a stronger union needed? EXERCISES 1. On an outline map of the present United States show the parts (i) which were already inhabited in 1783, (2) those which belonged to the United States, but were vacant, and (3) those held by foreign colonies. 2. Make two lists, one of the good things that the Congress of the Con- federation accomplished between 1781 and 1789, and another of the things that it should have done but could not for want of power. 3. Describe the present English money system. Would it have been better if the United States had kept the money system of the mother country? 4. Review the story of the Virginia Company's colony at Jamesto\vn and compare it with that of the Ohio Company's colony at Marietta. Important Date: 1787. The adoption of the Northwest Ordinance. CHAPTER XXI STARTING THE NEW GOVERNMENT The Philadelphia Convention. — Disputes about trade, especially in Chesapeake Bay and along the Potomac River, finally convinced thoughtful men that a government strong enough to regulate all such matters was necessary. At- tempts to settle by conference questions of trade between neighboring states like Virginia and Maryland came to nothing. A convention of delegates from all the states was then called. It met in Philadelphia in May, 1787. James Madison, one of the youngest men at the conven- tion, had carefully prepared himself beforehand to take a leading part in its work. He had so much to do with making the new government that he is often called the ''Father of the Constitution." Many other notable men attended the Philadelphia convention. Among them were George Wash- ington of Virginia, Benjamin FrankHn and James Wilson of Pennsylvania, and Alexander Hamilton of New York. Some great leaders of the day were occupied with other work and could not take part in the convention. John Jay had charge of foreign affairs and chose to stay at his post. John Adams was minister of the United States to England, Thomas Jefferson to France. Several well-known men, Hke Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry, were opposed to such a change in the government, and were not in the convention. Washington was chosen president of the convention. The leaders made no attempt to patch the weak spots in the gov- ernment of the Confederation. From the beginning they were A NEW CONSTITUTION 239 James Madison resolved to propose to the people a form of government alto- gether new. One obstacle to success was the fact that no two of the thirteen states were of the same size, and yet each beheved itself as important as any of the rest. The small states were afraid to be yoked with the large states, for fear the latter would outvote and oppress them. A thousand imaginary dangers troubled the minds of the timid. At one time the Delaware dele- gates threatened to leave the convention. A majority of the New York delegates did leave in disgust at the deci- sions which the convention made. A New Constitution. — The frame of government which the delegates completed, after working from May until well into September, differed widely from that which the states had accepted in the Articles of Confederation. In the first place, an official called a President was placed at the head of the administration of affairs. Secondly, the legislature, or Congress, was divided into a Senate and a House of Representatives. In the third place, a Supreme Court was provided. The powers granted to each of these branches of the government showed that the leaders of the convention wanted to guard against hasty decisions. For this reason they made the assent of two bodies necessary in drawing up laws. They also gave the President the right to veto acts of Congress, which could not then become laws unless both Houses passed them again by a majority of two-thirds. Furthermore, they wished to protect the people against the possibility that in times of excitement both President and 240 STARTING THE NEW GOVERNMENT Congress might adopt measures which would deprive a part of the people of their rights, especially of their rights of property. They had in mind such laws as had been passed in Rhode Island about paper money. This fear led the con- vention to give to a Supreme Court the power to guard these rights by declaring unconstitutional acts of Congress which violated them. An equally great change was made in the powers of the cen- tral government. To it were granted not only the right to levy taxes enough to pay its expenses, but to regulate, without in- terference from the state legislatures, such matters as trade. Moreover, the states were forbidden to issue paper money. The delegates thought it better to give the choice of a Pres- ident to a selected body of men, called an Electoral College, rather than provide that the President should be chosen directly by the people. They also decided that senators should be chosen by the legislatures of the states. Members of the House of Representatives were the only officers to be chosen directly by the people. The Compromises of the Constitution. — It was very diffi- cult to come to an agreement about the manner of making up the two Houses of Congress. Men from the larger states like Massachusetts, Peimsylvania, and Virginia, thought that their states should have more representatives than small states. But the small states did not wish to be ruled by their larger neighbors. A New Jersey delegate said that he would not submit the welfare of his state with five votes to a Congress in which Virginia had sixteen. Wilson of Pennsylvania just as emphatically called it absurd to give New Jersey with a population of 175,000 as many votes as Pennsylvania, which had more than twice as many people, or Delaware with less than 60,000 as many as Virginia, which had a population ten times as great. Nearly five weeks passed before they settled the question. THE CONSTITUTION ADOPTED 241 Franklin showed them a way out. "When," he said, "a broad table is to be made, and the edges of the planks do not fit, the artist takes a little from both, and makes a good joint. In like manner here both sides must part with some of their demands." According to the plan finally adopted each state, large or small, should have two senators, while its number of representatives depended upon the size of its pop- ulation. Massa- chusetts, for ex- ample, was grant- ed eight members in the House of Representatives , Virginia ten, Del- aware one, and Maryland six. Many similar bargains were made in the course of the de- bates. There was, as one writer says, a "whole bundle" of compromises agreed to while making the Constitution. Frankhn wanted to have a Congress of one House and to fix the term of President at seven years, denying him a second term. These proposals and many others were voted down. The States accept the Work of the Convention. — The people of the states accepted the work of the convention, though not without weeks of discussion and opposition. Most of the small states thought the Constitution favorable to their interests. Delaware, New Jersey, and Georgia rati- CoNGRESS Hall, Philadelphia National Capitol in 1790-1800 242 STARTING THE NEW GOVERNMENT fied it with enthusiasm. Ratification came only after a long, hard fight in Massachusetts, Virginia, and New York. Rhode Island and North Carolina at first refused to join the other states. Eleven states accepted the new Constitution, and went to work "to form a more perfect union." ^ George Washington, First President, 1789-97. — The Congress of the Confederation appointed March 4, 1789, for beginning the new government, and New York as the tem- porary capital. Electors, chosen in half of the states by the legislatures, and in the others by the people, voted unani- mously for Washington as the first President. They chose John Adams as Vice-President. It was long after March 4 before Congress was organized and Washington was officially notified of his election. On April 30 he took the oath of office and read his inaugural address to the two Houses of Congress assembled in Federal Hall. It was a day of great rejoicing. In the morning crowds attended services in the churches to pray for the welfare of the new government and the safety of the President. Bonfires and illuminations at night ended the celebration. Washington's Helpers. — Washington's first task was to select his advisers. Congress provided for a Secretary of State to conduct foreign correspondence, a Secretary of the Treasury to manage money matters, and a Secretary of War to direct the army of only 600 men. The offices of Attorney- General to advise the President on matters of law and Post- master-General to care for the small postal business of the country were created. Neither of these was looked upon as an important department like the other three. Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson Secretary of State, Alexander ^ The provision in the Constitution that it should go into effect as soon as nine states agreed to it was revolutionary, because according to the Articles of Confederation any change in the government required the consent of all the states. WASHINGTON THE FIRST PRESIDENT 243 Hamilton Secretary of the Treasury, and Henry Knox Secre- tary of War. John Jay was made Chief- Justice of the new Supreme Court. Formation of the Cabinet. — Each secretary had his own work to do. In England such officers together formed a "Cab- inet" or special body of advisers to the king, recommending meas- ures of government and conduct- ing discussions in parliament. The American Constitution said nothing about a Cabinet. Wash- ington early adopted a part of the Enghsh practice and asked the heads of departments to meet together and to advise with him upon important mat- ters. The custom of holding Cabinet meetings with the President has been continued by Washington's successors. In this way, without a provision in the law or the Constitution, the President's Cabinet came into existence.^ Providing Money for National Affairs. — The most impor- tant matter at the outset was providing money to pay the national debt and the ordinary expenses of government. It had been necessary to borrow money in Holland to pay the interest on the French loans. Adams had also been obliged to borrow money there to start the new government. Con- gress began raising money almost at once by taxing articles imported into the United States from other countries. Such taxes, called tariffs or import duties, remained the chief source of income for the federal government. Duties were Glorci: Washington After the portrait by Stuart ^ Four men made up Washington's Cabinet — • the three secretaries — State, Treasury, and War — and the Attorney-General. 244 STARTING THE NEW GOVERNMENT raised or lowered as more or less money was needed. From the first, manufacturers urged Congress to lay import duties on articles which were also made in the United States. This would give the American makers an advantage or ''protec- tion," as it was called. The duties in the first tariff act were low, that is, only slightly protective. The National and State Debts. — Alexander Hamilton, as Secretary of the Treasury, was called upon to prepare a plan for paying off the great war debt. He proposed that Congress should pay not only the money borrowed by the government from the French, the Dutch, and from Ameri- can citizens, but even that borrowed by the states in their own defense. This meant that the United States would pay about $75,000,000, a huge sum for those days. There was not much difference of opinion about paying back the money which the United States had borrowed, but many objected to paying the debts of the states. Some states like Virginia had already paid a part of their debt. They objected to a plan by which their citizens would have to aid other states. Besides, some men preferred that the states, rather than the United States, should receive the credit which would come from honorable payment of the Revolu- tionary debts. Another Compromise. — It happened that Congress had to select a place for a permanent capital. The members of Congress from the southern states wanted this to be located on the Potomac. The members from Pennsylvania wanted it at Philadelphia. Other members of Congress did not care where the capital should be located, but were anxious to carry through Hamilton's plan of paying the state debts. Hamilton and Jefferson, representing different sides, struck a bargain. Hamilton agreed to persuade several northern Congressmen to vote to locate the capital for ten years at Philadelphia and then permanently on the Potomac River; Jefferson, in turn, TAXES AND REVENUE 245 promised to find several southern members to support Hamil- ton's plan about state debts. The bargain was carried out. Internal Revenue Taxes. — Hamilton persuaded Congress to tax whiskey manufactured in the United States. This was called an internal revenue or excise tax. The govern- ment needed the money, and Hamilton thought it well to ac- custom the people to the idea of taxes collected in different parts of the country. He be- lieved that a government, like Alexander Hamilton a man, grows strong by exercis- ing every power. The levy of this tax soon gave the government an opportunity to show whether it was strong. Many persons in western Penn- sylvania owned small distilleries and made whiskey out of their surplus rye, corn, and wheat. When the Spaniards closed the Mississippi, the western settlers could no longer send their grain to market by water. It could be sent across the mountains only at great expense unless distilled into whis- key. They were angry at the law placing a tax on their chief product and drove away the collectors. When the governor of Pennsylvania would not put down the disorder, Washington sent to the seat of trouble an army made up of militia from the neighboring states. The "Whiskey Rebel- lion" ended without actual fighting, and resistance to the collectors ceased. A Mint and a National Bank. — By Hamilton's advice a mint was established, and the coinage of silver and gold begun. His plan to create a Bank of the United States met with more opposition. England had had such a bank for a 246 STARTING THE NEW GOVERNMENT century. It had been of great use in several ways, but chiefly in helping the government when it needed to borrow large amounts of money. In Holland the Bank of Amsterdam had been equally useful. When Hamilton proposed a similar bank for the United States, many opposed the scheme for fear that it would be so power- ful that it would control all business. Congress, however, finally authorized the Bank, to do business for twenty years, and subscrib- ed one-fifth of the money that was required for its or- ganization. Rival Leaders in Washington's Cabinet. — In carrying out Hamilton's plans Congress made use of powers not given to it expressly in the Constitution. Hamilton argued that Congress should provide for the general welfare of the coun- try. Jefferson opposed Hamilton's plans in the Cabinet meetings and outside. Washington sympathized rather more with Hamilton, but preferred not to take sides with either. The fact was that the two great leaders held very different views of government. Hamilton was bent on securing a strong government which could maintain order at all times. He distrusted the ability of the masses of the people to take an intelligent part in government, and accordingly beheved that the government should be carried on by men of prop- erty and education. Jefferson, on the other hand, sincerely believing that all men are equal, was determined that the few The Bank of the United States, Philadelphia THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY 247 should not rule the many. He thought that all the people would in the end prove wiser than any part of them, however well-meaning and intelhgent. Under the influence of Jefferson and Hamilton the citizens of the new repubhc were soon grouped in two political parties. Hamilton's followers were com- monly called Fed- eralists, because of their belief in a strong federal or national govern- ment. The Jeffer- sonians were called Democrats or Re- publicans because of their faith in the people. The Dem- ocrats naturally looked to the states rather than the Un- ited States as the governments which must be reHed upon. They were sure that Hamilton aimed at changing the government into a monarchy, and even went so far as to attack Washington bitterly for leaning toward Hamilton's ideas on government. The New Government and the Ohio Country. — The advantages of a strong government, such as Washington and his advisers were organizing, soon became apparent in another way. Hardly had Marietta been founded before a new Indian war broke out, in which the governor of the North- west Territory was badly defeated. The new government raised another and better army and supphed it with neces- sary war suppHes. Washington gave the command to Gen- The Northwest Territory after Wayne's Victory The part given up by the Indians is shaded; that kept by the Indians is white 248 STARTING THE NEW GOVERNMENT eral Anthony Wayne, whom his soldiers liked to call "Mad Anthony" for his bravery, but whom the Indians called the "chief that never sleeps" for his ceaseless energy. Wayne defeated the Indians decisively and compelled them to give up nearly all of what is now the state of Ohio. After this it was not so dangerous to emigrate to the West, and the number of settlers increased rapidly. Exterior Interior A Pioneer Home in Kentucky By 1800 four hundred thousand people lived west of the mountains. So many lived in Kentucky that in 1792 it was admitted to the union of states on the same terms as the original thirteen. Four years later, in 1796, Tennessee was made the sixteenth state. ^ Ohio was added in 1803, and the remainder of the Northwest Territory was soon divided into Indiana, Michigan, and IlUnois Territories. QUESTIONS I. What disputes finally convinced men that a stronger government was needed? Who were the leaders in calling the convention at Philadelphia? • 2. What great obstacle was there to the success of the convention? How long did the delegates work in framing the new government? 3. What three branches of government did the new Constitution provide? Why did the leaders arrange the powers of these branches as they did? What new powers, not possessed by Congress under the Articles of Confederation, were now given to the central government? ^Vermont, the fourteenth state, had been admitted in 1791. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 249 4. Why did the delegates not give the choice of President and senators to the people directly? What officials did they allow the people to choose? What compromise was made in order to adjust the chief difference between the large and small states? 5. How many states accepted the work of the convention? What states refused at first to accept? 6. When was the new government organized? Who became the President and Vice-President? Whom did Washington choose as his advisers? Where did Washington get the idea of a Cabinet? 7. Hqw did Congress, under the advice of Hamilton, Secretary of the Treas- ury, provide for the expenses of government? Why did Hamilton wish the United States to pay the state debts as well as the general debts? Why did many citizens oppose this part of his plan? What compromise was adopted in Congress to settle the difference of opinion over state debts and the capital? 8. Why did Hamilton want Congress to create a Bank of the United States? Where had the plan worked well? What objections were made? Was Hamilton successful in this part of his scheme for the organization of the new government? 9. What views did Hamilton and Jefferson hold regarding government? What party names did their followers take? 10. In what way was the new and stronger government beneficial to the western settlers? What new states were added to the Union? EXERCISES 1. Review in Chapter XX the reasons for abandoning the Articles of Con- federation for an entirely new frame of government. 2. Make a table showing the area and population of the thirteen states and group them as large and small states with regard to population. (See Appendix, page x.) 3. Are senators and the President still elected in the manner originally provided in the Constitution? 4. What heads of departments now form the President's Cabinet? Important Dates: 1787. The Constitutional Convention meets in Philadelphia. 1789. The new Constitution goes into effect, and Washington becomes President. CHAPTER XXII THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE Two New Revolutions. — While the people of the United States were busy completing the new framework of govern- ment, two revolutions on the other side of the Atlantic began to influence them deeply. The first, in England, called the Industrial Revolution, introduced new and quicker ways of making cloth, iron, steel, and many other things. The Americans naturally were eager to learn the new methods in order to succeed in manufacturing. The second revolution was in France, and seemed to be a struggle for the kind of liberty and equality which the Americans already enjoyed. It therefore appealed strongly to their sympathies. But when it led to a terrible war, in which France was arrayed against England and Europe, American sympathies were divided. This was especially true after the French as well as the EngUsh began to interfere with American trade. Spinning and Weaving. — The first change made in Eng- land was in the method of preparing cotton or woolen yarn and of weaving it into cloth. The story is told that James Hargreaves, an Enghsh weaver, entered his house one day so suddenly that his wife, startled, upset her spinning-wheel. Hargreaves noticed that the wheel kept on turning as it lay on the floor, and he wondered why he could not construct a wheel in such a manner that it would turn several spindles and spin several threads at once. He succeeded in making a machine which could spin eight threads, and named it a "spinning jenny" in honor of his wife. This was in 1764. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 251 Hargreaves's Spinning Jenny Hargreaves did not keep his secret long, and soon other machines were made, spinning 20 and 30 threads. The most successful maker of spinning machines was Richard Ark- wright, who after 1769 made and sold great numbers of them. The good points of both kinds of machines were soon com- bined in a ''mule spinner," which was in common use by the close of the Revolu- tionary War. Before these spinning machines were invented, weavers often were unable to obtain yarn enough to supply their looms. Now yarn was spun much faster than it was needed. The balance was restored by the power-loom, another great invention. A clergyman, Edmund Cartwright, invented a machine, which was run by power, for weaving the yarn into cloth. This soon began to displace the hand-looms. The power was furnished at first by horses or water-wheels. The Steam-Engine. — About the same time James Watt invented the steam-engine. Men had dreamed for ages of using the steam which escaped from a boiling kettle for driving machinery. Hero, a Greek inventor of Alexandria in Egypt, more than one hundred years before Christ, attached bent pipes to a boiler so that escaping steam caused the pipes to revolve in the same way as lawn sprinklers turn by the flow of water. Watt showed how to introduce the steam first at one end of a cylinder and then at the other, so as to drive a piston back and forth. His engine was able to furnish more power than a very large number of horses, and could be used where water-wheels could not be set up, and could take the place of the water-wheels when the rivers 252 THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE were low. Watt began to manufacture his engines in 1781. Eight years later Cartwright, who had been using an ox to drive his power-loom, adopted one of Watt's engines. The introduction of the steam-engine made it necessary for spinning and weaving to be carried on in places where coal for fuel was easily obtained. Factories. — These inventions led to the building of mills or factories. Hitherto spin- ning and weaving had been household industries. Women had often done the spinning in their leisure time. In some country districts whole fami- lies had spent the long winter evenings spinning yarn to sell to some weaver or to use in the family loom. The ordinary family or skilled weaver did not have money enough to buy the new machines, nor a house large enough to hold them. There- fore, men with money built the factories, bought the machines, and paid spinners and weavers to run them. Many weavers still lived at home and tried to make cloth in the old way. But the cost of making cloth with the new machinery was so small that weavers with hand- looms found it hard to earn a Hving. Angry at the loss of their business, they sometimes rushed into the factories and broke the new machines. The change in the place of making cloth from the household to the factory is usually described as a change from the "domestic" to the "factory" system. Coal, Iron, and Steel. — Two changes in the manner of making iron and steel were equally important. The older furnaces had used charcoal, and as the supply of charcoal began to give out, the EngUsh makers of iron and steel imple- Watt's Steam-Engine AMERICANS AND THE NEW INVENTIONS 253 ments imported pig iron from the American colonies or from northern Europe. In 1760 an EngUshman made a blast- furnace in which coal could be used, and thirty years later manufacturers began to use steam-engines to cause the blast. The result was a growth in the production of iron and steel as rapid as the growth in the production of cloth had been. This drew many workmen from the villages to the towns, especially in the coal regions where the new furnaces were constructed. The Americans and the New Inventions. — Americans did not wait for the new machine methods of making cloth to be fully improved before they began to use them. The English government realized the advantage that the inventions gave to Enghsh manufacturers and merchants, and forbade either the machines or plans of them to be sent out of the country. Parliament even tried to prevent the emigration of those who knew how to work with the new inventions. The Americans, however, found ways of obtaining the needed information and constructed the machines themselves. A spinning jenny was at work in Philadelphia in the year the Revolutionary War broke out, eleven years after Har- greaves had invented it. Three years after the close of the war a mill for spinning cotton yarn was built at Beverly, Mas- sachusetts. Bounties or rewards were offered for the intro- duction of English machinery. Samuel Slater, a workman in one of Arkwright's mills, heard of the bounty and emigrated to America. In order to avoid the heavy penalties for carry- ing away models or plans of such machinery, he was obliged to store his memory with a knowledge of every part of the machine. At Pawtucket, Rhode Island, in 1789, he suc- ceeded in furnishing a mill with the new spinning machinery. A French traveler was surprised to find that Arkwright's spinning machines were not only well known, but made in the United States. 254 THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE At Slater's mill, as in England, women and even boys and girls were employed. In a short time the machinery was so improved that one worker could tend 300 spindles and do as much as 300 girls with the old spinning wheels. Others were slow to imitate Slater, for in the next fifteen years only four mills were built. Most of the spinning and all of the weaving in the United States was still done at home on the spinning-wheels and hand-looms. Whitney's Cotton-Gin. — The new way of making cotton yarn greatly increased the demand for raw cotton. People in Georgia began to raise more. In 1 786 the Georgians intro- duced "sea-island" or long-fiber cotton, which hitherto had been brought from South America or the West Indies. Short-fiber cotton was raised on the uplands in the interior. From 1789 to 1791 the production doubled. The great obstacle to success in the cotton trade was the difficulty with which the seed was separated from the fiber. A slave could clean only five or sLx pounds a day. Eli Whitney, a graduate of Yale College, who became a teacher in Georgia, resolved to construct a machine which could do this work faster. He succeeded in inventing a cotton-gin, which drew the fibers through wires by means of cyUnders covered with teeth. The new machine run by horse-power could clean 300 pounds of cotton a day. The production of cotton which amounted to 2,000,000 pounds in 1791, was 48,000,000 pounds ten years later. Cotton and Slavery. — Another consequence of the grow- ing importance of cotton raising was a change of feehng in regard to slavery. Soon after the Revolution, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, as well as the states farther north, began to free their slaves and to forbid slavery within their borders. They found such a system of labor unprofitable where farm- ing could not be carried on by the methods of the plantation. Several of the southern states were already planning similar COTTON AND SLAVERY 255 action. But the invention of the cotton-gin and the demand of the factories for cotton stopped all talk of this in the cotton-growing states. The French Revolution. — All these changes were impor- tant, but they went on so quietly that few men understood how great the industrial revolution was. Most men's atten- Improved model COTTON-GlNS Whitney's model tion was attracted by another kind of revolution going on in France. Ever since the American Revolution Frenchmen had eagerly asked one another how they too might have more liberty. One of their great writers declared, "Man is born free, and is everywhere in chains." Those who believed this were eager to break the chains and make men free again. Louis XVI, the French king, was well-meaning, but he did not have energy enough to make the laws fair and just to all. The great trouble in France was that the rich and the nobles had managed to lay the heaviest burdens upon the shoulders of the farmers. Three-quarters of the people were peasant farmers, but that was no reason why they should pay nine-tenths of the taxes. The poorer townspeople were not much better off. The refusal of the upper classes to bear their share of the burdens left the government without income enough to pay its expenses and its debts. The aid given to the United States had added about $300,000,000 to the 256 THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE French national debt. When the government could do nothing to prevent bankruptcy a States- General or Na- tional Assembly was called together to prepare ways of avoiding such a calamity. This body met in May, 1789, five days after Washington was inaugurated. Lafayette was one of the members. He and other leaders of the assembly resolved that France also should have a consti- tution which would protect the rights of the people and which would distribute the burdens of the country more equally. Civil War in France. — Many of the nobles, especially the courtiers, were angry to see their privileges destroyed. Other men thought that the National Assembly made many changes which were wrong. Within two years France was divided into two parties, one for and the other against the Revolution. Its supporters called themselves patriots, Uke the leaders of the Revolution in America in 1775. They hated their oppo- nents just as the American patriots hated the Tories or loyalists. In 1792 civil war broke out in France, and soon afterward Louis XVI was dethroned and executed as an enemy of the Revolution. By this time the earlier leaders, like Lafayette, had lost their influence. Lafayette had even been driven into exile. Quarrels with Austria and Prussia had also led to war. The execution of the king added England, Holland, and Spain to the list of enemies. France seemed arrayed against all the governments of Europe. The United States and France. — Many Americans, among them prominent FederaUsts, now concluded that France had gone too far. Others, especially the followers of Jefferson, still believed that the French were fighting in the cause of liberty. In consequence the French Revolution increased party strife in the United States. As soon as war broke out between France and England, the THE UNITED STATES AND FRANCE 257 French expected the Americans to take their side, out of gratitude for the help given ten years before. The treaty of 1778 also pledged the Americans to defend the French West Indies. It seemed doubtful to Washington whether the Americans should be dragged into a war which the French had brought upon themselves. He decided to hold aloof and to act in a manner friendly toward all. In April, 1793, Genet, a new French minister, landed in the United States and tried to induce American privateersmen to help France destroy English merchant vessels on the coast. Many Americans were glad to see blows struck at England, and criticized Washington severely when he put a stop to Genet's attempts to draw the country into the war with England. Fortunately the French government soon sent over another minister. Disputes about Trade. — The war raised other more serious difficulties. The ships of England and France were obliged to charge higher prices for carrying freight, because they were in constant danger of loss by capture. This gave a great advantage to the ship-owners of a neutral nation, hke the United States, who could still charge the ordinary rates. Neither England nor France was willing to see American merchants take away a large part of their trade on the sea. "If our trade is lost," they argued, "where shall we get money to pay taxes, and without taxes we cannot support armies and navies, and may as well confess ourselves beaten." Of course neutrals were not allowed to carry either to Eng- land or France things like powder which could be used in war- fare. Why should not the trade in wheat also be stopped, for soldiers must have bread as well as powder? So the English thought, and they captured American ships loaded with wheat bound for France or the French colonies. Eng- land also objected when the American shipmasters attempted 258 THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE to carry sugar and coffee from the French West Indies to Europe.^ The people of the United States were almost ready for war with Great Britain on account of such quarrels over trade. Their anger was increased when British naval officers seized Englishmen on board American vessels and compelled them to serve in the navy. By Enghshmen these officers meant any one born in England, whether he had been naturalized in the United States or not. They held the old notion that, "Once an Englishman always an Englishman." Often they seized American-born sailors, claiming that they were EngHsh. The Jay Treaty. — To save the country from war Washing- ton sent Chief- Justice Jay to England to settle all disputes between the two countries, in- cluding those which remained after the treaty of peace in 1783. Jay was only partly successful. The English agreed to withdraw their garrisons from the northern frontier posts. They would make no promises about impressment, and the arrangement they offered concerning the trade with the West Indies was so ruinous to American trade that it was 1 The French were giving the American ships unusual privileges of trade with the West Indies, because their own ships were liable to capture, and the merchants in France desired to obtain the coffee and sugar raised in the colonies. The English, however, declared that the Americans could not take advantage of the French offers, because they were due whoUj' to the war, and were simply methods by which the French sought to save their planters as well as many of their merchants from ruin. The Americans had traded with the French West Indies before war began and, therefore, the English had no right to stop all such trade. England later paid damages for seizing during the quarrel several hundred American ships trading in the West Indies. John Jay JOHN ADAMS ELECTED PRESIDENT 259 finally omitted from the treaty. All Washington's influence was required to persuade the Senate to ratify the treaty, even with that article left out. The Mississippi Question. — In 1795 a satisfactory treaty was signed with Spain, making it possible for western settlers to float their products down the Mississippi and store them in a "place of deposit" at New Orleans, so that they might be loaded there upon sea-going ships. The French and Jay's Treaty. — When the French heard of Jay's treaty they were angry and declared the alliance of 1778 at an end. They also threatened to treat American vessels trading with Great Britain and her colonies exactly as the United States permitted the British to treat American vessels trading with France and her colonies. The partisans of France were very bitter toward Washington. The mer- chants were relieved when the danger of war with England was gone, but the great mass of the people outside the coast towns ardently supported the French and hated the English. Change of Administration in the United States. — By 1797 Washington had served two terms as President. He decided not to permit his name to go before the electors again. In his farewell address he urged his fellow countrymen "to steer clear of permanent alHances with any portion of the foreign world." He now retired to Mount Vernon, where he died two years later. In the electoral college there was a Uvely struggle over his successor. The quarrel over Jay's treaty still excited the Jeffersonians and the Federahsts. John Adams, Vice- President since 1789, was the FederaHst candidate, while the Repubhcans desired Jefferson. Adams won by three votes, and Jefferson became Vice-President. ^ ^ The Constitution originally provided that the candidate receiving next to the highest number of votes in the electoral college should be Vice- President. 26o THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE Troubles with France. — Adams had been in office only a few months when the country was on the point of declaring war against the French. The government of France was now bankrupt. Its ordinary expenses were paid by money which victorious generals Uke Napoleon Bonaparte sent to Paris from conquered lands. When Adams sent commissioners to France to settle the difficulties growing out of the European war, the officials not only demanded a loan of millions for the government, but they asked for $250,000 for their own pockets. The commissioners replied that they should not have a sixpence. The news of this insulting treatment filled most Americans with indignation, although some Republicans thought insults the proper way of treating the Adams administration. In dealing with the situation Adams and his supporters in Congress made serious blunders. They wisely provided for the construction of several war ships which were author- ized to attack French ships. But they also passed an act empowering the President to expel foreigners in time of war, meaning Frenchmen, and another act punishing as a crime criticisms of the government and its officials. These two measures, the AHen and Sedition Acts, were denounced by the Republicans as attempts to set up a tyrannical govern- ment in the United States. The legislatures of Virginia and of Kentucky declared them contrary to the Constitution, the Kentucky legislature going so far as to declare them null and void in "Resolutions" written by Jefferson. Before the controversy ended, the Federalists, the party of a strong central government, became unpopular. There was Httle chance that Adams would be re-elected for another term. A Treaty with France. — Fortunately for America, the French government was changed in 1799 and Napoleon Bonaparte, as First Consul, became its head. He saw no object in prolonging the quarrel with the Americans, and A TREATY WITH FRANCE 261 signed a treaty ending the difficulties. The quarrel had interfered Httle with the trade of American merchants in the West Indies. They were busy carrying West India coffee and sugar to Europe. To comply with the English rules they must first bring the cargoes to the United States, unload them, and pay import duties as if they were to be sold in the United States. The cargoes could then be put on the same ships, the duties paid back, and the ships could sail for Euro- pean ports without risk of capture. Before the war between England and France the United States exported to Europe only about one million pounds of sugar and two milhon pounds of coffee each year. Within four years the amount of sugar had risen to 35,000,000 pounds and of coffee to 62,000,000 pounds. It seemed, therefore, that the misfor- tunes of France were as profitable to American merchants as Enghsh inventions to American manufacturers. Another ten years showed that the losses in such trade might be greater than the gains. QUESTIONS 1. What two revolutions in Europe deeply influenced the United States? Which impressed the American people the more? Why was the industrial revolution very important? 2. What new inventions changed the method of manufacturing in England? How did these machines affect the work of the house? Why did the hand weavers lose their work? 3. What two changes took place in iron and steel manufacture? Where were the iron workers obliged to go? 4. Which one of the new inventions was quickly introduced into the United States? Who tended the spindles in Slater's mill? 5. What invention helped the South to produce enough cotton for the new factories in England and the United States? How did the demand for cotton influence the migration westward? What effect had it on the talk of freeing the slaves? 6. How did the American Revolution affect Frenchmen? What were the chief causes of the Revolution in France? Why did some oppose the changes in France? What larger war resulted from the French Revolution? 7. What did Americans think of the French war? Why did some want to help France? Why did Washington and his advisers decide not to help France? 262 THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE 8. What did Genet attempt to do? What advantage did American ship- masters have in trade over the Enghsh and French? How did the English try to deprive them of this advantage? Under what conditions did England allow them to carry French sugar and coffee to Europe? g. What other trouble did the United States have with Great Britain? How much did Jay's treaty obtain in the way of concessions fron\ England? 10. How was the Mississippi question finally settled? 1 1 . What did the French do when they heard of Jay's treaty with England? What did France do which brought the United States and France to the verge of a great war? How did President Adams and the I-'ederalists in dealing with the French trouble make a great many opponents and so bring on their defeat in the next election? 12. Why were the wars of France and the inventions of England both profitable for many Americans? EXERCISES 1. Describe the method of making cloth before the industrial revolution. If possible first visit a museum where the hand machines formerly used may be seen. 2. If possible visit a cotton or woolen mill and learn about the various stages in making cloth today. 3. Tell the story of the invention of Hargreaves's spinning jenny. 4. Tell the story of how Samuel Slater introduced the spinning machinery into the United States. 5. Tell the story of Eli Whitney's cotton-gin. 6. Review in Chapter XX the way in which American merchants had secured a profitable trade in the West Indies in 1785 and 1786. What trouble had they over this trade during the war between England and France? 7. Review in Chapter XX the early history of the Mississippi question. Who were naturally greatly pleased by the final settlement? Important Events : 1789. Samuel Slater sets up a spinning mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. The French Revolution begins. 1793. EH Whitney invents the cotton-gin. CHAPTER XXIII RULE OF JEFFERSON: A NEW WEST Jefferson elected President. — ■ The Federalists had guided the country safely past the dangers of war with Great Britain and France, but their rule had become unpopular. They stood for strong government and high taxes. Although Adams expelled no Frenchman under the AHen Act, the power it gave him offered his opponents the chance to call him a tyrant. Moreover, he had permitted several Repub- lican journalists to be prosecuted under the Sedition Act. The Republicans for years had been accusing him of being at heart a monarchist. In 1800 the new election took place. Now that Washing- ton was dead, the Federalists quarreled among themselves. Hamilton criticized Adams pubhcly, but could not prevent his nomination. The RepubHcans nominated Jefferson, who was very popular except in New England and among the merchants of the coast towns. Jefferson was victorious, obtaining 73 electoral votes, while Adams received 65.^ The New Capital. — One of the last acts of the Federalists was to move the seat of government from Philadelphia to Washington, the new capital on the Potomac. The city was located in a tract of land ten miles square, called the Dis- trict of Columbia, which had been given to the United 1 Jefferson and his Republican "running-mate," Aaron Burr, received the same number of votes, and the House of Representatives chose Jefferson Pres- ident and Burr Vice-President. An amendment was adopted in 1804 which required the electors to vote separately for President and Vice-President. 264 RULE OF JEFFERSON: A NEW WEST States by Virginia and Maryland.^ It was laid out on a spacious plan, its wide streets, large parks, and gardens taking up more than half the ground. Little had been done by 1800. A row of dreary boarding-houses, a partly finished capitol building for Congress, a President's house — these were all. The streets were ungraded, and ran through vast patches of scrubby oak, wild ravines, and marshy river flats. The White House in 1800 Many made fun of it as a city of magnificent distances, or the seat of the President's "palace in the woods." It seemed a dreary place to the members of Congress accustomed to the gay Hfe of Philadelphia. The New President. — The new President was more interesting than the new capital. In appearance he was tall, of a reddish complexion, freckled, awkward, and shy in manner. An EngHsh traveler said that he looked like a "large-boned farmer." Although a great landowner and planter in Virginia, he was a man of simple habits. He disliked the ceremonial with which Washington had sur- rounded the duties of the President. Instead of proceeding to the capitol building for his inauguration in a coach drawn 1 In 1846 Congress returned Virginia's part, south of the Potomac, because it was not needed. JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 265 by six cream-colored horses, as Adams had done, he walked across the square from his boarding-house accompanied by a few friends and escorted by the miHtia. When Jefferson wrote in the Declaration of Independence "that all men are born equal," he meant every word. Like the early leaders of the French Revolution, many of whom were his friends, he thought men, especially the "plain people," were inclined to do right and could be trusted. He beUeved that the people should be left to govern them- selves in their towns, counties, and states with as little inter- ference from the central gov- ernment as possible. He would have every man vote who earned a living, instead of limiting the privilege to property holders, as in most of the older states. Jefferson was already famous. He had been governor of Virginia and minister to France after Franklin's return. In Virginia he had not only carried through laws dividing a father's estate equally among all the children, but he had also brought it about that every one should be free to at- tend and support the church he preferred or none at all. In other words, he established religious freedom in Virginia. It was his ambition to organize a complete system of educa- tion, beginning with the elementary school and ending with a university. He also wished to free children born of negro slaves, and thus gradually bring slavery in Virginia to an end. He said he wanted "equal and exact justice for all men" and "peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations." Thomas Jefferson 266 RULE OF JEFFERSON: A NEW WEST It is no wonder that many thought his election a great event, the promise of better things for all people. An Economical Administration. — As soon as Jefferson became President, he worked to lessen the expenses of the government. The army was reduced from 4,000 to 2,500 men. This could be done because the danger of war was over for the time. The same reason made possible econo- mies in the navy, which Jefferson beheved "caused more dangers than it prevented." In his management of the finances he had the assistance of Albert Gallatin, an able Secretary of the Treasury, who in his youth had emigrated to America from Switzerland. Within eight years a third of the public debt was paid. Purchase of Louisiana. — Jefferson, however, was ready to spend money for a great purpose. In 1803 he had an unexpected opportunity to purchase the vast territory of Louisiana, stretching from the Gulf of Mexico into the far northwest to the Rocky Mountains. It came about in this way. One of the ambitions of Napoleon Bonaparte, the First Consul of France, was to reestabhsh the French colonial em- pire destroyed by England in the Seven Years' War. In 1798, two years before he became First Consul, he had been sent to Egypt, which the French thought would be a good half-way station to India. Although he conquered Eg)^t, he was obliged to abandon it because his fleet was beaten by an English fleet under Lord Nelson, and he could get no further help from home. In 1802 France and England made peace, and General Bonaparte resolved to recover part of the terri- tory that the French had once held in the Mississippi Valley. He had already compelled the Spaniards to promise to turn over Louisiana to France as soon as he should be ready to occupy it. Just here trouble came. Bonaparte thought that he should first recover Santo Domingo, a rich colony in the West Indies THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE 267 in which the slaves had risen in an insurrection and chosen a negro general, Toussaint L'Ouverture, as their ruler. Bona- parte's officers seized Toussaint L'Ouverture, but other leaders took his place and kept up the struggle. Soon yellow fever broke out in the French army and the soldiers died by thousands. When Bonaparte heard the news, he reahzed The Louisiana Purchase the difficulties of his enterprise. He was also on the verge of another war with Great Britain. He was therefore ready to get rid of Louisiana. Spain's agreement to cede Louisiana to France had been kept a secret, but Jefferson suspected it soon after he became President. Possession of this colony by Spain, which was growing weaker year by year, had no terrors for the Ameri- cans, but possession by France, under such a leader as Bona- parte, was another affair. The western settlers feared for their river trade, which already formed more than a fourth of the commerce of the United States. Their alarm was changed to a certainty of impending ruin when, in 1802, the Spanish 268 RULE OF JEFFERSON: A NEW WEST intendant or governor at New Orleans refused to allow Americans to deposit their goods in New Orleans. Western farmers had no wish to leave their products to decay in their sheds and fields. They talked of war, and the militia of frontier towns began to drill so as to be ready in case war should come. Jefferson, like Washington, had always been greatly inter- ested in the prosperity of the West, but he did not wish to go to war with France. He thought that the best way was to buy New Orleans outright. When the American minister offered to buy New Orleans he was asked, "What will you give for the whole of Louisiana?" Napoleon needed money for the war with England which seemed certain. Besides, he was shrewd enough to know that England's superior navy would enable her to take Louisiana anyway and pre- ferred to sell what he could not hope to keep. A price, $15,000,000, was easily fixed, and the bargain completed. It was a strange transaction. Napoleon had no right to sell Louisiana without the consent of Spain and his own assembly in France. Spain vainly protested that the sale of Louisiana to America was illegal.' Many Frenchmen also were bitterly disappointed. For a second time they were obhged to abandon the attempt to create a New France in North America. Did the President have Power to purchase Louisiana? — In America there were quarrels over the purchase of Louisi- ana. Even the President doubted at first whether the Con- stitution gave him power to acquire any territory. He had in times past denounced Washington and Adams and the whole Federalist party for using powers which were not ex- pressly given to them in the Constitution. And now he and his own party were doing the same thing in annexing Loui- ^ An agent of France on November 30, 1803, received Louisiana from the Spanish governor, and 17 days later turned it over to the United States. THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE 269 siana. But Jefferson concluded that the welfare of the country was more important than his earlier notions about the powers of the government. How little was known of Louisiana. — Many thought that the price Jefferson paid for the new territory, which was at the rate of three cents an acre, was too high. They beHeved much of the land to be worthless. Even the Presi- dent had an idea that the part east of the Mis- sissippi was mostly barren sands and sunk- en marshes. This he wanted only because it contained the mouths of rivers like the Mississippi and the Mobile. As for the rest of Louisiana, that was purchased somewhat as boys trade jack-knives, "sight unseen." The greater part was the hunting ground of scattered, roving Indian bands. No white man knew anything definite about its size, its bound- aries, or its resources. The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States and extended it into the very heart of the continent. This single territory formed an area larger than Great Brit- ain, France, Spain, Germany, and Italy taken together. Thirteen states and parts of states have been formed from it and admitted into the Union. The Old Cabildo of New Orleans In this the ofEcial transfer of Louisiana by France to the United States took place 270 RULE OF JEFFERSON: A NEW WEST In 1803 the white settlers were clustered along the river near the mouth of the Mississippi. New Orleans was the chief town. The rivers were the highways, boats the car- riers, and so for convenience the plantations usually fronted on the rivers, as in early Virginia and the Carolinas. Most of 'the people were French or the negro slaves of French masters. Two or three small French villages, including St. Louis, were located far up the Mississippi River, but the Lewis and Clark's Route settlers were chiefly the trappers and Indian traders who always hung on the frontier of French settlements in Amer- ica. A few emigrants from the United States had already pushed into this foreign colony. Daniel Boone, finding neigh- bors too numerous in Kentucky, was trapping and farming on the Missouri River, near its mouth. The upper courses of the Arkansas, the Missouri, and the Mississippi were wholly unknown. Traders and trappers told strange tales of these regions — that Indians of gigantic stature inhabited the interior; that the soil was too rich to grow trees; that a thou- sand miles up the Missouri existed a vast mountain "of solid rock-salt, without any trees or even shrubs on it," measuring 180 miles in length and 45 in width. LEWIS AND CLARK'S EXPEDITION 271 Lewis and Clark's Expedition, 1804-06. — In 1804 Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis, his private secretary, and Wilham Clark, a younger brother of George Rogers Clark, to explore the new territory, find a path through the mountains to the Pacific, and learn what they could of the country and its Indian tribes. Two score and five frontiers- men made up the expedition. They rowed, or with favor- able winds sail- ed, the boats slowly up the Missouri, camping at night. They supplied them- selves with food from the wild game which abounded in the region — geese, antelope, deer, bear, elk, and enormous herds of buffalo. The party wintered among friendly Indians near where Bismarck, the capital of North Dakota, now stands, and with small canoes pushed on up the shallower waters of the Upper Missouri. An Indian squaw, called the Bird Woman, who had been kidnapped from a mountain tribe, accompanied them from their winter camp and won for them the friendship of her kindred in the mountains. The explorers followed the course of the Missouri across North Dakota and Montana until the river separated into three branches. These were named the Jefferson, the Madison, and the Gallatin. The expedition pushed on up the Jefferson branch until this was Gates of the Rocky Mountains. So called by Lewis and Clark, who passed them July ig, 1805. The Missouri River is here confined by a spur of the Big Belt Mountains 272 RULE OF JEFFERSON: A NEW WEST no longer navigable. Then they left their canoes and bought horses from the Indians, who showed them a path through the mountains. After a time they could not find game and had to kill some of their horses for food. When they reached a large river that flowed westward, they made canoes and floated down to the Columbia. They followed the Columbia until it broadened into a bay studded with low islands, and until the roar of breakers showed them that they had reached the Pacific. They were now 2,100 miles from St. Louis. They built log-huts and spent a second winter in the western wilderness surrounded by Indians. The return was easier, and they reached St. Louis on September 23, 1806. It was an expe- dition worthy to rank with that of De Soto and Coronado. One man had died and only one Indian had been killed. Zebulon Pike. — At the same time Zebulon Pike was sent to explore other portions of Louisiana Territory. In 1805, with a few companions, he followed the Mississippi River nearly to its source. In 1806 he undertook the harder task of visiting the Indians and exploring the country along the eastern border of the Rocky Mountains. He followed the Missouri and then the Osage River, and zigzagged across the plains of Kansas, touching once the boundary of what is now Nebraska and at another time that of Oklahoma. Pike thought that the Arkansas River valley must be a paradise for the wandering savages because of the abundance of game — buffalo, elk, and deer. Part of the way he was close to the path that Coronado had taken from New Mexico into central Kansas 265 years earlier. He met few Indians. In exploring the mountain front, looking for a pass, Pike found and described the Royal Gorge of the Arkansas River and the beautiful mountain peak which bears his name. The expedition suffered in- tensely when winter came on. At one time the members \ RESULTS OF WESTERN EXPLORATION 273 were four days without food, tramping knee-deep through snow, and loaded down with some seventy pounds of baggage apiece. The famished men finally found a herd of buffaloes. Pike wandered around in the mountains of southern Colo- rado until he crossed the frontier into the territory of Spain. The Spanish authorities, taking him to be a spy, seized him and carried him to Santa Fe in New Mexico. He was later Pike's Route taken to El Paso, but was released and found his way back to the United States in 1807. Results of Exploration in the Far West. — The descrip- tion of Louisiana by these pathfinders prepared the way for its settlement later. At the time the American people had enough land east of the Mississippi. Even President Jeffer- son thought that the new country would be most useful if kept as a reservation for the Indians, who were barring the progress of settlement in the older territories. Indian trade and trapping for furs were the only chances for immediate profit from the vast region. Oregon. — Lewis and Clark had pushed far beyond the boundaries of Louisiana and laid the basis for a claim upon the Oregon country. This meant all that territory included 274 RULE OF JEFFERSON: A NEW WEST in the present states of Idaho, Washington, and Oregon. Captain Gray, an American commander, had long before, in 1792, sailed along the Pacific coast. In 181 1 John Jacob Astor established a trading post, named Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia River. All these expeditions gave the United States a claim on Oregon and thus an opening for the United States to the Pacific. Unfortunately British Astoria in iSii The fur traders' post of the Oregon country fur traders claimed the same region for England, and in 181 2 drove Astor's men from Astoria. QUESTIONS 1. Why were the Federalists defeated in the election of 1800? Who was elected President? 2. What change was made in the location of the United States capital? How did the national government secure the District of Columbia? Describe Washington in 1800. 3. Why was Jefferson popular with the "plain people"? What were his ideas of government? What had he accomplished in Virginia? What did he do to lessen the expenses of the government? 4. What was Napoleon's New World project? How did he attempt to carry this out? Why was he obliged to abandon it? Why was he ready in 1803 to get rid of Louisiana? 5. Why were Americans alarmed over the cession of Louisiana from Spain to France? How did Spain further alarm them in 1802? 6. Describe the purchase of Louisiana. What did Jefiferson try to pur- QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 275 chase? What did he actually secure? Why was this a strange thing for Napoleon and Jefferson to do? 7. What did Americans think of Louisiana? Describe the settlements which had been made there. 8. Whom did Jefferson send to explore Louisiana? Describe the journeys of these famous explorers. 9. How did Jefferson think the United States could best use the new territory? Why was he anxious to move the Indians westward? 10. What country besides Louisiana did Lewis and Clark explore? What claims had the United States on Oregon? What other nation now also claimed Oregon? Scene on the Columbia River Showing Mount Hood EXERCISES 1. Review Chapters XXI and XXII for a list of things accomplished by the Federalists. 2. Review the exploration of Coronado in the Southwest. See page 10 or Introductory American History, pages 193-203. 3. Trace on an outline map the journeys of Lewis and Clark and of Pike, making a list of the present states which they touched. 4. Which country, the United States or Spain, had the greater part of the territory west of the Mississippi River after the purchase of Louisiana? (See map, page 267.) What must both do next if they were to hold the terri- tories they claimed? Important Dales: 1801. Thomas Jefferson becomes President. 1803. Louisiana purchased from France. 1804-1806. Lewis and Clark explore Louisiana and Oregon. CHAPTER XXIV THE UNITED STATES AND THE NAPOLEONIC WARS Turmoil again in Europe. — A month after the United States bought Louisiana from Napoleon, war broke out be- tween France and England. This war was in reality a con- tinuation of the war which had been waged from 1793 until 1802. It did not end until 1814. If the first war had given American merchants an opportunity to carry a large part of the freight between the West Indies and Europe, the new war seemed likely to be still more profitable, because all European countries except Turkey were finally drawn into it. European War and the United States. — Could the Amer- icans keep out of a struggle which, like a terrible whirlpool, might engulf those who appeared to be at a safe distance? Their experience during the war which began in 1793 showed the danger. All the influence of Washington had been needed to keep them from attacking the EngHsh in 1794. In the new war their self-restraint was due to the influence of President Jefferson and of President Madison, who succeeded him in 1809.^ Nevertheless they were finally drawn into the struggle. The War of 181 2 was the consequence. The War at first a Duel between France and England. — From 1803 to 1805 the contest was between the EngHsh and the French. It was almost as if an elephant should try to attack a whale. The French army was the best in Europe. ^ In 1804 Jefferson was overwhelmingly reelected. In the election four years later Jefferson supported his Secretary of State, James Madison, who was chosen President after a contest almost as one-sided as that of 1804. WAR BETWEEN FRANCE AND ENGLAND 277 It was commanded by Napoleon Bonaparte, the greatest general of modern times, whom the French proclaimed their Emperor in 1804. On land the French army seemed uncon- querable so long as he was at its head. But it could not attack the Enghsh directly, although England is separated from the Continent only by the Channel, which is twenty- five miles wide. In the "narrow seas," as well as on the broad ocean, the EngHsh seemed invincible because of their powerful navy. The French had many battleships, but these were blockaded in French ports by English fleets. Only once during the war did the French venture to fight the English on the sea. This was off Cape Trafalgar in October, 1805, and their fleet, together with the ships of Spain, at that time their ally, numbered 33. The EngUsh had 27 ships, but they were commanded by Lord Nel- son, who was as skilful on the sea as Napoleon was on the land, conflict, 60 ships-of-the-line, many of them carrying a hun- dred cannon! The French and the Spaniards sailed in a long fine, while the English moved down upon them in two fines or columns. Nelson's flag-ship, the Victory, was at the head of one column. At its mast-head flew Nelson's signal, "England expects every man to do his duty." Few French or Spanish ships escaped in the fierce struggle which followed. Nelson was killed, but his last victory gave England com- mand of the seas for a century. Extension of the War. — In 1805 the war began to spread. Austria and Russia became England's alHes and declared LoBD Nelson What a tremendous 278 AMERICA AND THE NAPOLEONIC WARS war on France. They were defeated, and Austria made peace. In 1806 Prussia, aided by Russia, tried to drive the terrible French Emperor from Germany, but both were beaten and obliged to make peace. Then Sweden, Den- mark, and Portugal were forced to take sides. Holland was from the beginning managed by the French. By 1807 the United States was the only neutral of importance. Could the United States trade peacefully in such a warring world? How American Trade was affected. — The answer to the question depended upon the English, for the United States had only a few frigates, while the English had at least 75 battleships. At first the English permitted American mer- chants to import French, Spanish, and Dutch sugar and coffee from the West Indies and export them to Europe. But they soon found that the American shippers could undersell them in the European market, notwithstanding the expense of carrying the sugar first into a port of the United States and unloading it. The English merchants and planters complained that their business was suffering. The EngHsh government then began seizing American ships engaged in this trade. English war ships cruised off the ports of the United States and stopped vessels passing in and out, taking possession of those which had broken any of the rules that the EngHsh gov- ernment had made in regard to neutral trade. In stopping a vessel near New York several shots were fired, one of which killed the steersman. Sometimes when the EngHsh vessels disappeared French vessels, equally contemptuous of Ameri- can rights, would take their places. The English Excuse. — The EngHsh parliament had to Hsten to the complaints of merchants, shipowners, and plant- ers, because it was laying heavy taxes upon them. England was obHged to lend vast sums to her allies on the Continent, otherwise they could not have kept up the conflict with the THE EMBARGO 279 French for six months. Even before the war began in 1803 England's debt amounted to five billion dollars, at the pres- ent value of money. Every man with more than $2,000 income was compelled to give a tenth of it in taxes to the government. Difficulties increase. — In 1806 and 1807 troubles thickened for the American merchants. The Enghsh declared that they would capture any ships which tried to enter ports on the north- western coast of France. Bona- parte retorted by declaring that French ships would seize any vessel which traded with Great Britain. England's reply to this challenge was that their enemies in Europe should not have any coffee, sugar, cotton, or dye stuffs, unless they purchased these products from English merchants or from neutral mer- chants whose ships stopped at an Enghsh port and paid taxes on the cargoes. In 1807, before these rules went into effect, the United States exported 64,000,000 pounds of cotton alone, worth $5,476,000. The Embargo. — No one would greatly blame Jefferson and Congress if they had gone to war at this time, "so serious were the wrongs under which the United States was suffering. They decided instead to attempt to compel the British to respect American rights by threatening not to buy English goods. This had been a useful weapon in obtaining the repeal of the Stamp Act many years before. But the situation in December, 1807, looked so serious that Jefferson urged Con- gress to pass an Act called an "Embargo," forbidding Amer- Napoleon Bonaparte After the portrait by Paul Delaroche 28o AMERICA AND THE NAPOLEONIC WARS ican vessels to leave port, and forbidding all other vessels to carry any cargo which was not on board at the time they were notified of the Act. The Embargo enraged the New England shipowners, who were making money in spite of Bonaparte's declarations and England's orders. They could afford to lose a ship or two now and then, taking into account the enormous profits obtained when they landed colonial products or their own goods in Europe. The size of the profits may be guessed when it is remembered that the price of sugar in Paris rose steadily until in 1811 it was 80 cents a pound. As English vessels could still bring cargoes to the United States, although they could take no cargoes away, the Eng- lish shipowners did not suffer. They had a monopoly of the ocean freight business, except that along the coast. The New Englanders complained so strongly, even threatening to secede from the Republic, that just before Jefferson's term of office ended a Non-Intercourse Act was substituted for the Embargo. By this Act trade was permitted with all coun- tries except England and France, and would be permitted with them if they agreed to treat American ships fairly. Conduct of Napoleon. — In all these difficulties the Ameri- cans had as much reason to complain of Napoleon's conduct as of that of the British government. At one time he seized American ships worth $10,000,000. French privateers also did a good deal of damage to neutral shipping. However, the French had far less power for harm than the English. Impressment of Seamen. — The quarrel with the English over the impressment of seamen was quite as fierce as the quarrel about trade. It was customary in England, when a crew was needed for a war ship, to send bodies of marines, called "press-gangs," through the sailors' haunts in the ports and seize enough seamen. If a sailor happened to be an American, he might be seized with the rest. The United IMPRESSMENT OF SEAMEN 281 States had no agents in England who could protect its sail- ors from such outrages. English war ships also frequently stopped merchant vessels on the ocean and took the men they needed. If they thought there were Englishmen on board American vessels, they stopped them also. The fact that a sailor had been naturaHzed did not save him, for the officers held that he had not ceased to be an Englishman. Before these troubles ended about 4,000 Americans were serving against their will in the British navy. The injustice was not all on one side. While American merchants were making money as neutral traders, they were eager to obtain men. The number of sailors in the United States was not sufficient to man all the ships. The merchants, accordingly, offered higher wages, raising them from $8 a month to $24. The bait proved attractive, especially as the English sailors were poorly paid and ill-treated. Scores began to desert. Some ships had scarcely men enough to get out of the American port which they had entered. At Norfolk, Virginia, one ship lost every sailor. The sailors often changed their names, obtained naturalization papers, and pretended that they were American citizens. News of such things enraged the British naval officers and they grew more insulting in their search of American ships. Their acts would not have been endured for a moment had the United States been strong enough to compel the British government to change its way of dealing with the difficulty. The "Chesapeake" and the "Leopard," 1807. — In 1807 several sailors deserted from British frigates in Chesapeake Bay and afterward enlisted on the United States frigate Chesapeake, which was then being fitted out for service in the Mediterranean. The British officers requested the return of the men, but American officials refused. This refusal angered the British admiral at Hahfax and he ordered that the Chesa- peake be searched as soon as it appeared on the ocean. The 282 AMERICA AND THE NAPOLEONIC WARS task was assigned to the frigate Leopard. The com- mander of the Chesapeake rightly refused to permit a search, but liis ship was not ready for a battle. The Leop- ard fired upon him and in a few minutes he was forced to surrender. The news of the outrage sent a thrill of anger through the country. Jefferson was still anxious to main- tain peace. Madison's Efforts to keep Peace. — President Madison had no better success than Jefferson in persuading the English and the French to respect the rights of neutral traders. After he had been in office a year the Non-Intercourse Act was with- drawn, on the understanding that if either England or France promised to deal fairly with American trade, all commerce with the other was to be broken off. Napoleon hastened to make such an offer, ^ hoping to bring on a conflict between the United States and Great Britain. His shrewd offer was suc- cessful. Congress passed a new Non-Intercourse Act directed against the English. Tippecanoe. — In 1811 the people of the West were aroused against the Enghsh because of a threatened Indian attack under the leadership of a chief named Tecumseh. It was said that the Indians were furnished with arms by English traders. The real cause of Indian hostiHty was the steady advance of the settlers into the Indian hunting grounds. The people of Indiana Territory did not wait to be attacked, but, led by their governor, General William Henry Harrison, marched against the Indians, defeated them at Tippecanoe Creek, and burned their villages. Henry Clay and Other "War Hawks." — Many had now become dissatisfied with the policy of peace which Jefferson and Madison held. Foremost among these was Henry Clay ^ At this very time Napoleon was threatening Russia wkh war because the Emperor Alexander refused to seize several hundred American ships in the Baltic Sea. THE "WAR HAWKS" 283 of Kentucky. He was a young lawyer, gifted with a musi- cal voice and a charming manner. He was ably aided by others, like himself full of enthusiasm for American rights and confident of American success in a war. The most dis- tinguished of these was John C. Calhoun, also a young man, and like Clay a brilliant debater. These leaders, who had just been elected to the House of Representatives, did everything they could to bring on war with England. John Randolph, who hated them both, called them and their followers ''War Hawks." The War Hawks were mainly from the new West and the farther South, which were without great sea-ports or exposed shores. Many of the New Englanders thought Napoleon a greater enemy than the English. The War Hawks were willing to wage war against both England and France, except for the cost and risk of defeat. Madison and other states- men from the middle states, and especially from Virginia, were opposed to war with either country if it could be avoided. Clay argued that the United States could conquer Canada, and then England would either have to yield or lose its colony. This argument won the majority in Congress; Madison, weary of the conflict, gave way, and war was declared. Should the War have been avoided? — On June 18, 1812, Congress declared war. Two days before this the English government decided to withdraw a part of the regulations which had injured American merchants. The news did not reach the United States until long after the war had begun. Moreover, the other grievances remained. The War Hawks thought the seizure of the sailors worse than interference with American trade. In declaring war on Great Britain in 18 12 the United States became virtually an ally of Napoleon and helped him in two enterprises with which they could have had no sympathy. 284 AMERICA AND THE NAPOLEONIC WARS For years he had been trying to place his brother on the Spanish throne and the Spaniards were fighting desperately to prevent it. The English under Wellington were assisting the Spaniards and had defeated several French armies in Por- tugal and in Spain. Of course, to attack the English was to aid Napoleon's Spanish enterprise, at least indirectly. Europe at the height of Napoleon's Power In 181 2 Napoleon invaded Russia with an immense army in order to humble the Emperor, who, for one thing, had refused to seize American neutral vessels in the Baltic Sea two years before. If the Americans succeeded in keeping England, Napoleon's other principal enemy, busy, the Rus- sians might conclude that they were badly rewarded for their fairness. The War Hawks of 181 2 thought neither of the Spanish nor of the Russian campaign, except to argue that the EngHsh were so deeply involved in their struggle against Napoleon that they could not defend Canada. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 285 QUESTIONS 1. Why was Napoleon Bonaparte so successful? Why was it impossible for him to conquer England? What happened when the French tried to meet the English on the high seas? 2. What other countries were drawn into the great European war? What countries did Napoleon control from the first? Which did he conquer dur- ing the war? 3. Why did England wish to stop American trade in sugar and coffee? Were the English the only ones who interfered with American rights? What excuse had the English for helping their merchants to secure a monopoly of trade during the war? 4. What rules about trade did England and France lay down? How did such rules affect American merchants? 5. What methods did Jefferson employ to force England and France to respect American rights? Why did the Embargo make the New England ship-owners angry? Why did it fail to injure English shipowners as much as American? What did Jefferson substitute for the Embargo? 6. How did Napoleon treat American trade on the seas? Why did the United States overlook his acts? 7. What other grievances had the United States against the British? What did the Americans do which gave the British some excuse for thinking them unfair? Tell the story of the Chesapeake and Leopard. 8. How did Madison try to bring England and France to terms? Why did Napoleon promise to deal fairly with American trade? What was Congress then obliged to do? 9. What special reason had the people of the West for being angry with the British? What was the real cause of the Indian trouble in the West? 10. Who began in 181 2 vigorously to oppose Madison's way of dealing with England and France? What expectation had the "War Hawks" from a war with England? EXERCISES 1. Make two lists: one under the heading, "Reasons why the war should have been avoided," and another under the heading, "Grounds for a war with England." 2. Have the class choose two champions to debate the affirmative and negative sides of the question, "The War of 1812 could have been avoided." Important Date: 181 2. War is declared against Great Britain. CHAPTER XXV THE WAR OF 1812 An Unequal Struggle. — The great war in Europe, although it had brought war upon the Americans, saved them from some of the perils of an unequal struggle. What could the United States with an army of 6,700 men and a fleet of 18 ships expect to accomphsh against England, whose army numbered 150,000 men and whose fleet con- sisted of 900 ships? Eng- land, however, was obliged to guard many seas, and could despatch only a small part of her fleet to American waters. She could send over only a few regiments, because most of her soldiers were needed for the struggle which Wellington was carrying on with the French in Spain. Invasion of Canada. — Clay thought that it would be easy to take Canada. From the first this was the main object of the United States. The leaders forgot that the task was far more difficult than it would have been during the Revo- lutionary War. At that time the population of Canada was chiefly French. Since then Upper Canada had been settled, much of it with loyaHst refugees from the United States. The United Empire Loyalists still remembered their suffer- American fleet English fleet Relative size of the American and English Fleets EVENTS OF THE FIRST YEAR 287 ings at the hands of the patriots thirty years before, and could be counted upon to resist stubbornly the attempts of the sons of the patriots to seize their new home. Hull's Ill-Fated Attempt. — Three separate invasions of Canada were planned: one from Detroit, a second from the Niagara frontier, and a third by the Hudson- Champlain route. General Hull was despatched through the woods of northwestern Ohio and southern Michigan to Detroit. Most of the way he was obliged to cut a road for his troops. It was difficult to feed his soldiers, for, as yet, few settlers hved on the southern and western shores of Lake Erie. The single boat which the Americans had on the lake was soon captured by the British. Supplies could be forwarded only with great difficulty and expense. It cost $60 to carry a barrel of flour from New York or Philadelphia to Detroit. It cost fifty cents to send a pound of powder or shot. The difficulty was increased by the hostihty of the Indians, who had not been crushed by their defeat at Tippecanoe the year before. Indeed, Tecumseh rallied them to the aid of the English all through the Northwest. Upon his arrival in Detroit, Hull issued a pompous procla- mation, declaring that he had come to rescue the Canadians from oppression. The legislature of Upper Canada retorted by accusing the Americans of being completely under the control of Bonaparte. Hull's expedition speedily came to a disastrous end. Threatened by an army of British soldiers, Canadian mihtia, and Indians, and cut off from reinforce- ments, he surrendered in August, 181 2. A short time before the British had captured the Httle garrison at Mackinac, and the very day before an Indian war party had massacred most of the garrison at Fort Dearborn, where Chicago now stands. The fall of Fort Dearborn, Mackinac, and Detroit gave the British control of Michigan Territory. This was a bad beginning. 288 THE WAR OF 1812 Other Invasions. — Every attempt of the American armies to invade and conquer Canada, made in 181 2, 1813, and 1814, failed ingloriously. Only once did the invaders hold their own. In 1 8 14, the third year of the war, General Jacob Brown and General Winfield Scott met the Eng- lish and Canadians at Chippewa and Lundy's Lane, both near Niagara River, and proved that American soldiers were fully equal to the staunchest Brit- Lake Erie and the Surrounding Country ^^^ regulars. An Eng- lish officer exclaimed after the battle of Lundy's Lane, ''The Americans do not know when they are beaten." Even from these engage- ments nothing was gained beyond a display of courage, for the army was unable to advance farther into Canada. Perry's Victory on Lake Erie. — The most important object in the war on the Canadian frontier was the control of the Lakes — Erie, Ontario, and Champlain. They were the highways on which armies and supplies could be carried to the places where they were most needed. After the loss of Detroit the United States was particularly anxious to destroy the British fleet on Lake Erie. Captain Oliver Hazard Perry was entrusted with the task. It was necessary to build ships before the struggle could begin. Timber was at hand along the shore. Workmen were brought from Philadelphia. Iron was gathered from farm buildings and shops, and from every available source. Supplies were forwarded from neighboring settlements. Sails, ropes, guns, and ammunition had to be carried overland from Philadelphia and Pittsburgh to Erie, VICTORIES OF PERRY AND MACDONOUGH 289 where the little fleet ^ was being built. The ships were finally ready, and on September 10, 1813, Perry met the British squadron in battle near Put-in-Bay. The fighting was stubborn. Perry's flag-ship, the Lawrence, was riddled with shot and became unmanageable. Four-fifths of her crew were either killed or wounded. Perry, undaunted, entered a boat and was rowed to the Niagara in the midst of the battle. Soon the victory was his. He tore off the back of an old letter, and with his hat as a table, wrote the news to his superior, ' ' We have met the enemy, and they are ours. Two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." One of the results of the victory was the recovery of Detroit and Michigan Territory. Raid on Toronto, 1813. — Some weeks before the battle on Lake Erie, an expedition dashed across Lake Ontario and took Toronto, or York as it was then named, the small capital of Upper Canada. Some naval stores and two small ships in the harbor were destroyed or captured. Soldiers acting without orders burned the house where the provincial assem- bly met. But the explosion of a powder magazine, near the American line of march, killed or wounded nearly 300 men and made the affair cost more than it was worth. Macdonough's Victory on Lake Champlain, 1814. — Every effort to conquer Canada had failed. In 18 14 it looked as if the tables would be turned and that the British would invade the United States. The war against Napoleon came to an end in April, 1814, and 16,000 of WelHngton's veterans were sent to Canada. With 7,000 of these men Sir George Prevost, the Governor General of Canada, attempted an invasion by the same route that Burgoyne had taken thirty- seven years earHer. His land forces were accompanied by a ^ Neither this fleet nor the fleet of Macdonough at Plattsburg would have been called "fleets" on the ocean. The largest British or American ship on the Lakes was not even so large as the Constitution. 290 THE WAR OF 1812 small flotilla on Lake Champlain. An American force occu- pied fortified lines at Plattsburg. On the lake a small fleet, under Commander JNIacdonough, was drawn up awaiting the British. After a desperate fight the British ships were cap- tured or dispersed. Prevost made a half-hearted attack on the American hnes and then returned to Canada. The War on the Sea. — Neither the Americans nor the British permanently occupied any territory belonging to the other along the border between the United States and Canada. The war was not more decisive in other quarters. There could be no attempt by the Americans to oppose fleet to fleet on the ocean, for they did not possess a single ship-of-the-line. Their frigates and smaller vessels could be used only in attacking English commerce or in fighting sea- duels with ships of their own class. The English could spare ships enough to establish a strict blockade of the American coast. They boasted that they could do more. They declared that "not a sail, but by permission, spreads." They felt nothing but contempt for the little American fleet. All the greater was their chagrin when frigates like the Constitution and the Essex captured ship after ship in sea-duels. The "Constitution" and the "Guerriere." — Captain Isaac Hull, commander of the Constitution, and a nephew of the unfortunate General Hull, had scarcely left American waters on the coast of New Jersey in July, 181 2, when he was pursued by five English vessels. He put on all sail, but as the wind died down escape seemed impossible. Part of the time he had boats out towing his vessel. This the enemy could do as well. Then he kedged his ship, that is, sent a boat a half-mile ahead with a light anchor and a rope attached. The boat dropped the anchor, and the crew on the Constitu- tion pulled on the rope until the ship was up with the anchor. In the meantime another boat had set another anchor. By NAVAL VICTORIES 291 such seamanship, for two days and three nights, he kept be- yond reach of the British guns, until finally a storm arose, which enabled the Constitution to escape. A few weeks later in the Gulf of St. Lawrence the Constitu- tion sighted the British frigate Guerriere,^ and gave battle. The Constitution was the larg- er and better ship, but her principal advantage was in the skilful marksmanship of her gunners. After forty minutes the Guerriere lay a battered hulk. The Constitution was almost unharmed. The rejoicing in America was unbounded. Its tiny navy was proving of some value. And the joy was greater because the people hated the Guerriere for its share in searching American ves- sels along the coast before the war began. Nor was the Constitution, which the people affectionately called "Old Ironsides,"^ the only American ship to win fame. Several others fought successfully in one or more sea-duels. Exploits of the "Essex." — The Essex, one of the smallest frigates of the United States, built and given to the govern- ment by the patriotic citizens of Salem, captured ten prizes in the Atlantic, and then sailed around Cape Horn into the Pacific to prey on British commerce. Captain David Porter The " Constitution " 1 Guerriere, a ship which the British had captured from the French. The name meant "warrior." 2 Holmes' poem on Old Ironsides was written when the government planned to destroy the old worn-out wooden ship. The plan was given up. The ship is now preserved in Charleston Navyyard. 292 THE WAR OF 1812 managed to provide his ship with suppHes, war material, provi- sions, medicines, and even money to pay his officers and men, from the British ships that he captured. Once when his pris- oners outnumbered his own crew two to one and planned to seize the Essex, the timely warning of his young midshipman, David Farragut, saved him.^ In the Pacific Captain Porter captured a dozen British whaling ships. Porter was finally, after a year and a half of successful fighting, caught on the shore of South America by a superior force, and the Essex was captured. The Blockade of the Atlantic Coast, 1813. — Long before Porter's eventful voyage had ended, the American coast was completely closed. A British squadron hovered in front of each important sea-port. Only a few ships like the Essex, and some privateers, were still playing the war game of hide and seek on distant seas and preying on England's widespread commerce.- In America almost all trade by sea had ceased. The exports and imports of 18 14 were one-seventh of what they had been in 1810. Things like sugar and tea and coffee became so costly that only the rich could afford to buy them. The goods that the merchants expected to send abroad lay in port. The farmers found that part of the market for their crops was gone. The War Unpopular in New England. — The war had been unpopular in New England from the first. Many people believed it wrong because of the plan to conquer Canada. Others were angry at the loss of their foreign trade. The war became doubly unpopular with the rise of prices and the increase of taxes. Some leaders were misguided enough to talk of secession from the Union and of a separate peace with ^ David Farragut, then only 11 years old, later became one of America's famous naval oflBcers. 2 About 1,300 English merchant vessels were captured during the war. American swift-sailing privateers made captures even along the English coast. THE BRITISH BURN WASHINGTON 293 England. The governors of several states did almost nothing to help Madison secure men and money. In 18 14 Massa- chusetts withdrew its militia from the service of the United States and directed its movements as if it had been an in- dependent army in a foreign country. Traders even carried provisions to the British army on the Canadian frontier and to British vessels on the coast. The Burning of Washington, 1814. — The situation of the government was rendered still more distressing by a success- mi f f 1 V t U|( The Capitol after the Burning of Washington ful raid on Washington. No preparations had been made to defend the capital. Not a fort, or breastwork, or battery had been built. A force of 4,500 veterans, led by General Ross, who had served under Wellington in Spain, was sent in August to destroy Washington in retaUation for the burning of York the year before. He marched unchecked to the city, and burned the Capitol, the White House, and other buildings. President Madison and his Cabinet took refuge in Virginia. Attack on Baltimore. — A few days later General Ross attacked Baltimore.^ But the citizens of Baltimore prepared 1 During the bombardment Francis Scott Key of Baltimore went aboard the British fleet on an errand. He was detained throughout the battle, and watched anxiously the damage being done. The following morning, as he looked out from the British ship and saw the Stars and Stripes still waving, he wrote "The Star Spangled Banner." 294 THE WAR OF 1812 vigorously and thoroughly for their own defense. General Ross was killed in the attack of the land forces. All day, September 13, the fleet bombarded Fort McHenry at the entrance to the harbor, but the spirited resistance on land and at the fort discouraged the British. They withdrew, and soon left the Chesapeake altogether. Battle of New Orleans, January 8, 181 5. — Two of the expeditions planned by the English government for 18 14 had already failed. The British, like the Americans, had found that the invasion of a foreign country is a most difficult matter. By the end of 18 14 both nations were weary of the costly and fruitless war and ready to make peace. On Christmas eve, 1814, the representatives of England and the United States agreed to terms of peace at a meeting at Ghent in Belgium. It was February 11, 181 5, before the good news could be carried across the Atlantic to the United States. Just one week before this, on February 4, the Americans in Washington learned that a great battle, the greatest of the entire war, had been fought at New Orleans. General Pakenham, brother-in-law of Wellington, at the head of an army of 9,000 veteran soldiers, supported by a large fleet,' attacked New Orleans. Andrew Jackson com- manded the line of defense. Nature aided Jackson's army. Swamps, canals, and the river divided the army of invasion and made it hard for its parts to work together. Besides, the British showed the same contempt for American marks- manship that their predecessors had at Bunker Hill, and charged straight across an open field against Jackson's Ken- tucky and Tennessee riflemen shooting from behind high breastworks. These frontiersmen, hunters, and Indian fighters struck the enemy down, said an eye-witness, "like blades of grass beneath the scythe of the mower." An expe- rienced British officer described the fire as "the most mur- derous and destructive fire of all arms ever poured upon a RESULTS OF THE WAR 295 column." The British left 700 dead on the field, among them General Pakenham. Their total losses were 2,600. Results of the War of 1812. — The treaty of peace settled none of the questions for which the two nations had gone to war. These had settled themselves before the war ended. When the greater war in Europe was over, England had no reason to press American seamen into service, nor had either England or France any reason to seize American goods. Although the war cost a great deal in men and money, it had some good results. England was ready to treat the United States with greater respect. Historians have said that the war marked the beginning of commercial independence for the United States, and have therefore called it the "second war of independence." Other Questions Settled. — Within a few years after the close of the war several important agreements were made by the two countries. In 18 17 they agreed to reduce the number of government ships on the Great Lakes, keeping only a few small vessels to enforce the laws about fishing. It was a fortu- nate arrangement, for it relieved both nations of great expense and removed the dangers which come from the presence of rival fleets in the same waters. The following year, chiefly through the efforts of John Quincy Adams, then Secretary of State, England agreed, as she had in 1783, to allow American fishermen to fish in the waters on the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland, and to dry on shore the fish they caught. This was a privilege of great value to New England fisher- men. At the same time the boundary from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains was fixed at the forty-ninth parallel. Beyond the Rocky Mountains both nations claimed the whole of Oregon and agreed for a while to hold it as a common territory. The end of the War of 18 12, and the settlement of the other "differences with England, left the American people free to turn 296 THE WAR OF 181 2 away from European affairs and to devote themselves mainly to the development of new industries and to the settlement of their vast interior lands. QUESTIONS 1. What advantage had England in the war with the United States? What made her advantage less than it would have been at another time? 2. What was the chief part of the plan of the United States for the war? Why were many Canadians opposed to the United States? 3. What obstacles did Hull's expedition meet? What did the British gain in the first year of the war? Were the armies of the United States any more successful in invading Canada during 1813 and 1814? 4. Describe Perry's victory on Lake Erie. Did the raid on Toronto benefit the United States? Why was Macdonough's victory important for the United States? 5. Why could not the United States do as much on the high seas? Tell the stories of the Constitution and of the Essex. 6. How did the blockade affect the United States? Why was the war unpopular? 7. What veterans did England send to the United States? Describe the British expedition against Washington and Baltimore. What did the expedi- tion accomplish? 8. What battle took place after the treaty of peace was agreed to? Why did Jackson defeat the British? 9. Why were the causes of the war not settled in the treaty of peace? What important friendly agreements did the United States and Great Britain make soon after the War of 181 2? REVIEW EXERCISES 1. Describe the migration of the loyalists to Canada during the Revolu- tion, and the effect on the conquest of Canada in 18 12. 2. State the difj&culties which the new republic had with other nations from 1783 to 1 8 14. 3. State what friendly agreements the United States entered into with England in 1794, 1817, and 1818. 4. Did the Revolution have the same effect on American foreign trade as did the War of 181 2? Important Dates: 181 2. The war with England begins. 1814. A treaty of peace ends the war. CHAPTER XXVI NEW WORK AND NEW ROUTES One Consequence of War. — The interruption of foreign trade by the Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts as well as by the War of 1812 forced Americans to supply most of their own needs. For several years they could not obtain the cottons, woolens, articles of iron and steel, and many other things which they had been accustomed to buy in England. Power Looms in an English Mill, 1820 They, therefore, built more iron mills, set up more spinning machines, and wove more cloth. They used nine times as many bales of cotton in 1815 as in 1810. The number of spindles increased from 80,000 to 500,000. Merchants and shipowners, whose business was ruined by the war, began to build factories. In 18 15 there were over 100 cotton mills within thirty miles of Providence, Rhode Island. Weaving, however, was still done on hand-looms. 298 NEW WORK AND NEW ROUTES A Complete Mill. — In 1814 Francis Lowell, who had visited England in order to examine the power-looms, returned to the United States and succeeded in constructing similar machinery in a cotton factory in Waltham, Massachusetts. Lowell's factory differed from the English factories by bring- ing under one roof all the new machines for spinning, weaving, and finishing, so that they could be run by the same power. Other men built factories like Lowell's. The machinery was soon adapted to spinning, weaving, and finishing linen and woolen goods. While New England was the center of the new industries, many were located in other states. These factories, like the English mills, were generally run by water- power, but one in New York was run by a steam-engine. Iron, Steel, and Coal. — The multiplication of iron and steel mills increased the need of coal. The mining of bitumi- nous or soft coal had been carried on about Pittsburgh for nearly twenty years. Already the town was being described as a "smoky city." Among the inventions used there was a machine which would cut and head nails. The products of the mills of western Pennsylvania, including nails, hinges, locks, and tools of all kinds, were loaded on barges and floated down to New Orleans. Kettles also were sold to the sugar planters of Louisiana. The steel mills of eastern Pennsylvania and the other states on the coast had reUed upon England for supplies of soft coal. Fortunately, when the war cut off their trade with England, a grate was invented which created draft enough to burn anthra- cite. Up to that time anthracite, called stone coal, had been regarded as worthless except as gravel for sidewalks. The mill owners now began to use it in melting iron ores. What Machines accomplished. — As mills were built and improved machines set up, the amount of work accomplished was increased enormously. For example, one person running a mule spinner which carried 3,000 spindles could spin as FROM HOUSEHOLD TO FACTORY 299 much thread as 3,000 women 40 or 50 years before. A weaver with a power-loom could make 1,600 yards of cotton cloth in a week, while he could make only 40 with a hand- loom. One consequence of the change was the rapid reduc- tion of prices. Cotton sheeting in 181 5 was 40 cents a yard, while fourteen years later it was 8| cents. Similar changes were going on in other manufactures where machines and new methods were introduced. Spinning Room in an American Mill, 1830 From an old print From Household to Factory. — The transfer of industries from the household and the Uttle shop, which had begun with the building of Slater's first mill and the invention of the cotton-gin, still went on slowly, but surely. The spinning- wheel, the hand-loom, and the household forge were used less and less and were finally abandoned. Within twenty or thirty years after the War of 181 2, home-made products gave way almost everywhere to articles made in mills and factories. If women and girls needed employment outside of the home, they must seek it in the mills. Indeed, they were the ones who ran the spinning frames and the looms, the men doing the heavier work about the mills. Although each machine 300 NEW WORK AND NEW ROUTES did the work of many hands, no hand need long be without employment, because the mills were built so rapidly, increas- ing from four in 1805 to 795 in 183 1. What was true of the cotton industry was true also of other industries. The things which were produced found a ready sale, since the prices were lower, and people used larger quantities. More- over, the population was growing rapidly, and new markets were being opened every day. More Workers needed. — The demand for wool, flax, cotton, coal, and iron gave chances of work everywhere to willing hands. The mills called the young men and women to the towns. The farms and fields called other young men and women almost as loudly, for the townspeople must be fed, the sheep must be cared for, and the cotton and flax raised. The new work made many opportunities for immi- grants. Their number soon began to increase greatly. The need of more workers had one unfortunate conse- quence. Cotton growing required a very large number of the cheapest or least skilled laborers. The increased demand for cotton, therefore, fixed on the southern plantations more firmly than ever another sort of labor — that of slaves.^ English Manufacturers and the American Market. — Wlien peace came the Enghsh manufacturers tried to regain the trade with the United States which the war had cut off. They saw that American manufacturers had taken their places in making goods for American purchasers, and they now resolved to sell their goods at such low prices as to ruin the business of the American manufacturers. A prominent member of parUament explained that it "was well worth while to incur a loss on the first exportation in order to stifle in the cradle * Several states forbade the importation of slaves, and in 1807 Congress also tried to put a stop to the slave-trade. So great, however, was the demand for slaves on the plantations, that the goverimient could not always enforce the laws which prohibited the bringing of slaves into the United States. THE AMERICAN MARKET 301 those rising manufactures in the United States." This plan partly accounts for the enormous sales to American mer- chants in 18 1 6. American imports in that year were valued at $147,000,000, while during the last year of the war they were worth only $13,000,000. The new or "infant" industries of the United States were threatened with ruin. The eastern iron works were obliged to shut down. The Pittsburgh mills could go on, because the cost of sending English goods across the mountains raised their price. The cotton and woolen factories of the East were also in danger. In their distress the mill owners peti- tioned Congress for more 'protection." Congress accordingly passed the Tariff of 18 16, which raised the rates provided in the earlier tariffs and added duties on goods which had not been "protected." While the English wished to sell their manufactures to the Americans, they did not wish to buy grain of the Americans. In 181 5 the English parliament passed new "corn" or grain laws, preventing the importation of grain until the price of English grain was $2.50 a bushel. Each country arranged its tariff with the aim of selling to its neighbors without being obliged to buy from them. They were all "protectionists." In the Tariff of 18 16, therefore. Congress did what the legis- latures or royal councils of Great Britain and all European countries were doing. Need for Roads and Canals. — • With the increase of manu- factures and trade and the rapid advance of the population into the Mississippi Valley, Americans felt the need of more roads and bridges and canals, and, in fact, of every possible means of communication. The problem was difficult, because the new states could not raise great sums of money by taxa- tion, and the United States at the time was loaded down with war debts. The western farmers were willing to have the government protect the manufacturers with the tariff, 302 NEW WORK AND NEW ROUTES if it would in turn build roads and canals over which they could afford to send their products to the coast in ex- change for the goods that they needed on the frontier. This was the reason why the people demanded that the govern- ment undertake 'internal improvements." The Invention of the Steamboat; Robert Fulton. — For twenty years men had been trying to plan a boat which could use Watt's steam-engine as its motive power. In 1807 Robert Fulton, the son of an Irish im- migrant, built the Clermont, on which he fitted up a s t e a m-engine t o run a pair of side- wheels. His neigh- bors called it "Ful- ton's Folly," but to their astonish- ment it started off and plowed its way up the Hudson River. It reached Albany, 150 miles away, in 32 hours. Such a journey proved that Fulton's invention was a success. The next year the Clermont made the voyage on the Hudson regu- larly two or three times a week. Steamboats soon came into general use. In 181 1 one built in Pittsburgh made the long voyage down the Ohio and the Mississippi to New Orleans. Four years later, in 18 15, another succeeded in making the voyage up-stream against the strong current. It then required 25 days to go from New Orleans to Louisville. In 18 19 steamboats ascended the swifter current of the Missouri River far on the route of Lewis and Clark. In 1819, also, the Savannah, using both sails and steam-engine, crossed the Atlantic Ocean. The "Cleiimont" INVENTION OF THE STEAMBOAT 303 From this time on steamboats multiplied rapidly, espe- cially in the West. Twenty-one were built on the Ohio River in 1819. A year later there were 71 on the Ohio, the Mis- sissippi, and the other western rivers. As yet only four The "Savannah" The first steamship that crossed the Atlantic steamboats had been built on the Great Lakes. Travel, emigration, and trade had not begun to follow that route. Advantages of the River Towns. — With an ocean port at New Orleans the towns on the rivers of the Mississippi Valley had a great advantage over the settlements on the shores of the Lakes. These northern settlements were difficult to reach, for the St. Lawrence Valley was in the hands of the British. Chicago and Milwaukee were still mere stations for fur traders. Detroit, Cleveland, and Buffalo were only villages. The region from the Mohawk Valley to the east- ern end of Lake Erie was a wilderness. The river towns, on the other hand, were on the great high- ways from the East to the West and from the northern West to the Gulf of Mexico. The steamboat shortened the dis- tances. Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Louisville, and St. Louis became large and prosperous trading centers. To St. Louis were brought the furs of the new Northwest. Louisville was the market for Kentucky tobacco and hemp. At Cincinnati 304 NEW WORK AND NEW ROUTES a flourishing meat-packing business was established. Until the War of 1812, droves of 4,000 or 5,000 hogs had been driven across the mountains to Philadelphia and Baltimore, feeding on the nuts and acorns of the forests by the way. Now cattle and hogs were kept on the feeding-grounds of Ohio until they were ready for the packers of Cincinnati. New Orleans was the port where most of the products of the West were marketed. i-^^^^TT>-^, A Toll-Gate and Bridge Turnpikes and Bridges. — In the West, wagon roads were almost unknown except in a few older settlements. The old Indian trails were used, but few travelers tried to go far from the rivers. In the East, the local governments and private companies had built many paved roads or turnpikes, stretch- ing out from the chief towns like the spokes of a wheel. Toll-gates were placed at frequent intervals to take toll from the traveler in order to pay the cost of repairs and a profit to the builders. The old fords along the way were bridged with stone arches and the swamps crossed by logs or planks laid side by side.^ The National Road, 1818. — Neither local governments nor private companies could undertake the costly enterprise of a road across the mountains. Eastern merchants were ^ A Scotch engineer, Macadam, had already shown how to build solid, well- drained roads. His plans were followed by American road-builders. THE NATIONAL ROAD 305 alarmed at the advantage which the steamboat gave to their rivals at New Orleans. It cost much more to send goods over the mountains than from New Orleans. Besides, states- men of the day were afraid that the loose-jointed republic would break apart at the mountains. George Washington had taken an interest in a great wagon road across the Alleghanies and had repeatedly urged that one should be built. In 18 18 Congress finally carried out Washington's plan, even following the trail that he had blazed Route of the National Road, 1812-1840 for a part of the way. In 1818 the National Road, carefully graded and covered with crushed stone, reached from Cum- berland on the Potomac to WheeUng on the Ohio, and was later extended westward as far as Vandalia, in Illinois. Stage Coaches. — The new roads, and especially the National Road, made it easier for emigrants to reach the West, and cheaper for merchants to transport their goods. Better roads were followed by finer and swifter stage-coaches for the traveler. Daily stage-coaches set out for the West or ran between the main towns. People at that time marveled at their swiftness. They now made the journey from Boston to New York in two days, and from New York to Philadelphia in fifteen hours. The government mail coaches, by running day and night on the new National Road, made the journey from Cumberland to Wheeling in exactly twenty-four hours. Travelers in the ordinary passenger coaches could not go so rapidly. Six days was the usual time from Philadelphia 3o6 NEW WORfC AND NEW ROUTES to Pittsburgh. Horses were changed every few miles, and the drivers boasted that the change was made before the coach stopped rocking. Freight was carried between dis- tant cities by large Conestoga wagons, each drawn by six powerful horses.^ Erie Canal, 1825. — The building of the National Road helped the ports of Philadelphia and Baltimore far more ^:SI^ ^^^^^^S^^^^s^*^^!^^^^^- "Conestoga" Wagon for carrying Freight than New York. It also increased the advantage which the river towns of the West possessed over the settlements along the shores of the Lakes. De Witt Clinton and other public- spirited men resolved to guard the future of New York City, open western New York state, and gain a route to the Lakes, and through them to the Northwest. With such objects in mind Clinton persuaded the legislature of New York to raise the money for a canal from Albany to Buffalo. To build a "big ditch," as Clinton's enemies called it, 360 miles long, by means of spades and wheel-barrows, seemed a wild scheme, but the plan won the support of the peo- ple and, in 1825, after eight years of work, it was completed. ^ The name "Conestoga" was given because they were first used by the thrifty farmers in the valley of the Conestoga River, in eastern Pennsylvania, for carrying their farm products to market. CANALS 307 It was a great event for New York City, and for the people along the way, but most of all for the people of the West. It had formerly cost them $32 a ton to send their freight 100 miles by wagon. The canal carried the same load for $1. A stream of emigrants began to move by the canal into the region on the Lakes. They were as certain to find a good market for their products as the farmers on the rivers. Map of the Erie Canal Other Canals. — Ohio, encouraged by the example of New York, built a system of canals connecting the Ohio River and Lake Erie. Ports Hke Cleveland became distributing cen- ters for products from the East, brought by the Erie Canal and Lake Erie. The farm products of Ohio and northern Indiana were forwarded to the East from these ports. Steamboats were multiplied on the Lakes as they had been multipHed on the western rivers. Philadelphia was alarmed by the success of the Erie Canal and attempted to rival it by building a canal to Pittsburgh. Part of the way the freight was hauled across the mountains, being pulled up and let down inchned railways by stationary engines placed at the highest point. 3o8 NEW WORK AND NEW ROUTES Every state now wanted a net-work of canals to reach dis- tricts far from rivers and lakes. Congress gave liberally to aid some of these projects, offering large sections of the public lands, by the sale of which the needed money might be furnished. € '^^•^MM: ' ■^^^m^}^^-i"blkB A Canal Passenger Packet Union of East and West. — These new routes of travel and trade not only enriched the settlements along the way, the merchants on the coast, and the farmers of the Mississippi Valley, but they strengthened the bonds of union between the West and the East. Washington's hope was finally realized. QUESTIONS 1. What was the effect of the interruption of foreign trade? What inven- tion was introduced into the United States as a consequence? How did the American factories differ from the English? 2. What changes took place in the iron and steel industry? 3. How did the new machinery affect the amount of work done by laborers? The price of goods? The classes of laborers? The demand for slaves? 4. How did the English manufacturers try to ruin their American rivals? Why were the Pittsburgh mills not injured? How did Congress help the manufacturers? What was the aim of the various nations in arranging their tariffs? 5. What gave rise to demands for better means for traveling and carry- ing freight? Why was the problem a difficult one? Why did the western farmers expect the United States to build roads and canals? QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 309 6. Why was Fulton's invention timely? Where did steamboats find a great work to do? 7. Why did the river towns of the West have an advantage over those on the shores of the Great Lakes? How did New Orleans, St. Louis, Louisville, and Cincinnati obtain a leadership in trade? 8. How did many places secure roads and bridges? Why were the people of the East anxious to have a road across the Alleghany Mountains? How was the National Road built? What useful purpose did it serve when completed? What improvements were made in the stage-coach lines? 9. What cities did the National Road help the most? What did De Witt Clinton persuade New York to do? Why was his "big ditch" a great under- taking? 10. What were some of the results of building the Erie Canal? What other canals were soon built? What effect had these canals? EXERCISES 1. Are there any occupations of the home to-day being crowded out by inventions and new business methods? 2. Which countries to-day have a "protective" tariff and which do not? 3. Find out why some cities have grown more prosperous than others. 4. If there is an old canal in the neighborhood, learn about its history. Important Dates: 1807. Robert Fulton invents a steamboat. 1814. Francis Lowell introduces the power-loom and the new kind of factories into the United States. 1818. The National Road is completed from Cumberland to Wheeling. 1825. The Erie Canal is finished from Albany to Buffalo. An Old Time Stage-Coach CHAPTER XXVII THE MARCH OF POPULATION WESTWARD Immigration after the War. — The same years which saw the growth of American manufactures and the opening of new routes for trade and travel, saw a great tide of immigra- tion coming toward the shores of America, and especially toward the fertile regions of the Mississippi Valley. They saw also an important extension of American territory and influence. From the close of the Revolution to the end of the War of 1812, that is from 1783 to 181 5, comparatively few came to America, The great wars kept men from leaving Europe, drawing them into armies or navies or into the employments which war creates. With the return of peace in 181 5, the tide of immigration set in again. It was small at first, ten or twelve thousand a year, but the number steadily increased. Not only did the opportunities in America attract immi- grants, but poor people found it hard to make a living in Europe. The wars left a heavy burden of taxation. Sol- diers and sailors, dismissed from the armies and out of work, crowded every occupation. Wages were very low. The peasant farmers, in Germany especially, found that they must still pay dues to the nobles. The immigrants of this period were mostly from England and Ireland, although a few came from Germany. The Irish were chiefly peasants, but in the United States most of them worked in factories or did the hard out-door work of the coast towns. Englishmen who understood a trade quickly found employment in similar trades. Many English and German THE WESTWARD MOVEMENT AFTER 1812 311 immigrants were farmers and were eager to obtain land in the West. The Westward Movement after the War of 1812. — Besides the new immigrants from Europe who sought lands in the West, many people moved from the older settlements. A European traveler in 181 7 says that on the roads leading across the mountains he was seldom out of sight of family groups. Each was traveling as its means permitted. Some went in stage-coaches or their own covered wagons. Many Scene on the Ohio River The main highway of the early West times whole famihes, because of poverty, set out on foot, carrying on their backs or on a Hght wagon, dragged along by the father and sons, the few articles which they would need on the way. The blockade of the Atlantic coast during the last year of the War of 181 2 made earning a living so hard that many started for the lands which Congress offered for sale in the Mississippi Valley. Consequently the movement of people toward the frontier had never ceased. After the war closed, it became so great that certain eastern towns were alarmed, fearing that they would lose their inhabitants. New Frontiers. — By this time the frontier had moved stni farther westward. Indiana and IlHnois in the North- 312 THE MARCH OF POPULATION WESTWARD west, and Alabama and Mississippi in the Southwest, were most often the goal of the land seekers. The lands on the Missouri were occupied by the vanguard of the "army." In 182 1 Congress reduced the price of the land from $2.00 to $1.25 an acre, so that a thrifty man could soon save enough to buy a farm. The majority of the settlers on the new frontiers were poor, and some of them did not trouble them- selves to obtain a right to the soil. They "squatted" on i^^ T !^^^^^._%^ Chicago in 1820 From an old print lands far from settlements, hoping to remain undisturbed until they earned enough to buy the land. New States. — The rivers were the highways to the West until the Erie Canal was opened. People who intended to settle in Indiana or lUinois commonly traveled to the Ohio River and floated down or took a steamboat to the village nearest the lands they expected to purchase. The result was that the southern part of these territories was settled first. Another reason for this was that many of the settlers came from Kentucky and Tennessee. Many Kentuckians and Tennes- seans also moved south into Mississippi and Alabama. These western territories grew so rapidly that four of them were LIFE OF THE SETTLER 313 soon admitted into the Union; Indiana in 18 16, Mississippi in 181 7, Illinois in 18 18, and Alabama in 18 19. Louisiana had become a state in 181 2. The Lincohis and Davises as Pioneers. — The story of Abraham Lincoln and of Jefferson Davis tells something of the two streams of pioneers. Both were born in Kentucky- near the center of the state, Lincoln in 1809 and Davis in 1808. Lincoln's father took his family to Indiana, but soon moved on into Illinois. The Davises went to Louisiana, only to leave almost immediately for the " ~"-t-;^ -,-v^- -=^^^:^^ .-^^^^^^^ newer settlements in Mis- Log-Cabin m which Abraham Lincoln was born sissippi. Life of the Settler. — ■ In the new region young Lincoln lived the Hfe of the frontier boy. He watched his father build a one-room log-cabin, which was left for a long time with- out a floor or a door, watched him make the rude furniture from rough slabs of wood, and clear the first patches of ground for corn and potatoes. He learned the simple pursuits of the farm boy — to drive the team, to handle the rude plow, to cut wheat with a sickle and thresh it with a flail, and finally fan and clean it in the wind. Most of the time the boy spent in clearing fields or spUtting the rails used in making the zig- zag or worm fences. When there was nothing to be done at home, he worked for a neighboring settler, earning his "keep" and 25 cents a day. Life in the West in Lincoln's boyhood was almost the same as it had been on each new frontier since the founding of Jamestown. The opportunity to obtain an education was small. If the settlers could afford it, they started a school and hired a teacher. Lincoln called such schools, "ABC 314 THE MARCH OF POPULATION WESTWARD schools." Court-houses and churches were as rare as school buildings. Judges and lawyers rode on horseback from settlement to settlement, deciding cases sometimes in a log- cabin, sometimes in a tavern. The preacher also rode from church to church. An ambitious boy, like Lincoln, turned from one thing to another, each a step higher than the last. Lincoln became a store- keeper, post-mas- ter, road super- visor, lawyer, and finally a law- maker. The great office that he was to hold in 1861 was still in the dis- tant future. Not every western boy had the character and abilities of Lincoln, but each had an opportunity to show what was in him. A Cotton Plantation of Mississippi. — No less interesting is the story of Jefferson Davis. His father was a successful frontier cotton planter. Young Davis was sent to eastern schools for an education. After a brief career in the army, he became a Mississippi cotton planter, and finally, like Lincoln, a political leader. In one respect the southern frontier differed greatly from the northern. The demand for cotton was so great that the new lands were divided into large plantations rather than small farms. The cotton planters who migrated from the older communities on the eastern coast or in Tennessee and Kentucky, brought their slave laborers with them. As in the older settlements in the Carolinas, some of the slaves Grinding Corn on the Frontier LIFE IN THE SOUTH 315 became carpenters, bricklayers, and blacksmiths, and per- formed such work on the plantations. The more intelligent and trustworthy were kept as house-servants and drivers. The others — • men, women, and older children — were sent to the fields. Clearing the land, planting, hoeing, picking, ginning, and bahng cotton, and haul- ing it to market furnished work for many laborers all the year round. There were few days in so warm a climate when out door work could not be done. A bell in the yard summoned the slave gangs to work at sunrise, and the day ended at sundown. Food was given to them from the common storeroom. White over- seers and trusty negroes directed the work. Three things made the plantation' system successful: (i) cheap and fertile land, (2) slave labor at moderate cost, and (3) a steady market for cotton in the North and in Europe. Farmers who had been accustomed to do their own work were able from the great profits of their cotton to buy slaves and so become planters. Fabulous stories were told in the East of the riches gained from planting cotton in the deep fertile soil of the Mississippi Valley, A multitude of emigrants from Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia — planters and com- mon farmers — abandoned worn-out or less productive lands for the new frontier. Two Streams of Migration meet in Missouri. — The two Negro Quarters From an old print 3i6 THE MARCH OF POPULATION WESTWARD streams of migration, the northern and southern, in the cease- less search for better land, did not stop with the Mississippi. Both came together in Missouri, where planter and free farmer mingled. By 182 1 a few of the more adventurous frontiersmen went on, even beyond the boundaries of the United States, to the Spanish lands in Texas. The Missouri Compromise. — In 1820 Missouri asked to be admitted as a state. This raised a new question. Should the states formed from the Louisiana Purchase be admitted into the Union as states in which slavery should be allowed or in which it should be prohibited? It happened that in II of the 22 states, slaves formed the main body of laborers and that in the other 1 1 there were either very few slaves, as in Pennsylvania, or none at all, as in Massachusetts. Opinion in the Senate was evenly divided, 11 states on each side, though in the House of Representatives the group which wished to stop the spread of slavery had a majority. Which- ever group should win a new state would of course gain two votes in the Senate. The dispute was finally settled on this occasion by a famous bargain. The Maine settlers, whose territory had long been a part of Massachusetts, wished to enter the Union as a separate state, and to do so without allowing slavery. The majority of the people of Missouri, on the other hand, desired to make slav- ery legal within their own boundaries. Henry Clay suggested that the whole matter be settled by allowing Maine and Mis- souri to have their way. This would keep the two factions in the Senate equal, twelve states belonging to each. As for the rest of the Louisiana Territory, except Louisiana and Missouri, slavery should be forbidden in all that portion north of the parallel of 36° 30'. Nothing was said about the portion south of the Hne, but it was intended that it should be open to settlers with slaves. The Missouri Compromise, as the bargain was called, was THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE 317 3i8 THE MARCH OF POPULATION WESTWARD really a victory for those who wished to exclude slavery from the territories. Nine-tenths of Louisiana Territory lay north of 36° 30'. The Purchase of Florida, 1819. — In 1819 a large extension of territory where slavery was already recognized partly com- pensated the South for what it lost by the Missouri Com- promise. Ever since the purchase of Louisiana in 1803 the United States had tried to buy Florida from Spain. Finally, in 1819, an agreement was reached, and the United States purchased the whole territory of Florida for about $5,000,000. The United States agreed at the same time not to claim that Texas was a part of the old Louisiana Purchase; that is, to regard tlje Sabine River as the boundary between its own territory and Mexico. The purchase meant that the people of the South possessed the river courses over which their commerce travelled to the sea. Andrew Jackson had a short time before conquered the Creek Indians in the southwestern part of Georgia and opened the lands to settlement. Revolution in the Spanish Colonies. — Spain was the more ready to give up Florida as she was fighting hard to keep control of her colonies in Mexico and South America. Rebel- lion had broken out in those colonies when Napoleon de- clared his brother king of Spain. After the restoration of Ferdinand VII, whom Napoleon had held a prisoner, the colonists hoped that they would receive more rights in return for their loyalty. The Spanish government, however, was un- willing to grant to the colonists the privileges that the Eng- Ksh colonists had enjoyed before the War of Independence. The result was new revolutionary outbreaks, especially in the region of the La Plata River, now called the Argen- tine RepubHc, and in northern South America, now divided between the United States of Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador. The hero of the south was San Martin, the hero of the north Simon Bolivar. The story of San Martin's RELATIONS WITH OTHER NATIONS 319 passage of the Andes to free Chili reads hke Hannibal's march across the Alps two thousand years before. A still finer story- tells how at the moment of triumph the Hberator of the Argen- tine, ChiH, and Peru laid down his office in order not to offend BoHvar, his more ambitious rival, who had just reached Peru. The last victory over Spain, making independence certain, was won at Ayacucho on December 9, 1824. By this time, also, Mexico and the Central American states had won their independence. All that were left to Spain of her great colonial empire were Cuba, Porto Rico, and the PhiHppine Islands. What a change had taken place within 50 years! In 1775 North and South America were princi- pally made up of English and Spanish colonies. By 1825 these colonies had been transformed into republics, preserv- ing the civihzation which their settlers had learned from the European world, but free to manage their own affairs and guard their own interests. The Last Resource of Spain. — In 1823 Ferdinand VII of Spain had hoped that the governments of France, Prussia, Austria, and Russia would interfere before it was too late, and save his colonies in America. The European monarchs and their advisers remembered so vividly the French Revo- lution, and all that they had suffered from the Revolution- ary and Napoleonic armies, that they were anxious to put down revolution everywhere. The possibility that European governments would send an expedition across the Atlantic excited the people of the United States. Fortunately the Eng- lish were also opposed to such an attempt, chiefly because they enjoyed a thriving trade with the new republics, which they would lose if Ferdinand recovered his authority over his rebellious colonies. Another danger seemed to threaten the Americans. While the English had been occupied in exploring and settKng Amer- ica, the Russians had advanced across Siberia, making scat- 320 THE MARCH OF POPULATION WESTWARD tered settlements as they went. They finally reached and crossed Bering Strait and moved down the western coast of North America, eager to gain the fur trade of the far North- west. They claimed a part of the Oregon country and might compel Spain to grant them California in return for help in reconquering the Spanish colonies. Just then, George Canning, one of the chief ministers of England, suggested that England and the United States join in a declaration "in the face of the world" that they would oppose the plans of the European mon- archs for the reconquest of Span- ish America.- James Monroe was President of the United States, having been elected, practically without opposition, in 1817 and again in 182 1. John Quincy Adams, his Secretary of State, urged that the United States make its declaration separately, ' rather than come in as a cock-boat in the wake of a British man-of-war." His opinion was adopted by the President. The Monroe Doctrine, 1823. — Canning sent word to France that Great Britain would oppose any plan to subdue Spanish America. This made the plan impossible, for Great Britain controlled the sea as completely as she had after Nelson's great victory in 1805. When Congress met in December, Monroe made the American declaration, which showed the European schemers that they would find diffi- culties on the land, even if they succeeded in crossing the sea. He said that the United States would resist any attempt to oppress or change the government of any free republic in America. He also said, with the Russians in mind, that the James Monroe QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 321 American continents were no longer open for colonization by any European governments. He did not intend, however, to meddle with any European colonies which, like Canada, were still left on this side of the Atlantic. Spain was soon obliged to acknowledge the independence of the Spanish American republics, and Russia agreed in 1824 not to extend her Alas- kan territories south of the parallel 54° 40'. QUESTIONS 1. Why were there few immigrants to the United States from 1783 to 1815? Why did more come after 1815? From what part of Europe did they come? What did the new-comers find to do in the United States? 2. What two classes of settlers sought lands in the West? How did travelers reach the West? Where was the frontier at this time? In what two ways did settlers obtain lands? Why did immigrants settle the southern part of Indiana and lUinois before the northern? What new states were admitted soon after the War of 181 2? 3. What were the chief occupations of frontiersmen like Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis? How did lawyers, judges, and preachers reach their work? 4. In what way did the southern frontier differ from the northern? What kinds of work did the slaves perform? What things made the plantation system successful? Why did many planters of the older states go to the new fron- tier? Where did the two streams of western migration meet? What region beyond the United States were the hardiest frontiersmen beginning to enter? 5. What new question was raised by the effort of Missouri to be admitted as a state? Why were there differences of opinion about this? How was the question finally settled? Which gained an advantage by the Missouri Com- promise, the North or the South? 6. What new territory partly compensated the South for the disadvantage of the Missouri Compromise? How was Florida secured? What arrangement was made about the western boundary of Louisiana? Why were the Missis- sippi Valley states very anxious to have Florida annexed? 7. What conditions in South America made Spain ready to sell Florida? Why did the Spanish colonies revolt? Who were the leaders in their war of independence? Which gained their independence? Which did not? 8. What plan did the king of Spain form for regaining his lost colonies? What was Russia trying to do at the same time? Why did these schemes alarm the United States? How did George Canning propose to prevent the reconquest of the Spanish colonies? Why did Adams dislike Canning's plan? What steps did Canning take for England and Monroe for the United States? Why 322 THE MARCH OF POPULATION WESTWARD would it have been impossible for the European nations to help Spain recon- quer its colonies? 9. What did Monroe say the United States would resist? What did he declare about colonization of the American continents? What agreement did the United States make with Russia in 1824? EXERCISES 1. Review the four great movements in American history taking place after the War of 181 2 which are described in Chapters XXVI and XXVII. 2. How does a territory become a state in the United States? 3. Write about the early life of Abraham Lincoln or Jefferson Davis. A list of books, which give fuller accounts of the life of each, will be found on page xxvi of the Appendix (References for Teachers). 4. If the grandparents or great grandparents of any of the members of the class were pioneers at this time, such members should write a paper telling the story of their relatives. 5. Which was of the greater value — the help that France gave the United States in the Revolution, or the help that England and the United States gave the Spanish American Republics in 1823? 6. Monroe declared in the Monroe Doctrine that the colonization of the American continents was at an end. When did the colonization of the Amer- icas begin? Important Dates : 1809. February 12, birth of Abraham Lincoln. 1819. Florida purchased from Spain. 1820. The Missouri Compromise adopted by Congress. 1823. President Monroe announces the so-caUed Monroe Doctrine. R. D..SerT03s, Eng'r,.PJ.X, k _ CHAPTER XXVIII GOVERNMENT BY THE PEOPLE Changes in Government. — Changes in the method of mak- ing articles, better ways of carrying them from place to place, the growth of cities, and the rapid increase in the population of the Mississippi Valley were not the only events of the period. Important changes occurred in the political life of the people. The idea that "all men are equal" affected more then ever the manner of governing states and nation. The older families from which had been drawn the leaders in colonial times and in the early days of the Republic were no longer preferred in elections and appointments. The Right to Vote. — When Washington became President, scarcely one-fourth of the men were allowed to vote at elec- tions. Voters and office-holders had to be owners of prop- erty, usually of land. Even FrankHn said that men who had no land should not vote. In England the right to vote had gone with ownership of land. The colonies had adopted the same practice, and the framers of the first state govern- ments continued it. But in the new states, whether Ver- mont east of the Alleghanies, or Kentucky, Ohio, Tennessee, Indiana, and the others in the Mississippi Valley, the settlers were very much alike and were willing to treat one another so. They quickly changed the notions that they had held in the older communities. The idea of a privileged class of persons seemed as fooHsh as a hereditary nobihty or as kings by divine right. These states, accordingly, permitted all men to vote and hold office. 324 GOVERNMENT BY THE PEOPLE The eastern states were obliged to make the same change, otherwise the stream of emigration to the West would have been even greater. The change was not accomphshed with- out long debates and many elections, for the older leaders prophesied all sorts of terrible consequences. A few states clung to some of the estabhshed rules, Rhode Island for example, insisting that only owners of property should vote. Religious Liberty. — Another change, which naturally accompanied manhood suffrage, was the grant of complete religious liberty. Massachusetts ceased to compel all tax- payers to support the Congregational Church. In South Carolina, Roman CathoHcs gained the right to vote. These are but two illustrations of a change which was general. "Down with King Caucus." — The spirit of equality or democracy attacked still other customs. Candidates for the Presidency had been nominated by the members of Con- gress, those who belonged to each political party meeting in what was called a caucus. The custom gave to Congress- men an important privilege, and as they often held their places for long periods, a few men had a large influence in making presidents. A loud outcry was, therefore, raised against ''King Caucus." Many people wished to vote directly for their candidates, instead of voting for electors. Thomas H. Benton, a senator from Missouri, urged such a change. Several amendments to the Constitution were offered, but the plan failed. Two-thirds of the members of both houses of Congress and three-fourths of the states must consent to an amendment, and Benton was not able to secure the approval of so large a majority. The reformers, however, gradually brought about two changes: (i) that the people should vote directly for electors instead of leaving their appointment to the legislatures of the states, as had usually been the rule; and (2) that the nomi- nation should be made by a convention of delegates from the ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JACKSON 325 states. It was already understood that the electors must vote for the person named by the caucus or convention.^ In 1824 one of the candidates for President was selected by a caucus of members of Congress, but that was the last time. For a few years a mixed s}^stem went on — sometimes the nomination was the work of state legislatures, sometimes a convention of delegates within the several states. Finally, in 1832, great national conventions met for the purpose of putting candidates before the country. The people soon discovered that the overthrow of "King Caucus" had not gained for them a greater share in the selec- tion of presidents. They had merely handed power to a new set of masters, the party managers or "bosses."^ Calhoun thought that the people had lost by the change and that the bosses" were worse than the Congressmen. At least one good result came from the long discussion of methods of nominating and electing presi- dents: the people began to think the office the most im- portant in the Republic. Andrew Jackson's Election, 1828. — One reason why the common people began to feel so high regard for the office was that Andrew Jackson, their idol, was chosen President in 1828. Jackson was born on the frontier in North Carolina. His parents were Scotch- Andrew Jackson In 1830. Age 63. After the portrait by R. W. Earl ^ The framers of the Constitution intended that the electors should choose the President, and not merely record the wishes of the voters of their states. ^ Sometimes the party managers or " bosses " were private citizens, some- times they were local office-holders or members of Congress. 326 GOVERNMENT BY THE PEOPLE Birthplace of Andrew Jackson Irish. Like all boys on the frontier, he received little school- ing. Later he studied law and crossed the mountains to Nashville, then a small village. When Tennessee was ad- mitted to the Union in 1796, Jackson was chosen its first representative in Congress. To reach Philadelphia he was obliged to ride on horse-back 800 miles, most of the way ^-^^, -. — '— «- through an un- ^ &/%2--. - j:,- settled wilderness. His life since then had been spent chiefly in the army, where he became skilful in frontier fighting. The vic- tory of New Or- leans had made him a hero. Andrew Jackson was a typical westerner, and born leader of the common people. In the presidential election of 1824 Jackson received the largest vote of any of the four candidates, but not a major- ity of all electoral votes. The choice of a President , there- fore, belonged to the House of Representatives. Two of Jackson's rivals were John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay. Their supporters in the House united and chose Adams. Jackson's friends thought that he had been cheated, because more men voted for him than for Adams, and they prepared to make his election sure the next time. The southerners, the frontiersmen and farmers of the West, the workmen in the factory towns — the common people, most of them the new voting class — rallied to Jackson's aid. Great was their joy when they knew that their chief was victorious. It seemed to them to be the beginning of new things, and in more ways than one they were right. No election since Jefferson's had meant so much. NEW POLITICAL PARTIES 327 So great was the power which Jackson's triumph gave him that some timid politicians were afraid that the presidency might be changed into a kingship. Those who dishked his domineering ways called the period, "The reign of Andrew Jackson." For eight years, or two terms, he was President, and remained faithful to the cause of the common people. Who Shall hold the Offices? — President Jackson and his supporters had views about office-holding which now seem unwise or even harmful. For example, they believed it dan- gerous to allow men to hold office a long time. They were afraid that officials would get the idea that an office was a piece of property which they owned and would grow careless about its duties. So the Jacksonians attacked long terms of office, just as people before them had attacked kingship and hereditary nobiHty. Worse than this was the way they used offices to reward friends and to punish opponents. Jackson did not introduce the custom. It had been going on many years in some of the states. The men who came into power at Jackson's election demanded that the offices of the national government be distributed more freely among the common people. Shrewd pohtical managers, with nothing else with which to pay their party followers, fell in with the idea. Jackson did not wish to turn honest and competent officials out, but he was easily persuaded that those who were "in" were incompetent ras- cals. To all complaints his friends replied, "To the victors belong the spoils." New Political Parties. — Jacksonian democracy carried forward the ideas that Thomas Jefferson had taught, but went farther than he dreamed of going. Since his day the Republican party had absorbed most of his old opponents, the Federalists. Their attitude during the War of 181 2 made them unpopular, and their party had melted away. . The period after the war, when there was but one great party, 328 GOVERNMENT BY THE PEOPLE BORN TO COMMAND has been called an " Era of Good Feeling." It is hard to find the good feeling among the leaders of the day, for there were really many different factions or groups within the Republi- can party. Some were the followers of Adams, some of Clay, some of Calhoun, and some of Jackson. Upon Jackson's election his followers took possession of the old Jeffersonian RepubHcan party. They kept its name a while, but were more com- monly known as ''Jackson men," and soon adopted the name of Democrats. The Democratic party of Jackson's day was really a new party — Jacksonian rather than Jeffersonian. The opponents of Jackson claim- ed to be the true Jeffersonian Re- publicans — National Republicans they were called. These men, the followers of many different leaders, were united only in a dislike for Andrew Jackson. They accused him of restoring the kind of govern- ment against which the patriots had fought in the Revolution, because he had made the office of President so powerful. For this reason they called him "King Andrew," and his followers "Tories." They took for themselves the old Revolutionary party name of Whigs. The Whigs were chiefly interested in keeping up the tariff, having the national government aid the states in building canals and roads, and in opposing Jackson and the growth of the powers of his office. Their greatest leaders were Henry Clay of Kentucky and Daniel Webster of Massachusetts. Democracy in Europe. — These changes in political life were not pecuhar to the United States. The common i23F — — " latyi* What Jackson's Opponents THOUGHT or Him From a contemporary cartoon DEMOCRACY IN EUROPE 329 people had not forgotten the ideas of equality and brother- hood proclaimed by the French Revolution, even if their rulers tried to compel them to act as if they had. In 1830 another revolution took place in France. The King, who was the younger brother of the unfortunate Louis XVI, was driven from his throne, and a cousin, Louis Philippe, was made king. Louis liked to be called the ''Citizen King," and he went about the streets as an ordinary man. He also sent his sons to the public schools. He had once been a refugee in the United States, and loved to talk about the Americans to returned travelers. General Lafayette was one of the leaders in this revolution. He would have preferred a republican government, but he was more anxious to secure political liberty than any par- ticular form of government, and supported the new king. A new law in France about doubled the number of voters. A still more important change occurred in England. By the" Great Reform Bill "of 1832 the English parliament aban- doned its old method of representation and adopted plans more like those long used in America. The right to send members to parliament was taken from many communities with few inhabitants, which were controlled by the land- owners, and it was given to the new factory cities like Bir- mingham, Manchester, and Sheffield. The right to vote was also extended greatly, though most of the workmen in the towns, and laborers everywhere, were still excluded. In neither France nor England did they go as far toward a more democratic government as in the United States, but a long step was taken in that direction. Such changes in England meant that leadership was passing from the men who had looked upon the Americans as rebels. The new leaders were willing to acknowledge that the Eng- lish colonists in America had fought the battle of colonists everywhere. These leaders would soon be ready to give full 33© GOVERNMENT BY THE PEOPLE rights of self-government to colonists like the Canadians who still remained loyal to the mother country. QUESTIONS 1. Name five important changes that were slowly going on in the United States. What restrictions had formerly been placed on voting and holding office? Why did the new states allow all men to vote and hold office? Why did the eastern states follow their example? Illustrate changes taking place regarding religious liberty. 2. How had candidates for the presidency been nominated? What changes did Senator Benton attempt to make? What changes were finally made in electing and nominating the President? Did the people really gain much by the changes in method of nominations? 3. Who was chosen President in 1828? Why was he so popular? 4. What views did Jackson and his supporters have about office holding? Why did the party managers like the plan of short terms and passing offices about among the common people? What burden did these changes place upon the President? 5. What became of the old Federalist party? What division took place in the Jeffersonian Republican party? What name did Jackson's followers take? Why did the Whigs choose that name? Who were the greatest leaders of the Whigs? 6. What long steps toward democracy were taken in France in 1830 and in England in 1832? How would such changes in England affect the attitude of the mother country toward Canada and toward the United States? EXERCISES 1. Learn the qualifications for voters in the state. Have these always been the same? 2. Find out the number of men in the precinct, the number who can vote, and the number who voted at the last election. Why do many men fail to vote? Can women vote? 3. How can an immigrant become a voter? 4. Learn how the President and other officers are nominated to-day. Is the method an improvement over the old one by caucus or by convention? 5. Does the President remove the postmasters when he takes office and appoint his party workers to the vacant positions? Make a list of the officers whom he still changes. 6. What classes of men were allowed to vote in the United States, and were still excluded in France and England after the changes of 1830 and 1832? Important Dates : 1828. Jackson elected President. Jackson serves as President from 1829 until 1837. CHAPTER XXIX PROBLEMS OF THE NEW DEMOCRACY Strife over Tariffs. — The growth of the national indus- tries and the spread of population gave Andrew Jackson and his successor, Martin Van Buren, several difficult problems to solve. The first of these was the tariff. When the tariff of 1816 was adopted by Congress, leaders of the South, like Calhoun, voted for it, be- lieving protective duties advantageous to the south- ern, as well as to the north- ern, states. The South, however, soon found that taxes on clothing and tools, things needed on the plan- tations, were a serious bur- den. Cotton did not re- quire protection by a tariff, because it was not import- ed, but exported. The southern leaders concluded that they were taxed for the benefit of the North. Matters were made worse when the extension of the plantation system, especially in the new Southwest, led to over-production of cotton and to low prices. The Idea of Nullification. — In the opposition to the tariff Calhoun, who was Vice-President, became the spokesman of the South. > He had come to the conclusion that the new pohtical methods, which were introduced mainly by the Jack- JoHN C. Calhoun 332 PROBLEMS OF THE NEW DEMOCRACY sonians, strengthened the central government too much, destroying the original plan according to which one set of powers acted as a check upon another. To him the party managers seemed to be gaining power in every direction through the choice of presidential electors directly by the voters, the convention system of nominating the President, and the spoils system, which was used to pay faithful party followers. Calhoun, therefore, fell back upon the old idea that the states, rather than the Supreme Court, were final judges of what the national government had a right to do. In 1832 South Carolina, influenced by Calhoun, called a state convention which declared the tariff acts null and void. This meant that the national officers could not collect duties in the ports of South CaroKna, and that if the United States used force, the state would withdraw from the Union. Two years before this a great debate on the questions of states' rights had taken place in the United States Senate. Senator Hayne of South Carolina defended the ideas of Cal- houn, and Senator Webster of Massachusetts argued that the powers of the national government were supreme. Webster closed one of his speeches with the exclamation, ' Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable." In these words he uttered what was in the hearts of multitudes, espe- cially of the settlers of the newer western states. Jackson and South Carolina. — Jackson had no special liking for the tariff, but he loved the Union as intensely as Webster. He denied that a state could set aside a law of the United States merely because it disliked the law. If war should become necessary, he declared that in forty days he would have 40,000 men in South Carohna. Men knew that he would make his words good. Henry Clay wished to keep Jackson from leading an army into South Carolina, and suggested a compromise in Congress. By it the tariff was gradually reduced to the level of 1816. Both sides TALK OF NULLIFICATION 333 claimed the victory, the United States because it had forced South CaroHna to repeal its declaration against a tariff act, with all it had said about states' rights; South Carolina because it had forced Congress to lower the duties on imports. More Talk of Nullification. — South Carolina was not the only state where men talked of nullifying national laws. The United States had a dis- pute with Great Britain about the northeastern boundary. The King of the Netherlands was asked to act as an arbitra- tor, and in 1831 recommended that the United States give up part of the territory on the borders of Maine. Maine and Massachusetts were opposed to the "plan of settlement, for it would have taken from Maine territory that she claimed and from Massachusetts the owner- ship of lands in the same territory. Both declared through their legislatures that the United States had no power to cede any portion of a state without its consent. They did not say that they would withdraw from the Union or fight if the United States accepted the decision of the King of the Netherlands, but that they would treat the decision as null and void. All trouble between the United States and the two northeastern states was avoided by setting aside the decision of the arbitrator and leaving the question of the boundary unsettled. Other Hard Questions. — The tariff was the principal tax by which the national government raised enough money Map showing Disputed Bound- ary OF Maine 334 PROBLEMS OF THE NEW DEMOCRACY to pay its expenses. How the tariff should also be used to give aid to American industries was a hard question. Other questions, equally hard, faced the legislators and officers of the states. How much was it safe to expend on roads, canals, and other internal improvements? Should the state permit banks to issue paper money, when the states them- selves were forbidden by the Constitution to issue such money? Still other questions faced the business men of the country, especially of the West. Was it wise to buy land for town sites, lay out streets and lots, on the chance that part of the great stream of emigration would turn in their direction and enrich those who were on the ground first? Should bankers lend money to men who would have nothing to pay the debt unless the town lots were bought speedily and the canals had a good deal of freight to carry? Was it right for a bank to issue paper money with very little coin in its vaults with which to redeem the notes? Many of the canals were badly located and bound to -fail. The main reason why they should have been planned more cautiously was the invention of the railroad and the loco- motive. Railroads did not put an end to the usefulness of canals like the Erie, but they soon made many others un- profitable, causing the money expended upon them to become a total loss. The Locomotive. — No invention has had greater influence on American history than that of the locomotive. For this the world is chiefly indebted to George Stephenson, the son of an English laborer. The story is told that in 1807 he wished to go to America, but found that he was too poor to pay his passage. As an engineer at a coal mine he learned all about the Watt steam-engine. Stephenson thought something like it could be used on the railroads which were being built for horse-cars. About 18 14 he invented his first locomotive, EARLY RAILROADS 335 — a rough, noisy, weak machine, — but he proved that it could draw cars for every-day business. By 1825 he was able to secure its introduction in place of horse-power on the new railroads, which were short lines about a dozen miles in length. Introduction of the Locomotive in the United States. ^ The Erie Canal proved of so great beneht to business in New York City that other cities were anxious about their share The First Locomotive built in the United States Drawn on the same scale as the modern locomotive shown behind it of the western trade. Charleston, South Carolina, was the first to use one of the new locomotives on a railroad some six miles long. This was in 1830. Four years later the line was extended westward 137 miles to the Savannah River near Augusta. Meanwhile the owners of the short horse-car lines built from Baltimore and Philadelphia toward the West adopted the new power.^ The locomotives were improved and gradually took the place of horses on all railroads. At first the locomotives could not climb steep grades or run very swiftly. Fourteen ^ Peter Cooper built a locomotive for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, as the Baltimore line was called, and because it was small he called it the "Tom Thumb." Men had doubted whether a locomotive could run around curves without leaving the track. Cooper proved that his could round even sharp curves. A race with a horse-car ended the trial trip on the double track near Baltimore. The horse started quicker, but the puffing engine soon gained headway and caught up with the horse. Then the race was neck and neck with the iron steed gaining as the horse grew tired, but a pulley slipped off the engine and the horse-car finished first. 336 PROBLEMS OF THE NEW DEMOCRACY 01 Btina. a®4Mi) g&Bs Asro SAHAa ipaistiaaia) From Philadelphia to Pittsburghp THROVGB IK 3i DATS: Vr C^tTED STATET MAIL, From riTT&BDROH to LOHSVIUE. or fifteen miles an hour was the best they could do. Railroad builders were slow in learning how to build the tracks in order to endure hard usage. At the hills the locomotives stopped, and stationary engines with ropes dragged the cars up an inclined plane to the top, where an- W^§^^ ^Mm^^ T5^ other locomotive took the cars on the jour- ney . Philadelphia used this system on part of the state- highway to Pitts- burgh, which was built to offset the ad- vantage given to New York by the Erie Canal. Other Early Rail- roads. — Other re- gions became eager to have railroads. New York business men began short lines parallel to the Erie Canal. In 1841 Bos- ton men began a railroad which was soon to reach Albany. The Baltimore and Ohio was steadily extended westward. By 1840 nearly 3,000 miles of railway had been built in the United States. It was, however, another ten years before the great railway era opened. Cost of Railroads and Canals. — Some of the states which had borrowed money to build canals borrowed equally great sums to build railroads. Before 1838 Illinois borrowed for this purpose $7,400,000, nearly as much as New York and Starts every morning, from the corner of Broad » Race St. i>«l0 Sacramento in 1848 $15,000,000 directly, besides $3,500,000 to those Americans who claimed damages from Mexico.^ Discovery of Gold in California, 1848. — One part of the new territory awakened immediate interest. A few days before Mexico agreed to the terms of peace, gold was discov- ered in CaHfornia. Some laborers engaged in building a saw- mill in the Sacramento Valley turned up the earth and found yellow grains which proved to be gold. They soon discovered more, widely scattered in the sand. The news spread. Saw- mills, farms, and shops lost their interest for the settlers of ^ Trouble arose over the location of the boundary between the Rio Grande and the Colorado Rivers, and in 1853 the United States avoided war by pur- chasing from Mexico a strip of territory south of the Gila River. It was called the Gadsden Purchase from James Gadsden, who was the purchasing agent. MAP SHOWING THE TERRITORY ACQUIRED FROM MEXICO AS THE RESULT OF ' THE MEXICAN WAR from Green'wicil Longitude West DISCOVERY OF GOLD IN CALIFORNIA 359 California. All were abandoned. Even the courts were closed for want of anybody to attend them. A ship which came to anchor in San Francisco Bay was immediately deserted by the crew. The captain saw nothing better to do and set off for the diggings, leaving his ship under the care of his wife. Within a year $5,000,000 worth of gold had been taken out and during the next ten years nearly one hundred times as much. Many of the American people, therefore, looked upon the war with Mexico as a piece of good fortune. "The Forty-Niners." — The discovery of gold in Califor- nia gave the westward movement a new turn. The adven- turers who went out the next year, the "Forty-niners," were The Overland Route to California more like the Argonauts of old or De Soto's men seeking the El Dorado in North America than the other pioneers. Emi- grants from Europe and from the eastern states sailed around Cape Horn or crossed the Isthmus of Panama. Those who went by the Isthmus of Panama rode mules across the narrow pass, braving the dangers of tropical fever and of robber bands. Steamboats, which were just coming into use for long voyages, found crowds at New York and Panama clamoring for passage. The favorite route for most American immigrants started on the Missouri and followed the Oregon Trail and its branch to Cahfornia. Caravans of prairie schooners, cavalcades of horsemen, the poorer adventurers afoot, dotted the trail on the desert plains. Their number made the Oregon migra- tion seem small by comparison. On the trail the "Forty- 360 THE WINNING OF THE PACIFIC COAST niners" passed Salt Lake where the Mormons/ a new reli- gious sect, were irrigating the sage-brush plain and turning it into fertile farm-land. They had discovered the true source of wealth as the Cahfornians were later to learn. A few of the "Forty-niners" found for- tunes, but most of them made barely enough to pay their expenses, and all suf- fered hardships in fever-ridden, half- famished camps. Prices rose faster than gold could be dug to meet them. Spades and shovels were $10 apiece; a shirt cost $40; a candle, $3; a barrel of pork, $200. The average profit in digging gold never exceeded $1,000 a year. The discovery of gold affected many persons besides the miners who went to California. It increased the amount of money. Business men could borrow on easier terms for their enterprises. The consequence was a new period of feverish activity, like that which followed the building of the National Road, the Erie Canal, and the first railroads. California Ready to become a State. — The population of California grew by leaps and bounds. Within two years it had increased tenfold. The old Spanish and Mexican pop- ulation was only a small part of the whole. San Francisco changed from a village into one of the large cities of the United States, with 20,000 inhabitants. It was a real babel of languages — English, German, Spanish, Hawaiian, Chi- nese, and Malay. California in 1849 formed a government of its own and was ready to enter the Union. As the people were almost all free workingmen, it is not surprising that they ^ The Mormons built their first "temple" at Kirtland, Ohio, in 1836. They reached Utah in 1846. A Forty -NiNER QUESTIONS 361 forbade slavery entirely. The desire of the settlers that California should be admitted to the Union without slavery again raised the slavery question, dividing men in the South and the North into two hostile groups. It threw all other questions into the backgound and became the principal political issue. A Frontier on the Pacific. — The acquisition of Cahfornia and the establishment of the American claim to Oregon secured a new frontier. The United States now faced the Pacific Ocean as well as the Atlantic. It had ceased to be chiefly an outlying part of Great Britain and Europe, offering new homes to those who wished to leave the old, and had become a world, looking eastward toward Europe and west- ward toward Asia, desiring friendship and commerce with both. One reason why the government was so eager to obtain California was to open a more direct trade with China and the Pacific islands. In 1844 China had agreed to permit Americans to trade in five ports. Ten years later, Japan, also long closed to foreigners, opened ports to American traders. American missionaries were already influential in the Hawaiian Islands. QUESTIONS 1. Why were the Democrats in a hurry to annex Texas? How did they bring it about? 2. What plans had Polk which brought on war with Mexico? What real grievances did the United States have against Mexico? How did the war actually begin? Who was to blame? Why were the anti-slavery men opposed to the war? 3. How did Polk secure Oregon? Did he obtain all of the Oregon country? 4. What did Taylor's, Kearny's, and Scott's armies accomplish in the war? Why were they victorious? 5. What were Polk's terms of peace with Mexico? 6. What event of 1848 made the war with Mexico seem particularly timely to many Americans? Describe the migration of the "Forty-niners." 7. What new settlement did the "Forty-niners" pass on the California 362 THE WINNING OF THE PACIFIC COAST trail? How did the majority of the California gold-seekers finally find wealth? How did the discovery of gold affect business in the United States? 8. Describe California in 1850. Why did the Californians forbid slavery? 9. What further effect had expansion on the United States? What foreign trade privileges were gained about this time? EXERCISES 1. Compare the ways by which the government of the United States annexed Louisiana and Texas. 2. Was the war with Mexico honorable to the United States? 3. Why may the migration of the "Forty-niners" be compared to the Argo- nauts or De Soto's El Dorado seekers? 4. Compare the area of Cahfornia with that of some of the older states. Important Dates: 1845. Texas annexed. 1846. Oregon secured by a compromise with Great Britain, and the war with Mexico begins. 1848. Discovery of gold. Sutter's Fort in 1848 Near which gold was first found in California CHAPTER XXXII A GREAT DOMAIN, NEW TOOLS, AND WILLING HANDS The Domain. — In 1850 the territory of the United States stretched westward from the Mississippi River across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. Most of the region was unoccupied except by roving tribes of Indians. Iowa had been a state only four years; Wisconsin only two. Minne- sota was a territory, and its capital, Minneapolis, was a year old. Where were men and women to be found to carry the line of settlement across this vast domain? The newer states apparently needed all their people for their own unfinished tasks. If men and women could be found, how were they to reach places so distant? The immigrant and the railroad were the answers to these questions. Railroads. — At the time California was obtained, only a few short railroad lines existed in the Mississippi Valley. None had yet crossed the great Alleghany ranges from the East. Finally, in 1853, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad reached Wheeling, and the next year the Pennsylvania Rail- road was completed to Pittsburgh. Already, in 1852, two railroads entered Chicago: the Michigan Central from Detroit and the Michigan Southern from Toledo. By 1855 travelers could go by rail from New York to St. Louis. During the ten years from 1850 to i860 the number of miles of railway was tripled. If all the railroads had been put end to end they would have circled the earth, with 5,000 miles to spare. The early railroads were usually built with the aim of con- necting the great waterways. This had been the purpose of 364 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW DOMAIN the canals, but they were closed by ice several months each year. The Pennsylvania and the Baltimore and Ohio rail- roads were intended to connect Philadelphia and Baltimore, the eastern rivals of New York, with the rivers of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. The Michigan roads cut off the long route by the Straits of Mackinac from the lower lakes to Chicago. The railroads soon ceased to be mere connecting links. They were built even on the banks of the Hudson River and ^Porlland II 1 1 I I liailruaJs in operation in ISJO — — Railroads coiiiplcltd between ISJO and ISWi Railroads in Operation in the Northern States in 1S60 along the shore of Lake Eric, challenging the steamboat in the race for trade. As a result new routes of trade sprang up, independent of lake and river and sea-coast. The route on the Mississippi River to the Gulf lost some of its importance, and the relations between the West and the East became closer than those between the West and the South. Settle- ment, too, moved along these east and west lines. The railroads thus became an important geographical feature added by man to the natural features of river, lake, and mountain. The growth of towns was affected by such changes. The future of a city was doubly assured if it was served by both RAILROADS AND TELEGRAPHS 365 water route and railroad. This was especially true of cities on the Great Lakes — a water route unrivalled in the world. After the St. Mary's ship-canal and locks were completed, steamboats could go from the western end of Lake Superior to the eastern shore of Lake Erie. They carried the iron ores of the Lake Superior region to Chicago, Detroit, Cleve- land, and Buffalo. To these cities the railroad brought the coal of western Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois. The con- sequence was that they began manufacturing iron and steel. Chicago, so near the southern end of Lake Michigan, had a further advantage. It was the western end of almost all railroads from the East, and the starting-point of those to the newer West. As early as 1850 a railroad ran west from Chicago as far as Elgin. As the railroad decreased the im- portance of waterways, Cincinnati and New Orleans lost part of their supremacy in the trade of the Mississippi Valley. The Telegraph. — While the railroad was binding the country together in many directions, a net- work of telegraph wires was adding to the means of communication. The telegraph assisted the employ- ees of railroads in managing trains, but it was equally important in enabling the business man to send orders or obtain information from distant places in a few minutes. The inventor of the telegraph was Samuel F. B. Morse, a pro- fessor in New York University. He thought out a plan for sending messages over a wire, and made a rough instrument which did what he expected. As he could get no one to help him build a telegraph hne, he appealed to Congress for aid. For several years Congress Samuel F. B. Morse 366 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW DOMAIN refused to grant money, but finally gave him $30,000 with which to build an experimental line between Washington and Baltimore. This was completed in 1844, in time to carry to Washington the news of the nomination of James K. Polk to the Presidency within fifteen minutes after the Democratic convention at Baltimore had reached its decision. Morse's triumph convinced doubting business men. Private companies built lines. In 1848 Ezra Cornell completed a line from New York to Cleveland, Toledo, Detroit, Chicago, and Milwaukee. A Revolution in the Post-ofBce. — A change in the charges made by the post-office for carrying letters was almost as important as the invention of the telegraph. The rates had been so high that ordinary persons could not afford to write often to friends or business associates living at a dis- tance. A single sheet cost six cents for 30 miles, ten cents between 30 and 80 miles, and so on, until the cost rose to 25 cents for all In 1 85 1 Congress fixed the rate Newspapers were by An American Clipper distances over 400 miles. at three cents within the country.^ this time carried with the other mail, but the rates for them remained high. Steamships. — Wliile the railroad was providing for travel from the Atlantic seaboard to the interior, the steamboat was making it easier to reach America. Sailing ships also made the trip more quickly than in earher days. The ^ In 1883 the rate of postage on letters was reduced to two cents. THE POST-OFFICE AND STEAMSHIPS 367 Americans had learned to build a ship called the "clipper," which could make three voyages between Europe and Amer- ica while a British ship was making two. These ships by their superiority were pushing the English hard in the race for ocean trade. They were particularly successful in the long voyages required in the trade with China. Sometimes these splendid vessels raced from Chinese ports to New York, eager to land the first cargoes of the new crop of tea. But the creation of the iron steamship meant their ruin sooner or later. In England timber was scarce, but iron and coal were cheap. About a quarter of the ships which the English built in 1853 were of iron. Fifteen years before this a British line of steamships began regular trips between England and the Uni- _, ted States. Excellent though the clippers were, they could not compete with the steamship. The first ocean steamships often required fifteen days for the voyage, but by 1847 they had lowered the time to eleven days. New Tools for the Farm. — The farmer's task in making the land productive was rendered easier by the invention of new machinery. The sickle and scythe began to give place to the mowing-machine and the harvester, and the flail to the threshing machine. Horserakes, cultivators, and corn planters appeared. The invention of harvesting machinery was chiefly the work of Cyrus McCormick of Virginia. His father had tried for vears to make a successful machine for The Old Way of Reaping 368 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW DOMAIN cutting grain, and young McCormick took up the problem where his father left it. He soon constructed a reaper which was fairly successful. After it had been improved it was able to do the work of twenty men, cutting the grain, binding it, and laying it in windrows. The threshing machine was equally successful. In 1855 at the World's \M^ Fair in Paris, sLx threshers with flails were set at work beside one of the American machines. In half an hour the ma- chine threshed ten times as much wheat as the men. Such farm machinery increased the demand for western land. Thus the line of settlement moved westward faster than ever. Tools for Other Work. — The settlement of the country was helped by the invention of other tools which were not connected directly with farm work. The steam hammer made the tasks of the ironworker easier. The planing machine aided the carpenter. The rotary or cyhndrical press helped the printer. Some newspapers ventured to reduce the price from 6 cents a paper to a cent, and declared that they would bring all the news of the day within the means of everybody.^ The steam-engine suppHed them with power, and the tele- graph brought in fresh news, and so increased their useful- The First T\pe of McCormick Reaper ' The New York Daily Sun, 1833. was the first penny newspaper. Two years later, James Gordon Bennett started another, the New York Herald. Horace Greeley, in 1841, founded the New York Tribune; ten j'ears later Henry J. Raymond established the New York Times. The price of these was later increased to two cents. NEW INVENTIONS 369 ness as teachers of the people. The newspapers, in turn, made profitable work for the telegraph, and hastened its extension throughout the country. THE SUN. Number 1.] JIEV YORX, TCTESDAY, SEPTEMBER 3, 1833. (Price 0»e Pqjiiv. pinarrsHED BArLY, The First Copy of "The Sun" — a Penny Newspaper The sewing machine, one of the most useful of the newer inventions, was completed by Elias Howe in 1846. He had planned it several years earlier, but was too poor to pay the cost of construction. His first machine in a sewing race distanced five of the swiftest hand sewers. It earned him a fortune and lightened the burden of women. The prin- ciple of the sewing machine was soon used in constructing machines for sewing leather and making shoes. Machines were also invented which cut and sewed button-holes. Other inventions, cook stoves, base- burners, and furnaces, made the home more comfortable and the work of the housewife easier. Americans borrowed from Europe the invention of the match. In a multitude of ways the needs of life were met by the ingenu- ity of thoughtful men and women. Over 23,000 different articles were patented between 1850 and i860. Why the Immigrants Came. — The ways of living in Europe and Great Britain were changed as rapidly as in the United Howe's Sewing Machine 370 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW DOMAIN States. Indeed, in England the factory system developed much faster. Railroads were multiplied. Life for the well- to-do became more comfortable, but for the common man and his family the lands of opportunity lay beyond the seas. They were not the United States merely, but also Canada, AustraUa, and South Africa. The United States proved far more attractive to the European emigrant than all the other countries together. Between 1845 and 1850 several events swelled the stream of emigration. In 1845 and 1846 the failures of crops caused much distress in Great Britain and Europe. The potato crop, the principal article of food of the Irish peasantry, was a total failure. All that private charity and government help could do was not enough to prevent terrible suffering. Nearly a million persons perished from starvation or fever. The government repealed the "corn" laws which taxed grain, but this remedy came too late. Thousands sailed for America. A quarter of the population of Ireland was lost from famine, fever, and emigration. In 1848 Germany was again in the midst of a revolution. The more progressive leaders, weary of the system which gave power to the rulers and to a cHque of nobles, attempted first to found a new German empire and then a republic. They were defeated by the aristocratic party and many of them fled to the United States. Others came to better their lot. Between 1846 and 1856 a million Germans entered the country. Some, like Carl Schurz, soon became leaders in its political struggles. It was not strange that the new "pilgrims" turned their faces toward America, which offered them cheap lands, light taxes, work for all, and equality with their neighbors. The Irish commonly remained in the towns and cities of the coast states. The Germans went to the frontier — Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, Texas — wherever good land was to be had. GERMAN IMMIGRANTS 371 The soil and climate and crops were so much like those of Ger- many that it was easy to take up the new life. To be the makers of food products by farming, pickling, preserving, canning, milling, seemed to be their work. They chose the best farm lands and made records as the most successful farmers of the country. They came in such numbers that they almost succeeded in making Wisconsin a German state. Some parts of the West became a New Germany, just as Pennsylvania had been in the eighteenth century. To-day a large majority of the people of Wisconsin are German immigrants or their descendants. Some Special Debts to the Germans. — ^The Germans were better taught than most of the native Americans, because a new system of schools had been estabhshed in Germany, The skilled workingmen and the farmers were well trained. As citizens they helped to make better schools in the United States. Furthermore, American students began to go to Germany for higher education. In still other ways they deeply influenced American life. They had a taste and love for music and painting and sculpture that few Americans had at that time. Wherever they went they became the teachers of these arts. In a multitude of ways — by singing societies, gymnastic organizations, open-air celebrations, fairs and froHcs and festivals — they added to the wholesome pleasures of Hfe. The older northern states also contributed their share of settlers to the new West. Families were still large, and the sons and daughters accepted the common advice of the time " Go West, young man! " ^ Share of the South in the New Activities. — The southern states, especially the older ones, had almost no share in the new activities which busied the North and West. European ^ These words are supposed to have first appeared in the Terre Haute Express, 185 1. 372 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW DOMAIN immigrants seldom settled there, except in border states like Maryland, or in Missouri and Texas on the frontier. Factories were rarely established south of Maryland. The slaves, native Africans or their descendants, were too igno- rant, clumsy, and wasteful to use machinery or engage in the higher kinds of farming. But there was another reason why few industries were estab- lished in the v/i. i ^- , South. The v;■■l^^ 'i^- '•■ /^- ■ • ■ ■, -f; mcrease m the '"' ^Ml^ ^ ^W--.:. .i -. X ~ demand for ^"' --fl~"' ,^\-^^-^~^JZJ^''^% %. cotton, especi- ~~ ^:5^^^^:^^-- '^ ' ' ' ^ -" ^*^"'~ '^^^ir' ally in England Plowing a Southern Cotton Field England, con- vinced the southerners that their greatest profits would be found in cotton growing. The production increased from 1,976,000 bales in 1840 to 4,675,000 twenty years later. As the price during the same time had increased, the gains of the planters were large. Like the sugar planters in the West Indies in the eighteenth century, they could not afford to build their machinery or weave their cloth or even raise their food. Everything of that kind they purchased in Great Britain, in Europe, or in the northern states. They bought, for example, $5,000,000 worth of shoes a year in Massachusetts. The cottons which they required to clothe their slaves were obtained either in New England or old England. For this reason others besides the southerners were interested in the production of cotton. Others also feared any change in the system of labor which might endanger a profitable trade. No wonder the southerners said that "Cotton is king." Slavery in the Border States. — It would be a mistake to THE SOUTHERN STATES 373 Picking Cotton suppose that slavery existed on every farm in the South. Only about one family in five owned any slaves. The others supported themselves and their famiHes by their own labor. Most of the slaves were in South Carolina, Georgia, and the Gulf states. Outside of the cotton belt, the greater part of the work was done by free laborers. The plantation system of using slave labor was profitable to the owners only so long as fertile land was cheap and ■*- ^^^^ plentiful. WTier- ever that gave out, slavery slowly broke down. Each year saw the abandonment of old cotton fields in the eastern states of the South and the establishment of new plantations in the Gulf states. This could not go on forever. Before the Revolution slavery was common in all colonies. North and South. It slowly declined in the North and disappeared. The change was brought about mainly because slaves had ceased to be profitable. Since 1783 it had also been slowly decHning in Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina. In that year negro slaves formed about one- half the population of Virginia; in i860 not more than one-third. In Maryland free negroes did about one-haK of all the work. The question of labor troubled the planters greatly. All their money was invested in land and slaves. A good field- hand cost from $1,500 to $1,800. The planters knew that the slaves were poor laborers. Many would have given up their slaves gladly if they could have found free laborers upon 374 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW DOMAIN whom they could depend, but they did not beheve that the slaves would work if freed. The abolition of slavery, they thought, meant the ruin of the South, QUESTIONS 1. What unoccupied territoiy did the United States possess in 1850? 2. What railroads joined the East with the Mississippi Valley between 1850 and i860? What was the aim of the builders of the first railroads? Of the later ones? How did the railroads affect the routes of trade? The relations of East and West, North and South? 3. How did the railroads affect the growth of cities? Why did Chicago become a great city? Buffalo, Cleveland, and Detroit? 4. What was the effect of the telegraph lines? Who invented the telegraph? How did he prove its usefulness? 5. What change was made in postal rates? Why was the change an important one? 6. What were the "clipper" ships doing? What kind of ships began to take their place? Why did England build iron steamships instead of wooden "clippers"? 7. What farm machinery was invented? What effect had each on farm work? What tools were invented for other work? How did each affect the work of the shop or the home? 8. How were the ways of living changing in Europe? Why did immigrants come in increasing numbers? Did they leave Europie for any other countries besides the United States? 9. Why did the Irish migrate to America in such numbers? Why did the Germans? What did each do in America? What special debt does the United States owe to the Germans? Who besides the Germans settled in the new western territories? 10. Why did the South fail to share in the new activities? Why did the southern" people confine themselves so fully to cotton growing? Did anybody else profit from slave labor in cotton growing? 11. Did the majority of the southern people own slaves? Where had slavery already ceased entirely? Why had it been abandoned? Where had it partially broken down? How long could slavery last in the South? If the slaves were such poor laborers why were the southern people unwilling to free them? A Southern Planter QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 375 EXERCISES 1. What states had been formed west of the Mississippi besides those men- tioned in the chapter? 2. What cities have become great through the help of railroad lines? 3. What was the length of time needed to cross the ocean in colonial days? After the beginning of regular steamship lines? 4. What did the Southerners mean when they declared, "Cotton is king"? Important Dates : 1844. Morse builds the first telegraph line from Washington to Baltimore. 1846. Elias Howe invents the sewing machine. The Irish potato famine starts a great Irish migration to the United States. 1848. A revolution in Germany starts a great migration of Germans to the United States. Cotton CHAPTER XXXIII THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY Slavery and the New Southwest. — The question of slav- ery was not a new political issue. It had been discussed when the Ordinance of 1787 was being prepared. It was brought up again after the purchase of Louisiana, and an arrangement concerning that territory was embodied in the Missouri Compromise. With the acquisition of New INIexico and California, and with the increasing flood of immigrants in the West, it excited men's minds as never before. Planters knew that the time would come when the old cot- ton, lands would be worn out, and new lands would become necessary or the investment in slaves would be worthless. In 1849 ^^^ people of California voted to exclude slavery, but the southern leaders thought that a bargain might be made by which California should be divided into two states, and slavery permitted in southern California. They had already given way as to Oregon, and Congress had prohibited the holding of slaves within its limits, but they had no idea of yielding in regard to the Southwest. Delegates from several southern states met at Nashville in order to express a united opposition to any plan of closing California or New Mexico to slavery. Some leaders talked freely of their intention to break up the Union rather than permit such a law. Fugitive Slaves. — Nor was this the only difference between the states with slaves and those without. By the laws of the United States, if a slave ran away his master could pursue him even into another state. It was the duty of United NORTHERN OPPONENTS OF SLAVERY 377 States officers to help the owner recapture his property. The law was an old one, having been made in 1793 when Washington was President. Slaves, especially in border states like ]\Iaryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, frequently ran away. Their masters found it difficult to capture the fugitives because many people in the free states were ready to help them escape. The slave-holders accord- ingly demanded a more severe law by which those who aided fugitive slaves might be punished. Northern Opponents of Slavery. — The northern abolitionists demanded that the system of slavery should be destroyed root and branch. William Lloyd Garri- son was still the leader, and in twenty years of untiring agitation he had won a loyal, though not a very numerous, following. The majority of the northern people were opposed to interference with slavery in the states. Workmen feared that if the negroes were freed, they would migrate to the northern states in such numbers as to reduce their wages. Business men were afraid that Garrison's plan would ruin the South and so shut off the supply of cheap cotton and destroy the market for northern goods. But many northern people, who would not go so far as the abohtionists, were anxious to stop the spread of slavery into the new territories. Those who wished to prevent the spread of slavery were called "Free-soilers." Many of them broke away from the old political parties, and in the election of 1848 voted to make Van Buren President. Lewis Cass, the Democratic candi- date, proposed to leave the slavery question to the people of the territories. As they were often called squatters, this was called the doctrine of "Squatter Sovereignty." The A House-Slave of Washington's Day 378 THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY Whigs took no stand on the slavery question, and nominated for President General Taylor, the "hero of Buena Vista." Taylor was elected, but the question was not forgotten. The Compromise of 1850. — In 1850 the moderate leaders of the old parties united to bring about a settlement. Henry Clay, now a very old man, acted as their spokesman, and proposed a comprom- ise. It was the third great compromise that he had lived to propose when the Union was in danger. For nearly a year Con- gress discussed the parts of Clay's plan. The ab- lest orators of America spoke. Calhoun, wasted with old age and so feeble that he could not stand, sat while another read his speech. A few days afterward the famous champion of the South died. Clay and Webster appealed to men of the North and the South to lay aside their differences in order to save the Union. The Compromise of 1850 was an attempt to satisfy both sides, (i) By forbidding the buying and selling of slaves in the District of Columbia, Clay hoped to please those in the North who wished to abolish slavery there. (2) By a new fugitive slave law, he hoped to pacify southern slave-holders. (3) By admitting California without slavery, he believed the North would be pleased. (4) By the provision that Congress should not interfere regarding slavery in Utah and New Mexico,^ but should leave the inhabitants free to decide between free and slave labor, he wished to end the dispute ^ These included Nevada and Arizona. Henry Clay THE COMPROMISE OF 1850 379 about the new territory.^ This last provision meant that slave-holders could take their slaves into the Southwest and have a share in deciding the question whether slavery should be permitted or abol- OVERLAND TO THE PACIFIC. The San Antonio and San Diego Mail-Line. This Line, wMeh has been in successrul operation sir>» Juty, tUT^is tiefcciing PASSENGERS Ihriwgh to San Di*go and Sao Francisco, and also to all Intermedial* slaUoos. P»4sengers arrf E«press matter forwarded to NEW COACH£S,dravn brsix mu lei, over the entire length of our -Line, excepting Ihc Colorado Desert of one hundred miles, which we cross on mutc-baclc- Pa«» sengers cUAiu»T£EO in their tickets to ride in Coaches, excepting the one huridred miles abovt cUted. rissengers ticketed through, froia KEW-OALCANS, to the following points, via SAN ANTONIO: To Tort Clark, Pare, $52. ** Hudson. •* 60. •• Port Lancaster, •• 70. ** J3avi5. " ©O. *• QuUman«, ** loo. ♦• Birchrille, ** 100. ■* Son Elizario,... " 100. " £1 Fasot " 100. To Port Blias; Fare.SlOO. ** La Mesilla r " 105. " Fort ruimore " 105. ** Tucson •• 135, "Fort Yuma, *• 162. " San Diego, •• leo. *' Los Angeloa, ** 190. " San Francisco, •* 200. e leave a monthly from each end. on the 9ih and 21th of each ished. The statesmen who arranged the Compromise imagined that every great dif- ference had been laid to rest. Within a few months the old lead- ers, Clay and Webster, died. If the Compro- mise failed, new men and new measures must save the Union. The new men had already made them- selves heard. In the anti-slavery party they were William H. Seward of New York, Salmon P. Chase of Ohio, and Charles Sumner of Massachu- setts. On the pro- slavery side stood Ste- phen A. Douglas of Illinois, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia. Seward had opposed the Compromise and in the course of the debate had ap- pealed to a "higher law" than the Constitution, a law of liberty and justice. Had Taylor lived, perhaps the Com- ^ Texas was satisfied for a loss of territory given to New Mexico by a grant of $10,000,000. The Coaches of our Li oonlh, >l e o'clock AH. An armed Kcori iravels through Ihe Indian country with each mill triln,rorlheprotecllm of the mails and passengers. Passengers are provided with provisions during the trip, except where the Coach slops al Public Houses along the Line, al which each Passen^r will pay for his own meal. Each Passenger Is allowed thirty pounds of personal baggage, exclusive of blankeU an4 Passengers coming lo San Antonio can take the line of mait-steamers from New.Orleai« five times a week to Indlanola. From the latler place there is a dally line of fourhorse mail, coaches direct to this place. On the Pacific side, the California Steam Navigation Company are running a firsl.daas Sleamer, semi-monthly, to and from San Francisco and San Diego. Extra Baggage, v:\tn tarried, 40 cents per pound to El Paso, and (1 per pound lo San DieigOk Passengers can obtain all necessary outfits in San Antonio. For further information, and for the purchase of tickets, apply at the office of C. VaVKE. 61 Camp Street, Ne».0rleaD5, or al the Company's OHiee, in San Antonia G. H. GIDDINGS. I„ R. E. DOYI^E. jPf'upi-ietors. Mode of Travel to the New Territory Reduced facsimile of an advertisement of the Overland Stage 38o THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY promise would not have been adopted, for Seward had great influence over him.^ The Failure of the Compromise. — The quiet which fol- lowed the Compromise was soon ended. The extremists on neither side were satisfied. The southerners believed that they had lost ground by the admission of California as a free state and by the prohibition of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia. The advantages that the Compromise offered in return proved to be worthless. Slavery could never pay in Utah and New Mexico. Physical geography had, as Webster said, forever settled the question. Negro slaves had neither the skill nor the industry needed to make the deserts bear fruit. Nor was the new fugitive slave law of any great value. The Underground Railroad. — The Compromise had also made the northern abolitionists angrier than ever. They denounced particularly the law for the recovery of fugitive slaves. When some one said that the northern people ought not to work against slavery because the laws of the United States protected it, James Russell Lowell, the poet, exclaimed, "To be told that we ought not to agitate the question of slavery, when it is that which is forever agitating us, is like telling a man with the fever and ague on him to stop shaking, and he will be cured." Such people secretly aided negroes to escape in spite of the law and the danger of punishment. They hid them in their houses in the day time and at night helped them on their way north to another hiding place. Such places were called stations" of the "underground railroad." In this way thou- sands of slaves escaped. A master who followed the fugi- tives too far into the North was in danger of injury from angry mobs. Some men made it a business to hunt slaves ^ President Taylor died in 1S50 and was succeeded by the Vice-President, Millard Fillmore. FRICTION CONCERNING SLAVERY 381 for others, and stories were told of how they tried to use the new law to carry back mto slavery negroes who were rightfully free. "Uncle Tom's Cabin." — In 1852 Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote a story of the Hfe of a slave. Some things that she said were true; many were not true. She failed to show that there were different kinds of negro slaves, and how most of those in the cotton states were only half-civilized and quite unlike the fairly well-trained house-servants of the border states. Her story was interesting and described some abuses that doubtless did occur under bad masters. Multitudes of men, women, and children in the North read the book and believed that all slavery was like that which she described, and that all southern white people were like her cruel masters, slave-drivers, and slave-traders. Such stories aroused against slavery multitudes whom Garrison had failed to reach. Stories were told at the South of how the abolitionists dis- tributed pamphlets or sent agents into the southern states to induce the slaves to run away. The conviction that they had been cheated in every compromise steadily gained ground among the southerners. Men said that it had been so in 1820 and it was so again now. Every attempt to treat with the North, they asserted, would have a similar result. Instead of the peace which Clay, Webster, and Calhoun had hoped for, deeper hatred spread over the land. Kansas and Nebraska Bill. — The situation was made worse by the rule which Congress adopted in opening for settle- ment the Indian country west of Missouri and Iowa. The southern leaders were anxious to add new slave territory.^ Some of them hoped to obtain Cuba from Spain by purchase, ^ Iowa had been admitted without slaves in 1846. The admission of Arkan- sas in 1836 and Michigan in 1837, and of Florida, Texas, Iowa, and Wisconsin in close succession during 1845, 1846, and 1848, had kept the number of states 382 THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY or even to take it by force. Douglas desired to satisfy them in order that he might gain their support as Democratic can- didate in the next presidential election. Accordingly, when Congress divided the upper part of the old Louisiana Purchase into Kansas and Nebraska territories, Douglas proposed that the inhabitants should decide at some future time whether they would permit slav- ery or not. This was the rule which had been applied to Utah and New Mexico. The bill meant that the new terri- tories were opened to slavery if its supporters could occupy them. This broke the agreement made by the Missouri Compromise that slavery should not be permitted in the Louisiana Purchase north of the southern boundary of Missouri. It was the turn of the anti-slavery men to feel that they were wronged. Furthermore, the law soon led to a struggle for Kansas, the forerunner of a greater war. War in Kansas, 1854-57. — ■ Free-soilers and slave-holders were stirred to action by the offer of Kansas to the swiftest and strongest party. Settlers poured in from North and South. They were colonists sent with the strange mission of battling with their neighbors for possession of a fair ter- Territories from which Kansas and Nebraska were Erected with slaves and without them equal. The admission of California put the free states ahead. WAR IN KANSAS 383 ritory.^ Covered wagons which had started for California gold-fields with "California or bust" painted on the sides put on "Kansas" instead. Adventurers and frontiersmen, eager for excitement, joined in the fray. Many Missourians crossed the boundary, some to settle with their slaves, others merely to help their party win the victory. These men the Scene on the Kansas Border Note the ferry-boat propelled by poles, the stern-wheeled steamboat, and the wagons anti-slavery people called "border ruffians." The most deter- mined leader of the anti-slavery settlers was John Brown, who with four sons, all well armed, fought against the colo- nists from the southern states. It was a war of ambushes and assaults on settlements. The Missourians succeeded in found- ing Atchison and Leavenworth, near the Missouri River, while the Free-soilers took up the lands farther back, around Lawrence and Topeka. The Free-soilers soon outnumbered their opponents. The North had the advantage not only in the number ready to emigrate to Kansas, but also in money to aid them, and in ^ The new territories included the great region which now makes up the states of Kansas, Nebraska, the Dakotas, Montana, part of Colorado, and Wyoming. 384 THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY railroads to carry them to the battleground. The conse- quence was that the Free-soilers eventually succeeded in organ- izing a government without slavery. Besides, the Kansas and Nebraska Act had further widened the breach between the North and the South. Rise of a New Political Party, 1854-1860. — The Kansas and Nebraska Act led also to the formation of a new polit- ical party. The organization, under the name " RepubHcan," started in the northwestern states during the summer of 1854, and spread rapidly over the entire North. The people of the Northwest had long regarded the lands on the Kansas, the Platte, and the Missouri rivers as destined for free farmers like themselves. They resented a measure which upset their plans. Besides, Douglas was interfering with another plan. The workingmen of the East had recently made a new demand. This was that the government should give every man in the United States who had no land and desired some a free homestead of 160 acres of western land. They expected that their plan would draw many laborers from the crowded cities and make wages higher for those left behind. Those who took up free lands would buy goods, tools, and machinery, and make times better in factories and mills and mines. This part of the plan pleased the merchants and manufacturers of the East and won their support. End of the Whig Party. — The new party grew faster because the voters in the old parties, especially the Whigs, had come to believe that their leaders were more interested in securing offices for themselves than in settling the serious problems of the nation. The Whig leaders kept saying that the question of slavery had been settled by the Compromise of 1850. Multitudes of the members of the party thought differently and joined the Republicans. The Whig party melted away, much as the old Federalist party had disap- END OF THE WHIG PARTY 385 peared. The Democratic party lost many, especially of the workingmen, for the same reason. The Dred Scott Affair. — In 1857 an event took place which stirred the Repubhcans fully as much as the Kansas and Nebraska Act. A negro, Dred Scott, his wife, and two daughters, claimed their freedom because their master had once taken them North into territory where slavery was un- lawful. The Supreme Court of the United States promptly decided that according to the law they were still slaves; that settled the matter as far as these negroes were concerned. The Chief -Justice, Roger B. Taney, and several justices, went further, thinking that the question of slavery could be settled if the Supreme Court expressed an opinion upon it. Accordingly, the majority of the court announced that the Missouri Compromise had been void from the first, because Congress had no power to forbid slavery in any territory. They also declared that not evjen the inhabitants of a terri- tory could do this, since slaves were property and the Con- stitution permitted a man to carry his property into the territories. The decision meant that even if the Repub- hcans could repeal the Kansas and Nebraska Act, they were powerless to prevent the spread of slavery into Kansas and Nebraska. They thought Taney's decision was bad law. Instead of setthng the question of slavery once for all, Taney, like Douglas, had made the matter worse. Abraham Lincoln. — Abraham Lincoln had been practising law in Illinois, riding the circuit of the scattered frontier courts as was the custom of the day, and voting the Whig ticket. He had been a member of Congress from 1847 to 1849. -He had been losing interest in politics, but the Kansas and Nebraska Act and the Dred Scott opinion aroused him. In 1858 an Illinois RepubUcan convention nominated him for the Senate against Douglas, who was still the great Demo- cratic leader. In his speech accepting the nomination Lin- 386 THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY coin declared courageously, ','A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure per- manently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved; I do not expect the house to fall; but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing or all the other." He plainly showed that he wished to stop the progress of slavery in the territories, and even hinted that he expected that the opponents of slavery would finally destroy it. Lincoln challenged Douglas to debate the question before the citizens of Illinois. The two men presented a striking contrast. Douglas was con- sidered a great orator and a shrewd debater. As he was short he was commonly called the "Little Giant." Lincoln was tall and awkward, but he already had the reputation of uttering sayings' as wise as those of 'Poor Richard." His way of reasoning was per- fectly clear and straightforward. Before the debates were ended he had compelled Douglas to explain that though Con- gress, according to the Dred Scott decision, might not forbid slavery in the territories, the people of the territories could make slave-holding impossible by passing laws hostile to it. This statement made the southerners angry at Douglas. Lincoln lost the election, but he had won a hearing before the whole country and was regarded as one of the leaders of the Republican party. The young party grew rapidly. In 1856 a majority of the northern states voted for the Republican candidate for Presi- dent, but the Democrats in the North and the South elected James Buchanan JOHN BROWN'S RAID 387 their candidate, James Buchanan of Pennsylvania. After the Dred Scott affair, the RepubHcans won other northern states, until by 1859 they had more members than the Democrats in the House of Representatives. John Brown's Raid, 1859. — The southern people were alarmed by the growth of a northern political party. They knew that the Repubhcan leaders said that their chief object was to abolish slavery in the territories, but no southerner believed that the Republicans would be satisfied to stop there. The abolitionists among them were resolved to destroy the system everywhere. Who could tell when they would control the whole party? An event in the fall of 1859 seemed to give good ground for more serious alarm. One quiet night in Octo- ber, John Brown, with 18 followers fully armed, seized the little Virginia village of Harper's Ferry with its United States gun factory and store of arms. It was the first act in a strange plan. Brown in- tended to arouse the slaves in Virginia, put arms in their hands, and by their aid provide a mountain stronghold for all slaves. There would be a great war against slavery carried into the heart of the South, and waged mainly by the negroes themselves. The abolitionists were too mild for him. "Those men," he said, "are all talk; what is needed is action — ^ action!" He seems to have thought that northern people would aid him with money and arms in a race war in the southern mountains, as they had in Kansas. Harper's Ferry in 1859 388 THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY Nothing turned out as he hoped. The slaves in the neighborhood of Harper's Ferry did not rise. His men raided several plantations and freed the slaves, but these were too frightened to fight and worse than useless as followers. Within a few hours an overwhelming force of the neigh- boring militia and United States marines surrounded and captured Brown's little band. Brown and several of his men were tried and hanged for murder and treason. Such was the tragic ending of a plan over which Brown had brooded for twenty years, until he believed that God had called him to free the slaves. The people of the South were horror-stricken at Brown's raid. He had attempted to bring about what they had always most dreaded — an armed uprising of the slaves. They could not tell how many northern people supported the plan. They heard that some abolitionists rejoiced in Brown's deed and proclaimed him a martyr. Those at the South who dis- liked the slave system, and there were many such, as well as those who approved it, denounced the North. It was impos- sible to convince them thatBrown's deed was his own, and that the great majority of the northern people thought it wrong. Each one who had tried to settle the slavery question, Clay, Douglas, Taney, and Brown, only made the matter worse. QUESTIONS 1 . What important political question divided the people of the United States in 1848? What step did California take? What did southern leaders want to do before admitting California into the Union? What had Congress done in the case of Oregon? 2. What other questions divided the states with slaves and those without? What change in the fugitive slave law did the slave-holders want? 3. What did the abolitionists seek to do? Why did the majority of north- ern people oppose the plan of the abolitionists? What were many northern people anxious to do regarding slavery? What name was given to this party? What position did the two great political parties take on the subject in the election of 1848? QUESTIONS AND E^CERCISES 389 4. What leaders supported Clay's Compromise? How did Clay try to satisfy both sides? What method did he use to end the dispute about slavery in the new territory? 5. What new leaders took the places of the older men? Why were the Southerners soon dissatisfied with the Compromise? How did the northern abolitionists help fugitive slaves? What effect did their methods have on the South? 6. Describe Mrs. Stowe's novel, Uncle Tarn's Cabin. What influence did it have? What did the South believe about the aboHtionists? What did it think about compromises with the North? 7. What rule did Douglas propose for the Kansas and Nebraska territories? Why did he make this proposal? Where else had it been adopted? What effect did it have on the Missouri Compromise? Whom did it displease? 8. Why did Douglas's Kansas and Nebraska Act bring on a war in Kansas? Who were the fighters? Why did the Free-soilers win? What effect had the Kansas and Nebraska Act on the difference between the North and the South? 9. What new political party was formed in the North? Why did the people of the northwestern states favor it? The workingmen of the East? The merchants and manufacturers? Why did the Whig party lose its followers? 10. What did the Supreme Court say in the Dred Scott decision regarding the power of Congress? Why did the Republicans think it bad law? 11. Whom did the Dred Scott decision arouse? What did he say regarding slavery in his debates with the "Little Giant"? What did Douglas say which made the southern Democrats angry with him? 12. How did John Brown try to end slavery? What did the southern people think of the raid? Whom did they blame? EXERCISES 1. Review Clay's three great compromises proposed to save the Union. See pages 316, 332, 378. 2. Review the story of the Federalist party. 3. Prepare a summary of this chapter under the headings which foUow: (a) 1850. Clay's attempt to settle the slave question. (b) 1854. The attempt of Douglas to end the difference over slavery in the territories. (c) 1857. The attempt of Roger B. Taney and the majority of the Su- preme Court to settle the difference over slavery in the territories. (d) 1859. The attempt of John Brown to destroy the entire slave system. CHAPTER XXXIV A DIVIDED NATION Election of Lincoln. — The election of i860 was intensely- exciting. Southern leaders, like Senator Jefferson Davis, thought that the choice of a Republican President would bring ruin upon the South. They were prepared to break up the Union unless the government would support the Dred Scott decision, that is, protect slave property in the terri- tories, whether the inhabitants of them wished it or not. When the Democratic convention met in April, they at- tempted to force the delegates to embody such a demand in the party platform or programme. A majority of the delegates were Douglas men and refused. Thereupon the delegates of the cotton states withdrew. The others, meet- ing later in the year, nominated Stephen A. Douglas as President, while the ''bolters" nominated John C. Brecken- ridge of Kentucky, who at the time was Vice-President. The spht in the Democratic party led to the success of the RepubHcan party, the very thing that the Southern leaders declared would be ruinous. The Republican convention met in Chicago in May. Seward seemed at first to be the favorite candidate, but on the third ballot Abraham Lincoln was nominated as President. Earher in the year Lincoln had strengthened his reputation by a speech in New York, in the course of which he denied that the party was in any way responsible for the John Brown raid. He showed that while the RepubHcans were pledged to resist the spread of slavery into the territories, they did not intend to interfere THE SOUTH SECEDES 391 with it in the southern states. Lincoln was commonly con- sidered as more cautious than Seward, and he was counted upon to carry IlUnois and one or two other doubtful states. In the election Lincoln carried all the northern states except New Jersey, whose electoral vote was divided between Lin- coln and Douglas. Lincoln's electoral vote was 180, while his opponents received 123. Douglas and Breckenridge to- gether received a much larger popular vote. It was clear, therefore, that the Democrats would have won if the dele- gates of the cotton states had not insisted upon their programme. South Carolina's Declaration of Independence. — Imme- diately after the election South CaroUna decided to withdraw from the Union. The legislature called a convention which, on December 20, repealed the rati- fication of the Constitution pass- ed in 1788, and declared the state a "free and independent nation." As the leaders of the cotton states had agreed to stand together, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas soon followed the example of South CaroHna. A New Republic, 1861. — In February, 1861, a convention of delegates held at Montgomery, Alabama, took the necessary steps to form a new repubhc, calling it the Confederate States of America. Jefiferson Davis of Mississippi was chosen President, and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia Vice-President. The constitution of the Confederate States repeated the old constitution almost word for word. The Southern leaders were convinced that the old constitution, Jefferson Davis 392 A DIVIDED NATION if properly enforced, would make their property in slaves as safe as any other kind of property. In the new constitution however, they took pains to make this so clear that there could be no dispute. The Southern People and the old Union. — Most of the southern people wished to remain in the Union under which they and their fellow-Americans had grown to be a great nation. The stories of heroic deeds, of Bunker Hill and Yorktown, of leaders like Washington and Jackson, of the pioneers who had carried the flag from territory to territory, were posssessions of both North and South. For thirty years John C. Calhoun and Jefferson Davis had worked as earnestly as Henry Clay and Daniel Webster to find a way to preserve the Union. But such men as Davis now beUeved separation better. The Doubtful States. — At first only the cotton states withdrew from the United States. In the border states — Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri — slavery had so far decHned that the majority of the people had httle interest in defending it. Besides, the business men were more closely connected with the North than with the South. Their real attachment was to the United States rather than to the new Confederate States. Between them and the cotton states lay Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas. In them also slavery was slowly disappearing. Their closest bonds were, never- theless, with their southern neighbors. Virginia was proud of the state's share in the nation's history. For a while these states waited and watched the course of events. What would Buchanan do? — Buchanan's term as Pres- ident did not close until three months after South CaroUna had seceded, and one month after the convention at Mont- gomery had begun the organization of the Confederate States. The leaders of the new republic were anxious about ATTEMPTS TO COMPROMISE 393 his attitude toward them. They remembered that when South Carolina prepared to resist a national law President Jackson took such vigorous steps to compel obedience that opposition was dangerous. Would Buchanan take similar measures ? They had not long to wait. In a message to Congress Buchanan said that a state had no right to withdraw from the Union, but neither the President nor Congress had any power to compel the cotton states to return to the Union against their will. Such words encouraged the leaders of the Confederate States. Southern senators, representatives, judges, and post-masters gave up their places under the United States government and took service under the new republic. President Davis and his associates had no doubts about the justice of their cause. Few of them had any idea that separation would bring on war. South Carolina sent a com- mission to Washington to arrange with the United States a division of the national debt and a settlement regarding the national property within the state. Attempts to compromise again. — A compromise had saved the Union so many times that men thought the old method would serve again, but no plan was found upon which they could agree. Lincoln was consulted by the Republicans in Congress. He offered to support an amend- ment to the Constitution making it clear that Congress had no power to interfere with slavery in any southern state. The southern Congressmen insisted that the provision be added that Congress had no power to exclude slavery from the territories of the United States. To this point Lincoln would not agree. Since the Kansas and Nebraska Act, slavery in the territories was the one thing that the Republicans had determined should cease. Would it be War or Peace ? — The question in every man's 394 A DIVIDED NATION mind throughout the winter of 1861 was whether the with- drawal of seven cotton states meant war or peaceable dis- union. Some dreaded civil war more than dividing the country. Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, one of the Republican leaders in the North, urged peaceable separation, ''If the cotton states," he wrote, "shall become satisfied that they can do better out of the Union than in it, we insist on letting them go in peace." No one knows how many agreed with him. Among those who shared this opinion were the Friends or Quakers. Such men loved the Union, but did not wish to shed blood to keep the South in it. They trusted that if treated generously the South would return of its own free will. The Garrison aboli- tionists rejoiced over the withdrawal of the cotton states as the easiest way to purge the Union of slavery. It was com- monly said that Senator Seward was working for a com- promise by which the plan of keeping the territories wholly for free settlers should be given up. The majority of the Repubhcans looked upon the secession of the cotton states as treason, and the men who led it traitors. A compromise on the question of the territories was no longer to be considered. The northern people had gradually gained a strong national feeling, while the southerners were first of all loyal to their states. The immigrant had come to seek a home and an opportunity not in any particular state but in the United States. To him the separate states seemed simple subdivi- HoRACE Greeley FORT SUMTER 395 sions of the country. The multipKcation of raihoads, the close relations of trade, the settlement of the West by the children of eastern families, all combined to make Webster's cry, ''Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and insep- arable," the watchword of the North. Lincoln expressed the same feeling by his declaration in his inaugural address that "the union of these states is perpetual." Would the northern people support such a view by war? lyoRRrs I86>wi?\ Map of Forts in Charleston Harbor What shall be done with Fort Sumter? — The Confederate States had as yet met with no obstacles as an indepen- dent republic. Buchanan had finished his term and Lincoln had become President. The Confederate States had taken possession of national custom-houses, forts, and mihtary supplies, worth together about $30,000,000, located within their limits. Fort Sumter, on an island in Charleston harbor, held out almost alone among the old forts. Its commander, Major Robert Anderson of Kentucky, had an officer's scruples against abandoning a post of duty. But he needed provisions and reinforcements. In January Buchanan had sent an unarmed steamboat, the Star of the West, with supphes, but it was fired upon in Charleston harbor and compelled to return to New York. 396 A DIVIDED NATION What to do about Fort Sumter was Lincoln's first hard prob- lem as President. He assured the North and the South that the government would not use force unless force was used against it. Jefferson Davis said to his supporters that Sum- ter would be abandoned without war. Five weeks passed after Lincoln's inauguration, and still there was peace. Neither side was wilhng to bear the blame for starting a great civil war. On April 8 President Lincoln notified the governor of South Carolina that he intended to supply the fort with provisions. At the same time he explained that he would not reinforce the garrison or add to the stock of ammunition unless the state troops resisted. Fort Sumter after the Bombardment Fall of Fort Sumter. — On Saturday morning, April 13, 1 86 1, the northern newspapers announced that Charleston troops were bombarding Fort Sumter. The Confederate government at Montgomery had finally concluded to attack the fort before it could be relieved. The bombardment began early on Friday, April 12, and lasted two days. The people of Charleston gathered in crowds along the wharves and on top of buildings to watch the batteries, which had been placed on every side of the harbor, fire at the fort. Anderson and his men held out until the fort was in ruins and its wooden buildings were on fire. Then they surrendered. They were THE CALL TO ARMS 397 allowed to salute their flag and to depart for the North aboard Federal ships which were waiting off the harbor. The Call to Arms. — The attack on Fort Sumter was the signal which all had dreaded. The authority of the United States had been openly defied. The flag had been fired upon. Leading northern Democrats as well as Re- pubhcans agreed that the government must be upheld. Buchanan and Douglas let it be known that they would aid in enforcing the laws and recovering the property of the United States.^ Monday morning, April 15, Lincoln asked the governors of the states to supply the United States with 75,000 soldiers. It was a call to arms. The response, except from the border states, went beyond the hopes of the North. The first volunteers were chiefly men in miUtia regiments already organized. The Sixth Massachusetts, composed of citizens of Concord, Lexington, and the surrounding towns, left for Washington within 48 hours. The Southern Answer. — The response in the Confederate States to the call of Davis for troops was no less prompt and generous. A southern leader said, "The anxiety among our citizens is not as to who shall go to the wars, but who shall stay at home." The Border States. — On the outbreak of war, Virginia, North CaroHna, Tennessee, and Arkansas joined the Confed- erate States. Eleven states in all joined in the effort to form a southern nation. Twenty-two states remained loyal to the old government. Richmond was chosen as the permanent capital of the Confederacy. The loss of Virginia was an especially serious one to the United States. Its nearness to Washington placed the capital in great danger. Several distinguished Virginia soldiers, among them Robert E. Lee, ^ Stephen A. Douglas, only 48 years of age, died a few weeks later, but to the last used his influence to unite the North. 398 A DIVIDED NATION thought their duty was with their state and left the Union army to serve the South. One or two of the border states seemed ahnost ready to follow the example of Virginia and Tennessee. The governor of Missouri refused to send any troops, but the timely energy of the German citizens of St. Louis, under the leadership of ~^-^ The White House of the Confederacy Residence of President Jefferson Davis at Richmond Captain Lyon, saved the state for the Union. Maryland also was doubtful for a time, and the Sixth Massachusetts regiment was attacked by a mob as it was marching through Baltimore. The western counties of Virginia seceded from Virginia and formed a new state. West Virginia, which was later admitted into the Union. The people of east Tennessee were equally opposed to secession, but did not carry their opposition so far. The border states remained in the Union partly because of Lincoln's tact and generosity in dealing with them. QUESTIONS I. Why did the southern Democrats divide their party? Whom did the two parts nominate as candidates for President? Why did the RepubHcans nominate Lincoln? Why was Lincoln successful in the election of i86o? What was the programme or demand of the southern leaders? QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 399 2. What did South CaroHna do after the election of Lincoln? What states followed its example? Whom did the Confederate States choose as President and Vice-President? What kind of a constitution did they adopt? 3. What states wavered between the Union and the new republic? Which way did each incline? 4. What did Buchanan think of the withdrawal of the cotton states? What was the effect of his attitude? 5. What concession was Lincoln willing to make to prevent war between the northern and southern states? What did the leaders of the cotton states demand? What plan did some leaders like Horace Greeley advocate? Others like Seward? 6. Why were the northern people more attached to the Union than the southern? 7. What was the first obstacle that the Confederate States met? Why did Lincoln hesitate to send supplies and reinforcements to Fort Sumter? Why did the Confederate government finally attack Fort Sumter? What was the result? 8. What was the result of the call for troops in the northern states? In the southern states? In the border states? 9. Why did distinguished Virginians like Robert E. Lee leave the army of the United States to aid the Confederate cause? What states joined in the attempt to form a new republic in the South? Which ones were divided in sentiment and action? EXERCISES 1. How long was it after South Carolina seceded before war began by the attack on Fort Sumter? 2. Wherever possible gather stories of the topics mentioned in this chap- ter from persons who were living when the events happened. Important Dates : April 14, 1861. Fort Sumter captured by the troops of the Confederate States, beginning the Civil War. CHAPTER XXXV THE BEGINNING OF CIVIL WAR Resources of the North and the South. — The Southern leaders supposed that "cotton was king," but war proved that the kingdom of corn, wheat, coal, and iron was stronger. The planters were so occupied in raising cotton, and to some extent rice and sugar, that they did not build factories, open coal mines, and dig iron ore. Their system of railroads was incomplete and poorly equipped. EngHsh or northern ships carried their cotton to the market. Most of the steamboat lines which ran on western rivers belonged to northern companies. The food of the whole country was raised mainly on northern and western fields. In war such things count. Armies must be fed, supplies must be carried rapidly, the wear and tear of campaigning must be met by new equipment. A people whose chief occupation is a particular kind of agriculture is at a great disadvantage in stmggKng with a people provided with a well-developed system of manufactures and a boundless food supply. The South was obliged to look to Europe for the military supphes that it could not produce and to pay for them with its cotton. It could not, however, send cotton abroad unless its ports were kept open. As the South had neither war-ships nor sufficient ship yards to build them, its trade with England and Europe was sure to be cut off sooner or later by a blockade. The South was also at a disadvantage in numbers. The white population of the states in the Confederacy was GEOGRAPHY OF THE WAR 401 5,400,000, while the total population of the Union, including the border states, was 22,000,000. The disadvantage of the South in numbers, as compared with the North, was partially overcome by the employment of slaves not only in raising food but also as teamsters and laborers in the army. Furthermore, many citizens of the border states fought in the southern armies. OT0PE)rA — V- * tJEFFEBSOK^ - ' CITY ^ Railro.ads and Navigable Waterways of the South, 186 i Geography of the War. — The leaders of both North and South sought to grasp any advantage which their own situa- tion or that of their enemies offered. As the navy remained loyal to the national government, the North possessed the sea power. It could choose points of attack on the Atlantic coast or on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. Southern sea- ports soon felt the weight of war, while no northern port was threatened. The great Appalachian barrier served to divide the war into two distinct fields of operation, that of Virginia and that of the Mississippi Valley. The barrier was pierced by 402 THE BEGINNING OF CIVIL WAR northern railroads running from New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore westward, and by southern railroads from Richmond to Knoxville and Chattanooga, and from Charles- ton to Memphis. Two valleys played an important part — the Shenandoah Valley and the Great Appalachian Valley of eastern Tennes- see. The Shenandoah has been compared to a gun trained on Washington, through which troops might be discharged if the national armies moved southward toward Richmond. Scene in the Shenandoah Valley The Blue Ridge on the eastern side of the Shenandoah, with its many "gaps," served also as a screen behind which an army might move north or south, bursting through upon some weak point of the Union line. The valley could not be used equally well by the national armies, for it led away from Richmond toward the southwest. Through the Appa- lachian Valley, in like manner, a southern army could be thrown into Kentucky if the national armies advanced along the line of the Mississippi River. Except for the danger from the Shenandoah, the geography of Virginia seemed to favor the North. Chesapeake Bay and the James River offered an easy approach to Richmond. A direct march overland from Washington to Richmond was hampered by rivers running from the Piedmont hills to the coast, each furnishing a natural line of defense. GEOGRAPHY OF THE WAR 403 West of the Appalachians the advantage of position lay also with the North. The Mississippi was a great highway lead- ing either north or south, but the North could build armed steamboats faster than the South. At only a few points in its course, such as Colum- v ^--. bus in Kentucky, and Vicksburg in Mississippi, does the river touch high plateaus or bluffs which can be fortified. It is unlike a river flowing between hilly shores which offer a multitude of places for defense. Two other rivers, the Cumberland and the Ten- nessee, which empty in- to the Ohio near where it joins the Mississippi, are navigable, the first to a point many miles above Nashville, the other as far as northern Alabama. In Tennessee, near the Kentucky border, they are only twelve miles apart. Railroads were almost as important as rivers. It is true that raiders could tear up tracks and burn bridges, but trained workmen could soon replace both. Railroad junctions were especially important. Manassas Junction was such a place, where the railroad from Washington to Lynchburg was joined by a railroad from the Shenandoah Valley through Manassas Gap. Bowling Green, in Kentucky, was another, situated near the junction of the Louisville and Nashville and the Memphis and Ohio railroads. Still another was Corinth, Mississippi, where the Memphis and Charleston Railroad, the only through line from the lower Mississippi to the coast, Scene on the Gateway to the North The Shenandoah River near Harper's Ferry 404 THE BEGINNING OF CIVIL WAR crossed a railroad from Mobile. Chattanooga, in southeast- ern Tennessee, was important because of river, mountain pass, and railroad, for there the Tennessee River breaks through the Cumberland Plateau, the eastern wall of the Appalachian barrier. There also important railroads met connecting the cities on the Mississippi with Charleston and Richmond. Soldiers North and South. — Both North and South had trained officers to command at least a part of their armies. These men were graduates of West Point, had been in the regular army, and some of them had fought in the Mexican War. The regular army numbered only 16,000 men. The chief reUance was upon volun- teers. The Southerners, more accustomed to outdoor life, and the planters to leader- ship, were readily transformed into sol- diers. The Northern volunteers came fresh from farms, factories, shops, and desks. Many of them were led into battle before they had been taught how to handle a gun. The Germans, who enlisted in the Northern armies, were an exception, for most of them had received mihtary training before they had left the fatherland. As the South stood on the defensive, simply insisting on its right to secede and form a separate nation, the Southern soldier was fighting on his own ground and in a climate to which he was accustomed. The North, declaring that the Union should be preserved, had the task of occupying the southern states and compelling their return to the Union. Its soldiers fought, in a sense, in a foreign country. Vast regions of the South were still a wilderness, with few roads and bridges. If the Northern armies succeeded in forcing Union Soldier in Uniform BLOCKADE OF THE SOUTH 405 their way far into the South, they had to guard a hundred places along their Hne of advance, or be cut off from their sources of supply. Blockade of the South. — On April 19, five days after the fall of Fort Sumter, President Lincoln issued a proclamation declaring the ports of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida in a state of blockade. A week later the other Confederate ports were included. At first it was a "paper" blockade, that is, the navy was not large enough to station ships before each port in order to carry out the proclamation. The blockade proved a huge undertak- ing. The coast of the Confederacy stretched from the Potomac to the Rio Grande, and contained 200 harbors. Every kind of vessel, even old ferryboats, had to be pressed into use as men-of-war. The Hnes of blockade were gradually drawn closer until within a year trade from south- ern ports almost entirely ceased. Only one- fiftieth as much cotton was exported in 1862 as in i860. The Southern people made great efforts to outwit the "sea- dogs" watching their coast. Shipbuilders in the South, tjie West Indies, and in Great Britain constructed swift block- ade runners, with sides so low that at a little distance in the night they were almost invisible. These vessels often succeeded in escaping from unfrequented harbors, with car- goes of cotton, bound for the Bermudas and the Bahamas. They brought back supphes for the army or goods which the South could not produce. Many stories are still told in the South about the bravery and success of the captains of the blockade runners. When a ship was able to bring a cargo from Europe the profits were Confederate Sol- dier IN Uniform 4o6 THE BEGINNING OF CIVIL WAR worth the trouble. At one time cotton was $2.50 a pound in Liverpool, though it was only four or five cents a pound in Charleston. The Confederacy seeks allies. — It was so important for the South to trade with England and Europe that its leaders sought help abroad to break the blockade. They needed money and ships. They were in much the same situation as the colonies, which obtained supplies and a navy from Europe during the Revolution. The governing classes of England and France sympathized with the South. They were eager to profit by the free trade which the Confederacy offered. There was no danger that the Southerners, like the Northerners, would become their rivals in manufacturing. Many shrewd English and French statesmen were delighted that the great repubhc seemed fall- ing into pieces. The workingmen of England, however, and most of the middle class, believed that the North was fight- ing the battle of free labor. On account of the scarcity of cotton, English merchants and manufacturers wished the war to end speedily. Many cotton mills were closed and their employees dismissed. It is doubtful whether even the Southerners suffered as much as the employees of the English cotton factories. Many were kept from starvation only by food which the British govern- ment furnished. England and the South. — Before the year 1861 was ended, England was nearly drawn into the struggle. The Confederate government sent two commissioners, Mason and Slidell, to persuade the English and the French to acknowledge that the Confederacy was an independent nation. The EngHsh gov- ernment had already announced that it would treat the Southerners as "belligerents," that is, as persons having a right to carry on war, rather than as rebels against the United States. This action made many people in the North very ENGLAND AND THE SOUTH 407 angry. Had England formally acknowledged the Independ- ence of the South the United States would have taken the act as a declaration of war. The excitement was increased when news came that the commander of a Union war-ship had stopped the British steamer Trent, on which Mason and Sli- dell were travehng, and had arrested them. The act caused much rejoicing in the North, but President Lincoln at once saw that it was contrary to the principles that the United States had defended in 1812. He felt that the United States could not deny the right of search at one time and make use of it at another. Consequently he ordered the release of the commis- sioners. The English gov- ernment had already de- spatched troops to Canada, and but for the influence of Queen Victoria would have tried to take advantage of the blunder to humiliate the United States. No sooner had this question been settled, than the United States learned that English ship-builders were constructing war vessels for the South. Two ships, the Florida and the Alabama, sailed from England in 1862 to fight for the Con- federate cause. They were not strong enough to attack north- ern cities or to break the blockade of southern ports. They therefore ranged the seas, destroying Union merchant vessels until they were themselves captured. In permitting these vessels to sail the English government was in the wrong, and was later compelled to pay heavy damages. Battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861. — With soldiers untrained no great battles could occur in the first months of the war. There was fighting in Missouri between the Unionists and Secessionists, and the Unionists succeeded in holding The Cruiser " Alabama " 4o8 THE BEGINNING OF CIVIL WAR the state. In Kentucky ballots rather than bullets decided whether the state should secede. When the votes were counted it was found that a large majority were Union men. Map of Campaigns in Virginia In the western counties of Virginia, Northern troops drove out a small army sent by the governor of the state. The Northern leader was George B. McClellan, a West Pointer who had fought in the Mexican War. It was near Washington that the first important battle BATTLE OF BULL RUN 409 took place. The Confederate General Beauregard was in command of a small army at Manassas Junction, while Gen- eral Joseph E. Johnston, with a few thousand more troops, was at Winchester in the Shenandoah Valley, not far from the rail- road running through Manassas Gap to Manassas Junction. The aged General Scott, who was still at the head of the United States army, and his second in command. General Irwin McDowell, forced by the impatience of the North, planned an attack on Beauregard. Part of the plan was that a body of Federal troops in the Shenandoah Valley should keep Johnston busy. It soon appeared that railroads and telegraphs were as important in war as in commerce. Johnston escaped from his enemy in the Shenandoah and began sending reinforcements over the Manassas Gap Railroad to Beauregard. Scott, hear- ing the news from the Shenandoah, telegraphed McDov^ell that he had two armies to fight rather than one. McDowell persisted in making the attack. His plan of battle was excellent, and everything went well until about three o'clock in the afternoon. By that time the Union and the Confederate troops were equally exhausted. Only one part of the Confederate line, commanded by General Thomas J. Jackson, stood firm. A brother officer exclaimed, "See Jackson, he stands like a stone wall." Henceforth Jackson bore the name of ''Stonewall." Just then another division of Johnston's men appeared, brought by the rail- road. They were fresh and were skillfully led. The exhausted Union soldiers wavered, broke, and fled. In the terrible panic which followed, many never stopped until they reached the neighborhood of Washington, thirty miles distant. Lessons of the Battle. — The North and South learned valuable lessons from the battle. The Northern people had counted upon a speedy victory. Such a defeat was a terrible blow, but after the first gloom passed off, the people set 4IO THE BEGINNING OF CIVIL WAR about preparing for a more serious struggle than they had expected. Some of the Southern soldiers thought that the war was ended and started for home. Their army was almost as disorganized by victory as the Northern army was by defeat. The officers on both sides realized that time was needed to transform the brave and self-sacrificing volunteers into real soldiers, capable of manceuvering on the battlefield as well as on the parade ground. McClellan, an excellent organizer and drill-master, took charge of the Northern army, now called the Army of the Potomac, while Johnston commanded the Southern or Army of Northern Virginia. Robert E. Lee acted as President Davis's chief-of-staff. Gen- eral Scott, weakened by age, soon withdrew, so that the Army of the Potomac was directed by McClellan alone. Use of Sea Power. — The North used its rapidly con- structed navy not only to estabhsh a blockade before Southern ports, but also to occupy important points along the coast of the Confederacy. In August, 1861, Fort Hatteras on the North Carolina shore was captured, and in November Port Royal, one of the best harbors on the coast, only 50 miles from Charleston, South Carolina.^ A little later the North gained a foothold at the mouth of the Savannah River. QUESTIONS 1. What advantages had the North at the beginning of the Civil War? The South? Of what use were the slaves to the South during the War? 2. Why did the North have the advantage on the ocean? How did the Appalachian barrier affect the war? What railroads pierced it? To which army were the Shenandoah and the Great Appalachian valleys of most use? Was Richmond easy of approach? 3. What rivers formed great highways into the South? Why were they useful for the North and harmful for the South? 1 Fort Caroline, the French Huguenot settlement, destroyed by Menendez in 1565, was at Port Royal. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 411 4. What railroads were especially important in the Civil War? Were they as useful as rivers? Why were Vicksburg, Manassas Junction, Bowling Green, Corinth, and Chattanooga important places? 5. What advantages did the Southern soldiers have over the Northern? 6. What did it mean to declare the Southern ports in a state of blockade? How did the blockade affect the South? What were the blockade runners doing? Why did they risk much? 7. What help did the Confederates seek? Who sympathized with them? Who did not? What class in England suffered greatly from the Civil War in the United States? 8. Why did the United States have trouble with England? Why did the United States release Mason and Slidell? Who in England did help the South? What should the English government have done in the matter? 9. Describe the first important battle of the Civil War. What part did the railroad and the telegraph have in the battle? Why did the Confederate army win? What did the officers of the North and of the South learn from the battle? 10. What successes had the Northern navy before the end of the first year? EXERCISES 1. Find on a map (see page 401), the rivers, railroads, and important towns mentioned in this chapter, and tell why each one was mentioned. 2. How was the attempt of the South to secure help from England and France like the attempt of the colonies to secure help from France, Holland, and Spain in the Revolution? Important Date : July 21, 1861. The Battle of Bull Run. yr I Confederate Battle Flag CHAPTER XXXVI STORY OF VICTORY AND DEFEAT A Long Struggle. — Compared with other recent wars, the Civil War had by 1862 lasted a long time. Two years before, France had begun a war with Austria in April and it had ended in July. A few years later, a war between Aus- The Line of Defense in January, 1862 tria and Prussia opened in June and closed in August. The Civil War was to last three years longer, although within a year and a half it was clear that the North was slowly gain- ing the advantage. The change was due to campaigns in the Mississippi Valley, for the positions of the armies in Virginia remained almost the same in spite of the most des- perate fighting. CONFEDERATE LINE OF DEFENSE BROKEN 413 Confederate Line of Defense Broken. — In January, 1862, the Confederate line of defense ran from the fortifica- tions at Columbus on the Mississippi River, through Fort Henry on the Tennessee River and Fort Donelson, twelve miles away on the Cumberland, past BowHng Green, to Cum- berland Gap. The position of Columbus was very strong. It was situated on bluffs so high that it could not be reached by guns fired from armed steamers, while the plunging fire of its batteries would destroy any vessels which attempted to pass. If the Confederate hne was to be broken, the attack must be made elsewhere. The Union officers concluded to make it at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson. The expedition was commanded by General Ulysses S. Grant, a graduate from West Point, who had fought in the Mexican War. A Mississippi Iron-clad Gunboat General Grant's army was assisted by armored gunboats, a new kind of war vessel. Seven had been built at St. Louis in 1 86 1. They did not resemble ordinary river steamboats. Their sides were sloping and built of heavy oak planking. In front the oak was twenty-four inches thick and covered by iron plates two and a half inches thick. The sides next to the machinery were also covered with iron. As the gunboats moved through the water they looked like great clumsy turtles.^ ^ A few armored vessels had been used in Europe nine years before in the Crimean War. 414 STORY OF VICTORY AND DEFEAT Capture of Fort Donelson. — The little war fleet steamed up the Tennessee to within 600 yards of Fort Henry and com- pelled it to surrender after a lively cannonade. A similar attack on Fort Donelson was not so successful, for two of the gunboats had their steering gear shot away and drifted about helplessly. Grant ordered an immediate attack by his army, and after severe fighting the Confederate commander sur- rendered with 14,000 men. The news of this success filled the North with rejoicing. It was the first important vic- tory which the Union troops had gained. The loss of the two forts which guarded the upper waters of the Tennessee and the Cumberland threw the Confederate defense into confusion. Both Columbus and Bowling Green were abandoned. Nashville, the capital of Tennessee, situ- ated on the Cumberland River, was also abandoned by the Confederate troops within ten days. Light gunboats steamed up the Tennessee to northern Mississippi and Alabama, destroying or capturing Southern steamboats and supplies. The Confederate armies estabUshed a new line of defense running from Memphis through Corinth and Chattanooga. This hne was also broken after one of the severest battles of the war, that of Shiloh, near Pittsburg Landing on the Teimessee River. ^ Corinth was then taken, and a gun- boat fleet moved down the Mississippi and forced Memphis to surrender. The Confederates held thereafter no other important fortified place on the Mississippi River except Vicksburg, for New Orleans had meanwhile been captured. Capture of New Orleans. — The capture of New Orleans was an exploit of the Union navy, under the leadership of ^ At Pittsburg Landing, about twenty miles from Corinth, Grant acted as if he had forgotten how near the enemy was. The Confederates under Albert Sidney Johnston surprised him and drove his army back in disorder during the first day's fighting. The great Confederate leader was killed in battle. Dur- ing the following night General Bucll reinforced Grant with a fresh army. The second day Grant drove the Confederates off the field. ^1 >^ ^l VU\>^FT.SI.PHI1.1P FEDERAL SUCCESSES 415 Flag-officer David G. Farragut, a native of Tennessee, who had remained loyal to the national government. Farragut fought his way, April 24, past the forts which guarded the river below the city. A Federal army soon landed and took possession. The fall of New Orleans, the largest city and the principal seaport of the South, was a great blow to the Confederacy. It opened the lower Mississippi to Northern fleets and made the blockade easier. Nothing further was accomphshed in the West by either side for several months. General Bragg led a large Confed- erate army through the Appalachian Valley into Kentucky, hoping to rally the people of that state to the Southern cause. He was checked in the neighborhood of Louis- ville. He then retreated into Tennessee, where at the close of the year he fought the desperate battle of Murfreesboro, but failed to dislodge the Federals from the central part of the state. The beginning of 1863 found the Federal troops in the positions they had won in Tennessee and northern Mississippi. Federal Plans in Virginia. — The partial success of the Fed- eral plans in the West was not repeated in the East. The hopes of the North were centered on the Army of the Potomac which McClellan had organized and which numbered 185,000 men. McClellan planned to transport this army to the old Yorktown peninsula and to advance upon Richmond. In March, 1862, the appearance in Hampton Roads of a new Confederate fighting ship threatened his plan, for a day at least. "Merrimac" and "Monitor." — Upon the outbreak of the war the national government had abandoned the navy yard in Norfolk, Virginia. A powerful frigate, the Merrimac, had been set on fire and then sunk. The Confederates raised it, cut away its masts, and boxed the main part of the deck with sloping sides covered with heavy iron plates. It was a much 41 6 STORY OF VICTORY AND DEFEAT stronger vessel than any of the gunboats recently completed at St. Louis. On March 8 the Merrimac steamed out of Norfolk and attacked the frigates on blockade duty in Hampton Roads. One it rammed and sank, another it set on fire. The cannon balls of the Union guns glanced from its iron plates Hke rubber balls. Its commander, satisfied with his day's work, steamed back to Norfolk, expecting to destroy the rest of the fleet the next day. When the news of what had happen- ed reached Washington, the government was thrown into a panic, for President Lincoln and his officials believed that the Merrimac would move up the Po- The " Monitor " AND THE " Merrimac " , _ , tomac and fire on the capital. The sea power appeared to have passed to the Confederates. Fortunately for the Union cause, John Ericsson, a Swedish engineer, had just completed in the Brooklyn navy yard a vessel equally formidable, called the Monitor. Its deck was raised only a few feet above the water line. Upon the deck was placed a round gun-house or turret, turned by machin- ery, so that the two heavy guns could be pointed in any direction. Those who saw it for the first time compared it to a "cheese-box on a raft." When the Merrimac moved out of Norfolk, on March 9, to complete the destruction of the Federal fleet, it was met by this strange antagonist, scarcely one-fourth its size. For four hours the two cannonaded each other. The Monitor had the advantage in rapidity of motion, so that it could avoid the heavy blows of the Merrimac's ram. Finally the Merrimac gave up the fight and retreated to Norfolk. Both GAINS AND LOSSES 417 sides claimed the victory, but the Merrimac did not come out again, and two months later it was blown up by its own men when they were obliged to abandon Norfolk. The battle of the iron-clads in Hampton Roads interested the whole world. Builders of naval ships in England and Europe saw that the older kind of battle-ship was now useless and that they had to reconstruct their navies. The " Super- Dreadnought" of to-day does not much resemble the httle Monitor, but the use of the turret is the same. Winning Victories and losing a Campaign. ^ The success of the Monitor enabled McClellan to begin his campaign. His army was carried down to the neighborhood of York- town by water. It was well organized, and the soldiers had confidence in their leader. McClellan was a good manager. He made full use of railroad and telegraph. As his army marched forward a telegraph line was run to his new head- quarters. He could telegraph to the President or the Sec- retary of War at any moment. If the army paused, wires were run to the headquarters of every division of troops, so that McClellan could send his orders instantly. McClellan was not a "fighter" like Grant. He listened to rumors which declared that the Confederates had more soldiers than he, although he had twice as many. He was angry because the government kept McDowell with 40,000 men near Washington, instead of sending them to aid in the capture of Richmond. Just at that time Jackson had thrown the Washington officials into a panic by a raid down the Shenandoah Valley as far as the Potomac. McClellan won sev- eral victories, but was finally obliged to abandon the attempt to capture Richmond, although once he was within four miles of the city. The commander of the Confederate army at first was Joseph E. Johnston, but he was wounded and General Lee took his place. Lee's Successes. — Some weeks later, in the last days of 4i8 STORY OF VICTORY AND DEFEAT August, 1862, Lee severely defeated a Union army a second time on the old field of Bull Run, and drove it back on Wash- ington. It was his turn to plan an invasion. In September he marched down the Shenandoah Valley and crossed the Potomac into Maryland. This was an attempt to carry the war on to Union soil and to reheve Virginia. McClellan was Where the Second Battle of Bull Run began recalled from the Peninsula to defend Washington. On Sep- tember 17, with an army twice as large as Lee's, he checked Lee at Antietam. His methodical caution permitted Lee to return to Virginia. McClellan was now removed from com- mand. In December, a new commander. General Burnside, recklessly hurled the Union army against Lee on the heights behind Fredericksburg, and was repulsed with frightful losses. More than twelve thousand of his best troops were left on the battle field. After that the armies rested and the year closed in Virginia much as it had opened. Gloom and discouragement prevailed in the North. Two years had passed, and the South was unconquered. Instead, it was rejoicing in victories. A New Weapon, January i, 1863. — In this time of disap- pointment Lincoln decided to try a new weapon against the THE SLAVES SET FREE 419 South. During the war the slaves had remained faithful to their masters, generally in ignorance of what it all meant. They raised the food which suppHed the Confederate armies, or acted as teamsters and laborers, or as servants to the of- ficers. Their work relieved the Southerners so that more men could serve as soldiers. On January i, 1863, Lincoln announced that henceforth the slaves in all the Confederate states not at that time held by Union troops would be considered as free. He hoped that this would weaken the South. It would mean that wherever North- ern armies went after that date the slaves would be made free and cease to support the Confed- erates. Lincoln hoped for even more from his emancipation proclama- tion. There were increasing num- bers of people in England and in the North who looked upon slavery as a great wrong. Lincoln himself said, "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong," but he wanted to save the Union, and ''not either to save or destroy slavery." He thought that was for the Southern states to do. He said, "If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it. And if I could save it by freeing some, and leaving others alone, I would also do that." He finally decided that he could save the Union only by destroying slavery. Results of the Emancipation Proclamation. — The only immediate effect of the decision was to encourage those in the North opposed to slavery and to win the sympathy of the Robert E. Lee 420 STORY OF VICTORY AND DEFEAT English people. The war became more clearly a war against slavery. Abolitionists and Unionists were now closely united in a common cause, for the success of the North meant both the saving of the Union and the freeing of slaves. Lincoln's Plan of paying the Owners of Slaves. — Slavery had been gradually breaking down in the loyal border states and in the other slave states wherever the Union army went. In such places the negroes were roaming about working for whomsoever they pleased and whenever they pleased. Many of them found employment as soldiers, or laborers about the Union camps. In 1861 Congress had freed the slaves in the District of Columbia and had paid the owners for their loss. Lincoln was anxious to extend the same arrangement to the border states. He urged that Congress compensate all owners of slaves in the South who would recognize the Union. His generous proposals were not accepted by the border states and were soon forgotten in the heat of war. Will the Union fail ? — The third year opened darker than ever for the Union. Lincoln's proclamation of Emancipation gave offense to the northern Democrats, who thought that the President had no power to interfere with slavery in the states whether in time of peace or war. Lincoln had said that he could not in time of peace, but that the war gave him the power. Besides, the Democrats had never believed Lincoln capable of saving the Union. Men asked whether it would not be better to yield to the South and stop so costly a war. Many of the soldiers were weary of the strug- gle. Officers said that a thousand deserted every week. The government was unable to obtain sufficient volunteers in some states, especially in New York, and drafted men — that is, chose them by lot — for tlie army. Cost of the War. — The expenses of the national govern- ment before the outbreak of the Civil War had been small, reaching in i860 only to the sum of $63,000,000 a year. COST OF THE WAR 421 They were nearly twenty times that before the war closed. At first Congress was afraid to lay heavy taxes, lest the people should lose their enthusiasm to preserve the Union. By 1862 Congress began to tax everything. Among the taxes was one like the Stamp Tax of 1765, providing for the use of stamps on receipts, legal papers, and other documents. Congress also authorized the Secretary of the Treasury to borrow large sums, giving interest-bearing bonds in return. In 1862 it was decided to issue "Greenbacks" instead of depending alone on taxes and on selling bonds. The Greenbacks were like the Continental money issued during the Revolutionary War. Prices in paper money rose until they were more than twice as high as prices in gold or silver. Very Httle coin was in circulation. In order to sell its bonds the government aided in the estabHshment of National Banks, permitting them to issue bank notes if they bought government bonds of a value greater than the amount of the notes issued. If the National government found difficulties in raising money, the Confederate government had difficulties still greater. It rehed on the cotton crop as a means of borrow- ing money in Europe, but the cotton could not be exported. It also issued paper money, which lost value much faster than the Greenbacks. Gettysburg, July, 1863. — In May, 1863, the Union army made an attempt to march overland against Richmond, only to be defeated again by Lee at Chancellorsville. But the victory was costly to the Confederates, for during the battle "Stonewall" Jackson was accidentally shot by his own men. General Lee concluded to carry the war again into the northern states. He believed that a decisive victory near Philadelphia or Baltimore would end the struggle. The northern Democrats would rise against the Repubhcan Presi- dent. Their sons would cease volunteering in the Union 422 STORY OF VICTORY AND DEFEAT army. The bankers would refuse to lend their money. England and France would recognize the Confederacy as an independent repubhc. Lee advanced as before by way of the Shenandoah Valley, and crossed Maryland into Pennsylvania. Once his cavalry approached within three miles of Harrisburg. General George G. Meade was now in command of the Union army. He I' Si.-'fcfe. The Gettysbueg National ISIilitary Park Showing the Battleground and Monuments to those who Fell met Lee at the Httle town of Gettysburg. The two armies took up stations on parallel ridges. The Confederates were on Seminary Ridge, named for a Lutheran school situated there. The Union army was a mile away on Cemetery Ridge, where the town cemetery was located. The battle raged for two days without decisive result, although the Confederates appeared to be gaining. On the third day, July 3, 1863, Lee decided to strike a deci- sive blow. General Pickett was ordered to charge the center of the Union Hne, which was under the command of General Hancock. For two hours before the charge 115 cannon bom- barded the Union army. When Lee thought that it had been thrown into confusion, Pickett, with 15,000 Confederate veterans, advanced across a valley of orchards, fields, and GETTYSBURG AND VICKSBURG 423 ravines, and up the slopes of the ridge. Two of the bravest officers of the Civil War were pitted against each other, Han- cock against Pickett. Pickett's men advanced. Shot poured into their ranks from every side. Men fell by companies. And yet on they went, up the hill. A hundred or so reached the Union line and fought hand to hand, only to fall or be made prisoners. The battle of Gettysburg stopped the invasion of the North. On the Fourth of July Lee slowly, painfully, sadly returned to Virginia. The crisis for the North was past. But at what a cost! Lee had left behind 28,000 men, killed, wounded, and missing; Meade, 23,000. This was the end of the fighting in Virginia in 1863. The Capture of Vicksburg, July 3, 1863. — The third day of July, 1863, was a memorable day in the Civil War. On the same day that Meade turned Lee back, Grant captured Vicksburg. This was a natural fortress set on high bluffs, footed with marshes and rivers. Since Grant's successes on the Mississippi in 1862, he had been preparing for the capture of Vicksburg. The Union army tried to take the town first by assault, but faihng, settled down to a regular siege. The people of Vicksburg still tell of the horrors of the last weeks of the siege — how they were obHged to hide in caves to avoid bursting shells; how, finally, they were forced to eat shoe-leather to keep from starving; how fathers, brothers, husbands, and sons died in the trenches. The Turning of the Tide. — The Confederates lost an army of 30,000 with the surrender of Vicksburg. Three states, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas, were cut off from the rest of the Confederacy. Union fleets sailed up and down the Mississippi. The Mississippi Valley lay at the mercy of the Union armies. 424 STORY OF VICTORY AND DEFEAT QUESTIONS 1. What were the chief points in the Confederate line of defense at the beginning of 1862? 2. Where did Grant begin the attack on the Confederate line of defense? Describe the gunboats which assisted him. Why was the capture of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson regarded as a great loss to the Confederate cause and a great gain to the Union? What other points did the Union army of the West capture during the campaign? 3. Who captured New Orleans? Why was its capture a great loss for the Confederate States? What advantage did its capture give to the United States? 4. What did General Bragg try to do? 5. What was McClellan's plan in 1862? What would have been the result of the success of the Merrimac? Describe the Merrimac and the Monitor. Why were Europeans interested in the battle of the Merrimac and the Monitor? 6. In what ways was McClellan a great leader? Why was he unsuccess- ful? What was the result of his attempt to capture Richmond? 7. What success did Lee have in 1862? What defeat? 8. Why did Lincoln declare the slaves in the Confederate States free? What was the effect of his declaration? What change was taking place with regard to slavery in the border states? What plan did Lincoln urge on Con- gress? 9. How did the United States and the Confederate States obtain money with which to carry on the war? 10. Why was the victory of Lee at Chancellorsville said to be costly for the Confederates? What was his plan after this victory? 11. Describe the battle of Gettysburg. Why was the result of such great importance for the United States? 12. What success had Grant in the West? What was the result of his victory? EXERCISES 1. Find on the map, page 412, or locate on an outline map on the board, the chief points in the Confederate line of defense at the beginning of 1862, again after the fall of Fort Donelson, and finally after the fall of Vicksburg in 1863. 2. What resemblance is there between the Monitor and a modern Super- Dreadnought? Important Dates: January i, 1863. Lincoln declares the slaves in the Confederate States, except the parts held by the United States army, to be free. July 3, 1863. The battle of Gettysburg and the fall of Vicksburg. CHAPTER XXXVII CONQUERING A PEACE Another Gate to the Cotton States. — In the fall of 1863 the scene of war was shifted to eastern Tennessee. The prize of victory was Chattanooga and the passes south of it through the Appalachians into northern Georgia. After gaining possession of the city, the Union army was defeated at Chickamauga Creek, a few miles southward. Only the courage and skill of General George H. Thomas, a Virginian, who commanded the left of the Union line, saved the army from ruin. The rest of the army was retreating in disorder, and his troops were hemmed in on three sides, but he could not be driven from his position. On that day he won the name of the "Rock of Chickamauga." Soon after the battle of Chickamauga, General Grant took command. Supported by Sherman, Thomas, and Hooker,^ he attacked the Confederates on Missionary Ridge and Lookout Mountain. Again General Thomas's men covered themselves with glory. Without waiting for orders, they attacked the crest of the ridge immediately in front of them, clambering over rocks and tree trunks in the face of a wither- ing fire. The story of their successful charge deserves a place beside that of Pickett's charge at Gettysburg. The victories around Chattanooga were as important as the capture of Vicksburg. The gateway into the older cotton 1 Hooker's army of 23,000 was sent from Virginia, on the railroads, by way of Louisville and Nashville, a distance of 1192 miles, in seven days. Long- street's army had been sent by rail to reinforce the Confederates before Chick- amauga. Its route was also roundabout, through the Carolinas and Georgia. 426 CONQUERING A PEACE states was open. Would a Northern army pass through into the very heart of the South? This question troubled the Confederate leaders at the beginning of 1864. Grant Commander-in-Chief. — Lincoln once said that it was a bad plan to change horses while crossing a stream, but several times he had been obliged to change commanders of the army. He was always on the lookout for a general whom he could fully trust. For two years he had been watching the straight-forward, modest, untir- ing soldier of Fort Donelson, Vicksburg, and Chattanooga. In February, 1864, he made Grant Lieutenant-general and placed him in command of the whole Union army, in the East as well as the West. Sherman was given the immediate command of the western armies, while Meade still commanded the Army of the Potomac. Grant, assisted by Meade, undertook in May, 1864, an advance upon Richmond. On the same day Sherman began the invasion of Georgia. For the first time all the Union armies were to aid one another in carry- ing out a common plan. The Confederates could no longer shift troops by rail from Virginia to the Southwest or from the West to Virginia. The Armies in 1864. — The armies of both North and South had long been composed mainly of veteran soldiers. The losses had to be made up by new recruits, but these untried men learned quickly by the experience and example of the older soldiers. The Northern army was gaining steadily in numbers, while the Southern army was decreasing, because the North had a far greater population upon which to draw. Ulysses S. Grant GRANT'S ADVANCE 427 In 1864 the Union armies contained more than twice as many soldiers as the Confederate armies. Grant's Advance. — In the campaign of 1864 Grant was true to his reputation as a fighter. His plan was to march overland upon Richmond. He outnumbered Lee two to one, but much of the time Lee had the advantage of fighting behind earthworks which defended every approach to the Confederate capital. The first struggle took place in the Wil- derness, not far from the battle-field of Chancellorsville. It was not a defeat for Grant, but neither was it a victory. Field-works for Defense A necessity of modern warfare Other commanders might have withdrawn in order to make a new start, but Grant ordered his army to move around the Confederate right. He resolved to hammer constantly at the obstacle and wear out his antagonist. Lee's losses were more costly than Grant's, because the gaps in his ranks could no longer be filled. Grant lost in the summer campaign as many men as Lee had in his whole army, filling their places with recruits. Before summer was over he had laid siege to Richmond, though he had not succeeded in breaking through Lee's lines of defense. Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley. — As at the time of McClellan's advance in 1862, a Confederate army under General Early was sent down the Shenandoah Valley to throw 428 CONQUERING A PEACE Washington into a panic and prevent reinforcements being sent to Grant. Grant sent General Sheridan, who became famous as a cavahy commander, to drive Early off. Sheri- dan had twice the force of Early, and before the harvest season was over had cleared the Valley of Confederates. He also laid waste the Valley. Barns, mills, and many houses were burned. The horses, mules, and cattle were driven away. Grant and Sheridan meant that the farmers of the Shenandoah should never again furnish Lee with provisions. It was said that a crow flying over the country would have to carry his provisions with him. The Taking of Atlanta. — While Grant hammered away at Lee's lines around Richmond, and Sheridan laid the beautiful Shenandoah Valley in blackened ruins, Sherman carried out his part of the plan. His army advanced from Chattanooga into Georgia. The Confederates destroyed the railroad as they retreated, and Sherman rebuilt it. Upon that railroad he depended for food and mihtary supplies, sent from Louis- ville through Nashville and Chattanooga. As Sherman had 100,000 men and 35,000 horses, he calculated that to dehver food and forage regularly would have required 36,800 wagons, each drawn by six mules. The telegraph also followed his advance, so that almost every day he was able to send word to General Grant of his progress. On September 2 he suc- ceeded in capturing Atlanta, which, although it was not a large city, was the chief manufacturing town for military sup- plies in the Confederacy. Farragut at Mobile. — While Sherman was still fighting about Atlanta, Farragut, with a strong fleet, attacked the defenses of Mobile, Alabama, one of the few Southern ports which still remained open. His ships had to fight not only the Confederate forts, but also an iron-clad ram, the Tennes- see, almost as powerful as the Merrimac. After a severe struggle the Tennessee was taken and the forts surrendered. RE-ELECTION OF LINCOLN 429 From Atlanta to the Sea. — After remaining in Atlanta several weeks, Sherman obtained Grant's consent to a bold plan of marching across Georgia to the sea. General Thomas, with a part of the army, returned to Chattanooga to defend Tennessee, for a Confederate army had started northward, hoping to draw Sherman after it. That army Thomas de- stroyed near Nashville in December. Before Sherman left Atlanta, storehouses, mills, machine shops — everything which contributed supplies to the Confed- erate armies — were destroyed. As his army swept across Georgia it left a track of desolation nearly 60 miles wide. The Georgia farmers had been raising corn instead of cotton, and they furnished a large part of the food for Lee's army at Richmond. Sherman, like Sheridan in the Shenandoah, left nothing that could be of any use to an army. Bridges were burned, railroads were torn up, and the rails were heated and twisted. Sherman's army marched twelve or fifteen miles a day. There was no army to oppose, and Sherman captured Sa- vannah in time to offer it to Lincoln as a Christmas gift. Reelection of Lincoln. — Before the campaigns of 1864 were over a new election had taken place. Many Republican pohticians, unmindful of the great work that Lincoln had done, planned to set him aside and put forward some one else as the candidate of the Repubhcan party. When the conven- tion met they discovered that the people beheved in Lincoln. The opposition dwindled into nothing, and he was trium- phantly nominated. The Democrats nominated General McClellan, declared the war a failure, and urged the sum- moning of delegates from all the states to a convention which should restore peace. The news of the capture of Atlanta, of Farragut's capture of Mobile, and of Sheridan's victory over Early in the Shenandoah put new life into Lincoln's cause and he was reelected. 430 CONQUERING A PEACE Drawing the Net on Lee. — Sherman's march from Atlanta to the sea destroyed Lee's last important source of supplies. The end of the war was near. In January, 1865, Sherman's army continued its journey. This time it marched northward across South CaroHna and North Carolina. Sherman was slowly drawing the net closer upon Lee. Surrender of Lee, April 9, 1865. — Grant had not ceased his attacks on Lee during the winter. Food and ammunition were slowly giving out in Richmond. Lee's army was finally reduced to parched corn for food. On April 2 Lee abandoned Richmond. He could hold it against Grant no longer. One week later the two met at Appomattox Court House, and arranged terms of surrender. Lee's army had melted away. Only a few more than 25,000 of his once magnificent force remained to lay down arms on April 9. Grant's terms were generous, as Lincoln wanted them to be. The Confederate soldiers were to retire quietly and peaceably to their homes. The men should take their horses, because, said Grant, "They will need them for the spring plowing and farm work." General Lee in a simple and manly manner bade his men farewell. "Men," he said, "we have fought through the war together. I have done my best for you. My heart is too full to say more." Assassination of Lincoln, April 14, 1865. — Friday, April 14, was a day of happiness in the North and of mourning in the South. The day was the fourth anniversary of the fall of Fort Sumter. The war was over. The South had failed to establish a separate republic. The United States was re- united in name, at least, if not yet in heart. The President and Mrs. Lincoln went to the theater with a small party of friends. During the play, a half-crazed actor, Booth by name, shot the President. In the morning Lincoln died. The coun- try's rejoicing was turned to the deepest mourning. The death of the generous leader, in whose heart was no bitterness THE COST OF THE CIVIL WAR 431 against the South, was the greatest disaster of the Civil War. The divided nation needed his services to guide it through the problems of reconstruction. Once, to those who were plan- ning revenge and persecution, Lincoln had gently said, ** Judge not that ye be not judged." The Cost of the Civil War. — • No one knows what the Civil War cost the American people. Nearly a million of the strongest men in the North and South lost their lives. Hundreds of thousands of men labored for four years, not to produce things which the world needed, but to kill or capture one another. Much of the wealth which the Southern people had accumu- lated was swept away, and they and their children were obliged to start anew as they had in colonial days. The American people are still paying debts which the war caused. Billions of dollars have already been spent. It would have been far cheaper to have paid the owners of the slaves the whole value of their laborers, twice over. After all, it was not a matter of money. The Southerners believed that it was a struggle for existence, for rights inher- ited from their fathers, especially for the right to govern them- selves. The people of the North felt that saving the Union was still more important. They came to look upon slavery as the great stumbling-block to a better national life. There seemed to be no court of final appeal except war. Abraham Lincoln After the statue by St. Gaudens 432 CONQUERING A PEACE QUESTIONS 1. What victories did the United States win around Chattanooga? Why were these as important as the capture of Vicksburg? 2. Whom did Lincohi put in command of the Union army in 1864? What was the new commander's plan for 1864? Why could Grant afford to fight when he lost more men in battle than Lee ? 3. Why did Sheridan devastate the Shenandoah Valley ? What was Sher- man's part in the campaign of 1864? Of what advantage was the railroad and telegraph to Sherman? 4. What important port did Farragut capture ? Why was its loss a great disaster to the South ? 5. What was the object of Sherman's march from Atlanta to the Sea ? How did he then proceed to draw the net upon Lee ? WTiy did Lee finally give up ? What terms did he obtain from Grant ? 6. How was the rejoicing of the North at the end of the war turned into mourning ? 7. What did the Civil War cost the country ? EXERCISES 1. Find on a map of Eastern Tennessee the places mentioned in the para- graph on "Another Gate to the Cotton States." 2. Locate the railroad over which Sherman obtained his supplies in the campaign against Atlanta. 3. Why was the South defeated in its attempt to form a republic? Important Dates: April 9, 1865. The surrender of Lee. April 14, 1865. The assassination of Lincoln. CHAPTER XXXVIII PEACE AND ITS PROBLEMS Return of the Soldiers. — The soldiers of the Union and Confederate armies were sent to their homes as rapidly as possible. Over a million men in 1865 gave up the life of camps, marches, and battles, and began to work on farms or plantations, in shops, factories, or offices. The Southern soldier made his way home, commonly on foot. He found the farm grown up to weeds, the fences down, wagons gone or fallen into pieces. Cities like Richmond and Atlanta were in ruins. Business was at a standstill. The outlook was discouraging. The return of the Northern soldier was altogether differ- ent. His cause was successful. His states had seen little or nothing of hostile armies. Farms had been extended, new mills had been built, and thousands of immigrants had helped to keep industry active. Growth of the North. — During the war the North more than made up for the loss of the Southern market by selling corn and wheat in England and in Europe. The amount of corn exported was doubled in the ten years from i860 to 1870, while the amount of wheat was tripled. The place of the farmer's sons who enhsted in the army was taken by machinery. By 1865, 250,000 reapers were in use, each of which could cut nearly an acre an hour. The amount of work done is also partly explained by the great numbers of immi- grants. The population of the states in the valley of the upper Mississippi was half again as large in 1870 as in i860, in spite of the losses by war. 434 PEACE AND ITS PROBLEMS The increase in Northern manufactures during this period was equally rapid. Their value grew three times as fast as from 1850 to i860. New mills were needed to make guns, cannon, armor, and other military supplies. Great quan- tities of iron ore were brought from Lake Superior to Chicago, Cleveland, Buffalo, and Pittsburgh. Other kinds of manu- facturing flourished. One who watched the busy life of a Northern city would scarcely have imagined that a terrible war was raging three or four hundred miles to the south. Scene in the Oil District or Pennsylvania in 1868 New industries were also begun. A little while before the war petroleum was found in several regions by drilling deep wells. In 1862, 3,000,000 barrels of petroleum were taken from wells, chiefly in northwestern Pennsylvania. The crude oil was sent to Cleveland, Erie, Pittsburgh, and other cities and refined, making kerosene, gasoline, naphtha, and other useful products. Soon after the war Congress carried out the promise made by the Republican party to give every man a free homestead of 160 acres if he would settle upon it. The government offi- cials saw that the pioneer who cleared the land for crops was doing a work no less important than that of those who CONDITION OF THE SOUTH 435 built railroads. Land had been given for railroads; after 1862 it was given freely for farms. By 1880, 65,000,000 acres had been used for this purpose. The discovery of gold in Nevada started a rush of settlers to that region like that to Cahfornia in 1849. Nevada grew so rapidly that Congress admitted it into the Union in 1864. Settlements were also begun in the region since included in Montana, Idaho, Colorado, and Arizona.^ The Ruins of Charleston Condition of the South. — In the South, on the other hand, the people felt all the hardships of war. Cotton, the princi- pal crop, could not be sold. The bales were used for breast- works or lay exposed to the weather. If Union armies passed where cotton was stored, they seized it. Many of the 1 Shortly before the opening of the Civil War a line of overland coaches began carrying the mail and passengers regularly from the Missouri River to New Mexico, California, and Oregon, following the trails of the prairie schooners. Short lines were started to the chief mining camps of Nevada, Idaho, Montana, and Colorado. It required 22 or 23 days and nights of con- tinuous travehng to reach California. The heavy four-mule stage-coaches were dragged at a galloping pace over desert and mountain roads. It was anything but a comfortable journey, sleeping in the seats, halting ten minutes for meals, and watching at all times for attacks from hostile Indians. The "Pony Ex- press," a line of fleet horsemen, carried the more important mail over the same route in about eight days. In 1861 a telegraph line joined the East and the West in easy communication, and soon displaced the "Pony Express." 436 PEACE AND ITS PROBLEMS farmers gave up raising cotton and raised corn to feed the Confederate armies. They were paid in Confederate paper money, which sank lower and lower in value. Mrs. Davis kept a diary in Richmond, and in 1864 she wrote that a turkey cost her $60, a pair of shoes $150, and a barrel of flour $300. In 1865 this money was worthless paper. During the war most of the able-bodied men were in the army. At least a third of them were killed or crippled. In their absence the work was done by the old men, women, children, and slaves. They also had to learn to make articles which they could no longer obtain by trade with the North or with England. People who lived in the South at that time tell how they parched rye and dried blackberry leaves to take the place of coffee and tea. The women drew out the spinning wheels and hand-looms and made clothing. They found herbs and roots to furnish dye stuffs. The old men and the more skilful slaves learned to make shoes and ordinary tools. In ways of living they went back to the old colonial times. The South's Hardest Question. — When peace came the Southerners were obliged to rebuild what had been torn down or burned during the war. But this was not their greatest difficulty. They had to find laborers. The negroes were still among them, but no longer as slaves. The rich planter who once owned a thousand slaves could not order the negroes to work for him any more than could his neighbor who had never owned one. Another difficulty nearly as great was. How should the states which had declared their independence, or, in other words, had seceded, be treated after the Confederate armies had surrendered? Both matters should have been settled by the wisest men of North and South, men like Lincoln, with maUce toward none. He, better than other Northern leaders, understood the South and the problem of peace. He was THE FREEDMEN 437 ready to answer all questions in the spirit of fairness and charity. A New Leader. — The death of President Lincoln raised the Vice-President, Andrew Johnson, to the Presidency at one of the most difficult times in the history of the United States. Johnson had been a poor boy. He had scarcely any education, but he had energy and abihty, and soon became a leader in Tennessee. The poHticians chose him as Vice-President in 1864, because he could win a few Southern votes for the party. None of them expected that he would become President. He was rugged, narrow-minded, and quarrelsome. The leaders of the Union party in Congress were Httle, if any, better fitted than Johnson for the new tasks. Thaddeus Stevens in the House and Charles Sumner in the Senate beheved that the Southern people intended to rebel again or restore slavery. The Freedmen. — The negroes had not learned the mean- ing of freedom, when it was suddenly given to them. The story is told that WilHam Lloyd Garrison visited a camp of freedmen near Charleston. "Well, my friends," he said, "you are free at last; let us give three cheers for freedom!" When he tried to lead the cheering the negroes stood in dead silence. To some freedom meant the right to be idle the rest of their Hves. A great many thought that it meant a division of the old plantations among them. They frequently asked, "When is the land to be divided?" They heard Andrew Johnson 438 PEACE AND ITS PROBLEMS rumors that the government would soon give each one forty acres of land and a mule. Those who crowded to the towns and camps that were estabhshed by the army, or who roved about the country, suffered terribly from poverty and disease. The consequence was that as many negroes died within two years after their emancipation as there were Northern soldiers who lost their lives in the whole Civil War. Frederick Douglas, one of their own race who had escaped from slavery and educated himself, said of the freedman in 1865, ''He was free from the old plantation, but he had nothing but the dusty road under his feet. He was free from the old quarter that once gave him shelter, but a slave to the rains of summer and to the frosts of winter. He . . . was turned loose, naked, hungry, and destitute to the open sky." There were 4,000,000 of these people in 1865, more than whites and blacks together in the entire nation in 1783. In his Emancipation Proclamation President Lincoln had freed only the slaves living in the states under the control of the Confederacy. Maryland and Missouri voluntarily freed their slaves in 1864 and 1865. By the end of 1865 slavery remained lawful only in Kentucky and Delaware, and even here it had nearly disappeared. Finally, in December, 1865, an amendment was added to the national Constitution for- ever forbidding slavery an3rwhere in the United States.^ The Freedmen's Bureau. — The leaders in Congress did not beheve that the Southerners would treat their former slaves fairly, and estabhshed the Freedmen's Bureau to watch over the negroes, distribute rehef, and estabhsh schools. The purpose of the Bureau was excellent, but many of its agents taught the negroes that the Southerners meant to oppress them. The result was that the two races, which needed to ^ Three years later the Fourteenth Amendment gave the freedmen all rights of citizenship except that of voting. THE PLANTATION SYSTEM ENDED 439 be friendly, were driven farther apart. Besides, the fact that the government distributed supphes convinced the freedmen that they were not obHged to work, and led multitudes to leave the plantations in the midst of the summer of 1865, making the situation worse. The Plantation System breaks down. — The planters, without either slaves or free laborers on whom to depend, and without money to hire them, were "land-poor" after the Civil War. Some sold the plantations for what they could get, a fourth or a tenth of the former value, and made a living in some other manner. Whether the planters sold the plantations or not, the land was divided into small farms, and rented on shares to white tenants or negroes. The poorer farmers had a better chance to make a living after the plantations were broken up. They did not suffer from competition with planters owning vast amounts of rich land and controlling large gangs of slaves. Better methods of cultivation were introduced, so that by 1870 they were raising 50 pounds more of cotton on an acre than the planters had raised under slavery. The building of new railroads helped them to market their crops, as the railroads had helped the small farmers in the Northwest. Reorganizing the Southern State Governments. — As the Civil War drew to a close, President Lincoln prepared to make the way easy for the reorganization of the seceded states and for their re-admission to the Union. "Forgive and forget" was his rule in such matters. President Johnson adopted Lincoln's plan and took steps in the summer of 1865 to reor- ganize the governments of the Southern states and to hold elections for Congress almost as if there had been no war. Johnson blundered in dealing with Congress and in trying to induce it to carry out his plan. Men like Stevens and Sumner distrusted the leaders in the Confederacy and wished to keep them from gaining control of their governments. On 440 PEACE AND ITS PROBLEMS the other hand, the Southern people made some mistakes. The leaders were defiant toward the North. They advocated harsh and unfair laws in order to make the negroes work. Their mistakes and the blunders of Johnson combined to drive the moderate men in Congress over to the side of Stevens and Sumner. Congress, instead of following Lincoln's plan of generosity and charity toward the Confederate States, adopted Stevens's plan in which vengeance and distrust were the main motives. Stevens's Vengeance and Sumner's Ideal. — In 1867 ten Southern states were divided into five military districts. Tennessee escaped, because it had already made terms with Congress and had been re-admitted into the Union. Army officers ruled the districts as though the war was still going on. Many of the Southern leaders were deprived of their right to vote in the elections, while their former slaves were given the privilege. Finally, when the states had forbidden slavery, had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, and had adopted negro suffrage, they were allowed to reenter the Union. From 1867 to 1870 the states fulfilled the hard con- ditions. This satisfied Thaddeus Stevens, who detested the Southern whites, and Charles Sumner, who wished to give the negroes the privilege of voting. Congress and the President. — President Johnson opposed the Congressional treatment of the South. He vetoed every important measure which Congress passed, and denounced its leaders in words more vigorous than polite. Congress then passed each measure over his veto. FeeHng became so bitter that Congress turned from its work of keeping the South dependent upon the North to make sure that the President was dependent on Congress. In 1868 some of his more violent enemies accused him before the Senate of "high crimes and misdemeanors." Had he been convicted, he would have been removed from the Presidency. A majority of the RECONSTRUCTION IN THE SOUTH 441 senators, fortunately, voted against so extreme a measure. Just before Johnson's term expired, in 1869, Congress pro- posed the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, adopted a year later, giving the negroes the same privileges in voting which the white people had. Up to that time only six North- ern states had allowed the negroes to vote. Slaves become Rulers. — In South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, the new voters out- numbered the white voters. In Georgia the two were about equal. For several years the cotton states were ruled by the former slaves. " Carpet-Baggers." — Many Northern men were attracted to the South after the Civil War by the cheapness of the land or by the chance of being chosen to office by the votes of the freedmen. The Southern people called them " carpet-baggers " because they arrived with little more than a carpet-bag or satchel, in which their belongings were packed. They were men of all kinds, some honest, others dishonest, some noble- minded, others rascals. The carpet-baggers and the negroes held the offices and governed the states as completely as if the former rulers of the South had vanished.^ Carpet-Bag Government. — The new rulers knew almost nothing about governing a country, and least of all one in the ruined condition of the South after the war. The members of the legislatures voted themselves large salaries. They ordered at public expense fine clothes, laces, perfumes, expen- sive wines and cigars, jewelry and furniture, horses and car- riages. As one said, they believed that the state should take care of its statesmen. There were even worse things than extravagance and misuse of state money. Men bought justice and favors like merchandise. The debts of the 1 A few Southern white men joined with the negroes and carpet-baggers. Such were held in great contempt by their white neighbors, and were called " scalawags." 442 PEACE AND ITS PROBLEMS states were increased four, five, six, or seven-fold, under such ignorant and corrupt rulers. Ku Klux Klan. — As the United States troops kept the Southern people from openly resisting their " carpet-bag " government, the Southern people formed secret societies, named the Ku Klux Klan, Pale Faces, White Brotherhood, and the like. Whatever the name, the objects were the same : to keep lawless negroes from stealing and other crimes, to frighten them from voting and holding offices, and to drive carpet-baggers out of the country. Some of the disguises which the members of these societies wore were terrifying. Their faces were masked, and they were shrouded in white. Even their horses were covered with long white gowns. The members rode around the negro cabins in the dead of night. Lawless men frequently made use of the same disguise to commit robbery and murder. In the North it was generally believed that all these secret societies of the South were organized to terrify, rob, and murder the negroes. Southerners again rule the South. — The rule of the carpet-baggers lasted in some parts of the South until 1877. As long as Federal soldiers were kept in the Southern states the carpet-baggers remained in control. They had persuaded the freedmen that the Republican party had freed them, and that the Democratic party wished to place them back in slavery. Most of the negroes, therefore, voted the Republican ticket. General Grant, who was President from 1869 to 1877, thought that the soldiers should not be withdrawn. But Rutherford B. Hayes THE END OF AN ERA 443 Rutherford B. Hayes, who was chosen President in the election of 1876 withdrew the army as soon as he was in- augurated.^ The Southern people quickly drove the remaining carpet-baggers from power and took complete control them- selves. From that time the votes of the freedmen, if they took the trouble to vote, have had little influence upon the government of the Southern states. The End of an Era. — By 1876 the work of restoring the Southern states to their full rights in the Union was almost \Mtj Main Building at Philadelphia Exposition, 1876 completed. It was also just a hundred years since the Dec- laration of Independence. The year was therefore chosen as a good time to review what the country had learned how to do. A great fair, called the Centennial Exposition, was held in Philadelphia. Nearly every state took some part in it. The South showed the progress that it was making with free labor. The farms, mining towns, and ranches of the West displayed their work. Manufacturers vied with one another in showing their wares and explaining the methods 1 The results of the election were very close. In three Southern states both parties claimed the victory. As the election turned on these contested votes, Congress referred the matter to a commission of 15, which gave the votes of these states to Hayes. The Democratic candidate was Samuel J. Tilden of New York. 444 PEACE AND ITS PROBLEMS of making them. New inventions were exhibited, such as the airbrake, the t>^ewriter, and the telephone. Foreign nations also took part in the Exposition. The products of the skilled workers of almost all countries were placed beside the wares of American workmen. They in- cluded woolens, china, steel from England and Germany, laces and silks from France, rugs and tapestries from Turkey and Persia, carvings in wood and ivory from India, China, and Japan. The art exhibits of Europe aroused new interest in art among Americans. The school methods of the old world, especially the work in the kindergarten and in manual train- ing, taught American schoolmen to improve their own system of education. All the displays of the Exposition were housed in great buildings constructed for them. MiUions of people, many of whom had never traveled, visited the Exposition and saw the work of the whole world spread out before them. They gained a better idea not only of what had been accomplished, but also of the improvements still to be made. So the Centennial Exposition marked the end of one era and the beginning of another. QUESTIONS 1. What conditions did the Southern soldiers find on returning home? The Northern soldiers? In what ways had the North grown during the Civil War? What markets had the Northern farmers found to take the place of the Southern markets? What new industry sprang up in the North during the war? 2. What new method of using public lands did Congress adopt in 1862? What besides free lands induced men to go West during the Civil War? 3. Describe the conditions at the South during the war. In what ways did the South go backward? 4. What hard questions did the country have to meet at the close of the war? Why was Lincoln's death a great misfortune to the South? 5. Were the freedmen prepared to use their freedom wisely? How did they come to suffer greatly? What was the object of the Freedmen's Bureau? What was the result? QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 445 6. What became of the plantation system? Who profited most from the change? 7. What influenced Sumner and Stevens in reorganizing the Southern states after the Civil War? What did the states do which aroused the Northern leaders? 8. What terms of admission into the Union did Congress require of the former Confederate states? Why did President Johnson and Congress quarrel? What did the House of Representatives try to do with him? 9. What privilege did the Fifteenth Amendment give the negroes? Who were the carpet-baggers? How did the new rulers of the South manage the government of the states? 10. What was the Ku Klux Klan? How long did the rule of the carpet- baggers and freedmen last? What effect had President Hayes's removal of the army? EXERCISES 1. Wherever possible, learn from a soldier of the Civil War what changes he found on returning home after the war. 2. In what ways did the Centennial Exposition benefit the United States? Important Dates: 1862. Congress begins the policy of giving free homesteads to pioneers in the West. 1867. Congress fixes the terms of re-admission of Southern states into the Union. 1876. The Centennial Exposition is held in Philadelphia. CHAPTER XXXIX NEIGHBORS AND RIVALS "Alabama" Claims. — The war had left other unsettled questions. The most important grew out of the fact that the British government had permitted ships to be built in British shipyards and sold to the Confederates. The damage done by these ships, especially by the Alabama, amounted to millions of dollars. The dispute might easily have led to war, because there were many Englishmen who wished to fight rather than acknowledge that they were wrong. There were Americans, too, like Charles Sumner, possessed by the wild idea that England might be compelled to pay $200,000,000 and give up Canada, on the ground that her sympathy for the South had prolonged the war and had caused the United States great loss and suffering. Fortunately, both countries had statesmen with common sense and common honesty. The English Prime Minister, William E. Gladstone, and the American Secretary of State, Hamilton Fish, agreed to leave the settlement of the dispute to five arbitrators. England and the United States each chose one, and Brazil, Italy, and Switzerland also chose one each. In 1872 they decided that England had injured the United States to the amount of $15,500,000 through the destruction of ships. The deci- sion was unpopular in England, but the English government paid the money promptly. The way in which the dispute was ended set a noble example to the world of a method better than war for settling such questions. Question of Mexico. — The United States had a question to settle with France, the ruler of which was Napoleon III, THE PURCHASE OF ALASKA 447 a nephew of the great Napoleon. Europeans had many- claims against the Mexican government, some of them like those which Americans had had before their war with Mexico. England and Spain decided in 1861 to join France in forcing the Mexicans to pay. Soon, however, England and Spain discovered that the Emperor Napoleon had other plans in mind and they refused to have anything further to do with the enterprise. The fact was that Napoleon meant to set up an empire in Mexico strong enough to check the spread of Eng- lish-speaking peoples in North America. He also thought that a canal should be dug through the Isthmus of Panama, making a waterway as important as the Bosphorus, which flows between Europe and Asia. Napoleon chose a time for carrying out his dreams when the United States was too busy with the Cvil War to inter- fere. He sent thousands of soldiers to Mexico and spent mil- lions of money. In 1864 he set up MaximiUan, brother of the Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria, as Emperor of Mexico. The United States had protested against his conduct, but in vain. When the Civil War closed and the United States had several hundred thousand veteran soldiers under arms and ready for action, the Emperor Napoleon wisely listened to the protests and withdrew his troops, leaving the unfortunate Maximilian to his fate. Two years later Maximilian was captured by the Mexican republicans and shot, on the ground that he had ordered republican prisoners shot as rebels. The action of the United States showed that the Monroe Doc- trine had not been forgotten. Purchase of Alaska. — In 1862, the year President Lincoln planned to emancipate the slaves, Alexander II, Czar of Russia, proclaimed that the Russian peasants should be freed. They were not slaves Hke the southern negroes, but their labor was owned by the nobles who possessed the lands on which they lived. They were serfs, like the English and 448 NEIGHBORS AND RIVALS French peasants in the Middle Ages. By this act of 1862 Alexander also won the name of "Emancipator." It was natural that he should sympathize with the United States during the Civil War. The North felt grateful for this Rus- sian sympathy, especially as there was danger of war with England and France. After the Civil War was over the Russian government unexpectedly offered to sell Alaska. Secretary Seward, a member of Lincoln's cabinet who had been retained by Presi- dent Johnson, received the proposal and arranged a treaty of purchase. Americans at that time supposed that Alaska was a frozen region, its inhabitants Esquimaux, and "its chief products polar bears and glaciers." Congress was in the midst of its quarrel with Johnson and unwilling to carry out any plan proposed by his administration. Sumner believed that Seward's bargain was a good one and his influ- ence in the Senate was strong. Besides, many Congressmen remembered Russia's friendship and wished to show proper appreciation. The treaty was therefore accepted in April, 1867. The new territory was twice as large as Texas, and as large as the original thirteen states together. The cost was $7,200,000, which the natural wealth of Alaska, un- known at that time, has many times repaid, though its resources in gold, coal, fish, and agricultural products have barely been touched. A United Canada. — The talk about the seizure or conquest of Canada, which was common in the United States after the Civil War, alarmed the Canadians and they resolved to strengthen themselves by union. In 1867 there were sLx Brit- ish colonies in North America: Canada, divided into two provinces, — Quebec and Ontario, — Nova Scotia, New Bruns- wick, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, and, far away on the Pacific Coast, British Columbia. Between the East and the West were three great natural basins, the Hudson UNITED CANADA 449 /x ■sol' " _. ,>i • The United States, Canada, and Mexico Alaska and its islands, if laid down on the United States, would touch the Alantic Ocean on the southeast, Canada on the north, and the Pacific Ocean on the west Bay country, the Winnipeg region, and the Mackenzie River Valley, all unsettled. A great convention of delegates met in Quebec and drew up a plan of union. The meeting re- calls to mind the Federal Convention at Philadelphia in 1787. In 1867 the new union was put into effect under the name, Dominion of Canada. This was Hke the English system of 450 NEIGHBORS AND RIVALS government, although in some ways it resembled that of the United States. The Dominion had a parliament instead of a congress, and instead of a president a prime minister who must be satisfactory to the majority in parhament. Only four of the provinces united in 1867. Four years later British Columbia, and shortly afterward Prince Edward Island, were admitted, much as the United States permits new states to enter the Union. Newfoundland, alone of the old colonies, remained outside of Canada. The government of Canada had a vast western territory out of which to make other states in later years. The growth of the Canadian North- west is a part of the westward movement in American history. A Greater Britain. — The constitution which the Cana- dians drew up was agreed to by the British parliament. A governor-general was sent to represent Great Britain in Can- ada, but he was not to interfere with the right of the Cana- dians to govern themselves. They paid no taxes to the mother country and even charged import duties upon British products brought into the Dominion. All this was very different from the bitter dispute a century before between the British parlia- ment and the colonies on the Atlantic shore. A new idea had taken possession of the leaders of Great Britain. They now thought that the Englishman who chose to live beyond the seas in Canada, South Africa, Australia, or any other country, should enjoy the same rights he would have at home. The expenses of the Empire, which troubled the men of 1765 so much, were paid from taxes collected in Great Britain, unless the colonies offered to bear a share. The change in views of the EngHsh leaders was mainly due to the adoption by parliament of new ''reform " bills. These extended the reforms in government begun by the "Great Reform" bill of 1832, until almost every man in the land pos- sessed the right to vote. Representation in parliament was also more fairly distributed. The government remained a K, D,,Ser?.08s,.Eng'r,N. E, AFFAIRS IN EUROPE 451 monarchy, that is, a king or queen reigned, but it really became a democracy or government by the people. The representatives of the people in parhament improved many of the old laws: protecting the workmen in the factories against accident, shortening the hours of labor, especially of women and children, and making it easier to purchase farms. In such ways the British government was becoming wiser and more just, while its empire was becoming greater in extent. Civil War in Germany. — While the United States was torn by a terrible struggle between the North and the South, a civil war of another kind raged in Germany. The states into which the Germans were grouped were almost as independent as if they had been separate countries. The principal ones were Prussia, Bavaria, and Austria. Alto- gether there were 38 states, 11 of them large. Their union was called a confederation. Their wars with one another were caused by attempts of the two greatest states, Prussia and Austria, to strengthen the confederation and take the lead in its affairs. One short war occurred in 1864 and another in 1866. In the second war Prussia fought against Austria and nearly all the other states and was victorious. The consequence was the formation of a North German Confed- eration and the exclusion of Austria from Germany. Four years later, during a war of Germany, led by Prussia, against France, the South German states entered the confederation, which was changed into the German Empire with the King of Prussia as emperor. Germany, from being a loose confed- eration, had now become one of the strongest nations of the world. France a Republic. — The Emperor Napoleon III, who had tried to overthrow the repubUc of Mexico, was himself over- thrown in 1870, and a repubUc founded in France. He had been led foolishly into a war with Germany, had been badly defeated, and taken prisoner. Many Frenchmen wished to 452 NEIGHBORS AND RIVALS recall to the throne a descendant of their ancient kings, but a majority of the people were in favor of ruling themselves with a president as their chief magistrate. The constitution which they adopted was more nearly like that of England than that of the United States, for they have a prime minister, whose power is greater than that of the president. United Italy. — The same years saw a union of all the Italian states under Victor Emmanuel as king. Until 1859 Italy, like Germany, had been divided into several kingdoms or principalities. The northeastern part of the country, including the beautiful city of Venice, was ruled by the Emperor of Austria. For more than half a century the ItaKans had been dreaming of an Italy which should be united and should manage its own affairs. The dream, like so many others, could be realized only after many battles, but 187 1, which saw a united German Empire, also saw a united Kingdom of Italy. Austria-Hungary. — Austria, which was driven out of Italy and Germany, learned lessons from defeat and, prepared to live on better terms with Hungary, united with it under the rule of Francis Joseph. For many years the Empire of Aus- tria had tried to manage the Kingdom of Hungary. Now the leaders of both nations made an ingenious arrangement by which they might be united toward all the world but inde- pendent toward each other. Triumph of Union. — • The history of Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, as well as of the United States, shows that union was an idea which influenced men deeply. Great united nations meant keener rivalries in the future. The success of the United States in the Civil War in preserving the Union increased the respect of the Old World for the Repubhc. European governments agreed for the first time to accept the American plan of naturalizing immigrants. They promised to treat as American citizens, rather than as QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 453 runaway subjects, those who had resided in the United States five years and who had renounced their former alle- giance. But it was understood that if the new citizens re- turned to their native land and lived in it for two years, they again became its citizens and ceased to be Americans. QUESTIONS 1. What were the Alabama Claims? How were they settled? 2. What excuse had France for sending an army into Mexico? What plan had the Emperor of France formed? How was the question settled? 3. How did Alexander II of Russia obtain the name of Emancipator? How did the United States come to possess Alaska? 4. Why did the Canadian provinces form the Union or Dominion of Can- ada? Describe the government of Canada. What provinces formed the Union? What one has never joined the Union? 5. What is England's new way of treating her colonies? Does she require them to pay taxes? What changes have been made in the British government? 6. What caused the Civil War in Germany? What was the result? 7. What change in government took place in France? In what way is the government of France more like that of England than that of the United States? 8. What did the Italians do about the same time? What arrangement did Austria and Hungary make? 9. Which were the great united nations in 1876? 10. What effect had the victory of the United States on its relations with European countries? EXERCISES 1. Prepare a list of great questions which the United States and Great Britain have peaceably settled. Tell how each was settled. 2. Compare England's treatment of the thirteen American colonies in 1765- 1775 with that of the Canadian provinces in 1867. 3. Prepare a list of the countries in which a struggle for "union" occurred. 4. Review the change in government in England in 1832. See page 329. Important Date: 1872. England and the United States settle the dispute over the Ala- bama Claims by arbitration. CHAPTER XL THE PRAIRIE STATES The Pacific Railroads. — During the Civil War, when Con- gress was anxious to keep the Pacific coast loyal to the United States, it voted to aid several companies in the construction of railroads from the Mississippi Valley to the coast. Two companies began building, the Central Pacific from Sacra- mento eastward, and the Union Pacific from Omaha west- ward. The government gave these roads twenty sections of land, or 12,800 acres, for every mile of road, and besides lent them money. A race was started to see which could build the most before they met.^ The Union Pacific had the advantage at first. Its line west of Omaha followed the Oregon Trail through a country so fiat that little grading was necessary. More than half of the workmen were veterans of the Civil War. The Central Pacific advanced more slowly across the Sierra Nevada range, but it made up in speed when it reached the great desert basin. Thousands of Chinese laborers were brought into the United States for this work. The two lines met in 1869 on the shores of Salt Lake near Ogden. The Pacific railroad was a great undertaking. The iron for the western part had to be carried by steamboats from the East around Cape Horn or by way of Panama. For the 1 The United States gave the railroad companies that built the first railroad system connecting the Missouri River with the Pacific coast 33,000,000 acres of land, an area much larger than the state of Pennsylvania. It gave to the companies which built the western railroads enough land to make five states like Pennsylvania, or a country larger than France or Germany. THE PACIFIC RAILROADS 455 eastern part wood and iron and other materials were taken up the Missouri River in steamboats or across western Iowa to Omaha by ''prairie schooners." The eastern railroads had not yet reached Omaha. The great works of the past, like the National Road, the Erie Canal, and the Pennsyl- vania Portage Railway, seemed small beside this road. Ex- cept for the small Mormon town of Ogden, no settlements WISCONSIN*'i.?l '„ I Orleans Gulf of Mexico The Principal Railroads West of the Mississippi in 1884 had been made between Omaha and Sacramento, nearly 1800 miles. The httle settlements at Denver, Salt Lake, and Carson were off the route chosen. The earher railroads had commonly been built to carry goods to the pioneers or to carry their products to the markets. The new roads crossed regions as yet uninhabited. Like the rivers of the Atlantic coast or of the Mississippi Valley they guided the work of settlement. The immigrants scattered on either side, adding village to village until the slender band reached across the continent. In this way the Pacific coast and the Mississippi Valley were bound together as never before. 456 THE PRAIRIE STATES Panic of 1873. — Other railroads were begun while the work on the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific was being completed. Indeed, as many miles of road were built in the four years ending in 187 1 as existed in the whole country shortly before the Civil War. Men, in imagination, saw towns springing up everywhere. They borrowed recklessly to pay for rails, engines, and cars, or to buy town sites and lay them out. The consequence was a panic as bad as the panic of 1837. The country was only beginning to recover from it when the Centennial Exposi- tion was held. For some time railroad building almost stopped. During these years the settlement of the West went on more slowly. The Indian Question. — The Indians watched the advance of the settlers with angry feel- ings. Many of them remem- bered that ever since white men had landed on the Atlan- tic coast the Indian had been forced to give up one hunting ground after another. As in the colonial days, the settlers on the frontier were often attacked. The government sent sol- diers to punish the hostile tribes, especially the Sioux and the Apaches. Several little wars took place. In a campaign against the Sioux in Montana, led by their chief, Sitting Bull, General George Custer, a young cavalry officer who had dis- tinguished himself in the Civil War, and 264 of his troopers were suddenly surrounded and all of them killed. Only Custer's horse, Comanche, and a half-breed scout escaped. This was the last important Indian War. By 1877 most of the Indians were placed on reservations, either in the neigh- -4? Sitting Bull THE RANCHES 457 borhood of their old hunting grounds or in the great Indian Territory south of Kansas. New Settlements. — With the building of railroads a con- stantly increasing stream of settlers poured into the states and territories beyond the Mississippi. Part of them were from older states and part from Europe. In the year 1883 alone, more than 750,000 immigrants entered the United States, chiefly from Great Britain and Germany. There also came thousands of Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes. Many of these immigrants settled in Minnesota, Iowa, Ne- braska, and the Dakotas. Unlike the settlers farther east, those who chose lands on the prairies found no forests to supply them with building material, and were obliged for a time to Hve in sod-houses or dug-outs. Corn or grass was often their only fuel. The Ranches. — The earliest settlers on the plains de- pended chiefly on their herds of cattle. The frontiersman in America, whether on the eastern slopes of the first colonial mountain barrier or in the Mississippi Valley, raised many cattle. The vacant lands in the neighborhood gave him free pasture for his herds. This was especially true on the great plains. Nature had made it a nation's pasture land. Many eastern men established vast ranches on the plains west of the farming settlements. These were mostly on the borderland, where the prairie ends and the mountains begin, a region too dry for ordinary farming. Cowboys in strange western dress, many of them Mexicans, tended great herds of long-horned cattle. Cowboys and steers took the place of the roving Indians and the wild buffaloes. The immense herds of buffaloes disappeared, slaughtered by wasteful, pleasure-seeking hunters. No fences were needed on the ranches. The cowboys hved with the herds, riding fleet bronchos and sleeping in the open air, much as did the Arabs of old. 458 THE PRAIRIE STATES It was a common thing for one ranch to possess five, ten, or twenty thousand head of cattle, which fed over a region equal to a half dozen western counties. A few cowboys were able to take entire care of them. Branding the calves with the mark of the ranch, so that they would be known, fighting cattle thieves, and driving the fattened stock to the distant railroads once a year, formed the chief occupations of the ranchmen. Grass, browned and cured on the ground, was the winter's food for the cattle. A deep valley, where little snow fell, formed the only shelter. The cattle raised on the ranches at slight cost were carried or driven to Omaha and Kansas City. At first they were forwarded to St. Louis or Chicago. By 1862 Chicago had become the center of the meat packing business, as Cincin- nati had been in the preceding period. Chicago has always kept the lead in the business, although Omaha and Kansas City have gradually gained a large share in it. From i860 to 1880 the value of the business increased from $30,000,000 to $300,000,000. Meat was sent all over the country in refrig- erator cars. After 1876 great quantities were prepared for sale in Europe. The refrigerator cars took the meat to an eastern port, where it was packed in refrigerating rooms on steamships. From 1870 to 1890 farmers gradually took up the open lands. Within ten or twenty years the free prairies for graz- ing disappeared and the great ranches were crowded out. Many small herds of better breeds of short-horned cattle replaced the large herds. Farmers, rather than cowboys, kept them on the grazing grounds and guarded them. Great barns were built to shelter them in winter, and stores of fodder were prepared for the winter's food. By 1890 the free fertile lands of the West were nearly all occupied. No longer could men leave shops or eastern farms when wages were low and take up free farms. The immi- DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEST 459 grant from Europe had little chance to become a landowner at almost no expense, as he had been doing since the founding of Jamestown. The colonists had taken one hundred and fifty years to occupy the lands from the Atlantic Ocean to the first moun- tain barrier, a region about two hundred miles wide. But the later pioneers swept over the West, which was more than five times as wide, in twenty years. The difference was due A Cattle Ranch in 1880 in part to the railroads which helped the modern pioneers to reach the western lands and to create cities almost over night. It seemed as though the West possessed Aladdin's magic lamp. For a while the new towns and country districts were almost without government. Ruffians took refuge in the frontier towns, and in the ranches and the mining camps in the moun- tain districts farther west. They made a ' Wild West" of the region. Showmen now like to travel over the country exhibiting the ways of such rough western towns. These days of lawlessness and danger, which have always been a 460 THE PRAIRIE STATES characteristic of the American frontier, lasted only a short time. Neat frame houses took the place of the sod-houses and the dug-outs, and thrifty stores came in where gambhng dens had thriven. Orderly town, county, and state govern- ments were modelled after those in the older states of the Mississippi Valley. Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado had by entering the Union extended the states to the Rocky Mountains. CaUfornia and Oregon had long stood as sentinels of the Union in the West. In 1889 and 1890 the frontier governments of North and South Dakota, of Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, and Washington became of age and took their place beside their sister states. They com- pleted a soUd double tier of states across the northern part of the United States. In 1896 Utah, first settled by the Mormons, became a state, and so filled in the space between Colorado and Nevada. What the Pioneers did. — The earHest settlers on the prairie farms escaped some of the hardships of the other frontiersmen. They did not have the drudgery of felUng huge forests or digging drains in swamps. They never suffered from malaria and ague as the pioneers did elsewhere. But they had other troubles instead. Some years the green crops dried up in the fields before harvest time for the want of enough rain. Many men gave up the hard struggle and returned to the eastern states. Those who stayed finally learned to plant crops that needed less rain and to cultivate the land in such a way as to make the best use of all the water in the soil. As they grew more skilful in dry farming they pushed to the very edge of the desert-Uke plains lying near the Rocky Mountains. Such pioneers taught others, and now failure occurs no oftener there than in other parts of the United States. The conquerors of America are the sturdy pioneers who have stayed on the frontiers until nature yielded to their will. WHEAT FOR THE WORLD 461 Wheat for the World. — Farming large tracts of land was easier on the plains than elsewhere. The prairies were level, unbroken, and extensive. Railroads were at hand to carry large crops to the cities, where the increasing population needed more food. For such reasons some men have estab- Hshed mammoth farms, especially wheat fields. Often these cover 10,000 or 20,000 acres. On them, powerful traction engines or an army of teams draw great machines — combined plows, seed-drills, and harrows — for ^ ^p ^ ^|^ planting, with "^E^^^^SlWl^^^^M,:^^ reapers and thresh- ers for harvesting. Great farms of this kind are the exception. Moder- ate sized farms of 160 or 320 acres are the rule. Every- where the farmers use the newer farm machinery. They prepare the soil by riding plows and cultivators, put in the seed by the use of planters and drills, and harvest with self-binders. Steam threshing machines complete the work. Mills and Elevators. — The other work of the middle and farther West is done on an equally large scale. Monster grain elevators were built at railroad centers or lake ports like Kansas City, Omaha, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Chicago, and Buffalo. In MinneapoHs, especially, great flour mills began to grind thousands of barrels of flour a day. The small mills, driven by water power, which formerly dotted wheat growing regions, gradually fell into ruins. The sale of wheat to Europeans increased rapidly. It was ten times as great in 1880 as in i860. The New Way of Mowing Grass With gasoline motor 462 THE PRAIRIE STATES QUESTIONS 1. In what ways did the United States help to build the first Pacific rail- roads? Why was building the Pacific railroads a difficult undertaking? What effect had the western railroads on settlement? 2. What caused the panic of 1873? What effect had the panic on the settle- ment of the West? • 3. What attitude did the Indians take toward the settlement of the prairies? How did the United States treat the Indians? 4. Who settled the states west of the Mississippi? How did the pioneers on the prairies live? 5. Describe the cattle ranches of the frontier. Where were the cattle mar- keted? What change finally took place in the cattle country? 6. Why was the prairie region more rapidly settled than the Atlantic coast? 7. What new states were formed in the West? 8. What did the western farmers produce? How did the farmers do their work? What industry grew up in the wheat-growing region? EXERCISES 1. Name and locate the chief Pacific railroads. 2. Compare the methods of farming in colonial days with those in the western states to-day. See pages 123-124. 3. How did the settlers reach the frontier in colonial days? How in the days of the settlement of the western prairies? Important Dates : 1869. Completion of the first Pacific railroad. 1890. By this date the free lands useful for farming, without irrigation, are mostly gone, thus ending the era of colonization within the United States. CHAPTER XLI NEW METHODS OF WORKING The New Factory System. — The early factories took from the household and the small shop such industries as spinning, weaving, and forging. As the use of machinery increased and new inventions were made, other household industries — the making of butter and cheese, the preserving or canning of fruits and vegetables, the curing, and even the cooking of meats — were moved, at least in part, to the factory. Scene in a Knitting Mill Factories also increased in size, as water power was used less and steam more. Many factories originally located near swift-running streams were abandoned. If the water power was abundant, they were enlarged, but steam was often used as well as water power. The towns of New England, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, which first began weaving silk, cotton, and 464 THE NEW METHODS OF WORKING woolen goods, or tanning leather, and making these products into clothing, shoes, and gloves, still continue in the same industries. Their factories are commonly run by steam or electricity. They must often send a distance for fuel as well as for materials like cotton, wool, and hides. In spite of these disadvantages they are able to continue in the same business because they have made a reputation for good work- manship and have a body of trained men and women in their factories. Since the Civil War, factories have slowly migrated wherever fuel, materials, and skilled workers are found near together. For this reason cotton mills are rising in the South, woolen mills and shoe factories in the middle West. It is still true that the western people raise most of the food and produce most of the materials used in manufacturing, while the eastern people make most of the finished articles. The Uses made of Electricity. — Marvelous things have been accompHshed in the same period in the use of electricity. In 1866, after many efforts, a telegraph cable was laid through the Atlantic Ocean to Europe. Several years later an in- ventor improved Morse's telegraph so that two messages could be sent in opposite directions over the same wire at one time. Soon four messages could be sent at once. Alexander Graham Bell, a teacher of the deaf, while study- ing the human ear, thought of a plan of "talking by tele- graph." In 1876, after years of work, he exhibited a successful instrument at the Centennial in Philadelphia. This was the telephone. Men called him "a crank who says he can talk through a wire," but his invention was quickly adopted in America and Europe. By 1890 it was in common use. The Dynamo. — Inventors in Germany, England, France, Italy, and the United States, working at the same time, found out how to make electricity on a large scale and cheaply. The THE USE OF ELECTRICITY 465 machine which they invented for this purpose was called a dynamo. Though first made about 1866, it did not come into ordinary use in the United States until after 1880. The dynamo is commonly driven by a steam or gasoline engine or by a water wheel. The electricity which it makes can be carried a long distance by means of wires. Other inventors discovered many uses for the electricity which the dynamo produces. Some learned how to use the current to run machinery. This is done by means of a motor. In 1878 Charles F. Brush invented the arc light for streets and parks, while Thomas A. Edison, in the following year, made an electric light for houses. In the meantime, a Ger- man in BerHn, Dr. Siemens, had constructed a street railway car run by an electric motor. All these inventions worked great changes in the cities. Street cars, which had at first been drawn by horses, were soon moved by electricity. A line in Baltimore and another in Richmond in 1885 were the first in the United States to make the change. By 1895 few horse cars were left in the United States. This change within the cities from 1885 to 1895 was followed by the building of electric railways from town to town. Such fines, bringing the town and country within easy reach of each other, made country life pleasanter and helped the towns and cities to obtain food from the neighboring farms and to carry on trade with one another. Several of the olcier railroads have begun to use electric instead of steam locomotives. The most wonderful use for electricity was yet to come. Scientific men had long known that electricity travels through space without the necessity of following a wire, like waves on the surface of the water. In 1896 Marconi, an ItaHan electrician, invented an instrument for telegraphing through space without wires. The method was rapidly improved until messages could be sent across the Atlantic Ocean and from ship to ship in mid-ocean. The wireless telegraph, 466 THE NEW METHODS OF WORKING invented in Europe, was almost immediately adopted in the United States. Within a few years after the invention of the dynamo, the motor, and the electric light, many private companies went into the business of making electric current and selling it for lighting and for running machinery. Some electric plants use coal for fuel, but others depend on water power. In 1902 great ma- chines were built to use a part of the water of Niagara River above the Falls. The electric current is carried on wires to Buffalo, 22 miles away, and even to cities much farther off. In these it is used to light streets and buildings, run factories, and move street cars. Rivers are made to do work which would require thousands of horses. The nineteenth century was the age of steam, but the twentieth century is becoming the age of electricity. Steel. — The need of a material stronger and more durable than iron led to the invention of steel. In 1856 Henry Bessemer, an Englishman, discovered a cheap method — since called the Bessemer method — of converting ordinary iron into steel. Bessemer's method, as well as other new methods, was introduced into the United States. By 1890 the Ameri- cans equaled, if they did not surpass, other nations in making iron and steel. Steel was soon used for finer grades of tools &:r'' A Modern "Sky -Scraper" Woolworth Building, New York; the tall- est building in the world. This has a steel frame IRON AND STEEL 467 and delicate surgical instruments. Steamships were built of it, and were made larger as the builders learned to use the new materials. The modern steamship, framed with steel beams and covered with sheets of steel, is capable of carrying two or three thousand passengers and many car-loads of freight across the Atlantic in five or six days. The huge buildings called "sky-scrapers" are steel-framed. The parts of such structures are made in a mill, ready to be put to- gether. Since the introduction of steel the railroads have Loading Iron Ore on a Boat on Lake Superior been entirely rebuilt at great cost. The rails of the track, many of the bridges, even many of the cars, are made of steel. How Iron is obtained. — Great improvements have also taken place in mining ore, in carrying it to the mills, and in manufacturing iron. Formerly most of the iron ore came from Pennsylvania, but now three-fourths come from the mountain ranges about Lake Superior. Much is also mined in Alabama. In Michigan and Minnesota powerful steam shovels load the soft iron ore upon railway cars. Railroads take it to lake ports and dump it into great bins, high abov* the water-level. Chutes lead the ore into the holds of steel steamboats five or six hundred feet long, and capable of car- rying five or six thousand tons at once. These great carriers 468 THE NEW METHODS OF WORKING take the ore to ports chiefly on the south shore of lakes Erie and Michigan, near where it is wanted. Huge unloading machines operated by steam or electricity lift the ore from the boats to railroad cars in which it goes to the iron mills. At every step it is handled by machinery, and the human hand need not touch it or do more than direct the machines which perform the work. In order to separate the iron in the ore from other mate- rials, iron ore, coke, and limestone are poured by iron buckets into a blast fur- nace, and a running stream of liquid iron comes out and is cast into what is called pig iron. The pig iron is then made into cast iron, wrought iron, or into some kind of steel. Ma- chines pull the steel into rods and These in turn are made Unloading Iron Ore wire, or roll it into bars and sheets into tools, machinery, and building material. In 1876 iron was chiefly manufactured in the neighborhood of Pittsburgh. After the ore was obtained principally from the Northwest, other cities became rivals of Pittsburgh. Steel mills must be located where they can bring their coal and iron ore together cheaply and at places from which the finished articles can be forwarded to the best markets. For ♦this reason many steel mills have been built along the south shore of Lake Erie and Lake Michigan, with Cleveland and Chicago as the centers. New Uses for Iron and Steel. — Inventions have never NEW USES OF IRON AND STEEL 469 been made so fast as since the Civil War. Man has seemed determined to find machines for all his work. Some were borrowed from Europeans, others were invented by Ameri- cans, some are merely improvements of older inventions, others introduce entirely new methods of work. Many old tools like the blacksmith's hammer and the wood-worker's chisel and the laborer's shovel were enlarged and driven by A Bessemer Converter of Iron into Steel steam or electricity. These great hammers, lathes, and steam shovels are able to do the work of scores of men working in the old manner. Saws and planes and chisels which cut stone and iron as easily as wood have come into use. Machines have been built for cutting coal in mines, digging ditches, and laying railroad tracks. Other machines make wire, tacks, bolts, screws, nails, and pins. One of them takes thin wire, cuts it into short lengths, puts a head on the pieces, sharpens these at the other end, and sticks them into papers — a paper of pins ready for the market. 470 THE NEW METHODS OF WORKING The machinery for making paper and for printing news- papers and books is still more remarkable. Paper was formerly made entirely from cotton and linen rags. The demand for a cheaper paper led to the discovery of a new method of manufacturing it. Soft poplar, pine, or spruce logs are ground into a pulp, dried, and rolled into sheets. The modern printing-press prints, folds, and even counts the finished newspapers at the rate of 20,000 an hour. With another ingenious machine, called the linotype, or "line-o'- type," a printer can set a Hne of type almost as easily as one can write the words with a typewriter. A Hst of the new machines would be very long. None are more remarkable than the cash registers and calculating machines which add, subtract, multiply, and divide, or the phonographs, stereopticons, and moving-picture machines. Gas and Petroleum. — Gas made from coal had long been used in American towns for Hghting houses and streets. Natural gas obtained, like petroleum, from deep wells came into common use about 1872. Pipe Hues were built, through which the gas could be carried to the large cities, sometimes 150 or 200 miles away. Gas from Pennsylvania, West Vir- ginia, Ohio, and Indiana helped the cities to build up manu- factures, for it was a cheap fuel. The more recent discovery of natural gas in southeastern Kansas and eastern Oklahoma has started a new manufacturing center. The uses of petroleum have been multiplied. Raw petro- leum is used for fuel in many steamships, and also in loco- motives, especially in California. The kerosene lamp was invented during the Civil War, and the gasohne stove soon afterwards. The principal use of gasohne is in a new form of engine. About the time of the Philadelphia Centennial German inventors constmcted a successful gas-engine. The explosion of a mixture of gas and air drove a piston which in turn moved the wheels. Scores of inventors had been work- NEW INVENTIONS 471 ing on the idea for more than a century. The new engme proved popular. It had several advantages over the steam- engine; it was, first of all, simpler to run and Ughter in weight. The gas could be made from alcohol as well as gasoline. In Germany alcohol is chiefly used for this purpose. The Automobile, 1886. — About ten years after the in- vention of the gas-engine and while engine-builders were perfecting it, other inventors found new uses for the machine. Germans first used the gas-engine to run carriages and wagons, thus producing the automobile. The manufacturers of every country quickly adopted the German plan, and improved upon the first clumsy cars. Work- men and inventors of every coun- try rivaled one another in efforts to produce the best. The gas- engine is also rapidly being used to drive farm machinery. Goods which men once carried to market on their backs, and which later oxen or horses hauled, steam, gas, or electric cars now take more swiftly and more cheaply. The Aeroplane. — For centuries scientists dreamed of an invention by which man could travel through the air hke a bird in flight. Balloons were made in the eighteenth century, but they, like the sailing vessel, were at the mercy of every wind. European inventors were quick to apply the light gas-engine to the balloon, changing its shape so that it would be more manageable. The hghtness of the gas-engine made possible what seems the most marvelous invention of all. In 1905 the Wright Brothers, after patient trials, made a suc- cessful aeroplane or flying-machine. An Aeroplane 472 THE NEW METHODS OF WORKING Expositions. — Several times since the Centennial Expo- sition other expositions have been held, which gave the people opportunities to see what rapid progress was being made, not only by Americans but also by all nations. The World's Fair or Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893 was intended partly to celebrate the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America. Eleven years later an exposition at St. Louis commemorated the looth anniversary of the pur- chase of Louisiana, and the following year one at Portland, »'k?^^tl>^^ Court of Honor, Columbian Exposition Oregon, commemorated the expedition of Lewis and Clark to the mouth of the Columbia River. "Big Business" or Trusts. — The methods of managing business and manufacturing have changed almost as much as the methods of work. The men engaged in the railroad business were the first to begin the change. It did not seem necessary that passengers or freight, going from New York to Boston, or from New York to Buffalo, or from Philadelphia to Chicago, should be carried over half a dozen short railroad lines, one ending where another began. Successful managers, like "Commodore" Vanderbilt, sought to unite the roads running in the same direction or through the same district. This had been begun before the Civil War, but it was pushed forward more rapidly afterward, until the railroads of the BUSINESS AND CITIES 473 country were united into several enormous systems, which spread over the United States hke huge nets. Other business men followed the example of the railroad managers. They reached out from the city where they worked and purchased similar factories in other cities. Often they did not buy these rival factories, but formed with their owners various kinds of agreements which have been com- monly called "trusts." The competition or rivalry of many men or groups of men trying to sell the same thing formerly kept prices down. When the great railroad systems con- trolled the freight business of a region, or when the "trusts" made all or nearly all of one kind of goods, they were free to fix prices as they pleased. The formers of the trusts claimed that their purpose was to introduce more economical methods of conducting business. They made such enormous fortunes, however, by the new method that the benefits seemed to the people to be all on the side of the railroads and trusts. The people differ greatly as to how the government should meet this new question. The formation of trusts has been especially successful in such trades as iron, steel, tobacco, petroleum, meat, sugar, cotton, and leather. Cities known for Special Things. — As a result of the growth of manufacturing, certain cities became noted for producing a particular article. For example, Troy, New York, became known for collars and cuffs; Baltimore for canning oysters; Gloverville, New York, for gloves; Phila- delphia for carpets; Bridgeport and Waterbury, Connecticut, for brassware. In some towns nearly all the workmen are engaged in a single occupation. In South Omaha they are occupied with meat packing; in McKeesport, Pennsylvania, with iron and steel; in East Liverpool, Ohio, with pottery; in Fall River, Massachusetts, with cotton goods; and in Brockton, Massachusetts, with boots and shoes. Some places profited more than others by the new jnethods of 474 THE NEW METHODS OF WORKING manufacture. The South is being entirely changed through their introduction. QUESTIONS 1. What household industries have recently been moved to the factory? What changes have occurred in the old factories? Why can an eastern factory located a long way from the materials which it needs remain prosperous? What changes in the location of factories are noticeable since the Civil War? 2. What new use has been found for the telegraph? What improvement has been made in it? 3. Who invented the telephone? What did people think of it at first? 4. How is electricity now made? When did the dynamo come into use in the United States? What uses have recently been found for the electric current produced by the dynamo? What is the motor? When was the first electric railway system introduced into the United States? 5. Who invented the wireless telegraph? • 6. Describe one new way of making steel. Mention new uses for steel. 7. Describe the process of obtaining iron ore, shipping it, handling it, and making it into various kinds of iron. Where is the iron obtained? Where is it manufactured into iron, steel, tools, and machinery? 8. What tools and machines have recently been invented? How is each used? How is cheaper paper now made? How is type now set? 9. When did natural gas come into use? How did its discovery affect the work of the regions where it was found? 10. What uses have been found for petroleum? What is the principal use for gasoline? Describe the gas-engine. Where is it employed? 1 1 . What change has taken place in the management of railroads and facto- ries? What is a "trust"? Name some of the more successful ones. 12. What cities are famous for some special kind of manufacturing? EXERCISES 1. Write a paper on the changes which have taken place in the work of the household. Seepages 125-129, 250-254, 299-300. 2. Visit some local factory, telephone system, electric light or power plant, or street railway system, and write a paper about its history. 3. Draw a map of the township showing the telephone lines, electric light and power lines, interurban car lines, and give the dates of construction of each. 4. What changes have taken place in the method of heating American houses? See pages 122-123, 369. Important Date : Learn the date of the invention mentioned in this chapter which the ma- jority ot the class believe to be the most important. CHAPTER XLII THE NEW SOUTH The Southern Farmer. — As the plantation system broke down, the planters generally moved into the cities. Some had the courage to start anew in another business. Their sons became the business men, the lawyers, and the physi- cians of the community. »^,.fmMa The planta- tions were divided into small farms, and either sold or rented to the freedmen or to farmers who before the war had been too poor to own slaves. These white men with small farms found cotton growing profitable for the first time. They were no longer obhged to compete with the owners of large plantations using gangs of slaves. As they prospered they rented or purchased more land. They also bought the newly invented machines, cotton-seed planters and stalk cutters. They now raise about half the cotton, the other half being raised by negroes. The southern cotton crop is three-fourths of all the cotton raised in the world. Renewing the Land. — For a long time the southern farmer had trouble with the soil. Much of the land was worn Harvesting Alfalfa in Virginia 476 THE NEW SOUTH out because crop after crop had been raised from it without any attempt to preserve its richness by the use of fertilizers. Fortunately, great beds of phosphate rocks were discovered in South Carolina, Florida, and Tennessee. These rocks were ground up and made into a valuable fertihzer, which was scattered over the fields. The farmers also learned how to rotate their crops, so that the soil was rapidly improved. ^1 ^^^^--.^S.^;i^^J, I i„r \:t- Harvesting Rice in Louisiana The consequence has been that land once regarded as worthless has again come into use. Farmers who had gone to the West to obtain fresh land began to return to the old homesteads. The cotton growers were not the only ones who profited by the new way of enriching the soil. All kinds of farming were improved by it. Innumerable truck gardens and fruit farms were started. The Atlantic coast from Mary- land to Florida has almost no winter. Five or sLx crops of vegetables may be grown on the same soil during a single season. The South has, therefore, become the garden where the early fruits and vegetables of the whole country east of the Rocky Mountains are raised. Rice Farming in the Southwest. — Rice was formerly grown only on lowlands which were flooded by the overflow of the rivers at certain times in the year. Recently the farmers of the Southwest, in Louisiana and Texas, have learned to drain the lowlands, and then to irrigate the fields FARMS, MINES, AND MANUFACTURES 477 by pumping water over them, in order to grow rice. By such means they have become independent of floods and do not fear droughts. They use drills and harvesters and steam threshers similar to those on the wheat farms of the Northwest. Utilizing the Treasures Underground. — In this period southerners learned that the oil, gas, coal, and iron fields of the Appalachian Mountains, first discovered in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, extended into the South as far as the mountains ran. A little later they found that the coal, oil, and gas fields of Missouri and Kansas also extended through Oklahoma into Texas. The people of northern Alabama had long known that there was plenty of red iron ore in the neighborhood. On the old plantations they had used it as a dye-stuff. " Dye-dirt " they called it. The Indians had used it before them. After the Civil War a geologist explored the region and reported that there was a mountain of this ore twenty-five miles long. A railroad was built to the place. In the same region a coal field larger in area than the entire state of Massachusetts was discovered. An abundance of hmestone, used in making iron, was also found near by. Nature had thus marked northern Alabama as a center for iron manufacture. In 187 1 a town was founded in the heart of the new region and named Bir- mingham, after the great EngHsh manufacturing city. The Alabama village has now become a great city with all kinds of manufactures. Other cities Hke Chattanooga and Knox- ville, in eastern Tennessee, have also become iron manufac- turing centers. Cotton Mills. — Midway between the regions where cotton is grown and coal is mined, mills for the manufacture of cotton cloth have recently been built. It was cheaper to haul the coal down the mountains than to carry the cotton all the way to the coal. Therefore at such points as Char- 478 THE NEW SOUTH A SoLTHERN Cotton Mill Other Manufactures. lotte, Columbia, and Atlanta cotton mills have been built. In 1876 the South manufactured scarcely any cotton goods, or anything else. Now it produces about one-half of the cotton manufactures of the United States. South CaroHna, once a poor state, "''^j^-.a. with no other wealth than its plantations or farms, now has not only bet- ter farms but ranks second among the states in the products of its cotton mills. One thing led to another. Enter- prising men established mills to make oil and meal out of the seed of the cotton, which had formerly been wasted. The cultivation of peanuts and their preparation for the market has become an important industry in Virginia and North Carolina. Cotton-seed oil and peanut oil have many uses similar to the oHve oil of Europe and California. It is one of the marvels of nature that the seed of the cotton shrub and of the peanut vine produce an oil like that of the fruit of the olive tree. The Appalachian Mountains are covered with valuable forests. Some of the largest logging camps and most modern saw-mills in the world have been recently established to make use of them. Factories for making furniture have also been built in the timber region. In 1892 High Point in North Carolina was a village unknown beyond the bounds of its own county. It is now, next to Grand Rapids in Michigan, the greatest center of furniture making in the United States; WATER POWER AND DRAINAGE 479 and other southern cities are close to it. These factories, mills, and shops at the South are using the same machines that are used in the North. Great steam shovels scoop up the iron ore from the surface around Birmingham. Elec- tric and pneumatic machines cut the coal loose in the coal mines. Water Power. — The southern towns have begun to utiHze water power to make electricity for lighting and for running machinery. No other part of the United States is better situated for such purposes. The swift-flowing rivers, falHng from the mountains to the plains, to the east, the south, and the west of the Appalachian system, offer many sites suited to manufacturing. And the materials needed — lum- ber, iron, and cotton — are close by. There is enough water power within 60 miles of Charlotte, North Carolina, to do the work which would require the labor of milhons of men working day and night. Some Great Works at the South. — The southern people have carried out some enterprises as great as any in modern times. Galveston was originally built on low ground and was often flooded by high water when storms raged on the Gulf of Mexico. In 1902 the city began a great sea-wall. It has not only finished this, but has raised the level of the entire city from eight to seventeen feet, putting an end to the danger from floods. New Orleans has drained and diked and filled in, until it, too, is safe. Sewerage and drainage have banished malaria, yellow fever, and cholera, which were the scourges of the old South. Florida, since 1906, has been draining the Everglades. When this work is finished an area three times as large as Connecticut will be opened to settle- ment for small fruit and truck farms. One writer has esti- mated that if the swamps along the Atlantic coast from New Jersey to Florida were drained, Hke similar lowlands in Hol- land, 10,000,000 people might find homes on them. It is in 48o THE NEW SOUTH such places that the United States must find part of its future land for settlement. The Key West Railroad. — Since the Civil War the South has also been building many new railroads. The Florida East Coast railroad has recently finished a line from Miami to Key West. To do this, it was necessary to bridge the sea from islet to islet with great stone arches. The new railroad, 155 miles long, carries trains to within 90 miles of Havana. How this Change affects the People. — The change in the work of the South since 1876 is much like that in the North The First Train over the Key West Railroad after the War of 181 2. The negroes and the poorer white farmers no longer make their sugar, candles, and soap, and spin and weave and dye their own clothing, as they often did for some years after the Civil War. The negroes are not now the skilled laborers — the carpenters, the masons, and the blacksmiths of the South, as in the days of the great slave plantations. The white men from the hill country of the Appalachians are taking over these trades. They are also going into the factories and shops. The old class of poor white people is fast disappearing. Varied work and freedom from competition with slaves have given them the opportunity they needed. Their little cabins are giving way to three-room or four-room houses. Their sons no longer'move westward as they did in Lincoln's boyhood, but they find the "promised EDUCATION AND PROGRESS 481 land" about them in the mines, the forest, the factories, and the new farms. "Captains of big mills" now take the place of the former slave-holders. Free Schools. — The New South has meant more than making better use of land, forests, mines, and water power. After the Civil War the southern people began earnestly to build up a free public school system. The states had few schools and those mostly private. The population of the South was scattered widely, which made the task of providing for education difficult. The southerners also wished to edu- cate white children and negro children in separate schools. The cost of the schools was, moreover, a heavy burden, be- cause the South was impoverished by the war. Northern men have helped with generous gifts of money. The southern states now pay more in taxes for schools in proportion to their wealth than the West, though not so much as the east- ern states. They have elementary and high schools, colleges, universities, agricultural and industrial schools. Special industrial schools are provided which train the negroes to be farmers, workmen, and the teachers of their own race. The most famous are at Hampton, Virginia, and Tuskegee, Alabama. Booker T. Washington, one of the leaders of the southern negroes, the head of Tuskegee Insti- tute, says that in 1865 barely three out of one hundred grown negroes could read and write, but that seventy can now do so. The New South. — The old southern cities have removed the scars of the great war. In 1865 Richmond had lost 700 houses, but it rose rapidly from its ruins. In 1907 the South held a great fair on the shore of Hampton Roads, near Norfolk, to celebrate the three hundredth anniversary of the settlement at Jamestown. Every southern state had its own building. In the buildings devoted to industry and agriculture the exhibits showed the progress of the South since the fair at Philadelphia in 1876. 482 THE NEW SOUTH QUESTIONS 1. What became of the planter class? Who profited from the breaking down of the plantation system? 2. How was much southern land brought back into cultivation? What changes have taken place in southern farming? 3. What underground treasures have recently been found in the South? For what is Birmingham noted? 4. Why were the cotton mills built at such places as Charlotte, Columbia, and Atlanta? What other manufactures have been established? 5. Why is the South fortunately situated for manufactures? 6. What great works have recently been completed? Are there still any opportunities for settlers at the South? 7. Who are the skilled workers of the South? What changes in work are taking place? What is the South doing for the education of its workers? EXERCISES 1. Those who live in the states where slavery and the plantation system existed before the Civil War should find stories to illustrate the changes which have taken place in the South. For example, the story of some old plantation or the history of some factory or mill. 2. Those who live in the North, east of the Rocky Mountains, should find out which food products in the local market are grown in the South. Which of the manufactures are made in the South? CHAPTER XLIII THE LAST BARRIERS The Indians become Citizens. — Ever since Jamestown was founded the Indian had been crowded back from one hunting ground to another. His last hunting grounds were called "reservations," and for many years the government kept the white settlers out. Finally, the friends of the Indian con- cluded that it was better for him to give up his tribal customs, Waiting on the Frontier of Oklahoma receive his share of the tribal reservation, and become a citi- zen. After the last Indian wars were over, Congress passed a bill giving to each Indian family i6o acres, and permitting the sale of the remainder of the land of the reservations, on the understanding that the money should go to the Indians. The first great reservation to be broken up was Indian Terri- tory, a part of which was bought by the government and opened to ordinary settlers. Oklahoma, — The part of Indian Territory thrown open was called Oklahoma, or the " Beautiful Land." Thousands of persons .were eager to occupy the best sites for towns or 484 THE LAST BARRIERS the best farming lands. The scene on the border, as the time approached when the territory should be declared open, was very different from what happened during the earlier settle- ment of the West. Troops were obHged to keep the land seekers back so that none should gain an unfair advantage. .At a signal exactly at mid-day, the waiting crowd began a mad race for the best lands. On foot or on horseback or in wagons, old men and young men, and many women, rushed in to stake out homesteads or town lots. Guthrie was an open field at A Town in Oklahoma Two Days after Settlement Began noon time. At night 10,000 people were encamped there, and the inhabitants had already begun to form a town government. Wherever an Indian reservation was broken up, the same wild scramble for land occurred. Oklahoma grew with wonderful rapidity. In 1907 it was united with Indian Territory and admitted to the Union. Meanwhile the population, which in 1889 was barely 200,000, mostly Indians, increased to more than one and a half million. Oklahoma is now larger in population than several of the original thirteen states. It is little more than twenty years old; they are nearly three hundred years old. Its white population has been drawn chiefly from its neighbors, Kansas, Missouri, and Texas. Arizona and New Mexico have grown more slowly. They became states in 191 2. They filled the last gap in a solid tier of states extending along the southern boundary from Texas to California. The union of thirteen states in 1789 has become a union of forty-eight. ALASKA AND THE NORTHWEST 485 The Call of the Canadian Northwest. — As the fertile lands of the West were filled, land seekers turned to the Canadian Northwest. Farmers and clerks and laborers moved to this, the newest frontier. Canada, Hke the United States, founded the new provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta on the great western prairies, and thus bridged over the gap between Ontario and British Columbia. In 1886 the Cana- dian Pacific Railroad was completed to the Pacific Ocean. Two other great railroad systems tapped various places in the Canadian West — the Canadian Northern and the Grand Trunk. The Canadians have recently taken a place beside the people of the United States in producing wheat, gold, and silver for other parts of the world. Immigrants from Eng- land, Scotland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, as well as from the United States, are rapidly making use of its vast prairies, forests, and mines. The climate no longer seems to check the tide of migration toward the Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay. Alaska. — In 1896 gold was discovered 2000 miles up the Yukon River, near the Alaskan boundary. The greater dis- coveries were on the Canadian side, but discoveries at several places in Alaska caused a rush to the gold fields like that to CaHfornia in 1849. ^^ ^ short time the population of Alaska was more than doubled. Within five years Americans took out of Alaska $132,500,000 in gold, nearly twenty times the original cost of the territory. Nor is gold the only thing of value there. It has been estimated that there are forests fit for marketing with an area larger than either the state of Maine or South Carohna ; two or three hundred square miles of coal- beds, varying from two feet to twenty feet in thickness; farm and grazing lands equal in extent to the combined area of Ilh- nois and Indiana. Even if much of the pioneer work within the United States proper is completed, there is still work for Americans in the great territory in the farthest Northwest. . The people of the Pacific coast have long profited by the 486 THE LAST BARRIERS Alaskan trade. Cities like Tacoma and Seattle have growTi rich and strong from it. Tacoma was a village of iioo in 1880, in 1910 it was a city of over 83,000. Seattle had 3500 inhabitants in 1880 and 237,000 in 1910. Building the Nation on the Pacific Side. — In the days of the Spaniards cattle formed the chief wealth of California. -i^^iA^ Picking Oranges in California After the inhabitants recovered from the excitement over the discovery of gold in 1848, wheat took the place of cattle. Grass, gold, and grain were the chief means of gaining wealth in each of three periods. In 1876 California and Oregon were noted for their great fields of wheat. Farm machinery and the railroads made this possible. About 1885 a new industry was begun along the Pacific coast. Cahfornia, Oregon, and Wash- ington became famous for their fruit farms, and today well- tilled orchards and \dneyards cover the land. For a while wheat proved a more profitable crop than gold, but fruit is now more profitable than either. The Sacramento Valley in Cahfornia and the "Spokane Prairie" region in Washington are still given chiefly to wheat growing. Here combined harvesters and threshers enter the fields of standing wheat and when they leave FRUIT RAISING AND MINING 487 the grain is piled in sacks. In the Pacific Northwest — Oregon and Washington — a few great steam-driven saw-mills with improved machinery do the work that was formerly done by a multitude of smaU saw-mills built by the sides of streams. The Pacific states have other resources. Multitudes are drawn to them by the mild, sunny climate and beautiful scenery. The earHest settlers occupied lands on the coast, and in the adjacent valleys. The late comers settled farther east, and the frontier Une moved steadily eastward toward the Cascade Mountains and the desert barriers. Some grazing land and irrigated patches exist along the eastern border of each of the Pacific states, but most of the region gtill in- cludes vast stretches of undeveloped land. Mining Camps in the West. — Long after the great dis- coveries of gold and silver in Calif ornia, Colorado, and Nevada, these, as well as many other metals, were found elsewhere in the mountain region. Prospectors, pioneers with another name, searched everywhere for minerals. The settlement of Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming began in the mining camps. Such camps were wretched villages — a general store, a saloon, and a row of rude one-story huts on a winding street in a mountain valley, usually remote from a railroad and the outside world. They were lonely and desolate when the gold seekers were away, but all excitement if they returned successful. It was a hard Hfe and few men succeeded. Young men made up most of the inhabitants, and they usually left when. the first wild gold-fever passed. The fortunate few remained to work in the mines. Some who went to mine stayed to trade and farm. Numberless mining camps became thriving villages and cities. Railroads were built to them. The printing-press, the church, the school, and the Hbrary came in time. Then real pioneers took the place of the rough, boisterous prospectors. Conquering the Last Barrier. — : Great progress has been 488 THE LAST BARRIERS Arid Land before Irrigation made in overcoming another barrier to settlement in the mountain plateau of the West. Millions of acres of land in Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, and other states are fit only for grazing unless water is carried to them. In some places farmers dug artesian wells or tapped a mountain stream to obtain water for the fields. States also built canals to con- vey water. Such work is called irrigation. The Mormons of Utah were the pioneers of the United States in turning a part of the water in the mountain streams toward the farm lands. Since 1902 the United States has been helping the mountain states. Great lakes have been made by damm- ing up rivers. Canals distribute the water thus stored when wanted in the valleys below. The money obtained for the pub- lic lands and the water privileges is again put into new irri- gation works. The land in small lots is almost given to the settler. The water is sold to him at cost. Great reservoirs between the mountains are being rapidly formed. The dams are built as sohd as the brick and stone work of the Romans. The mammoth Roosevelt dam, on Salt River in Arizona, suppHes water for thousands of farms. Another on the Rio The Same Land after Irrigation IRRIGATION 489 Z' Grande forms a lake forty miles long and from one to ten miles wide. New Mexico alone, which Coronado declared worthless, will soon have an area of irrigated lands equal to the entire states of Delaware and Rhode Island. An irrigated farm is different from others. The owner controls the supply of water and hastens or delays the planting or ripening of his crop at will. The soil is deep and rich. The endless sunshine and mild climate make every season a harvest season of some kind. The high dams supply water power, making electricity for the towns, the mines, and the farms. All the comforts of the city are found. Men are learning to accompHsh the marvel of making the American deserts bring forth bountiful harvests. Writers of geography no longer write the words '' the Great American Desert" across the far West. The government of the United States already looks forward to the time when 20,000,000 people will Hve on these farms created in the desert. To make sure of a plentiful supply of water it is necessary to care for the forests which clothe the slopes of the mountains. If they are cut down, the streams will be dry most of the year, while at other times they will rush down, swollen far beyond their banks, and sweep everything before them. For The Roosevelt Dam 490 THE LAST BARRIERS this reason the national government began in 1891 to set apart millions of acres of pubHc forest land, placing the trees under the care of foresters, men who have studied how to protect trees. The foresters also plant new trees where these are needed. QUESTIONS 1. How had the United States dealt with the Indians in the past? What plan was finally adopted? What was done with the land composing the Indian reservations ? 2. Why was Oldahoma settled so rapidly? Who formed the main body of settlers in Oklahoma? What two states were formed in 191 2? How many states now compose the Union? 3. What progress did the westward movement in Canada make in this period? Who were the settlers? 4. What valuable resources have been discovered in Alaska? What cities have profited from the Alaskan trade? 5. What changes have taken place in California since the days of the Span- iards? What are the main occupations of the people on the Pacific coast? 6. Who were the pioneers in the western mountains? Describe a mining camp. 7. How is the last western barrier to settlement being overcome? Describe an irrigation system. 8. What is the work of the national foresters? EXERCISES 1. Compare the ideas of Alaska in 1867 with those held at the present day. See page 448. 2. Review the Spanish settlement of California. See pages 226-227. 3. Why was the settlement of the Pacific coast states really an eastward instead of a westward movement? 4. What two barriers to settlement, finally removed, are discussed in this chapter? Important Date : 1902. The United States begins building irrigation works in the Far West, and thus opens a new frontier to settlement. CHAPTER XLIV LABORERS OF A GREAT NATION Growth of Cities. — The change in the methods of work has led, even more than before, during the last twenty or thirty years to the rapid growth of cities. The development of great railroad systems has had a similar effect. The cen- ters from which they branch out in many directions serve as markets from which products of all sorts are forwarded to the smaller towns and villages of whole regions. Some of the cities are also ports on lake or sea, from which goods are carried by steamship to other ports of the United States or to Europe, South America, Asia, or Africa. For many years after the Republic was founded, the great majority of the people lived in the country on farms. This is still true in the South and some parts of the West, but in the older states the majority now live in the cities. One- tenth of the entire population of the United States dwell in the cities of New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia. Nearly one- fourth live in cities with a population of 100,000 or more. The Newest Immigrants. — Immigrants now usually settle in the cities, while formerly they settled on farm lands near the frontier. The great demand for laborers in the cities has attracted them. Indeed, the rapid growth of manufacturing in recent years would have been impossible without the help of newcomers from Europe. Many immigrants also go to the principal mining regions. The number of immigrants has increased very rapidly since the Civil War, but especially since 1880. It has been 492 LABORERS OF A GREAT NATION Village of the Region from which the Later Immigrants are Coming more than half a million a year, and some years more than a million. The total population in the United States in 1790 was a little less than four milUon people. Now as many peo- ple enter the United States every four years. More come in a single year than came in the en- tire period from the founding of Jamestown t o the outbreak of the Revolution. Enough immi- grants arrived in 1907 to people a state as large as Connecticut or Nebraska. Immigrants from Eastern Europe. — Before 1880 four- fifths of the immigrants came from the British Isles and north- western Europe. Since that time the immigrants from these regions have decreased, while others from southern and east- ern Europe have greatly increased. In 1882 the entrance of Chinese laborers was forbidden; in 1907, by a treaty with Japan, this rule was extended to Japanese laborers. Few of either of these races have been able to enter the United States. It is the Italians, Albanians, Greeks, Bulgarians, Servians, Magyars, Poles, Bohemians, and Lithuanians who have been coming lately in the largest numbers. Their homes are on the coasts of the Mediterranean and in the valleys of the Danube and the Volga. They are mostly rugged peasants, and they take up the hardest work in the United States. To them America is as much the Land of Promise as it had been at an earlier period to the Puritan, the Scotch, the Irish, and the Germans. THE NEWEST IMMIGRANTS 493 Many of the recent immigrants come from regions where the ancient Greeks and Romans once lived and where ruins of their great and beautiful buildings still remain. They love painting, sculpture, and music. The Slavs, also, are lovers of music. Some of the immigrants have become leaders in orchestras and musical societies. Like the Germans before them, they have helped in spreading the love of music and other arts in the United States. ^ Vs Where the Immigrants go to Live in the United States The greater number of the foreign-bom live in congested quarters in the large cities The Crowded Tenements. — Both the immigrants and the native Americans who have moved to the factory districts of the cities- have been obliged to change their former mode of life. It is necessary for them to settle near the places where they work, often in crowded, smoky, dismal spots. Cheap tenement houses have been built for them. The laborer's place of work is commonly more grimy and cheerless still. In the mines and mills his work was done often amid great dangers from explosions of gases or from unguarded machinery. Organization of the Laborers. — As the business of manu- facturing or managing railroads was gradually organized in great corporations or "trusts," so laborers of all sorts were 494 LABORERS OF A GREAT NATION organized. Small trade societies or unions had been common for many years. When prices rose during the Civil War, the laborers united in order to attempt to raise wages. Besides, the growth of manufactures, bringing together in the same industry, often in the same town, large bodies of laborers, made the formation of unions easier. The printers, the locomotive engineers, the cigar makers, the bricklayers, and the carpenters were among the first to form large organiza- tions of all workers in the United States. Others rapidly followed their example. On Thanksgiving day, 1869, a group of garment cutters in Philadelphia started a plan to unite all laborers into one body without regard to their particular kind of work. A powerful organization, called the Knights of Labor, grew from these small beginnings. A few years later, in 1881, another combi- nation was formed, called the American Federation of Labor. It united as many as possible of the labor unions of the United States and Canada into one body. Joined by a multitude of local city unions, state and national federations, and special organizations, it finally outnumbered the Knights of Labor. In addition to such organizations, the workers in many industries are separately combined in unions, like the Brother- hood of Locomotive Engineers, the Order of Railway Con- ductors, the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen, and of Railway Trainmen. Objects of the Laborers' Unions. — The laborers have united to advance their own interests. This usually means to better their surroundings while working, secure higher wages, and shorten the hours of work. Many of their demands appeared so reasonable that they were supported by other people in the community. Wise railroad managers, manu- facturers, and business men generally became eager to improve the situation. The result is that the conditions under which work is done have changed for the better. For example, the THE PROBLEM OF THE LABORERS 495 hours of work a hundred years ago were from " sunrise to sunset." In the early factories employees worked 14 or 15 hours, part of the time by candle-light. About 1840 some trades reduced the hours to ten. In many trades the hours are now eight or nine. The average length of the working- day for all is only a little over nine. Memorable Strikes. — Formerly when the laborers were discontented with the wages or conditions of their work, they could go to the frontier and take up land. As the pubUc lands gave out, laborers turned more and more to another way of bettering wages and shortening hours. This was by the strike. The men in a single factory or mill or railroad stopped work. Sometimes they were able to induce the workers in other occupations to join them. Since 1877 hundreds of strikes have occurred in the United States every year. Some of them have brought on battles between the laborers and the employers. In 1 8 7 7 a railroad reduced the wages of its men. It had done so several times. On this occasion the employees abandoned their trains, and tried to prevent others from running them. The strike spread to other railroads, and soon covered many of the railroads in fourteen states. At several places con- flicts occurred between the strikers and the soldiers sent by the state to keep order. Twenty-two were killed in one of these battles. Pittsburgh suffered the most in the destruc- tion of cars, depots, and freight, and in the loss of Ufe. The city barely escaped a terrible fire during the struggle between the angry forces. This was the first great strike in American history. An even greater strike broke out in June, 1894, in the Pull- man Car Company's shops in Chicago. The company had reduced the wages unjustly, as the laborers felt. They had other grievances against the company. For one thing, the Pullman Company was the landlord, owning all the 496 LABORERS OF A GREAT NATION houses of the town in which the laborers Hved. The people disliked being both tenants and employees of the same com- pany. The strike which followed was long. The company steadily refused to arbitrate its differences with the men. Efforts were made to boycott all railroads using Pullman cars. The strike spread. The railroad men joined the strikers. The western Knights of Labor also struck, out of sympathy with the Pullman employees. Business almost came to a standstill as far west as the Rocky Mountains. President Cleveland sent United States soldiers to Chicago with orders to stop the interference with the railroads, partly because the trains carried the mails. Another reason was that the strike interfered with the welfare of people in no way interested in the original strike. The federal courts aided the President by issuing " blanket injunctions." By these all men were warned not to inter- fere with the railroads. Those who disobeyed were arrested, taken before a judge, and were tried by him, without the right to have the testimony heard by a jury as in ordinary cases. The loss of property was immense. If the value of the property destroyed and the loss of profits and wages be added, the amount would be about $80,000,000. Although few strikes have been as destructive, the total losses from them each year are very large. Fortunately, it is becoming more common to lay the demands of the employees, especially of railroads or coal mines, and the claims of their employers, before fair-minded men on "Boards of Arbitration" or Boards of Conciliation." When this is done, each side agrees to accept the decision of the board. Employers' Associations. — The organization of strong labor unions led to the formation of employers' associations to resist the demands of the employees. Local manufacturers have, like their employees, formed local unions or associations. WELFARE WORK AND COOPERATION 497 Owners in the same business have formed great national employers' associations. In 1875 the United States potters formed an association. A few years later the stove manu- facturers united into the Stove Founders' National Defence Association. Many others have been formed. In 1893 a National Association of Manufacturers was organized, which, Hke the Knights of Labor, included men from different parts of the country. In 1903 appeared the Citizens' Industrial Association. National, district, and local employers' associa- tions united to form this, as different labor organizations united to form the American Federation of Labor. One object of unions of employers has been to make "collective" bargains about wages with all the employees in their partic- ular industry. If the employees in the trade should strike, all the employers would stand together in the struggle. Welfare Work. — Some manufacturers and business men have been more eager to better the condition of their em- ployees than to resist their demands. They have provided night schools, kindergartens, and nurseries. Others have provided amusement parks, and public baths, and have built model factories. Sometimes the idea is simply that men will work better if they are comfortable, and that the profits of the business will be increased. But " welfare work " has often been due to a real interest in the welfare of the employees and a desire to increase their opportunities of self-development. Cooperation in Work. — Employees and employers have not been the only classes to work together for their own good. In many parts of the United States the farmers or fruit growers have united to sell their products. In 1867 an organization called the Patrons of Husbandry was formed to make farming a pleasanter and more profitable occupation. It was commonly called the Granger movement, from the grange or local society. Local, district, state, and national 498 LABORERS OF A GREAT NATION organizations were formed similar to the labor unions. An- other organization of farmers, started a few years later, grew about 1887 into the National Farmers' AlKance. These organizations have formed cooperative stores, creameries, elevators, and warehouses. They have done a great work in teaching the farmers how to help themselves and in bring- ing them together for their social welfare. Some of the organizations have estabhshed Ubraries, reading courses, lyceums, and local institutes or clubs for the study of questions in which they were especially interested. In such ways they have taken part in the educational movement of the time. QUESTIONS 1. Why have cities grown rapidly in late years? Where are the majority of the people in the older states living? 2. Where do the immigrants usually settle? From what parts of Europe do they come? What classes of laborers are excluded? With what kind of work do the immigrants generally start in the United States? What valuable skill and taste do they bring to America? 3. Why do so many people live in dismal tenements in crowded parts of cities? 4. What is a labor union? Why did the laborers form such societies? Describe the larger organizations which the laborers have formed. 5. What change has taken place in the length of the working day? What did laborers formerly do when discontented with their wages or conditions of work? What have they done in recent j'ears? Tell the story of one strike, either one described in the text or one that has occurred in the neighborhood? 6. What method has been used frequently to settle differences between the laborers and employers without striking? 7. What step have the employers taken to combat the demands of the labor unions? Name some of the Employers' Associations which have been formed. 8. Describe "welfare work." 9. In what work mentioned in the text have people begun to cooperate or unite either for buying or selling ? EXERCISES I. Members of the class should gather information from their parents or friends wherever possible on (i) the wages in Europe when they left, (2) wages QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 499 they found paid in the United States, and (3) the change which took place in the work of each in moving from Europe to the United States. 2. Is anything done in the local factories or mills that may be called "welfare work"? Visit some factory to see the conditions under which the laborers work. 3. Describe any case of cooperation either in buying or selling of which the members of the class know. Were the results successful? 1 4 1 iSf L The Immigrant Station at Ellis Island in New York Harbor CHAPTER XLV NEW METHODS OF GOVERNMENT To the Victors belong the Spoils. — Soon after the Civil War the American people were startled with stories of the dis- honesty of public officials, especially in the large cities. The citizens had been so occupied with building factories, laying railroads, sinking mines, forming companies for trade, and in settling the West, that they had not watched officials care- fully. Two harmful ideas about government, dating from Jackson's time, still prevailed. One was that any citizen was capable of holding office. The other was that the victorious political party might put out of office all its opponents and fill their places with its own members. The party leaders regarded offices as "spoils" which belonged to the victors in the elections. The result was that every new mayor or governor or president changed all the office-holders under him down to the clerks and errand boys. The task of dividing offices as rewards and favors among friends and party workers kept the best pubHc officers busy when other things needed attention. Lincoln, besieged by office-seekers at the opening of the Civil War, declared that he seemed "Hke one sitting in a palace, assigning apartments to importunate applicants, while the structure is on fire and likely soon to perish in ashes." Matters had not improved since his day. Political Bosses. — Party managers, "poUtical bosses" they were generally called, often managed the affairs of govern- ment to suit themselves. State legislatures and city councils CIVIL SERVICE REFORM 501 TWO GREAT PXJC5T»0K^. vM) Stow T«E pionrs yam ? 1 00 tell "rwA5 Hm. did as they ordered. When purchases were made or streets opened or buildings constructed, the state or city was charged prices higher than those charged to private individuals for similar things, and the difference was divided between the sellers and the officials. This method has been named " graft."^ A group of such "grafters," called at the time a "ring," led by WilKam M. Tweed, stole $100,000,000 from New York City in three years. They paid a plasterer $3,000,000 for work they said he had done. As they alone kept the city accounts, no one could tell how they had used the money raised by taxa- tion. In 1871 the thefts of the Tweed Ring were discovered and some of the band were punished. Such stories aroused the people. Civil Service Reform. — A remedy for dishonesty and mis- management was urged. Part of the officials were elected, but the larger number were appointed by the president or the governor or the mayor. It seemed clear that those officials who were appointed should be chosen solely because they were capable of doing their work well. The reformers argued that their fitness could be determined best by an examination in which all candidates were asked the same questions. This new method of selecting men went by the name of "civil service reform," or the "merit system." Several men, 1 The farmer grafts upon a branch of one tree a twig coming from another. So the dishonest official adds to the expense of a piece of work money for himself. The "Tweed Ring" From a cartoon by Nast 502 NEW METHODS OF GOVERNMENT James A. Garfield among them Congressman Thomas Jenckes of Rhode Island, George WiUiam Curtis, editor of Harper's Weekly, and Sena- tor Carl Schurz of Missouri, worked many years for the reform. Grant favored their plan and urged it in his messages. But Congress did not wish to lose the influence that the old system of appointment gave it, and Httle prog- ress was made in Grant's time. His successor, President Hayes, and the next President, James A. Gar- field, were also anxious to bring about the change. In 1 88 1, a few months after Garfield became President, a disap- pointed office-seeker assassinated him. This event showed one dan- ger of the spoils system. It moved the people, and, finally, Congress to action. In 1883 a long step was taken by giving to three Civil Service Commissioners the duty of holding examinations to test the fitness of candidates for certain offices.^ The plan applied chiefly to clerkships in Washington, but it has been slowly extended. Nearly every President since 1883 has increased the number of government officials who must pass an examination. More than two-thirds of the positions under the United States Government were by 191 2 filled in this way. The successful candidates are expected to hold the office permanently, or until they are promoted. In 1910 President Taft urged that the "merit system" be extended to all postmasterships and to all offices in the diplomatic and consular service. The same plan has been slowly applied in filhng state and city offices. New York was the first state to adopt it, making the 1 The plan of examinations to test ability for oflBce holding was quite similar to one adopted in England a few years earlier. THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES 503 change in the same year that the national government began it; Philadelphia was the first city to introduce it. Mismanaging American Cities. — In spite of such attempts to place competent men in office, Americans have found it difficult to secure honest city government. They have often excused their failures on the ground that their cities have grown with great rapidity. Enghsh and German cities, however, have grown with equal rapidity and are well man- aged. The reasons of American failure have been of two kinds. The principal one is that citizens have been more interested in their business than in their government. The other is that many cities have been organized in such clumsy fashion that honest officials have had a hard task to manage their affairs well. Changes in City Government. — The cities have borrowed parts of their organization from the national or state govern- ments. Instead of a governor or president they have a mayor; instead of a legislature or congress they have a council. The council, like the state legislature and the national Con- gress, was commonly made up of two bodies. One body was supposed to correct the mistakes of the other. Most cities have aboHshed one of the bodies, concluding that two did more harm than good. New York City made the change in 1873. Many towns as they grew into large cities adopted newer and simpler forms of government. In recent years some have gone much farther, replacing mayor and council by a small commission or board. Galveston was the first city to try the corn-mission plan. When a large part of it was wrecked by a great storm which swept over the Gulf of Mexico in 1900, the officials seemed helpless. The city needed better leadership. Several prom- inent men asked the state legislature to entrust the affairs of Galveston to a board or commission of five men. The legis- lature consented and a commission was chosen. One of the 504 NEW METHODS OF GOVERNMENT commissioners was called the mayor. The new government accomplished such wonders that other cities adopted the plan. By the end of 191 2, 253 cities had introduced commission government. Large cities like St. Paul and New Orleans are among the number. In some places — for example, Staunton, Virginia — the council or commissioners hired a city manager.^ The Short Ballot. — The plan of governing cities by small commissions has reduced the number of officials whom the voter must choose. The same result has been gained by entrusting to the mayor the appointment of the important officials, who form his " cabinet " and who manage the different departments of the city. The citizen in that case knows whom to blame or to praise. In many state and local elections the voter has been obUged to choose his Ust of officials from among over 100 names on what is called a "blanket" ballot. This has given reason to the cry for the "short ballot," in order that the voter may make fewer and more intelligent choices. Direct Primaries. — About 1889 another reform was begim, first in the South and West. The people had grown tired of the way the party managers controlled conventions,^ leaving the citizen no choice but to vote for men whom the managers selected. Calhoun had said this would be the outcome when the convention system was first adopted. The southern and western states provided a system of primaries, at which the people had the right to nominate the candidates for elec- tion. The primaries took the place of the conventions. The system has varied considerably from state to state. The polit- ical parties often held their primaries at the same time. In some places if the candidate receives a majority of all the votes at the primary, no further voting at a regular election is necessary. In others the voter is allowed to give both his 1 Staunton adopted the plan in 1908. ^ See page 325. RECENT CHANGES IN GOVERNMENT 505 first and second choice in the primaries as well as in the final election. This is called preferential voting.^ Initiative and Referendum. — Another reform found popu- lar favor in the western states where the railroads had often controlled the members of the state legislatures. In 1898 South Dakota adopted the "Initiative and Referendum. "^ By means of the Initiative, if a certain part or fraction of the voters proposes a law, the legislature must consider it. If the legislature refuses to adopt it, it may then be submitted to the entire body of voters at an election. By the Referen- dum, if a certain number of the voters demand, laws which the legislature has just passed must also be laid before the voters for approval or rejection. Such a plan makes attempts to control or bribe a legislature unprofitable. It also enables the voters to have a part in lawmaking. The new system has moved slowly eastward into several of the older states.^ The Recall. — Still another plan to give citizens a more direct control of their ofiicials is the "Recall." It was first adopted in the city of Los Angeles. According to this plan the citizens, upon petition of a certain number of them, are required to decide at an election whether an official's term should be ended earlier than at the close of the period for ' By 19 13 laws provided direct primaries for nomination of candidates in 38 out of 48 states in the Union. Preferential voting has been adopted in five states. 2 South Dakota was merely the first state to adopt these as a regular part of the mode of making laws. The Initiative and Referendum had been long known and frequently used in other states for special purposes. This was especially true of the Referendum, which was regularly used for the ratification of constitutions. Both were part of the Swiss system of government. ' By 19 1 3 the Initiative and Referendum were employed in 17 states. South Dakota adopted the system in 1898, Utah in 1900, Oregon in 1902, Nevada in 1904 (part), Montana in 1906, Oklahoma in 1907, Maine in 1908, Missouri in 1909, Arkansas and Colorado in 1910, Arizona, New Mexico, and California in 191 1, Ohio in 191 2, etc. 5o6 NEW METHODS OF GOVERNMENT which he was originally chosen.^ Many cities have followed the example of Los Angeles when they have remodeled their methods of government. Oregon adopted the Recall for state officials in 1908. The Recall, like impeachment, has seldom been used. It goes much farther than the method of im- peachment, threatening the unpopular official, while impeach- ment threatens only the officials guilty of "high crimes and misdemeanors." ^ Woman Suffrage. — One consequence of the change in the methods of manufacturing, replacing household indus- tries by work in the factory, has been a rapid increase in the number of women who work side by side with men. Women have, more than before, taken the lead in the great reforms of the time. Many of them have demanded the right to vote and to have a share in managing the affairs of city, state, and nation. In 1869, when Wyoming organized its territorial government, women were included among the voters. When the territory became a state, they kept the right to vote. In 1893 Wyoming's next neighbor, Colorado, adopted the same plan. By 191 2 nine states had granted the privilege of voting to women. ^ Direct Election of Senators. — One important change in government appHed to the national system. Senators had always been elected by the state legislatures. Several cases where candidates were known to have bribed legislatures to vote for them aroused much opposition to the old way. Be- sides, legislatures often spent much of their ordinary session in a quarrel over who should represent the state in the United 1 The Recall like the Initiativ'C and Referendum had long been in regular use in Switzerland. ^ By 1913 the Recall had been adopted in eight states and many cities. ' The states are Wyoming (1869), Colorado (1893,) Utah (1896), Idaho (1896), Washington (1910), Cahfornia (191 1), Arizona, Kansas, Oregon (all in 1912). RECENT CHANGES IN GOVERNMENT 507 States Senate. In 1913 an amendment to the Constitution took away from the legislatures their privilege of choosing senators and gave it to the people of the states in their regular fall elections. City Planning. — The new interest in the management of cities has shown itself in other ways besides methods of The Capitol at Washington The Supreme Court, the Senate, and the House of Representatives meet in the Capitol government. Many Americans, as well as Europeans, have ceased to look upon their city merely as a very large, hap- hazard collection of houses, clustered about factories, stores, railroad stations, and steamboat wharves. They have begun to think that cities should be planned as carefully as a person plans his dweUing. They argue that each person, however small his income, should have a share of sunhght and pure air, and should be able to go rapidly and cheaply to his place of labor. The location of residences and factories, of large and small streets, and of railway lines, should be planned carefully. The builder of one house should not be allowed to make his neighbor's house uncomfortable. Parks, play- 5o8 NEW METHODS OF GOVERNMENT grounds, bath houses, and social halls are already provided in many places. The citizens are beginning to work together to make the city healthful and beautiful, as well as successful in its industries. Political Methods. — The methods of the political parties in conducting campaigns have also changed. Political leaders no longer attempt to influence wavering voters by monster parades, with bands, torches, and fireworks. They use posters and circular letters more, as well as pubhc speakers and newspaper articles. Voters are much more independent than formerly, often changing from one pohtical party to another. Some Interesting Presidential Elections. — The Repubh- can party was in power in the national government most of the time from the Civil War to 1913. In 1872 many RepubUcans, discontented with the manage- ment under the old leaders of the party, broke away and formed the Liberal Repubhcan party. Horace Greeley, their candidate for the Presidency, was over- whelmingly defeated and the new H party broke up. In 1884 the ' Democrats nominated Grover Cleveland. He had been mayor of Buffalo and governor of New York. In these offices he had made a name as one who paid httle regard to poUtics and managed pubhc business "as a good business man manages his private concerns." The independent Repubhcans, called "Mugwumps," voted for Cleveland, because they liked his work as a reformer. They distrusted his Repubhcan opponent, James G. Blaine. Cleveland was elected, and the country had a Democratic Grover Cleveland PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS 509 Benjamin Harrison President for the first time since Buchanan. Congress, how- ever, was divided. The RepubHcans had a majority in the Senate. A Democratic House and President could do httle with the Senate against them. In 1887 the two parties agreed on one memorable law, the In- terstate Commerce Act. By it Congress provided for a com- mission of five members which should see that the railroads carrying goods from one state to another treated all shippers fair- ly. The power of the commis- sion was enlarged in later years. In 1888 the Repubhcans won the election, making Benjamin Harrison President. Four years later the Democrats re- elected Cleveland. Whether the tariff should remain high was one of the main issues in the second election. Another was whether all the silver brought to the government mint should be coined into silver dollars at the ratio of 16 silver dollars to one gold dol- lar.^ The hardest contest over such questions came in the election of 1896. The Demo- crats put forward William J. Bryan of Nebraska, and the Repubhcans William McKinley of Ohio. McKinley won, and became President when Cleveland's term ended. 1 The tariff was the main issue in the eastern states, and silver in the western. William McKinley 5IO NEW METHODS OF GOVERNMENT Theodore Roosevelt McKinley had barely begun a second term as President in 1 90 1 when he was assassinated. For the third time in the his- tory of the United States a President was killed. This time an anarchist was the assassin. The Vice-President, Theodore Roosevelt, became McKinley 's successor. President Roosevelt was reelected in 1904, and his Secretary of War, WiUiam H. Taft, followed him in 1908. New issues had gradually arisen in the long period of Republican control of national affairs. The tariff remained httle changed. How to save the country's natural resources and how to control the great trusts or corporations divided the parties even more sharply. The Repubhcans were not agreed among themselves upon these questions. In the election of 191 2 one branch of the Republican party, led by former President Roosevelt, and called the Progressives, battled with the other parties. The Republicans, the Demo- crats, and the Socialists each offered an answer to the new questions. With the Repub- lican party divided, the Demo- crats elected their candidate, Governor Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey. William H. Taft QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 511 QUESTIONS 1. What harmful ideas about government prevailed long after Jackson's time? What is the meaning of the phrase "political boss"? "Grafter"? How did the Tweed "ring" steal millions of dollars in New York City? 2. What remedy for dishonesty in government was urged in Grant's time? Who were the leaders in the movement for Civil Service Reform? What was the effect of the assassination of President Gariield on Civil Service Reform? Describe the Act of 1883. Has the "Merit System" been extended since 1883? 3. Why were American cities badly managed? What changes have been made in city government to make it simpler? Where did the commission plan of government originate? What plan originated in Staunton, Virginia? 4. What other method besides the commission plan has been used to reduce the number of officials for whom the citizen must vote? 5. What is the direct primary? What system did it displace? 6. What are the Initiati\e and Refer- endum? What is the Recall? Why were these adopted in the United States? 7. What new class of voters has lately been added? Where did this movement begin? 8. What change took place in 1913 in the method of electing United States Senators? 9. What is meant by "city plan- ning"? What changes have taken place in the methods of conducting campaigns? 10. Who were the successful candi- dates for President in the elections of 1884, i{ chief issues in each election? How did Roosevelt become President the first time? What party did he lead in 191 2? WooDRow Wilson and 19 1 2? What were the EXERCISES 1. Find out whether the federal, state, and town offices of the locality are filled by the Merit System or by the Spoils System. 2. The members of the class should describe the local government of the place where they live. When was the present form of local government adopted? Is it satisfactory to the voters? 3. Examine a ballot of the last election. Was it a "short ballot" or a 512 NEW METHODS OF GOVERNMENT "Blanket Ballot"? Were the candidates nominated by direct primaries or conventions? 4. Do the voters of the state have a share in law-making by the Initiative and Referendum? Do they have the right of Recall of officials? If so, have any officials been recalled? 5. Review the extension of the number of voters, pages 323-324. Find out whether woman suffrage has been adopted in other countries. Important Dates : 1883. Congress passes the Civil Service Reform Act. 1893. Colorado is the first state to adopt Woman Suffrage. 1896. The Free Silver Campaign with William McKinley and William Jennings Bryan as Republican and Democratic candidates. The White House and the PREsroENi's Office Building CHAPTER XL VI THE NEW EDUCATION The Schools Since 1876. — The last thirty or forty years have seen as great changes in the schools as in manufacturing and in methods of government. Not only has the number of pupils steadily increased, until in 1910 it numbered nearly eighteen millions, but new kinds of schools have been added. Much of the new work prepares the pupils directly for what they expect to do after they leave school. The improvement in managing schools and in teaching the ordinary subjects, reading, arithmetic, and geography, has also been important. Graded Schools. — The early schools were ungraded, as many rural schools still are. Each teacher kept the same pupils from the time they began their A B C's until they left school. The division of the schools of cities and larger towns into grades was made before the Civil War. In recent years the plan has been extended to the rural schools. A large township school often takes the place of several district schools. In such cases wagons are provided to carry the children to and from school. The school year has also been lengthened. Some cities keep their schools open throughout the year, except for short vacations. Pupils may begin sub- jects in the middle, as well as at the beginning, of the year. By this plan those who are kept away for a time by illness lose only a few months instead of a whole year. High Schools. — Many pubHc high schools and private academies had been estabHshed before the Civil War, but 514 THE NEW EDUCATION from 1870 to 1900 the number of high schools increased rapidly. By the end of that period every town or city and many rural districts had high schools. These high schools do for their communities much that the early American col- leges did for the first groups of settlements. New Subjects.' — The chief task of the graded school is still to teach reading, writing, arithmetic, and geography. Every year the number of persons in the United States who cannot read and write is decreasing. In 1910 it was only seven or eight in every hundred, and only three in each hundred of those born in the United States. In this matter the United States is behind Great Britain and Germany, but ahead of Italy and Austria. In the upper grades the pupils learn more about history and government than did their fathers. In history they study more about the way people Uved, about industry and trade, and less about war. Another important subject, called hygiene, teaches the pupil how to keep the body healthy. In many schools the boys are taught to work in wood, and the girls to cook and to sew. Some schools have gardens in which the pupils may learn to raise vegetables for the use of their families. These changes have led parents to make a greater effort to keep their children in school. Several states have passed laws forbidding children to leave school until they have reached a certain grade and are fifteen or sixteen years of age. Changes in High Schools. — The first high schools, espe- cially in the eastern states, existed chiefly to prepare boys for college. Latin, Greek, and mathematics were the principal subjects. The American people soon concluded that such schools could educate only a few of the boys and girls, because only a few went to college. Before i860 the Boston English High School had added many other subjects, including book- keeping and surveying. Later the high schools began to HIGH SCHOOLS 515 group their students in "courses." Those who intended to go to college were put into one group and called "classical" students. Within the last fifteen or twenty years still greater changes have taken place. Separate high schools have been founded with the aim of teaching their students what they A Technical High School which runs Evenings need to know in the work for which they are preparing. The Manual Training or Technical High Schools train boys for work in wood and iron, for drafting, designing, and other tasks. They prepare girls for designing, sewing, and cooking. After finishing the course of study most of the students begin work at once, while others go to higher technical schools to obtain greater knowledge and skill. The Commercial High Schools prepare boys and girls for the practical work of business. In communities where no such separate high schools exist, the newer subjects are taught in the ordinary high schools. In some states agriculture is now taught in the high schools or in special schools. Agricultural High Schools. — Agricultural high schools teach their pupils how to manage a farm, to grow fruit, to care for animals, and to conduct a dairy. They also teach many of the subjects taught in other high schools. In some 5i6 THE NEW EDUCATION of these schools, especially in Wisconsin, the teachers not only teach the boys and girls who attend but they also aid farmers of the region in planning their buildings and drainage, in testing seeds and soils, in selecting animals and trees, and they assist the housewives in arranging their kitchens and drains, and in preparing and testing food. Each high school has its hbraries, shops, laboratories, and workrooms. Indeed the new aim is to make the rural high schools model school-farms, and those in the cities model school-shops and factories. The study of books is retained so that the students may understand the world about them as well as be fitted to do some useful work in it. Colleges and Universities. — The growth of colleges and universities has been as rapid as that of common schools and high schools. Wise and generous men have given large sums to the older colleges, in order that they may do more work. Other men have founded new colleges and universities. The gifts of one man founded Johns Hopkins University, in Balti- more, in 1876; of another Leland Stanford University, near Sacramento, California, in 1891; of still another re-founded Chicago University in 1892. Other generous men have established special institutions in which highly trained men and women endeavor to discover ways of preventing disease or to find methods by which the people may do their work better.^ The states west of the Alleghanies, as well as a few of the older states, have placed a university at the top of their plan of public education. They thus offer free education not only to the child in the early grades of the common school and in the high school but also to the young man and woman in the state university. As soon as the Northwest Territory was opened for settle- 1 For example, the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York City and the Carnegie Institution in Washington. HIGHER EDUCATION 517 merit, the national government began to give land for the founding of colleges and universities. During the Civil War it made a still more liberal offer, promising each state many thousand acres, the amount in proportion to its population. The money obtained from the sale of the lands was used to Experiment Station Farm United States Department of Agriculture pay for teaching agriculture and other technical or practical arts. Some states founded separate agricultural or technical colleges, others gave the new work to their universities. Massachusetts divided the income from its share between an Agricultural College at Amherst and an Institute of Tech- nology at Boston. New York, partly by use of the land grant, partly by the use of its ordinary income, and partly by gifts of citizens like Ezra Cornell, built up a great state university at Ithaca, called Cornell University. In 1887 the United States again came to the aid of higher education, giving each state $15,000 a year for the improve- ment of agriculture. This money is used to maintain experi- mental or practice farms and dairies and laboratories for the study of problems connected with agriculture. Farming is becoming less a mixture of drudgery and chance and more a skilled occupation like medicine and law. 5i8 THE NEW EDUCATION Higher Education for All. — The colleges in the colonies were established mainly to educate young men who expected to become Christian ministers. The graduates of these col- leges also became lawyers and physicians. For a long time few went to college or the university except those who in- tended to enter such professions or to become writers and teachers. With the founding of technical or engineering colleges a change came, especially within twenty or thirty years. Now the young man or woman, whether he or she is going into one of the older professions or into industry, or business, or is to manage a farm, may find in some depart- ment of the best universities training for each kind of work. The students not only use books, but they work in shops and laboratories upon tasks similar to those for which they are preparing. The states have also established normal schools in which teachers are trained for the pubHc schools. Many states are attempting to carry opportunities for higher education to the people in their homes. The University of Wisconsin, for example, has more students working under its guidance while Hving at home than it has regular students at Madison. The University offers courses to the people by correspondence, or in classes in selected towns of the state. Teachers from the University guide the students in practice work, assist them in their studies, and help them by lectures on difficult subjects. In such ways the universities are work- ing for the whole people more than formerly. They still carry on studies and experiments in order to broaden knowl- edge; they now do much more to spread among all the people information about every new discovery or invention. Finally, by sending their teachers throughout the state, they help officials, the voters, business men, and all workers to solve their problems or do their work to better advantage. School-Houses as Social Centers. — Some cities and states have begun to make larger use of their school-houses. The LARGER USE OF SCHOOL-HOUSES 519 schools are supplied with books and magazines and news- papers in order to provide a reading-room for old as well as yomig, or with a traveHng Hbrary sent from the state or city hbrary. Club rooms, gymnasiums, bath rooms, and play- grounds provide other means of recreation for the people of the neighborhood. This plan makes the school-house a peo- ple's club and an educational center. The Neighborhood Using the School Building Parks and Playgrounds. — In this period, also, many cit- izens have learned that it is not enough to provide schools where boys and girls may remain a few hours of the day for most of the year. They have concluded that the cities should provide parks and playgrounds where the young people may enjoy healthful games after school hours instead of loafing about the street comers or running risks by playing in the streets. Such playgrounds are not mere open fields, but grounds suitable for games, under the care of some one who understands how interesting games are played. Chicago set a good example to other cities by providing a playground in Washington Park in 1876. Twenty years passed before much 520 THE NEW EDUCATION more was done there or in other cities. Then Chicago ap- pointed a commission whose business it was to estabUsh play- grounds in parts of the city so crowded with buildings that Uttle open space for play remained. Other cities took up the work. In 1910 more than a third of the cities of the United States had such playgrounds. These playgrounds are for men and women as well as children. Near the grounds a large house has often been ^4^ J A Chicago Playground ^ built, suitable for neighborhood parties, for picnics, or for dances. Park and house together are called "recreation centers." By means of them thousands of people have gained for the first time an opportunity for wholesome play. Five milUon persons used the recreation centers of Chicago in one year. Such are a few of the new methods of education for the people. QUESTIONS 1. What changes have taken place in the town and rural schools since 1876? In the high schools? 2. What new subjects are taught in the schools? In the high schools? What special kinds of high schools have been built? 3. Describe the method and aims of the agricultural and technical high schools. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 521 4. How did the colleges and universities secure money to extend their work? What has the United States done to help higher education? What have the states done? 5. For what were the colleges in the colonies estabhshed? For what reason do people now go to college? 6. How do the universities now attempt to broaden their usefulness? 7. What use do some places make of their school houses? Why do cities establish playgrounds? EXERCISES 1. Locate the colleges and universities of the state. How are such schools supported? What kind of education does each offer? 2. P'ind examples of work done by neighboring colleges or universities similar to that done by the University of Wisconsin. 3. Visit some school center and city playground and describe its work. CHAPTER XLVII THE REPUBLIC AND THE LARGER WORLD Struggle for Colonies. — The United States for more than a century found plenty of lands to be colonized in the Missis- sippi Valley, the Far West, and on the Pacific Coast. Few Americans desired to conquer colonies beyond the seas. Meanwhile other nations had again become rivals in the struggle for colonial territories. The Enghsh, ever since the Revolutionary War had deprived them of the best part of their colonial possessions, had been busy adding one new colony to another. Their colonial empire had become world- wide, and they could boast that upon it the " sun never sets." The French, who had lost the Mississippi and St. Lawrence valleys in 1763, had also been building up a new colonial empire, this time in northern Africa and southeastern Asia. Since 1S84 the Germans had been establishing colonies in Africa, on the coast of China, and in the Pacific islands. In 1898 the United States followed such examples, taking posses- sion of several colonies after a war with Spain. The Spanish War, 1898. — President McKinley, early in his administration, was obliged to decide how the United States should act in a war which had broken out between the Cubans and the Spaniards. Spain had ruled over Cuba since the time of Columbus. The Cubans, like the Mexicans and South Americans long before, were trying to put an end to Spanish rule and to found an independent republic. The war had been raging two or three years and the island was being laid waste. Stories of the cruelty of Spanish generals and of the sufferings of the Cubans aroused the sympathy of THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR 523 the American people. Some Americans had property in Cuba worth, all told, nearly $50,000,000, and they were anxious to have the war stopped. The Destruction of the " Maine," — It had already become hard to keep the peace between Spain and the United States, so strongly did many Americans urge their government to compel Spain to satisfy the Cubans. The Spaniards, on their side, were enraged at the assistance that Americans privately gave the Cubans. In February, 1898, the American battle- Manila and the Pasig River Showing the Magellan monument and the stone bridge connecting the walled city with Binondo ship Maine, at anchor in the harbor of Havana, was blown up, causing the death of two officers and 258 seamen. Most Americans beheved that the Spaniards had destroyed the ship and clamored for war against them. McKinley reluc- tantly yielded and war was declared. The War. — The conflict with Spain was brief, lasting only from April to August. The Spaniards, who had spent their resources in a vain effort to conquer Cuba, were unprepared for a longer war. On May i , Commodore George Dewey, with a small fleet, easily destroyed a much inferior Spanish fleet in Manila harbor. Spain sent to Cuban waters a squadron 524 THE REPUBLIC AND THE LARGER WORLD under Admiral Cervera, but it was soon shut up in the harbor of Santiago by a larger American force under the command of Admiral Sampson. In order to make the capture of the Spanish ships in Santiago sure, an army of about 16,000 men, commanded by Major- General Shafter, was transported from Port Tampa, Florida, and landed on the coast near Santiago.^ Finally, on July 3, the Spanish fleet made a heroic effort to escape through the United States fleet stationed before the entrance to the harbor. After a running fight the Spanish vessels were destroyed. Santiago soon surrendered. Another American army under General Nelson A. Miles over-ran Porto Rico. A third, with some help from the natives, captured the city of Manila, in the Philippines, completing the task that Commodore Dewey had undertaken. About this time the war came to an end. Spain's Loss of Colonies. — In the treaty with Spain, Porto Rico, Guam, and the PhiUppine Islands were ceded to the United States. Spain in return received $20,000,000. Cuba was given its independence. Spain thus lost the last remnant of her once vast colonial empire in the New World. Her influence, nevertheless, remained. The people of the countries of South America, except Brazil, of Central America, Mexico, and several of the West India islands were still largely Spanish. The New Territories of the United States. — In the midst of the Spanish War Congress annexed the Hawaiian Islands, with the assent of a majority of the inhabitants. These islands are half-way stations to Japan, China, and the Philippine Islands. Any nation which controlled them would possess excellent harbors for its navy and would increase its ^ One cavalry troop, called the "Rough Riders," under the command of Colonel Leonard Wood and Lieutenant-Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, was com- posed principally of western cowboys, Indians, football players, and adventurers. The doings of this regiment excited much interest throughout the war. NEW TERRITORY GAINED 525 power in the Pacific Ocean. The Hawaiians had first been taught the ways of civihzation by American missionaries. Many Americans had settled in the islands. Under their lead a few years before an attempt had been made to over- throw the native rulers and add the islands to the United States. President Cleveland, however, had refused to sup- port this plan of annexation. In the islands, at the present "TfiE Cross-Roads of the Pacific" time, besides the Hawaiians and the Americans, there are many Japanese and Chinese. In the Philippines there are more than 3000 islands. Luzon, the largest, is about the size of Ohio. More than 7,000,000 people inhabit the archipelago, varying from the highly civilized Spaniards and Filipinos, to the rudest savage tribes. The islands are only half explored and the natural resources almost untouched. When Commodore Dewey attacked the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay, the natives were already trying to overthrow Spanish rule. They welcomed the Americans, whose forces made certain the defeat of the Spaniards. Many of them 526 THE REPUBLIC AND THE LARGER WORLD were angry when they discovered that they had simply changed masters, and they attacked the American army. This new war lasted about three years. As soon as possible after its close the Americans gave the natives a share in the government of the islands. Americans are divided upon the question whether the Filipinos should be made independent or should remain under American control. A PxjBLic School in Porto Rico Solving New Problems. — In the newly-gained territories of the United States and in Cuba natives and Americans have worked well together. Much has been done to make the islands more healthful. Major Walter Reed, an army sur- geon, discovered that malaria and yellow fever are carried by mosquitoes. He concluded that if these little pests were destroyed, those diseases would die out. It was one of the world's great discoveries. Yellow fever, the scourge of all tropical countries, and especially of the West Indies and the southern cities of the United States, was conquered. Besides helping Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines to conquer disease, and besides building roads and harbors, the United States has tried to establish its free school system among them. More than a thousand American school teachers have been sent to the Philippines. THE PANAMA CANAL 527 P A C I F I C OCEAN T jrna , £ulboa. The Panama Canal. — The most interesting story of work done in a tropical climate is that of the Panama Canal. Before the war with Spain began, the battleship Oregon was stationed on the Pacific coast. As it was needed in the West Indies for the coming struggle with the Spanish fleet, it was or- dered to steam at full speed around South America, a distance of 13,000 miles. The people of the United States waited anxiously for the news that it had reached the other ships in the West Indies. They saw that many days would be saved if there were a canal through the Isth- mus of Panama.^ For centuries ATLANTIC OCEAN Relief Map of the Panama Canal men had dreamed of such a canal. They thought that they 1 There were other reasons which made the people wish to have a canal. For example, an "all-water" highway from the Pacific coast to the Atlantic would enable shippers to send their goods from one coast to the other at less cost than by the railroads. 528 THE REPUBLIC AND THE LARGER WORLD could cut the passageway which Columbus had tried in vain to discover. In 1536 the king of Spain formed a plan for a ship canal near the Chagres River. A French company started in 1881 to build one, but became bankrupt before the work was half finished, seven years later.^ The United 'f .Strait cfHa^^tlan Routes Passing Through the Panama Canal Comparative Distances To San Francisco The Orient Melbourne Callao Valparaiso ( via Magellan I via Panama ( Difference 13.13s 13,566 12,852 9,613 8,380 From New York 5,262 9.798 10,392 3.363 4.633 7,873 3,768 2,460 6,250 3.747 C via Magellan s via Panama ( Difference 13.S02 13.933 13,425 9.980 8,747 From Liverpool 7.836 12,372 1 2, 966 5,937 7,207 5,666 i,66i 459 4,043 1,540 States next took up the task. It bought the rights of the French company for $40,000,000. It also entered into an agreement with the Httle republic of Panama by which a strip or zone ten miles wide was secured.^ ^ The French company spent $260,000,000 in its efforts to build a canal. ^ The United States paid Panama $10,000,000 down, and agreed to pay $250,000 more every year after the first nine years. THE PANAMA CANAL 529 Medical officers made the region a safe place in which to live, as they had learned to do in, Cuba and the island possessions of the United States. An army of laborers was brought together, chiefly from the West Indies. Steam shovels and other powerful machines were sent from the United States. The work of digging through fifty miles of mountainous country was started in 1906, and completed seven years later. A dam on the Chagres River, besides furnishing the water for part of the canal, made a waterfall from which dynamos produce sufficient electricity to furnish power and light throughout the canal zone. It is estimated that a vessel can pass through the canal in 10 or 12 hours, while the voyage around South America takes from 30 to 45 days. The canal will, therefore, bring the three coasts, the Atlantic, the Gulf, and the Pacific closer together. It will become a highway of trade between the eastern parts of the United States and western South America, Japan, China, and Australia. The Hague Tribunal, 1899. — In the year following the Spanish- American War the United States took part in a meeting of the great nations for the purpose of finding a way of preventing wars. The United States had settled about 60 disputes by arbitration. No other nation except England had so good a record. Upon the suggestion of the Czar of Russia a conference was held at The Hague in Holland. Twenty- nine nations were represented. The United States, because of its experience with arbitration, was able to take a leading part. The conference agreed that each government should appoint four judges who should form a Hague Court of Arbi- tration. From the list of judges any two nations might select a small court by which their dispute could be settled. The plan would save delay in forming a special court, and would keep before the world a better way than warfare for the settlement of disputes. Another and larger meeting. 530 THE REPUBLIC AND THE LARGER WORLD this time at President Roosevelt's suggestion, was held at The Hague in 1907. Andrew Carnegie has recently caused a great peace palace to be built for the Hague Tribunal and for the use of the nations in their conferences. Some have called it the first building in the capital of a United States of the World. The Peace Palace at The Hague What Questions shall be settled by Arbitration? — While no nations were under obhgation to settle their differences through the Hague Court, many have already done so. The United States has had several cases settled there. A great war between England and Russia was avoided by arbitration at The Hague in 1904.^ Most of the nations have, since 1899, entered into treaties with their neighbors agreeing to arbi- trate certain kinds of disputes. The United States has treaties of this sort with 26 countries. Some nations agreed ' Russian war-ships had fired by mistake at English fishing vessels in the North Sea, thinking that these vessels were torpedo boats of the Japanese, with whom Russia was at war. NATIONS WORKING TOGETHER 531 to arbitrate in all cases. President Taft negotiated such treaties with England and France, but the Senate of the United States rejected them on the ground that questions of "vital interests, independence, and national honor" should not be arbitrated, and that such treaties reduced the powers of the Senate. Long ago individuals were compelled to settle their differences in courts of law rather than by fists or clubs. Can nations be induced to do the same? The Pan-American Building at Washington Nations working together. — Already nations are working together as never before. Pan-American conferences, that is, assembhes of delegates of all countries in North and South America, have been held. The first took place in Washington in i8go, and the last in Rio Janeiro, Brazil, in 1906. The American republics ^ have formed a Bureau of American RepubUcs at Washington to spread information about one another's resources and trade and to cultivate friendly rela- tions. The United States is also a member of several Euro- pean organizations for cooperation of one kind or another, like the Universal Postal Union ^ with headquarters at Berne, ^ Brazil, once a colony of Portugal, afterwards an independent empire, became a republic in 1889, called the United States of Brazil. 2 Every civilized nation in the world is a member of this Postal Union. By it they work together in arranging for mails which go from one nation to another. 532 THE REPUBLIC AND THE LARGER WORLD Switzerland, and the International Agricultural Institute at Rome, which pubUshes information about crops in every land. The "open Door" in China. — Cooperation among govern- ments is becoming easier because the great peoples of the world love fair play and justice. The United States set a good example in declaring that the PhiUppines were to be open to the trade of all nations. A year later, when it was rumored that the great powers of Europe were planning to divide Chinese territory among themselves, the American Secretary of State, John Hay, insisted that all Chinese ports must remain open, no matter who held the territory. This was called the "open door" pohcy. It was supported by the better judgment of leading men everywhere, and China was saved. Such a poHcy was a long step in advance of the old colonial policy of European nations — seizing lands and closing them to all rival nations. Looking Backward. — It is more than 300 years since the first settlements were made within the territory of the United States. About 25,000,000 Europeans have left the Old World for this part of the New World.^ The number includes more than 5,000,000 Germans, nearly 5,000,000 EngUsh, about 4,000,000 Irish, 1,000,000 Scotch and Welsh, nearly 2,000,000 from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, 4,000,000 Slavs, and nearly 4,000,000 Italians, Frenchmen, Spaniards, and Portuguese. Immigrants or their descendants make up the 91,000,000 inhabitants of the United States. This is a popu- lation greater than that of any nation of Europe except Russia.^ A new Europe has grown up in North America. The skill, the knowledge, and the ideals of many nations have been 1 These estimates are for the period from 1607 to 1910. 2 Not counting the dependencies or parts of European nations in other continents. THE PRESENT TASK 533 mingled together to form the American civilization. The history of America began with a race among explorers who were trying to find a short passage to the Spice Islands of the East. It soon became a history of the way in which thousands and then millions of the people of an older and crowded world found room and opportunity in a new world. The Present Task. — Much of the work which the pioneers of each period did was hurried, and sometimes it was wasteful. The wealth of the land seemed so boundless that it did not appear necessary to care for game, or trees, or soil. This is the task of the new pioneers. They already understand that they must seek to preserve the wealth which is the nation's inheritance. The waste places must be watered and planted, and the soil must be used more wisely and the forests made alive again with game. Some call this work "conservation." The new pioneers have another task. Although aU have had a share in the government, many have been too eager to organize industries, or manage trade, or open mines, to do their full duty as citizens of a self-governing nation. Without the help of all, the government of even a repubhc may fall into the hands of a few. The task here is also one of "con- servation," guarding the Kberties won by the men of past generations. It is also one of progress, that the Kfe of cities may be more wholesome, that the rewards of work in city and country may be distributed more fairly, and that justice and brotherhood may be the watchword alike of city, state, and nation. QUESTIONS 1. Where did England, France, and Germany obtain colonies in the nine- teenth century? When did the United States obtain colonies beyond the seas? How did the United States obtain its colonies? 2. Why did the people of the United States want to stop the war in Cuba? What reason had the Spaniards for becoming enraged at the people of the United States? What was the efTect of the destruction of the Maine? 3. What happened during the brief war with Spain? What colonies did 534 THE REPUBLIC AND THE LARGER WORLD Spain lose by the war? In what ways did Spanish influence remain in the New World? 4. What colony had the United States obtained during the war with Spain? What people live in this colony? Why did the United States have a war with the Filipinos? 5. What was the discovery of Major Walter Reed? What has the United States done for its colonies? 6. Why did the people of the United States desire a Panama Canal? Who had tried to build one? What did the medical officers of the United States do to aid in the work? 7. What way of settling disputes between nations was established in 1899? How are judges obtained for the settlement of disputes at the Hague Tribunal? 8. In what ways is the United States in friendly cooperation with other nations? 9. What was John Hay's "open door" policy? What was the efifect? 10. How many European immigrants have come to America in the three hundred years and more of its history? What nations have sent the largest numbers of these? What tasks have the new pioneers in the United States? EXERCISES 1. Learn as much as possible about the resources, geography, and people of the colonies. 2. What nations should the Panama Canal benefit by shortening the routes of trade? See map, page 528, with the chief distances by the old routes as well as by the new routes made possible by the canal. 3. Review the old English trade policy toward its colonies. Is it like the one that the United States adopted in the Philippines, and that John Hay said ought to exist in China? Imporlanl Dates : 1898. War with Spain and the annexation of Porto Rico, the Philippines, and Hawaii. 1899. The Hague Tribunal is established to provide judges for arbitra- tion of disputes between nations. CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF AMERICAN POLITICAL HISTORY 1776. The English colonies declared their independence of Great Britain, and at the same time took steps to secure aid from France, and to form a permanent union. 1778. France formed an alliance with the united colonies, supplying them with money and assisting them further with her navy and army in the war against Great Britain for independence. 1781. The Continental Congress had drawn up a constitution, the Articles of Confederation, and submitted it to the thirteen states. They adopted the new government which joined them together as the United States with a Congress as the chief organ of government. 1783. Great Britain agreed to a treaty of peace with the United States and her ally, France, recognizing the independence of her former colonies and their union as the United States. 1783-89. Period of the Confederation. The United States included a total area of 892,135 square miles. About 3,250,000 people lived in the new republic. Of these only a few thousand hved west of the mountains. One-fifth of the people of the United States were negro slaves. The states with western lands gave up most of them to the United States, to be used for the benefit of all the people. Congress adopted for these lands a system of surveying into townships, sections, and quarters, and began the practice of using a portion of the land for the support of education. In 1787, by the so-called "Ordinance of 1787," Congress adopted a form of government for its territories in the West, made promises about the admission of these into the Union, and other promises to the inhabitants about their rights. In 1787 a convention at Philadelphia framed a new Constitution for the United States. This Constitution gave the United States more power and created three branches of government — a Congress, a President, and a Supreme Court — in place of the one-house Congress of the Articles of Confederation. Eleven states adopted this, and, although North Carolina and Rhode Island did not yet do so, abandoned the old constitution for the new one. The new government was organized in March and April, 1789. 1789-97. George Washington, First President. Under the new Constitu- tion it was the duty of men called electors to choose the President and ii CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF Vice-President. In some states the people chose the electors, in others the state legislatures chose them. The first body of electors voted unani- mously for General Washington of Virginia for President. They chose John Adams of Massachusetts Vice-President, though not by a unani- mous vote. Ten amendments guarding the rights of the people and the states were adopted in December, 1791. In 1792 Washington was again chosen President and John Adams Vice-President. While Wash- ington was President five states were admitted to the Union. These were North Carohna in 1789, Rhode Island in 1790, Vermont in 1791, Kentucky in 1792, and Tennessee in 1796, making at this time 16 states in the Republic. In 1790 the first census or count of the population was taken. It showed a total of almost 4,000,000 people in the United States. Of these about 110,000 lived west of the mountains. Out of every 100 inhabitants three lived in cities. It required the greater part of Wash- ington's first term and much of his second to organize the new govern- ment and decide upon its policies. Two questions were the paj'ment of state debts and the creation of a Bank of the United States. It was not long before his advisers and even the people as a whole were divided into two political parties over these questions. One party was called the Fed- eralist and the other the Democratic or Republican party. Washington preferred the views of the Federalists. Hamilton and Adams were the real leaders of the Federalists. Jefferson and Madison were the leaders of the Republicans. Washington refused to be a candidate for a third term. 1797-1801. John Adams. The electors were closely divided between the Federalist candidate, John Adams, and the Republican, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia. Adams had a majority of three votes. In those days the one receiving the next number became Vice-President. An eleventh amendment on the powers of the Supreme Court was adopted in 1798. The Federalists had trouble with France, and were obliged to prepare for war. This led them to pass laws for heavy taxes and other laws like the Alien and Sedition Acts. Both kinds of laws were unpopular with the majority of the people. 1801-09. Thomas Jefferson. In the election in 1800 the Republican electors had a clear majority. It happened, however, that their two candidates, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia and Aaron Burr of New York, had the same number of votes. The House of Representatives had to decide the question which of them should be President. It chose Thomas Jefferson. Burr became Vice-President. After this experience a twelfth amendment was passed in 1804, changing the method of voting for Presi- dent and Vice-President, so that the electors should vote separately for each. One new state, Ohio, was admitted in 1803. In the same year Jefferson purchased Louisiana for $15,000,000. As Louisiana had an area of 827,987 square miles, the cost was about three cents an acre. Jef- ferson was so popular that he obtained a great majority in the election in AMERICAN POLITICAL HISTORY iii 1804. George Clinton of New York became Vice-President. Jefferson's last years as President were made unhappy by the troubles with England and France, and the necessity of taking measures to protect American rights and trade. Jefferson, like Washington, refused to be a candidate for a third term. He wished his Secretary of State, James Madison of Virginia, to succeed him as President, and such a wish counted with his Republican followers. 1809-17. James Madison. Madison became President in 1809. The Republicans were still in a great majority over the FederaHsts. George CHnton was reelected Vice-President. The population of the country was increasing rapidly. In the census of 1800 it was 5,308,483. In the census of 1810 it was a third larger, or 7,239,881. Two years later, 1812, Louisi- ana was admitted as a state in the Union, making the eighteenth state. In June, 1812, war was begun with England. An election occurred during the war. Madison was reelected President. Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts was Vice-President. War measures formed the chief subject of laws until 1815. In 1816 a second Bank of the United States was chartered, and a new state, Indiana, taken into the Union. The Federahst party had nearly broken up, and in the election of this year was able to offer almost no opposition to the Repubhcan candidate. 1817-25. James Monroe. Monroe had been Madison's Secretary of State, and had the President's support in the election. Monroe, too, was from Virginia. It looked as though Virginia had a monopoly in furnishing Presidents. The new Vice-President was Daniel D. Tompkins of New York. Beginning with the admission of Indiana, in 1816, one new state was added each year for six years until there were altogether twenty-four states. The new ones were Mississippi in 181 7, Illinois in 1818, Alabama in 1819, Maine in 1820, and Missouri in 1821. First one from the South, and then one from the North, each time keeping the balance even. A great compromise upon slavery was made with the entrance of Maine and Missouri: this was that the remaining territory of the Louisiana Purchase should be divided; that the portion north of the line 36° 30' was never to allow slavery, while that south might. Monroe was reelected in 1820. His opponent received only one electoral vote. Tompkins was also again chosen Vice-President. In 1819 the United States pur- chased Florida — a territory of 72,101 square miles, but sparsely settled — from Spain for about $5,000,000. The census of 1820 showed that the population was 9,638,453, or about three times that of 1783. Now more than 2,250,000 people hved west of the Alleghany Mountains. The event of Monroe's administration most often remembered was the announce- ment in 1823 that the United States would oppose any effort of -European countries either to estabUsh any new colonies in North or South America or any interference with the freedom of the states already formed there. This was the Monroe Doctrine. iv CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF 1825-29. John QumcY Adams. When the election of 1824 came on the Federalist party had almost entirely disappeared. The Republican party was divided into several factions, each supporting its favored leader. The vote for Andrew Jackson and John Quincy Adams was very close. Neither had a majority of all the votes cast for President. The House of Represen- tatives for a second time decided the question, electing Adams. He was a son of the second President, and, like his father, was from Massachusetts. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina became Vice-President. Adams had been Monroe's Secretary of State. He was greatly interested in maintain- ing the Monroe Doctrine and promoting the building of roads and canals. 1829-37. Andrew Jackson. The friends of Andrew Jackson thought he had been cheated out of the Presidency in 1824, and bent every effort to secure his election in 1828. The Republicans gradually divided into two parties, the followers of Jackson and of Adams and Clay. Jackson was triumphant and Calhoun was again elected Vice-President. The followers of Jackson were coming to be knowTi by their other name, Democrats, and began to drop the name Republicans. The followers of Adams took the name Whigs. In the election of 1832 the candidates for President were nominated, not as formerly by a caucus of the members of each party in Congress, but by a national convention of delegates from the states. Jackson was very popular with the people and was easily reelected. Martin Van Buren of New York became Vice-President. The census of 1830 reported a population of 12,866,020. Two states, the 25th and the 26th, Arkansas in 1836 and Michigan in 1837, came in during Jack- son's administration. Jackson wished his party to make the Vice-President his successor as President, and his will prevailed. 1837-41. Martin Van Bxjren. In 1836 the Democrats were again success- ful. Besides Van Buren as President, they chose Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky Vice-President. Van Buren's party was blamed for the panic of 18^7, and so for the first time in over thirty years was defeated in the next election. 1841-45. William Henry Harrison and John Tyler. The Whig candidates in 1840 were William Henry Harrison of Ohio for President, and John Tyler of Virginia for Vice-President. The census gave a population of 17,069,453. Harrison died four weeks after he became President. Tyler at once became President, to serve out the term. Just before Tyler's term ended in 1845, it was decided to annex Texas. This was the addition of 389,166 square miles of territory. Florida, which was admitted about the same time, and Texas made twenty-eight states in the Union. 1845-49. James K. Polk. The Whig triumph was of short duration. In 1845 the Democrats elected their candidate, James K. Polk of Tennessee President, and George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania Vice-President. The greater part of President Polk's single term as President was taken up with AMERICAN POLITICAL HISTORY v the trouble with Mexico which ended in war. Iowa was admitted in 1846 and Wisconsin in 1848. These again made equal the number of states with slavery and those without slavery. By a treaty with Great Britain in 1846 the United States retained part of the Oregon Coun- try, 286,541 square miles. At the end of the Mexican War 529,189 square miles more territory were acquired. This included California and the territory from which Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and part of Colorado and New Mexico have been formed. In the treaty which ended the war and provided for the annexation of the southwestern region, the United States paid Mexico a little over $15,000,000. 1849-60. Zachary Taylor. The Whigs were successful in the election of 1848. They had named as their candidate one who had become a hero in the Mexican War, General Zachary Taylor of Louisiana. Millard Fill- more of New York was their candidate for Vice-President. President Taylor died in 1850, a year and four months after his term began. The Vice-President for the second time in American history became Presi- dent by the death of the President. 1850-53. Millard Fillmore. In 1850 there were 23,191,876 people in the United States. The year 1850 was more important for the compromise made by Congress over the slavery question. The aim of one part of the Compromise was to please the North by the abohtion of the slave trade in the District of Columbia, and another part to please the South by securing the return of fugitive slaves. By another part the territory lying between Texas and California was to have slavery or not, as the inhabitants should decide. By stiU another part California was admitted into the Union without slavery. Wisconsin had been admitted in 1848. There were now thirty-one states. Those without slavery outnumbered those with it. In 1853 the United States purchased a tract of territory, 29,670 square miles, from Mexico, in order to round out the southern boundary. Mexico received $10,000,000. 1853-57. Franklin Pierce. The Democrats regained power in the election of 1852. Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire became President, and WiUiam R. King of Alabama Vice-President. The repeal of the Mis- souri Compromise in 1854 and the application of the rule that Kansas and Nebraska, like the Southwest, might have slaves if the inhabitants wished and so voted, led to the formation of a new political party. This party, the RepubHcan, was bent on keeping the territories for free laborers rather than slaves. The Whig party, like the Federahst, gradually broke up; its members went over to one of the other parties, chiefly to the Republicans. This made it easy for the Democrats again to win in the election of 1856, in spite of the unpopularity in the North of the Kansas and Nebraska Act. 1857-61. James Buchanan. The Democratic victor in the election of 1856 was James Buchanan of Pennsylvania. The new Vice-President was vi CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. Buchanan's term was taken up chiefly with the great dispute over slavery. One event after another arrayed the North and South against each other. The Dred Scott decision in 1857 and the John Brown Raid in 1859 were the most serious events in the growth of the trouble. In 1858 Minnesota was admitted, and the following year Oregon made the thirty-third state. The count of population just before the Civil War showed a total of 31,443,321. This was almost exactly ten times the number in 1783. Of the total population the slave-holding states had 12,240,000 people; 3,950,000 of these were slaves. The North had 19,201,546. The area of the fifteen slave-holding states was 882,245 and of the free states 824,622 square miles The greater part of the territories, however, could be counted as sure to become free states, and this made the area of the region opposed to slavery about double the area of that favorable to it. 1861-65. Abraham Lincoln. The new, or Republican, party won in the election of i860, chiefly because the Democratic party was hopelessly divided over the slavery question. The Republican candidate for Presi- dent was Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, and for Vice-President Hannibal Hamlin of Maine. Just before Lincoln became President seven southern states seceded. Soon afterward four more united in a Southern Con- federacy. Almost the entire period of Lincoln's Presidency was occupied with the Civil War. Three new states were formed during the War. These were Kansas in 1861, West Virginia in 1863 (from the western part of Virginia), and Nevada in 1864. Lincoln was reelected for a second term in 1864. Andrew Johnson of Tennessee was at this time chosen Vice-President. One month and ten days after Lincoln began his second term he was assassinated, and Andrew Johnson became President. 1865-69. Andrew Johnson. The new President and Congress quarreled over the manner of reorganizing the states which had seceded and of set- tling the questions which had arisen as a result of the war. Two amend- ments were quickly added to the Constitution. The 13th amendment in 1865 forbade slavery within the United States. The 14th amendment in 1868 was intended, among other things, to prevent the states from abridging the rights of citizens whether white or black. In the same year Congress impeached President Johnson and so attempted to remove him from office. Nebraska joined the Union in 1867, and Alaska was purchased from Russia. The purchase of Alaska cost $7,200,000, and added 590,884 square miles of territory to the United States. 1869-77. Ulysses S. Grant of Illinois became President in 1869, and Schuyler Colfax of Indiana Vice-President. They were elected by the Republi- cans. In 1870 the isth amendment became a part of the Constitution. By this the states were forbidden to restrict the right to vote on the ground of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. The United States now had a population of 38,558,371. Grant was reelected in 1872, AMERICAN POLITICAL HISTORY vii with Henry Wilson of Massachusetts Vice-President. Colorado was admitted in 1876. Congress throughout Grant's two terms was still much occupied with the questions which had grown out of the Civil War — reconstruction in the South and management of the national debt. 1877-81. Rutherford B. Hayes. In the election of 1876 the Republicans put forward as candidates Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio for President, and William A. Wheeler of New York for Vice-President. The Republi- can candidates had only one electoral vote more than their opponents. In reality Samuel J. Tilden of New York and T. A. Hendricks of Indiana the Democratic candidates, had more votes of the people, and would have won if the people voted directly for President. The census of 1880 gave the population of the United States as 50,155,783. 1881-85. James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur. In 1880 the Re- publicans had a larger vote than in 1876, though the contest between them and the Democrats was still close. James A. Garfield of Ohio and Chester A. Arthur of New York became President and Vice- President respectively. Garfield was shot by an assassin, July 2, 1881; he died September 19; and Arthur became President. One landmark in legislation of the period was the Act of 1883 requiring examination for many federal appointments. This was the Civil Service Reform Act. 1885-89. Grover Cleveland. For the first time since the Civil War the Democratic party won in the election of 1884. Grover Cleveland of New York became President the next year, and Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana Vice-President. In 1887 Congress passed the Interstate Com- merce Act for the regulation chiefly of railroad rates on commerce going from state to state. 1889-93. Benjamin Harrison. The Democrats remained in power only one term. The Republican candidates in the election of 1888 were suc- cessful. They were Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, President, and Levi P. Morton of New York, Vice-President. In this case, as in that of Hayes, the majority of the electors voted for Harrison, but the majority of the people voted for his opponent, Grover Cleveland. The principal laws of the time were about the larger use of silver as money and about the tariff. Several new states were formed from the western territory — chiefly from the old Louisiana territory — North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington in 1889, and Idaho and Wyoming in 1890. The number brought the United States up to a total of forty-four states, where it remained until 1896. The total population in the census of 1890 was 62,947,714. 1893-97. Grover Cleveland. After four years out of the Presidency, Grover Cleveland returned as a result of the election in 1892. The Democratic party had again won. The new Vice-President was Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois. One new state, Utah, was admitted in 1896 while Cleveland was President. viii CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF 1897-1901. William McKinley. In the election of 1896 it was the turn of the Republicans to win. Their candidates, William McKinley of Ohio and Garret A. Hobart of New Jersey, became President and Vice- President. In 1898 the United States was at war with Spain. During the war the Hawaiian Islands were annexed. They hav^e an area, alto- gether, of 6,449 square miles. At the end of the war, by the treaty with Spain, Guam, Porto Rico, and the Philippines were acquired. Guam has an area of 210 square miles, Porto Rico of 3,435 square miles, and the Philippines 115,026 square miles. The United States paid Spain $20,000,000, but this amount in no sense represents the cost of the new possessions. The war with Spain cost the United States many times $20,000,000. In 1899 the Samoan Islands were divided between the United States and Germany. The United States was given six islands with an area of seventy-seven square miles. In the census of 1900 the United States was found to have a population of 75,994,575, not counting the island inhabitants. President McKinley was reelected in 1900. Theodore Roosevelt of New York became Vice-President. Six months after McKinley's second term began he was assassinated, and Roosevelt became President, to finish the term of three years and six months. 1901-09. Theodore Roosevelt. Theodore Roosevelt completed McKinley's term, and in 1904 was elected President. Charles W. Fairbanks of Indiana was chosen Vice-President. The arrangement with Great Britain and Panama by which the United States acquired control of a zone ten miles wide across the Isthmus of Panama and the power to build a canal, was one of the most important events of the time. In 1902 the government began the work of irrigating parts of the deserts of the West. The passage of laws (i) to protect the people against impure foods, (2) to obtain more thorough railway rate regulation, and (3) to protect the nation's forests and streams from ruin, made the period an epoch in Amer- ican history. In 1907 Oklahoma became a state in the United States. 1909-13. William H. Taft. In 1908 William H. Taft of Ohio, a Republican, was chosen President, and James S. Sherman of New York Vice-President. President Taft extended the plan of merit tests for many clerks and assis- tant postmasters in government service. The Republican party was, how- ever, so divided on the great questions of the day, tariff reform and caring for the country's natural resources, that few important laws were passed. In 191 2 two states, formed from the territory obtained from Mexico in 1848, were admitted. These, New Mexico and Arizona, brought the total number of states to forty-eight. The population by the census of 1910 was 91,972,266, not including the island possessions. The area in square miles about 3,617,673. 1913- . WooDROW Wilson. In the election of 191 2 the Republican party was divided into the regular Republican party, which tried to reelect President Taft, and the Progressive party, which tried to elect former AMERICAN POLITICAL HISTORY ix President Roosevelt. Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey, whom the Democrats nominated for President, was chosen, with Thomas R. Marshall of Indiana for Vice-President. Just before Taft's term expired the announcement was made that a i6th amendment had become law. This gave Congress power to tax incomes. A few weeks after the inauguration of President Wilson a 17th amendment was added to the Constitution. It changed the method of electing the Senators of the United States, who had hitherto been selected by the state legislatures. Under the new plan the people vote directly for them as they do for the members of the House of Representatives. POPULATION Population at the Beginning of the Period of Independence Entire Untied States 1776 2,750,000 1790 3,929,214 1783 3,250,000 Population by States from First Census — 1790 Connecticut 237,946 New York 340,120 Delaware 59,096 North Carolina 393.751 Georgia 82,548 Pennsylvania 434,373 Kentucky/ 73,677 Rhode Island 68,825 Maryland 319,728 South Carolina 249,073 Massachusetts 378,787 Tennessee ^ 35,691 Maine 1 96,540 Vermont^ 85,425 New Hampshire 141,885 Virginia 747,610 New Jersey 184,139 Area and Population of the States and Territories of the United States 19 10 States Area in square miles Population in 1910 Alabama 51,998 2,138,093 Arizona "3,956 204,354 Arkansas 53,335 i,574,449 California 158,297 2,377,549 Colorado 103,948 799,024 Connecticut 4,965 1,114,756 Delaware 2,370 202,322 Florida 58,666 752,6x9 Georgia 59,265 2,609,121 Idaho 83,888 325,594 Illinois 56,665 5,638^591 Indiana 36,354 2,700,876 Iowa 56,147 2,224,771 Kansas 82,158 1,690,949 Kentucky 40,598 2,289,905 Louisiana 48,506 1,656,388 Maine 33,040 742,371 ' In 1790 these were only territories. STATES AND TERRITORIES xi Stales Area in square miles Population in 1910 Maryland 12,327 1,295,346 Massachusetts 8,266 3,366,416 Michigan 57,980 2,810,173 Minnesota 84,682 2,075,708 Mississippi 46,865 1,797,114 Missouri 69,420 3,293,335 Montana 146,997 376,053 Nebraska 77,520 1,192,214 Nevada 110,690 81,875 New Hampshire 9,34i 430,S72 New Jersey 8,224 2,537,167 New Mexico 122,634 327,301 New York 49,204 9,113,614 North Carolina 52,426 2,206,287 North Dakota 70,837 577,os6 Ohio 41,040 4,767,121 Oklahoma 70,057 1,657,155 Oregon 96,699 672,765 Pennsylvania 45,126 7,665,111 Rhode Island 1,248 542,610 South Carolina 30,989 1,515,400 South Dakota 77,615 583,888 Tennessee 42,022 2,184,789 Texas 265,896 3,896,542 Utah 84,990 373,351 Vermont 9,564 355,956 Virginia 42,627 2,061,612 Washington 69,127 1,141,990 West Virginia 24,170 1,221,119 Wisconsin 56,066 2,333,860 Wyoming 97,9^4 i45,96S Territories Area in square miles Population in 1910 Alaska 590,884 64,356 District of Columbia 70 331,069 Guam 210 (Estimated) 9,000 Hawaii 6,449 191,909 Panama Canal Zone 436 (Estimated) 50,000 Phihppine Islands 115,026 (Census of 1903) 7,635,426 Porto Rico 3,435 1,118,012 Samoa 77 (Estimated) 6,100 Total of United States and its possessions 3,743,3o6 101,100,000 Xll POPULATION Population of the United States by Races Census of igio White 81,731,957 Chinese 7i,S3i Negro 9,827,763 Japanese 72,157 Indian 265,683 AH other 3,i7S Total population, not including island possessions 91,972,266 Place of Birth of Present Population Census of 19 10 Born in the United States Foreign Countries Austria ^ Belgium Canada — French . . Canada — Other . . . China Cuba and other West Indies Denmark England France Germany ^ Greece Hungary Born in 78,456,380 Ireland 1,352,251 13,515-886 Italy 1,343,12s 1,174,973 Japan 67,744 49,400 Mexico 221,915 385,083 Netherlands 120,063 819,554 Norway 403,877 56,756 Portugal 59,360 Russia and Finland '. . .. 1,732,462 47,635 Scotland 261,076 181,649 Spain 22,108 877,719 Sweden 665,207 117,418 Switzerland 124,848 2,501,333 Turkey 9^,959 101,282 Wales 82,488 495,609 All other countries 158,992 CiTLES OF the United States with Population o\t2R 200,000 Census of 19 10 City Population Baltimore 558,485. Number over 10 years unable to read and write Average number in the hundred of population unable to read atid write 20,325- 4-4 Boston 670,585 24,468 4.4 Buffalo 423,715 12,745 3.7 Chicago 2,185,283 79,9" 4-5 Cincinnati 363,591 9,576 3.1 Cleveland 560,663 20,676 4.6 Denver 213,381 3,841 2.1 Detroit 465,766 18,731 5. Indianapolis 233,650 5,874 3. > Poland counted under Austria, Germany, and Russia. RACES AND CITIES xiii Average number in Number over lo the hundred of years unable to population unable City Population read and write to read and write Jersey City 267,779 ii)797 5-6 Kansas City 248,381 4,937 2.3 Los Angeles 319,198 5,258 1.9 Louisville 223,928 9,886 5.3 Milwaukee 373,857 10,765 3.6 Minneapolis 301,408 6,139 2.4 New Orleans 339,o7S 18,987 6.9 New York 4,766,883 254,208 6.7 Newark 347,469 16,553 6. Philadelphia 1,549,008 57,7oo 4.6 Pittsburgh 533,905 26,627 6.2 Portland 207,214 2,145 i-2 Providence 224,326 14,236 7.7 Rochester 218,149 6,916 3.8 St. Louis 687,029 21,123 3-7 St. Paul 214,744 3,751 2.1 San Francisco 416,912 7,697 2.1 Seattle 237,194 2,217 i-i Washington 331,069 13,812 4.9 Population of Countries of Europe (Not including island colonies) Countries Area in square miles Population Austria-Hungary 261,035 49,418,596 Belgium ii,373 7,o74,9io Denmark 15,388 2,585,660 England and Wales 58,5*75 36,075,269 France 207,054 38,961,945 Germany 208,830 64,903,423 Ireland 32,373 4,38i,9Si Italy 110,550 32,475,253 Netherlands 12,648 5,898,429 Portugal 35,490 5,423,132 Russia (including Asiatic Russia) 8,647,657 160,095,200 Scotland 3o,443 4,7S9,52i Spain 194,783 19,503,008 Sweden 172,876 5,476,441 Switzerland 15,976 3,741,971 xiv PROGRESS AND WASTE Progress of Education Number in every looo of population of principal countries over 12 years unable to read and write Country 1840 1890 1900 Austria 790 450 310 Belgium 550 200 120 France 530 150 50 Germany 180 40 10 Great Britain 410 100 60 Italy 840 530 440 Netherlands 300 140 100 Russia (in Europe) . . . .980 850 780 Sweden 200 30 10 Switzerland 200 50 10 United States 200 130 100^ Waste of Wealth in the United States^ Waste in mining, preparation of minerals, and in their use $1,500,000,000 per day Forest fires destroy 50,000,000 of timber yearly Fires destroy 450,000,000 of property yearly Floods sweep away 500,000,000 of valuable top soil Sickness and death cost 3,000,000,000 yearly • In iQio this was 77. 2 This amount includes not only direct waste, — for example, through careless mining, loss of by-products, or throwing away scrap-iron — but also indirect waste, like using poorly constructed stoves and furnaces, and stoking fires improperly. P'or a discussion of all the items in the table, see E. L. Bogart, Economic History oj the United States. INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS Table Showing Industrial Progress of the United States i XV Population 'ublic debt ^alue of farm products. . . . /'alue of manufactured products lvalue of imports ^alue of exports ?ons of coal produced iailons of petroleum ?ons of steel 'ounds of wool iushels of wheat iushels of corn tales of cotton !'ons of sugar consumed. . . liles of railroads 1800 5,300,000 $82,900,000 No estimate No estimate $91,200,000 $70,900,000 Very few None Very few No estimate No estimate No estimate iSS,c)oo No estimate None 1810 7,200,000 $53,100,000 No estimate No estimate $85,400,000 $66,700,000 Very few None Very few No estimate No estimate No estimate 340,000 No estimate None 1830 9,600,000 12,800,000 $91,000,000 $48,500,000 No estimate No estimate No estimate No estimate $74,400,000 $62,700,000 1840 17,000,000 $3,500,000 No estimate No estimate $98,200,000 $69,600,000 $71,600,000 $123,600,000 3,000 None Very few No estimate 285,000 None Very few No estimate No estimate No estimate I No estimate No estimate 600,000 No estimate None 900,000 69,000 23 1,800,000 Very few No estimate 35,800,000 84,800,000 377,500,000 2,100,000 100,000 2,81 1850 23,100,000 $63,400,000 No estimate $1,019,100,000 $173,500,000 $144,300,000 6,200,000 Very few No estimate 52,500,000 100,040,000 592,000,000 2,300,000 200,000 9,000 i860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 31,400,000 38,500,000 50,100,000 62,900,000 75,900,000 91,900,000 $64,600,000 $2,046,400,000 $1,723,900,000 $725,300,000 $1,023,400,000 $913,300,000 S^o estimate $1,958,000,000 $2,212,500,000 $2,460,100,000 $3,764,100,000 $8,900,000,000 1,885,800,000 $4,232,300,000 $5,369,500,000 $9,372,400,000 $13,014,200,000 $20,600,000,000 $333,600,000 $435,900,000 $667,900,000 $789,300,000 $849,900,000 $1,556,900,000 $333, Soo.ooo $392,700,000 $835,600,000 $857,800,000 $1,394,400,000 $1,744,900,000 13,000,000 29,400,000 63,800,000 140,800,000 240,700,000 411,400,000 (1909) 21,000,000 220,900,000 1,104,000,000 1,924,500,000 2,672,000,000 7,649,600,000 (1909) Vo estimate 68,000 1,200,000 4,200,000 10,100,000 23.95S.021 (1909) 60,200,000 162,000,000 232,500,000 276,000,000 288,600,000 321,300,000 173,100,000 235,800,000 498,500,000 399,200,000 522,200,000 695,400,000 838,700,000 1,094,200,000 1,717,400,000 1,489,900,000 2,105,100,000 3,125,700,000 4,800,000 3,100,000 5,700,000 7,300,000 9,400,000 11,900,000 400,000 600,000 900,000 1,400,000 2,200,000 3,600,000 30,000 52.000 93.000 166,000 194,000 244,084 (1909 ' Numbers less than ioo,oco not counted. REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS Shorter Histories of the United States (i) Elson, H. W., History of the United States. (2) Epochs of American History — (a) Thwaites, R. G., The Colonies, 1492-1750, (i) Hart, A. B., Formation of the Union, 1750-1829, (c) Wilson, W., Division and Reunion, 1829-1909. (3) Home University Library Series — (a) Andrews, C. M., The Colonial Period, (b) Paxson, F. L., The Civil War, (c) Haworth, P. L., Reconstruction and Reunion — (other volumes for the inter- vening periods will follow). (4) Sparks, E. E., United States of America, 2 vols., emphasis on social and economic side. (5) Wilson, Woodrow, History of the Ameri- can People (published in 5 vols.). Longer Histories Channing, Edward, History of the United States (3 vols., covering the history to 1789). McMaster, History of the People of the United States (8 vols., covering the years 1781 to 1861). Rhodes, J. F., History of the United States (1850 to 1877). None of the longer histories covers the entire history of the United States. The author of the first plans to continue his work to the present time, in 8 vols.; the third to con- tinue his through the period since 1876. The American Nation, edited by A. B. Hart, 27 vols.; the most careful complete history. Each volume treats fully a short period. Fiske, John, historical works: (a) The Discovery of America, 2 vols., (b) The Be- ginnings of New England, (c) Old Virginia and her Neighbors, 2 vols., (d) The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America, 2 vols., (e) The American Revolution, 2 vols., (/) The Critical Period, 1 783-1 789, (g) New France and New England. These are remarkably entertaining and usually trustworthy histories. They deal only with the Colonial and Revolutionary Periods of American History. Parkman, Francis, historical works, (a) Pioneers of France in the New World, (6) The Jesuits in North America, (c) La Salle and the Discovery of the Great W^est, (d) The Old Regime in Canada, (e) Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV, (/) A Half-Century of Conflict, 2 vols., (g) Montcalm and Wolfe, 2 vols., (h) The Conspiracy of Pontiac, 2 vols. A great historical series, devoted chiefly to the French in America. A useful book of selections from Parkman, entitled Francis Parkman, The Struggle for a Continent, has been made by Pelham Edgar. Lummis, C. F., Spanish Pioneers. A short history of the Spanish exploration and colonization in the New World, which treats a subject neglected by the other histories. Coman, Katherine, Economic Beginnings of the West, 2 vols.; (excellent for the early history of the region west of the Mississippi). Special Reading List A brief list of special readings for each chapter is given. The books selected are all adapted to use in the seventh and eighth grades. It is believed that the teacher may wish to suggest some of them to ambitious students for home reading, and sometimes use them for classroom reading or as the basis for classroom stories. The list might be greatly extended. A Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries by Andrews, REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS xvii Gambrill and Tall (Longmans, igi i), gives many more references and further information about those included in this Ust. Chapter I. Discoverers and Explorers Sources. — American History Leaflets, Edward Channing and A. B. Hart, editors. No. I, Account by Columbus of his discovery. No. 13, Coronado's Expedition. Hart, A. B., Source Readers, No. i, p. 4 (Columbus's account of his discovery); p. 10 (Balboa's discovery of the Pacific Ocean); p. 12 (Pizarro's conquest of Peru); p. 16 (De Soto's Expedition); p. 167 (How Raleigh's colony was lost). Hart, Source Book, No. i, p. i (A letter by Columbus describing his discovery); No. 3, p. 6 (Coronado's letter describing to the king his explorations). Old South Leaflets, No. 29, An account of the discovery of America written by the son of Columbus; No. 32, Marco Polo's account of Japan and Java; No. S3, Columbus's letter describing his voyage; No. 35, Cortes's account of the City of Mexico; No. 36, The Death of De Soto according to one of his companions; No. 89, Founding of St. Augustine; No. 102, Columbus's description of Cuba; No. 119, Raleigh's First Roanoke colony. Histories: Johnson, W. H., The World's Discoverers. Describes especially the search for the western route to the Indies. Johnson, W. H., Pioneer Spaniards in North America. King, Grace, De Soto and his Men in the Land of Florida. Lawler, T. B., The Story of Columbus and Magellan, pp. 1-13 (The Portuguese explorers); pp. 14-65 (Columbus); pp. 94-144 (Magellan). Lummis, C. F., Spanish Pioneers (especially the chapters on Coliunbus, Making Geography, and Girdle round the World). McMurry, C. A., Pioneers on Land and Sea, pp. 47-67 (Raleigh); 122-160 (Colum- bus); 161-186 (Magellan), 186-222 (Cortes). Ober, F. A., Heroes of American History, 7 vols., (a) Columbus, the Discoverer, (b) Hernando Cortes, Cotiqueror of Mexico, (c) Pizarro and the Conquest of Peru, (d) Ferdinand de Soto and the Invasion of Florida, (e) Vasco Nunez Balboa, (/) Ferdinand Magellan, (g) Amerigo Vespucci, (h) Juan Ponce de Leon, John and Sebastian Cabot, and Sir Walter Raleigh. Winterbum, Rosa V., The Spanish in the Southwest (The stories of Cortes, Coro- nado, and the Seven Cities of Cibola). Chapter II. Gaining a Foothold on the Atlantic Shore Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. i, p. 25 (Description of a sea voyage to America, 1629). Hart, Source Book, No. 5, p. 11 (Captain Newport's explorations up the James River, 1607). Old South Leaflets, No. 91, The Founding of Quebec, 1608; No. 94, The Discovery of the Hudson River. Histories. — Johnson, W. H., Pioneers of France in North America (Champlain). McMurry, C. A., Pioneers on Land and Sea, pp. 1-34 (Champlain), pp. 35-46 (Hudson) . Sedgwick, H. D., Samuel de Champlain. Chapter III. Exploring the Mississippi Valley Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. i, pp. 55, 91, 95 (How the Indians lived); No. 2, pp. 85-89 (How the Indians build birch-bark canoes). Hart, Source Book, No. 6, p. 14 (Champlain's account of his expedition against the Iroquois), No. 9, p. 23 (Indian Ufe), No. 36, p. 96 (Description of La Salle's expedition written by one of his companions). McKinley's Illustrated Topics for American History, Topic U 9 (Description of La Salle's expedition written by one of his companions) . xviii REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS Old South Leaflets, No. 87, Manners and Customs of the Indians; No. 46, Father Marquette at Chicago. Histories. — Baldwin, James, The Discovery of the Old Northwest (especially for stories of Joliet, Marquette, La Salle, the work of the Jesuit fathers, and the hfe of the voyageurs and coureurs de bois). Catherwood, Mary H., Heroes of the Middle West. Hazard, Blanche E., and Button, S. T., Indians and Pioneers, pp. 36-88 (How the Indians lived). Johnson, W. H., French Pathfinders in North America. McMurry, C. A., Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley, pp. 1-15 (Marquette), pp. 16- 53 (La Salle). Starr, Frederick, American Indians. Thwaites, R. G., Father Marquette; also same author's Badger State, 24-60 (French pioneers in Wisconsin). Chapter IV. The Founding of Virginia Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. i, pp. 08-104 (Pocahontas and her people). Hart, Source Book, No. 10, p. 26 (The requirements of an emigrant to Virginia in 1634); No. 13, p. ii (Captain John Smith's account of settlement of Virginia). American History Leaflets, Channing and Hart, editors, No. 27 (Captain John Smith's account of the settlement of Virginia). McKinley, Illustrated Topics for American History, Topic U 6 (An account of the first representative assembly in America). Old South Leaflets, No. 167, Captain John Smith's account of the settlement of Virginia. Histories. — Chandler, J. A. C, Makers of Virginia. Cooke, J. E., Stories of the Old Dominion. Eggleston, Edward, Our First Century, pp. 21-60. Johnson, Eleanor H., Boys' Life of Captain John Smith. Tappan, Eva March, Letters from Colonial Children, pp. 1-30 (Imaginary letters to describe life in early Virginia). Chapter V. Exiles for Conscience Sake at Plymouth Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. i, pp. 133-136 (Bradford's account of the settlement of Plymouth). Hart, Source Book, p. 30, No. 15 (Bradford's account of the settlement of Plymouth). Hart, History Told by Contemporaries, vol. i, No. loi, p. 356 (Governor Winslow's account of an early Thanksgiving); Nos. 99 and 100, pp. 345 and 349 (Bradford's The First Landing and Life in a Pilgrim Colony). Channing and Hart, American History Leaflets, No. 29 (Bradford's account of the settlement of Plymouth). New York Historical Society, Collections, Second Series, vol. ii, p. 351 (A very interesting description of Plymouth in 1627). Old South Leaflets, No. 121, Captain Jojin Smith's Description of New England; No. 153, Bradford's account of the Voyage of the Mayflower. Histories. — Brooks, E. S., Stories of the Old Bay State. Drake, S. A., Making of New England. Eggleston, Edward, Our First Century, pp. 61-72 (Founding Plymouth). McMurry, C. A., Pioneers on Land and Sea, pp. 108-121 (Captain John Smith's description of New England). Tappan, Eva March, Letters from Colonial Children, pp. 85-127 (Imaginary letters describing early life at Plymouth). Tiffany, Nina Moore, Pilgrims and Puritans. Longfellow's Courtship of Miles Standish and Webster's Plymouth Oration. REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS xix Chapter VI. The Beginnings of New England Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. i, p. 136 (An account of the settlement of* Boston). Hart, Source Book, No. 17, p. 45 (A description of the settlement of the towns on Mas- sachusetts Bay); No. 28, p. 74 (Winthrop's Account of Founding New England); No. 29, p. 77 (Description of a Puritan Church service). » Histories. — ■ Brooks, E. S., Stories of the Old Bay State. Burton, Alma H., The Story of the Indians of New England. Drake, S. A., The Making of New England. Eggleston, Edward, Our First Century, pp. 73-81 (Founding the Massachusetts towns); 89-gs (Migration from Massachusetts to Connecticut and Rhode Island); pp. 96-100 (The Confederation of New England). Fassett, James H., Colonial Life in New Hampshire. Hawthorne, Grandfather's Chair, pp. 5-14 (A story of life during the settlement of the Massachusetts Bay towns); pp. 15-23 (Roger Williams and other emigrants from Massachusetts). Tappan, Eva March, Letters from Colonial Children, pp. 156-188 (Imaginary letters describing early life in New England). Tiffany, Nina Moore, Pilgrims and Puritans. Chapter VII. Maryland, A Refuge for English Catholics Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. i, p. 143 (Father White's account of the settlement of Maryland). Hart, Source Book, No. 18, p. 48 (A description of Maryland in 1679 by a traveler). Old South Leaflets, No. 170, Story of Maryland as told by the Colonists. Histories. — Eggleston, Edward, Our First Century, pp. 106-111 (Early Maryland). Gambrill, J. M., Leading Events of Maryland Historyi Passano, L. M., Maryland: Stories of Her People and Her History. Tappan, Eva March, Letters from Colonial Children, pp. 128-155 (Imaginary Letters describing Ufe in Maryland.) Chapter VIII. Dutch and English Rivalries. Beginning of a Great State Sources. — -Hart, Source Book, p. 42, No. 16 (A description of the settlement of New Amsterdam); No. 22, p. 58 (New York in 1678); No. 32, p. 85 (Life in a Dutch town, 1647-58). McKinley's Illustrated Topics for American History, Topic U 8 (A description of New York in 1670 and how to settle there). Old South Leaflets, No. 69, A Description of New Netherland in 1655. Histories. — • Eggleston, Edward, Our First Century, pp. 101-105 (Conquest of New Netherland by the English). Redway, J. W., The Making of the Empire State (New York). Southworth, Gertrude V. D., The Story of the Empire State. Tappan, Eva March, Letters from Colonial Children, pp. 188-232 (Imaginary letters describing life in New Netherland) . Chapter IX. The Second Great Emigration Sources. ■ — ■ Hart, Source Readers, No. i, pp. 144-148 {.\ description of Pennsylvania in 1698); No. 2, pp. 1-3 (Letter from an early Quaker colonist). Hart, Source Book, No. 23, p. 62, (A proprietor's offers for colonists in New Jersey); No. 25, p. 67 (Pennsylvania in 1697). Old South Leaflets, No. 95, A Description of Pennsylvania in 1700; No. 171, Perm's Description of Pennsylvania, 1683. XX REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS Sharpless, Isaac, A Quaker Experiment in Government, pp. 84-86 (A very inter- esting letter from a little girl describing life in Pennsylvania in 1685). Histories. — Alderman, Edwin A., A Brief History of North Carolina. Chandler, J. A. C, Makers of Virginia History (Virginia during the Common- wealth period, 164Q-1660). Cooke, J. E., Stories of the Old Dominion. Eggleston, Edward, Our First Century, pp. 1 15-138 (Peopling Carolina, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania). Hodges, George, William Penn (In Riverside Biographical Series). McCorkle, Lutie A., Old Time Stories of the Old North State (North CaroHna). Means, SeHna E., Palmetto Stories (South Carolina). Ober, Frederick A., The Storied West Indies (Buccaneers and Treasure Seekers). Stockton, Frank R., Stories of New Jersey. Tappan, Eva March, Letters from Colonial Children, pp. 233-88 (Imaginary letters describing early life in New Jersey and Pennsylvania) . Thomas, A. C, A History of Pennsylvania. Walton, J. S., and Brumbaugh, M. G., Stories of Pennsylvania. White, H. A., The Making of South Carolina. Chapter X. The French Rivals Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. 2, pp. 122-124 (Founding New Orleans). Hart, Source Book, No. 37, p. 98 (The destruction of Deerfield, 1704); No. 38, p. 100 (The French fur trade with the Indians). Histories. — Baldwin, James, The Discovery of the Old Northwest, pp. 237-250 (French settlements; A day in a French village). Bourinot, J. G., The Story of Canada. Colby, C. W., Canadian Types of the Old Regime. Eggleston, Edward, Our First Century, pp. 160-170 (The French in America). Magruder, Harriet, A History of Louisiania. Tappan, Eva March, Letters from Colonial Children, pp. 40-84 (Imaginary letters describing life in early history of Canada). Thwaites, R. G., Stories of the Badger State, pp. 70-91 (French days in Wisconsin) Chapter XI. The Making of New Frontiers Sources. — Hart, History Told by Contemporaries, vol. ii. No. 29, pp. 77 (The story of the "Poor Palatines" in New York); No. 40, p. 114 (Germans in Georgia). Hanna, C. A., The Scotch-Irish, vol. ii, pp. 26-28, 64-67 (Letters from Scotch-Iri.sh colonists) . Histories. — Chapelle, J. H., Georgia History Stories. Eggleston, Edward, Life in the Eighteenth Century, pp. 32-39 (Founding Georgia). Harris, J. C, Stories of Georgia. Massey, Katherine B., and Wood, Laura G. The Story of Georgia. Tappan, Letters from Colonial Children, pp. 289-319 (Imaginary letters describing life in early Georgia). Walton and Brumbaugh, Stories of Pennsylvania, pp. 45-47 (Germans in Pennsyl- vania) . Chapter XII. How the Colonists Lived Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. i, p. 67 (Traveling in colonial days); pp. 149-152 (Plantation life in Virginia); pp. 152-155 (Puritan amusements); pp. 157-159 (Slavery in the colonies); pp. 192-6 (Life of young people in New Hampshire); pp. 201- 33 (Colonial schools). No. 2, pp. 32-4 (A witchcraft trial, 1730); pp. 52-6 (Colonial newspaper advertisements); pp. 59-61 (Life in Boston, 1750). REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS xxi Hart, Source Book, No. 31, p. 82 (A witch trial, 1692); p. 91, No. 34 (Plantation life in Virginia, 1648); No. 44, p. 115 (Social life in Philadelphia, 1744); No. 45, p. 117 (A description of New York, 1748). McKinley's Illustrated Topics for American History, Topic U 10 (Some famous English laws affecting trade and industry in the colonies) . Histories. — Earle, Alice Morse, Child Life in Colonial Days. Also, same author's Home Life in Colonial Days, Costume in Colonial Times, and Diary of Anna Green Winslow, a Boston School Girl in 1771. Eggleston, Edward, Our First Century, pp. 180-186 (Early colonial industry); pp. 187-191 (Early colonial manufactures); pp. 192-203 (Education, religion, and mar- riages); pp. 204-218 (Life in the early colonies); pp. 219-228 (White and black slavery); pp. 229-238 (Dress, sports, and Sunday customs); pp. 239-242 (Superstitions and witch- craft); pp. 243-253 (Commerce, trade, and piracy). Eggleston, Edward, Life in the Eighteenth Century, pp. 39-51 (Life in Georgia and the Carolinas); pp. 209-243 (Education and customs). Fassett, J. H., Colonial Life in New Hampshire. Hawthorne, Grandfather's Chair, pp. 74-79 (The Salem witches); pp. 80-85 (The old-fashioned school). Jenks, Tudor, When America was New. Sparks, E. E., Expansion of the American People, Chapters 4-5 (Life in the Eng- lish colonies). Stone G. L., and Fickett, M. G., Everyday Life in the Colonies. Chapter XIII. How the Colonies were Governed Sources. — Hart, Source Book, No. 50, p. 128 (A description of the colonial govern- ment of New York, 1748); No. 52, p. 132 (An account of a town-meeting in Boston, 1729). McKinley's Illustrated Topics for American History, Topic U 12 (Many examples of colonial methods of punishment). Histories. — Earle, Alice Morse, Curious Punishments of Bygone Days. Eggleston, Edward, Our First Century, pp. 139-159 (Early rebellion for the right). Chapter XIV. Conquest of the French Colonies in America Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. 2, pp. 94-100 (Pontiac's attempt to capture Detroit); pp. 138-141 (Braddock's defeat); pp. 146-150 (The capture of Quebec). Hart, Source Book, No. 39, p. 103 (Washington's letter to his mother describing Braddock's defeat); No. 40, p. 105 (The capture of Quebec). Robinson, J. H., and Beard, C. A., Readings in Modern European History, I, No. 62, A French account of Braddock's defeat; No. 64, Quebec. McKinley's Illustrated Topics for American History, Topic U 11 (Washington's journey to the French forts, 1753-1754, from his journal). Histories. — Baldwin, James, The Conquest of the Old Northwest, pp. 11-144. Cooke, J. E., Stories of the Old Dominion, pp. 94-123 (Washington, the surveyor); pp. 122-139 (Braddock's defeat). Dickson, Marguerite, A Hundred Years of W^arfare, 1680-1789. Drake, S. A., Border Wars of New England (For accounts of the wars of King Wil- liam and Queen Anne in the colonies) . Jenks, Tudor, When America Won Liberty. Longfellow's Evangeline (The Acadians), and Hawthorne's Grandfather's Chair, pp. 1 18-136 (The Acadian exiles and the Old French War); well known and famous accounts. Sparks, E. E., Expansion of the American People, ch. 6 (Struggle for the Mississippi VaUey). xxii REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS Chapter XV. Why the English Colonists became Revolutionists Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. 2, pp. 157-158 (Protest of a town-meeting against the Stamp Act); pp. 158-162 (Franklin's statements to Parliament about taxation); pp. 162-4 (A newspaper account of the Boston Tea Party). Hart, Source Book, No. 53, p. 137 (The Boston Tea Party). Robinson and Beard, Readings, No. 65 (The Boston Tea Party). McKinley's Illustrated Topics for American History, Topic U 13 (The work of the First Continental Congress, from its records). Old South Leaflets, No. 68, Governor Hutchinson's account of the Boston Tea Party. Histories. — Cooke, J. E., Stories of the Old Dominion, pp. 162-218. Eggleston, Edward, Life in the Eighteenth Century, pp. 1 13-124 (James Otis); pp. 145-155 (Patrick Henry). Hawthorne, Grandfather's Chair, pp. 152-157 (Stamp Act); i68-i8i (British troops in Boston); 189-194 (The Boston Tea Party). Jenks, Tudor, When America Won Liberty, pp. 165-209. Tiffany, Nina Moore, From Colony to Commonwealth (Massachusetts). Chapter XVL The Outbreak of War Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. 2, pp. 257-269 (A contemporary description of the battle of Lexington), pp. 261-266 (Washington's letter describing the taking of Boston) . Hart, Source Book, No. 57, p. 144 (The battle of Lexington). Old South Leaflets, No. 47 (Washington's account of the army at Cambridge). Histories. — Dickson, Marguerite, A Hundred Years of Warfare (1680-1789). Fiske, John, The War of Independence. Hawthorne, Grandfather's Chair, pp. 195-201 (The siege of Boston); 202-208 (Loyalists going into exile) . Jenks, Tudor, When America Won Liberty, pp. 209-245. Scudder, H. E., George Washington (Washington's part). Swett, Sophie, Stories of Maine, pp. 197-204 (The burning of Falmouth). Tiffany, Nina Moore, From Colony to Commonwealth. Chapter XVII. The Birth of a Nation Sources. — Hart, Sources Readers, No. 2, pp. 172-175 (John Adams's letter about Independence) . Hart, Source Book, No. 58, p. 147 (John Adams's account of drafting the Declaration of Independence). Histories. — Collins, E. D., A History of Vermont (The share of the Green Mountain settlers in the Burgoyne campaign) . Dickson, Marguerite, A Hundred Years of Warfare. Drake, S. A., Decisive Events in American History, vol. ii (Burgoyne's Invasion of 1777); vol. iii (The Campaign of Trenton, 1776-7). Fassett, J. H., Colonial Life in New Hampshire, pp. 103-1 19 (Burgoyne's campaign). Jenks, Tudor, When America Won Liberty. Lodge, H. C, and Roosevelt, T., Hero Tales, pp. 43-55 (Battle of Trenton); pp. 57-67 (Bennington). Price, Lillian M., Lads and Lassies of Other Days (Letitia and the Redcoats, being a story of the Revolutionary period in New Jersey). Redway, J. W., The Making of the Empire State (Burgoyne's invasion). Scudder, H. E., George Washington (Washington's part in the war). Stockton, F. R., Stories of New Jersey (The war in New Jersey). Walton and Brumbaugh, Stories of Pennsylvania (The war in Pennsylvania). REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS xxiii Chapter XVIII. Life in War Times Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. 2, pp. 101-106 (Boone's life on the frontier, 1769-75); pp. 218-220 (High prices in paper money); 237-242 (Camp life at Valley Forge); p. 252 (Camp fare in 1779). Old South Leaflets, No. 43, George Rogers Clark's accoimt of the capture of Vin- cennes. Hulbert, A. B., Historic Highways, vol. vi, p. 107 (The journal of a western settler). Histories. — Baldwin, James, Conquest of the Old Northwest, pp. 145-178 (Clark and the winning of the Northwest). Bass, Florence, Stories of Pioneer Life (Boone). Dickson, Marguerite, A Hundred Years of Warfare. Drake, S. A., The Making of the Great West. Dunn, J.* P., Jr., Indiana, pp. 85-131 (Life in the French villages of the Illinois country); pp. 131-176 (George Rogers Clark's expedition). Jenks, Tudor, When America Won Liberty. Lodge and Roosevelt, Hero Tales, pp. 19-28 (Daniel Boone); pp. 31-41 (George Rogers Clark). McMurry, C. A., Pioneers of the Mississippi, pp. 6S-83 (Boone); pp. 84-123. (Robertson and Sevier, the pioneers in Tennessee); pp. 124-149 (George Rogers Clark). Roosevelt, Stories of the Great West, pp. 3-12 (Boone and founding Kentucky); PP- 15-51 (The backwoodsmen of the AUeghanies); pp. 55-65 (Clark). Scudder, H. E., George Washington. Chapter XIX. How the French helped the Colonists Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. 2, pp. 244-249 (A French visitor's account of Washington's camp in 1780); pp. 301-306 (Dangers of ocean travel during the Revolu- tion) ; pp. 307-309 (The siege of Yorktown) . Old South Leaflets, No. 97, Lafayette in the American Revolution; No. 98 Letters of Washington and Lafayette; No. 152, Paul Jones's account of the battle between the Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis. Robinson and Beard, No. 68, Comwallis's account of Yorktown. Histories. — Alderman, E. A., A Brief History of North Carolina. Burton, Alma HoLman, Lafayette, the Friend of American Liberty. Chandler, J. A. C, Makers of Virginia History. Cooke, J. E., Stories of the Old Dominion. Dickson, Marguerite, A Hundred Years of Warfare. Hapgood, Hutchins, Paul Jones. Harris, J. C, Stories of Georgia, pp. 41-119 (The war in the South). Jenks, Tudor, When America Won Liberty, pp. 245-269 (The Revolution, 1779- 1783). Lodge and Roosevelt, Hero Tales from American History, pp. 71-78 (The battle of King's Mountain) . McCorkle, Lutie Andrews, Old Time Stories of the Old North State. McMaster, J. B., With the Fathers, pp. 253-270 (Franklin in France); pp. 271-2S0 (How the British left New York). Means, Celina E., Palmetto Stories. More, Paul E., Benjamin Franklin (Riverside Biographical Series). Price, Lillian M., Lads and Lassies of Other Days (The Legs of Duncan Ketcham, a story of the British evacuation of New York). Scudder, H. E., George Washington. Seawell, Molly E.. Twelve Naval Captains (Paul Jones). xxiv REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS Chapter XX. The Difficulties of the New Republic Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. 3, pp. 47-50 (The pioneer), pp. 84-85 (A tavern in 1788), pp. 85-87 (A day traveling in a stage coach), pp. 92-96 (Traveling by canoe in western New York, 1796), pp. 97-98 (A journey on an Ohio flatboat), pp. 109-1 17 (Early voyages on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers), pp. 224-228 (Asea voyage in 1784). Hart, Source Book, No. 67, pp. 169-172 (Manasseh Cutler's history of the North- west Ordinance) . Histories. — -James Baldwin, Conquest of the Old Northwest, pp. 179-186 (The Magna Charla of the Northwest), pp. 187-194 (The first American colony in the West), pp. 230-239 (Pioneers in the Ohio Country). Bolton and Barker, The Makers of Texas. S. A. Drake, The Making of the Ohio Valley States, pp. 133-139 (An Old Kentucky home), 142-144 (The Ohio pilgrims), pp. 153-160 (Marietta), pp. 161-167 (Founding Cincinnati), pp. 196-199 (The Western Reserve). Earle, Alice M., Stage Coach and Tavern Days, pp. 253-264 (Early Stage-Coaches) . Elson, H. W., A Child's Guide to American History, pp. 104-124 (For an account of the settlement of the Ohio Valley). Howells, W. D., Stories of Ohio, especially pp. 153-170 (Life in the backwoods), pp. 1 71-182 (The first settlements in Ohio). Lummis, C. F., Spanish Pioneers (Pioneer missionaries and church builders in New Mexico). Sexton, E. M., Stories of California, pp. 8-20 (Story of the missions). Sparks, E. E., Expansion of the American People, chs. 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 (National boundaries of the public domain; The beginnings of Kentucky and Teimessee; Organization of system of public lands; Peopling of the Northwest. Stone and Fickett, Days and Deeds a Hundred Years Ago (Especially "Old Cones- toga Wagon," and "Early Mail Carrier"). Chapter XXI. Starting the New Government Sources. — Hart, Source Book, No. 68, pp. 172-175 (Some objections to the new Constitution), No. 71, pp. 181-183 (An account of launching the new government). Histories. — Drake, S. A., The Making of the Ohio Valley States, pp. 200-205 (Ohio becomes a state). Conant, C. A., Alexander Hamilton (Riverside Biographical Series). Elson, H. W., Side Lights on .\merican History, pp. 37-53 (Framing the Constitu- tion), pp. 54-64 (Beginning the New Government). Jenks, T., When America Became a Nation, pp. 1-15 (The beginning of a stronger government) . Scudder, H. E., Life of George Washington, pp. 219-225 (Washington and the con- vention at Philadelphia), pp. 226-242 (Washington as President). Sparks, E. E., Expansion of the American People, ch. 15 (Locating the capitol). Stone and Fickett, Days and Deeds a Hundred Years Ago. Chapter XXIL The United States and Europe Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. 3, pp. 45-47 (A visit to Mt. Vernon), pp. 58- 61 (A Boy Bound Out to Service). Robinson and Beard, Readings, Nos. 69, 71, 72. Histories. — Guerber, H. A., The Story of Modern France (The French Revolution). Harding, S. B. and W. F., The Story of England, pp. 308-324 (England and the French Revolution). Harris, J. C, Stories of Georgia, pp. 154-162 (The cotton-gin). REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS xxv McMaster, History of the People of the United States, vol. i, pp. 95-98 (Homes and clothing of the laborers) . Mowry, W. A. and A. M., American Inventions and Inventors, pp. 143-147 (Colonial ways of making clothing), pp. 148-152 (The cotton-gin), pp. 152-157 (Samuel Slater) . Scudder, H. E., Life of George Washington, pp. 242-248 (End of life). Stone and Pickett, Days and Deeds a Hundred Years Ago (For cotton growing) . Chapter XXIII. Rule of Jefferson: A New West Sources. — Hart, Source Book, pp. 228-231 (Thomas Jefiferson), 206-209 (Lewis and Clark). Hart, History Told by Contemporaries, vol. iii, pp. 331-333 (The new capital in 1800). Old South Leaflets, vol. v. No. 105, A description of Louisiana in 1803. Histories. — Elson, H. W., Side Lights on American History, pp. 99-116 (Lewis and Clark's expedition) . Hitchcock, Ripley, The Louisiana Purchase, pp. 45-53 (Spanish occupation of New Orleans), pp. 54-63 (Napoleon's Louisiana plan), pp. 64-94 (The purchase of Louisiana), pp. 97-198 (Exploring Louisiana), pp. 199-207 (Pike's expedition.) Hosmer, J. K., The Louisiana Purchase. Humphreys, M. G., Boys' Story of Zebulon Pike. Kingsley, Eleanor P., The Story of Lewis and Clark. Lighton, W. R., Lewis and Clark (In Riverside Biographical Series). McMurry, C. A., Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the West, pp. 1-40 (Lewis and Clark). Merwin, H. C, Life of Thomas Jefferson (In the Riverside Biographical Series). Roosevelt, T., Stories of the Great West, pp. 69-94 (Lewis and Clark). Sparks, E. E., Expansion of the American People, chs. 16, 17 (Louisiana). Thwaites, R. G., Brief History of Rocky Mountain Exploration. Chapter XXIV. The United States and the Napoleonic Wars Sources. — -Hart, Source Book, No. 76, pp. 194-196 (A case of impressment). No. 81, pp. 209-211 (.\n opponent's view of effect of Embargo), No. 83, pp. 214-216 (Madi- son's reasons for the War of 181 2). Hart, History Told by Contemporaries, vol. iii, p. 389 (An account of a search). Histories. — Tomlinson, E. T., The War of 1812. Chapter XXV. The War of 1812 Sources. — Hart, Source Book, pp. 218-220 (The Capture of Washington). Seawell, Molly E., Twelve Great Naval Captains (Isaac Hull, Oliver Perry, Thomas Macdonough, and James Lawrence). Brown, W. G., Life of Andrew Jackson (In the Riverside Biographical Series). Duncan, R. B., Brave Deeds of American Sailors, pp. 107-136 (Perry's victory on Lake Erie), pp. 137-172 (Story of the Essex). Histories. — Tomlinson, E. T., The War of 1812. Chapter XXVI. New Work and New Routes Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. 3, pp. 99-102 (An early steamboat), pp. 102- 104 (A trip on the Erie Canal, 1825). Histories. — Brigham, A. P., From Trail to Railway, pp. 40-52 (Erie Canal), pp. 63-73 (The route from Philadelphia to the West), pp. 86-97 (The National Road). Charming and Lansing, Story of the Great Lakes, 251-265 (The Erie Canal). xxvi REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS Drake, S. A., The Making of the Ohio Valley States, pp. 229-232 (The National Road), pp. 233-235 (The first steamboat), pp. 236-239 (The Erie Canal). Earle, Mrs. Alice M., Stage-Coach and Tavern Days. Elson, H. W., Side Lights on American History, vol. i, pp. 82-95 (Fulton and the steamboat). Mowry, W. A. and A. M., American Inventions and Inventors, pp. 158-163 (Making woolen clothing), pp. 200-206 (Stage-coaches), pp. 207-214 (Steamboats), pp. 215-222 (The Erie Canal). Sparks, E. E., Expansion of the American People, ch. 12 (Journeying to the Ohio Country); ch. 22 (The Cumberland National Road and the Erie Canal). Stone and Fickett, Days and Deeds a Hundred Years Ago (The Conestoga wagon. The first steamboat). Chapter XXVII. The March of Population Westward Sources. ■ — • Hart, Source Readers, No. 3, pp. 132-134 (What became of the buffalo in the Old Northwest?), pp. 143-153, (The Pioneer and his Work), No. 4, pp. 1-3 (Life on a plantation). Hart, Source Book, No. 92, pp. 237-240 (A settler in Illinois), No. 91 (The Missouri Compromise) . Hart, History Told by Contemporaries, vol. iii, 463-467 (People in the West, 1817). Those who have access to the Reports of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. iii, p. 90, and vol. x, p. 305, or to Phillips, American Industrial Society, vol. ii, p. 185, will find interesting descriptions of the life of the pioneer in the Old Southwest. Histories. — - Baldwin, James, Conquest of the Old Northwest, pp. 213-240 (Pioneers in Indiana) . Baldwin James, Life of Abraham Lincoln. Brooks, E. S., True Story of Abraham Lincoln. Butterworth, H., South America: a History of the Struggle for Liberty in the Andean Republics and Cuba. Dodd, W. E., Jefferson Davis (Crisis Biographies). Drake, S. A., The Making of the Ohio Valley States, pp. 239-244 (Indiana), 245-246 (Emigrants on the prairies), 246-254 (Ilhnois and Michigan). Elson, H. W., Side Lights on American History, vol. i, pp. 148-166 (The Missouri Compromise), pp. 167-192 (The Monroe Doctrine). Howells, W. D., Stories of Ohio, pp. 201-21 1 (Roads and canals of Ohio). Lodge and Roosevelt, Hero Tales, pp. 323-335 (Early life of Lincoln). McMurry, C. A., Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley, pp. 170-184 (Lincoln's early life). Moores, C. W., The Life of Lincoln. Musick, J. R., Stories of Missouri. Nicolay, Helen, The Boys' Life of Abraham Lincoln. Perry, Frances M., and Elson, Henry W., Four Great American Presidents, vol. i. Riley, F. L., School History of Mississippi. Sparhawk, Frances Campbell, A Life of Lincoln for Boys. Sparks, E. E., Expansion of the American People, ch. 13 (Pioneer life in the Ohio Valley), ch 18 (The Gulf Possessions). Thompson, Maurice, Stories of Indiana, pp. 95-104 (Flat-boat days), pp. 82-94 (An itinerant preacher), pp. 208-227 (Canals and plank roads). Chapter XXVIII. Government by the People Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. 3, pp. 28-31 (Anecdotes of Daniel Webster). Histories. — Brown, Wm. G., Life of Andrew Jackson (Riverside Biographical Series) . Elson, H. W., Side Lights on American History, vol. i, pp. 223-240 (An old time political campaign). REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS xxvii Guerber, H. A., The Story of France (Reform period in France). Harding, S. B. and W. F., The Story of England, pp. 325-336 (The period of reform in England). Perry, Frances M., and Elson, Henry W., Four Great American Presidents, vol. i (Jackson) . Sparks, E. E., Men Who Made the Nation. Chapter XXIX. Problems of the New Democracy Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. 3, pp. 329-334 (College life in 1820), pp. 341- 347i 359^362 (Rural Schools). Hart, History Told by Contemporaries, vol. iii, pp. 561-571 (Railroads and travel). Histories. — Brown, Andrew Jackson (In Riverside Biographical Series). Brigham, A. P., From Trail to Railway, pp. 53-62 (Beginning of the New York Central Railroad), pp. 98-110 (Beginning of the Baltimore and Ohio). Howells, W. D., Stories of Ohio, pp. 201-217 (Early raihoads in Ohio). Mowry, W. A. and A. M., American Inventions and Inventors, pp. 223-228 (Rail- roads) . Sparks, E. E., Expansion of the American People, ch. 14 (Evidences of the higher life of the people), ch. 23 (Steamboats and railroads in the Middle West). Stone and Fickett, Days and Deeds a Hundred Years Ago (The first locomotive). Thompson, M., Stories of Indiana, pp. 22S-247 (Birth and growth of free schools). Williams, S., Some Successful Americans (Peter Cooper, Mary Lyon, Horace Greeley) . Charles Dickens, Little Dorritt (a story of imprisonment for debt in England), and Edward Eggleston, Hoosier Schoolmaster (a story of the rural schools of America), are famous works of fiction. Chapter XXX. Neighboring Countries Bring on New Questions Sources. — Hart, Source Book, pp. 268-271 (On the Oregon Trail, 1846). Hart, Source Readers, No. 3, pp. 166-168 (On the Oregon Trail). Histories. — ■ Bolton, H. E., and Barker, E. C. With the Makers of Texas. Davis, Mary E., Under Six Flags: The Story of Texas. Hitchcock, R., The Louisiana Purchase, pp. 208-238 (The trails). Littlejohn, Texas History Stories, pp. 81-103 (Stephen Austin), 103-133 (Sam Houston), 133-147 (David Crockett), pp. 151-163 (The Alamo), 175-193 (Story of San Jacinto) . McMurry, C. A., Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the West, 165-200 (Park- man's life in an Indian village of the West). Musick, J. R., Stories of Missouri. Parkman, Oregon Trail (Several editions, especially one edited by William EUery Leonard) . Reynolds, J. S., Makers of Arkansas History. Roosevelt, T., Stories of the Great West (The story of the Alamo). Sabin, Henry, The Making of Iowa. Sparks, E. E., Expansion of American People, ch. 25 (The Oregon expansion), ch. 26 (The acquisition of Texas). Chapter XXXI. How the United States Won the Pacific Ocean Sources. — Hart, Source Book, pp. 276-279 (The gold fields in California). Hart, History Told by Contemporaries, vol. iv, p. 11 (On the coast of California, 183s). P- 26 (A young officer in the War with Mexico — -Ulysses Simpson Grant), p. 28 (The capture of the City of Mexico), p. 43 (A Forty-niner). xxviii REFERENCES f6r TEACHERS Histories. — Bolton and Barker, With the Makers of Texas. Davis, Mary E., Under Six Flags: The Story of Texas. Drake, S. A., The Making of the Great West, pp. 248-288. Elson, H. W., Side Lights on American History, vol. i, 241-262 (Discovery of gold in California. McMurry, C. A., Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the Great West, pp. 60-94 (Over the Oregon and California Trail), 94-113 (Discovery of gold, Trip to California in '49). Sexton, Ella M., Stories of California, pp. 37-57 (Days of gold and the "Forty- niners"), 57-67 (How Polly Elliott came across the plains), pp. 67-79 (Building the Overland Road). Sparks, E.E., Expansion of the American People, chs. 27, 28 (The acquisition of California and discovery of gold). Winterburn, Rosa V., The Spanish in the Southwest. Chapter XXXII. A Great Domain, New Tools and Willing Hands Sources. — Hart, Source Readers, No. 3, pp. 265-270 (Reception of Perry in Japan, 1852), No. 4, pp. 9-13 (A Southern home), pp. 29-39, 57-s8 (Buying one's self), pp. 41-45 (A poor white's opinion of slavery). Hart, Source Book, pp. 242-244 (Arguments for abolition of slavery), pp. 244-248 (A defense of slavery), pp. 255-257 (A slave's story), pp. 260-263 (A fugitive's story). Hart, History Told by Contemporaries, vol. iii, pp. 571-573 (The first telegraph line) . Histories. — Channing, E., and Lansing, M. F., The Story of the Great Lakes, pp. 266-282 (The Great Lakes in 1840), pp. 283-298 (Coming of the railroad to Lake Erie), pp. 330-355 (The great industries of the Lakes). Mowry, W. A. and A. M., American Inventions and Inventors, pp. 51-57 (Matches), 81-84 (Gas), 1 17-123 (The new farm implements), pp. 172-177 (The sewing-machine), pp. 265-277 (The telegraph). Reynolds, J. S., Makers of Arkansas History. Sabin, Henry, The Making of Iowa. Thwaites, R. G, Stories of the Badger State (Wisconsin). Williams, S., Some Successful Americans (Cyrus McCormick). Chapter XXXIII. The Question of Slavery Sources. — Hart, Source Reader, No. 4, pp. 51-56 (The Underground Railroad), PP- S9~67 (Fugitives), pp. 71-74 (John Brown's raid). Hart, Source Book, pp. 279-281 (The Compromise of 1850), pp. 282-284 (Rescue of a slave), pp. 287-289 (The Kansas troubles), pp. 294-296 (John Brown's last speech). Histories. — Alderman, E. A., A Brief History of North Carolina. Brown, W. G, Stephen A. Douglas (In Riverside Biographical Series). Channing and Lansing, Story of the Great Lakes (Lincoln and Douglas in Chicago). Dodd, W. E., Life of Jefferson Davis. Drake, S. A., The Making of the Great West, pp. 290-307 (The Struggle for Kansas). Elson, H. W., Side Lights on American History, vol. i, pp. 263-293 (The Underground Railroad), pp. 294-309 (The Kansas and Nebraska Bill), pp. 310-336 (The Lincoln- Douglas debate). Howells, W. D., Stories of Ohio, pp. 218-227 (Fugitive slaves and the Underground Railroad) . Harris, J. C, Stories of Georgia, 250-271 (The slave question in Georgia). Means, C. E., Palmetto Stories (South Carolina). Moores, C. W., The Life of Abraham Lincoln. Massey and Wood, The Story of Georgia. REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS xxix Nicolay, Helen, The Boys' Life of Abraham Lincoln. Riley, F. L., School History of Mississippi. Sparhawk, Frances C, A Life of Lincoln for Boys. Sparks, E. E., Expansion of the American People, ch. 2g (The Struggle for Kansas and Nebraska) . Williams, S., Successful Americans (Abraham Lincoln, Horace Greeley, Alexander H. Stephens, and Henry Clay). Chapter XXXIV. A Divided Nation Sources. — Hart, Source Book, pp. 303-305 (Rousing the North), pp. 308-311 (The Southern soldier). Hart, Source Readers, No. 4, pp. 119-124 (A soldier's life in camp), pp. 136-9 (Off for the front), pp. 139-144 (The innocent deserter), pp. 144-155 (The scout), pp. 156- 159 (The guilty deserter), and many other stories, especially pp. 220-230 (On tent life). Hart, History Told by Contemporaries, vol. iv, pp. 180-182 (Secession in Mississippi), pp. 290-293 (At the White House), and others, especially on the life of the soldiers. Histories. — Baldwin, James, Life of Abraham Lincoln. Brooks, E. S., True Story of Abraham Lincoln. Dodd, W. E., Life of Jefierson Davis, pp. 215-225 (Formation of the New Republic). Elson, Side Lights on American History, vol. ii, pp. 1-24 (Election of i860), 26-46 (Secession of the southern states). Harris, J. C, Stories of Georgia, pp. 272-296 (Georgia during the Civil War). Moores, C. W., The Life of Abraham Lincoln. Nicolay, Helen, Boys' Life of Lincoln. Riley, F. L., School History of Mississippi. Sparhawk, Life of Lincoln for Boys. Chapter XXXV. Beginning of Civil War Sources. — Hart, Source Book, pp. 305-30S (The battle of Bull Run), pp. 311-312 (Supplies for the wounded). Hart, History told by Contemporaries, vol. iv, pp. 319-323 (President Davis's diffi- culty in obtaining supplies for his armies), pp. 309-314 (Descriptions of the Battle of Bull Run), pp. 314-319 (A French traveler tells of Northern preparations for the War). Histories. — ■ Channing and Lansing, Story of the Great Lakes, pp. 317-329 (The Great Lakes in the Civil War). Elson, Side Lights on American History, vol. ii, pp. 79-94 (Beginning of the War), pp. 131-135 (The blockade). The biographies of Lincoln and Davis mentioned in the preceding chapter,, and the histories of the states given in that and earlier chapters, will furnish further material for reading. Chapter XXXVI. Story of Victory and Defeat Sources. — Hart, Source Book, pp. 313-315 (Farragut at New Orleans), pp. 315-318, 327-329 (The story of emancipation of slaves), pp. 320-323 (Cave life in Vicksburg), PP- 323-327 (The battle of Gettysburg). Hart, Source Readers, No. 4, pp. 293-299 (Bridging a river), pp. 399-403 (A nurse's experience) . Hart, History Told by Contemporaries, vol. iv, pp. 244-247 (Home life of a Southern lady), pp. 236-237 (The Northern women), pp. 368-371 (Taking of Vicksburg), pp. 372- 376 (Pickett's Charge at Gettysburg), pp. 376-381 (The draft riot in New York City). Histories. — Brooks, E. S., True Story of U. S. Grant. XXX REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS Duncan, R. B., Brave Deeds of American Sailors, pp. 173-185 {Monitor and Merri- mac). Elson, Side Lights on American History, vol. ii, pp. 95-128 (The battle of Gettys- burg). Lodge and Roosevelt, Hero Tales from American History, pp. 185-196 (Battle of the Merrimac and Monitor, pp. 213-223 (The death of Stonewall Jackson), pp. 225-237 (The charge at Gettysburg), pp. 237-248 (The capture of Vicksburg). The biographies and special state histories given in preceding chapters furnish other stories on this period of the war. For example, M. Thompson, Stories of Indiana, pp. 247-265 (A raid into a northern state) and W. D.Thompson, Stories of Ohio, pp. 228- 257 (Ohio in the Civil War). Chapter XXXVII. Conquering a Peace Sources. — Hart, Source Book, pp. 329-333 (Lee's surrender and the assassination of Lincoln). Hart, History Told by Contemporaries, vol. iv, pp. 437-440 (Grant's account of Lee's surrender) . Histories. — Duncan, Brave Deeds of American Sailors, pp. 186-200 (Farragut in Mobile Bay). Lodge and Roosevelt, Hero Tales from American History, pp. 303-323 (Farragut at Mobile Bay), pp. 323-335 (Abraham Lincoln). See Century Magazine, April, 1896, for one of the best accounts of the assassination of Lincoln. Chapter XXXVIII. Peace and its Problems Sources. — Hart, Source Book, pp. 336-339 (Conditions in the South, 1865), pp. 339-342 (A negro school), pp. 342-344 (A southerner's advice on reconstruction), pp. 344-351 (Reconstruction by Congress and its failure). Histories. — Harris, J. C, Stories of Georgia, pp. 297-306 (Reconstruction). Elson, W. H., Side Lights on American History, vol. ii, pp. 149-182 (A new prob- lem — reconstruction), pp. 183-218 (Trial of a President). Riley, F. L., School History of Mississippi. Chapter XXXIX. Neighbors and Rivals Sources. — Robinson and Beard, Readings, No. 261 (Proclamation of the German Empire) . Histories. — Elson, Side Lights on American History, vol. ii, pp. 218-238 (Settlement of a great dispute — The Alabama claims). Guerber, H. A., The Story of Modern France, pp. 302-335 (How France became a republic) . Sparks, E. E., Expansion of the American People, ch. 35 (Alaska, or the beginnings of a colonial system). Chapter XL. The Prairie States Histories. — Brigham, A. P., Commercial Geography (Description of ranching, wheat growing, milling, and packing). Hitchcock, R., The Louisiana Purchase, pp. 255-270 (The day of the pony express). Price, O. W., The Land We Live In. Various topics, especially pp. 100-129 (Farms of the nation), and pp. 67-100 (A nation's forests and foresters). Rocheleau, W. F., Great American Industries. Second Book, pp. 154-166 (Wlieat Farming), pp. 166-178 (Milling). Roosevelt, T. Stories of the Great West, pp. 109-254 (Ranching). Sparks, E. E., Expansion of the American People, ch. 30 (A transcontinental rail- road). REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS xxxi The magazines contain many articles on these subjects. For example, The Arena, vol. XXV, p. 373, Harper's Magazine, vol. 60, p. 529 (Dakota wheat farming), and vol. 76, pp. 556, 768, 869 (Studies of the West), The World's Work. VII, 4232 (Life in the corn belt). Chapter XLI. New Methods of Working Histories. — Channing and Lansing, The Story of the Great Lakes, pp. 330-356 (Great industries of the Lakes), pp. 356-374 (Shipping on the Lakes), pp. 374-385 (The development of the city) . Baker, R. S., The Boy's Book of Inventions. Brigham, Commercial Geography. Burns, Elmer, E., The Story of Inventions. Carpenter, F. O., Foods and Their Uses. Fournier, E. E., Wonders of Physical Science, especially pp. 136-149 (Telephone), pp. 149-159 (Electric Light), pp. 170-178 (Wireless Telegraph), pp. 190-201 (The Aeroplane) . Meadowcraft, W. H., Boy's Life of Edison. Mowry, W. A. and A. M., American Inventions and Inventors, pp. 77-80 (Kero- sene), pp. 81-84 (Gas), pp. 85-89 (Electric lighting) , pp. 278-285 (The cable), pp. 286- 291 (The telephone). Rocheleau, W. F., Great American Industries (How minerals are obtained). Thompson, M., Stories of Indiana, pp. 279-296 (An account of the discovery and use of gas in Indiana) . Williams, A., How it is made (Descriptions of many industries). Chapter XLII. The New South Histories. — Brigham, A. P., Commercial Geography (Descriptions of industries of the South). Harris, J. C, Stories of Georgia, pp. 307-315 (The New South). Hart, A. B., The Southern South. Price, 0. W., The Land We Live in. Riley, F. L., School History of Mississippi. The Magazines have descriptions of the South. For example, the articles in the Review of Reviews, vol. xxxiii, pp. 177-215 (especially p. 200, How Galveston secured protection), and The World's Work, vol. xiv, pp. 8926-9042 (Descriptions of the New South). The Life of Lucius Q. C. Lamar (one written by Edward Mayes), and Up from Slavery by Booker Washington (an autobiography) are of great interest. Chapter XLIII. The Last Barriers Histories. — Brigham, A. P., Commercial Geography. Paxson, F. L., The Last American Frontier (especially for Indian wars and building of the Pacific railroads). Price, O. W., The Land We Live In. Sexton, E. M., Stories of California, pp. 75-83 (Wheat fields), pp. 82-102 (Fruit growing). There are many magazine articles on these subjects. For example, The National Geographical Magazine, vol. xvii, p. 82 (Winning the West), p. loi (Arizona and New Mexico), p. 103 (Oklahoma), Review of Reviews, xliii, p. 460 (The Roosevelt dam). The World's Work, vol. ix, p. 5827 (Building a wonderful community), xii, p. 7603 (Oklahoma), xii, p. 7886 (Desert farming without irrigation), xv, p. 9691 (The real' conquest of the West), xv, p. 10, 147 (Seizing the desert's last stronghold), xxi, p. 13,- 928 (Ten years of Oklahoma). xxxii REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS Chapter XLIV. Laborers of a Great Nation Readings on the recent immigrants. — ■ Antin, Mary. The Promised Land (The auto- biography of an immigrant). Riis, J. A., The Making of an American. Crowell, K. R., Coming Americans. Chapter XLV. New Methods of Government Sources. — Hart, Source Book, pp. 3S2-35S (The Tweed ring). Histories. — Elson, Side Lights on American History, vol. ii, pp. 263-286 (A great presidential contest, 1876), pp. 286-325 (The death of President Garfield). Dole, C. F., The American Citizen. Dunn, A. W., The Commimity and the Citizen. Haskin, F. J., The American Government. Hill, Mabel, Lessons for Junior Citizens. Reinsch, Paul S., The Young Citizen's Reader. Richman, Julia, and Wallach, Isabel R., Good Citizenship. Chapter XL VI. The New Education Histories. — Hill, Mabel, Lessons for Junior Citizens, pp. 53-70 (School system), 154-168, (City planning, etc.). The current magazines have much material on this subject. For example, see the World's Work, May, 191 2, p. 102 (Country schools for country children); August, 1912, p. 460 (The country school of to-morrow); December, 1912, p. 143 (Wisconsin's agricultural high schools); April, 1913, p. 695 (Teaching real life in school); April, 1913, p. 699 (University that runs a state). Chapter XL VII. The Republic and the Larger World Sources. — Hart, Source Book, pp. 369-372 (A foreigner's opinion of Americans). Histories. — -Duncan, R. B., Brave Deeds of .\merican Sailors, pp. 272-285 (Dewey at Manila). Elson, W. H., Side Lights on American History, vol. ii, pp. 352-401 (The Spanish- American War). Gulliver, Lucile, The Friendship of Nations (On the Peace movement). Haskin, F. J., The American Government, pp. 362-373 (The Pan-American Union). Kirkman, F. B., The Growth of Greater Britain (The British colonies). Knapp, A., Story of the Philippines (vol. xi in The World and Its People Series). MacClintock, S., The Philippines — A Geographical Reader. Morris, Chas., Our Island Empire (Account of resources and people of Hawaii, Philip- pines, and Porto Rico). Seabury, J. B., Porto Rico (In the World and its People Series). Sparks, E. E., Expansion of the American People, ch. 36 (Securing colonies). Twomby, A. S., Hawaii and its People. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE In Congress, July 4, 1776 A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress Assembled When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the poHtical bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their Just powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to eflect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more dis- posed to suffer while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abohshing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpa- tions, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing im- portance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts xxxiv DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature, — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into comphance with his measure. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the state remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of invasions from without and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; for that pur- pose obstructing the laws for the naturaUzation of foreigners, refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenureof their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitutions and unacknowledged by our laws, giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation: For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states; For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; For imposing taxes on us without our consent; For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offenses; For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and lit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies; For taking away our charters, aboUshing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments; For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection and waging war against us. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE xxxv He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and de- stroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the cir- cumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity; and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the recti- tude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection be- tween them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE 1 Section I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and a House of Represent- atives. Sect. II. i. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-live years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representa- tive; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Provi- dence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Penn- sylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten. North Carolina five. South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the Execu- tive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Sect. III. i. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two xxxvi CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xxxvii Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the Presi- dent of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall never- theless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law. Sect. IV. i. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Sect. V. i. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns and quahfications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; xxxviii CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Sect. VI. i. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensa- tion for their services, to be ascertained by law and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. Sect. VII. i. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it with his objections to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be deter- mined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return , in which case it shall not be a law. 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representa- tives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. Sect. VIII. The Congress shall have power I. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States; CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xxxix but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States; 7. To establish post ofEces and post roads; 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas and offences against the law of nations; 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 13. To provide and maintain a navy; 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; 16. To provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as m.ay be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the mihtia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such dis- trict (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State, in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings; — and 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitu- tion in the government of the United States, or in any department or office thereof. Sect. IX. i. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be prohibited by the xl CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES Congress prior to the year 1808; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding $10 for each person. 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 4. No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of ap- propriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no person holding any ofBce of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, ofiice, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. Sect. X. i. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or com- pact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such inmniinent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II Section I. i. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his ofiice during the term of four years, and together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows: 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Repre- sentatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress; but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xli [The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which hst they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors ap- pointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said house shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President.] 3. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same through- out the United States. 4. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be ehgible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 5. In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death, resigna- tion, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inabiUty, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 6. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensa- tion, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 7. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." xlii CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES Sect. II. i. The President shall be commander in chief of the army and na\y of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. Sect. III. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Sect. IV. The President, Vice-President and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and on conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III Section I. i. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. Sect. II. i. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made or which shall be made, under their authority; — to all cases affecting ambassa- dors, other public ministers and consuls; — to all cases of admiralty jurisdic- tion; — to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; — to controversies between two or more States; — between a State and citizens of CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xliii another State; — between citizens of different States; — between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such ex- ceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. Sect. III. i . Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the Ufe of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV Section I. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Sect. II. i. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be dehvered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Sect. III. i. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. xliv CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES Sect. IV. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against in- vasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence. ARTICLE V The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for pro- posing amendments, which, in either case shall be vaUd to all intents and pur- poses, as part of this Constitution, when rati6ed by the legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided that no amendments which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI 1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as A'alid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirma- tion, to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or pubUc trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII The ratification of the conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names. [Signed by] Go Washington Presidt and Deputy from Virginia CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xlv Articles in Addition to and Amendment of the Constitution of the United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified BY the Legislatures of the Several States, Pursuant to the Fifth Article of the Original Constitution"^ Article I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Article II. A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. Article III. No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Article IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or aflSrmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Article V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, imless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or hmb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. Article VI. In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assist- ance of counsel for his defence. Article VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. Article VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Article IX. The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Article X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Con- * The first ten Amendments were adopted in 1791. xlvi CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES stitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- tively, or to the people. Article XI. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. [Adopted in 1798.] Article XII. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; — the President of the Senate shall, in the pres- ence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted; — the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose im- mediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. — The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the hst, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. [Adopted in 1804.] Article XIII. Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly con- victed, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their juris- diction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. [Adopted in 1865.] Article XIV. Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xlvii States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protec- tion of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of Electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the propor- tion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or Elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or miUtary, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebeUion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obliga- tion incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legisla- tion the provisions of this article. [Adopted in 1865.] Article XV. Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- priate legislation. [Adopted in 1870.] Article XVI. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the sev- eral States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. [Adopted in 1913.] Article XVII. Section i. The Senate of the United States shall be com- xlviii CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES posed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislatures. Section 2. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided that the Legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the Legislature may direct. Section 3. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes vaUd as part of the Constitution. [Adopted in 1913.] INDEX Abolitionists, 340, 377, 381, 387, 420 Acadia (a-ka' di-a), 99, 106, 156-157 Acts of Congress, see Congress Acts of Parliament, see Parliament Adams, John, 193 (portrait), 195, 238, 242; as President, 259-260, 263 Adams, John Quincy, 295, 320; as Presi- dent, 326, 347 Adams, Samuel, 169 (portrait), 171, 189, 238 Admiralty Courts, 145 Aeroplanes, 471 Africa, 3, 348, 370 Agricultural High Schools, 515, 516 Agriculture, see Farming Alabama, 312, 313, 391, 441, 477, 481 Alabama, cruiser, 407; Claims, 446 Alaska, 349, 448, 485-486; area. Appen- dix, vi Albany, 24, 78; Congress, 154 Alden, John, 51 Alexander II, of Russia, 447-448 Algonquin (al'-gon-kwln) Indians, 32-34 Alien and Sedition Acts, 260, 263 Alleghany Mountains (al'-e-ga-nl), 28 Allen, Ethan, 185 Amendments, see Constitution America, discovery of, 4; origin of name, 7; early explorations in, 8-14, 19, 22-24, 33-35, 37-38 American Federation of Labor, 494 Americus Vespucius (a-mer' i-cus ves-pu- shus), 7 Ancient Times, defined, 2 (Note) Anderson, Major Robert, 395, 396 Andros, Sir Edmund, 143 (portrait) Antietam, battle of, 418 Apaches (a-pa' cha), 456 Appalachian Mountains, 27-28, 29, 37- 38, 112, 401 Appalachian Valley, 28, 402, 415 Appomattox (ap' po-mSt' tMks), 430 Arbitration, in labor disputes, 496; inter- national, 529-31 Architecture, colonial, 121 Argentine Republic, 318 Arizona, 435; as a state, 484, 488, 505, 506 Arkansas, 9, 349; as a state, 381, 392, 397. 423, 505 Arkwright, Richard, 251 Armada (iir-ma' da), 18 Arnold, Benedict, 200, 216 Arthur, C. A., app., vii Articles of Confederation, 194-195 Ashburton Treaty, 352 Astoria, 274 Atchison, Kas., 383 Atlanta, 428-429, 478 Augusta, Ga., 119, 335 Austin, Moses and Stephen, 345-346 Austria, 149, 153, 277-278; and Hungary, 452 Automobile, 471 Bacon, Nathaniel, 144 Balboa (bal-bo' a), 5-6 Baltimore, 75, 157, 293-294, 335-336, 398, 46s, 473 Baltimore, Lord (portrait), 71-75 Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 335, 336, 363 Bank notes, 337, 338, 421 Bank of the United States, first, 245-246; second, 337-338 Baptists, 136 Barbados (bar-ba' doz), 89, 98 Battle-ship, defined, 153 Batts, Captain Thomas, 37 Beauregard (bo' rhe-gard). General, 409 Bell, Alexander Graham, 464 Bennington, battle of, 200 Benton, Senator, 324, 351 1 INDEX Berkeley, Sir William, 87, 144 Bessemer, Henrj', 466 Bienville (be-aN'vel), 108 Birmingham, Ala., 477 Blaine, James G., 508 Blockades, 290-292, 405-406 Blue Ridge Mountains, 28 Bohemian immigration, 492 Bolivar (bol' i-var), Simon, 318-319 Bonaparte (bo' nd-part), Napoleon, 260, 266-268, 276-284; portrait, 279 Boone, Daniel, 114, 208-209, 270 Bosses, political, 500-501 Boston, 61, 121, 137, 168, 169, 170-171, 172-173, 181, 186-187, 336, 514 BowUng Green, Ky., 403, 413, 414 Braddock, General, 155 Braddock's Road, 208 Bradford, WiUiam, 51 Bragg, General, 415 Brandywine, battle of, 201 Brazil, 531 Breckinridge, J. C, 390, 391 Brewster, William, 50-51 Bridgeport, Conn., 473 Brockton, Mass., 473 Brooklyn, 84, 197 Brotherhoods, Locomotive Engineers, Fire- men, Trainmen, 494 Brown, John, 383, 387-388 Brush, C. F., 465 Bryan, William J., 509 Buccaneers (bur'ca-neer), 88 Buchanan (bu-kan' on), James, 386, 387, 392. 393, 395, 397 Buell, General, 414 Buena Vista (bwa' nil vis-ta), battle of, 356 Buffalo, 303, 365, 461, 466 Bulgarian immigration, 492 Bull Run, battles of, first, 407-410; second, 418 Bunker Hill, battle of, 183-184 Burgoyne (bur-goin'). General, 199-200 Burnside, General, 418 Burr, Aaron, 263 Cabinet, President's, 242-243 Cable, Atlantic, 464 Cabot (kab' ut), 12-13 Cahokia (ka-ho' ki-a), 108 Calhoun (kal-hoon), John C, 283, 325, 331-332, 352, 378, 392; portrait, 331 California, under Spanish rule, 226-227; annexation of, 352, 354-358; as a state, 376, 378, 380, 454, 460, 486-487, 505, 506 Calvert, Cecil, 71 Calvert, Leonard, 72 Cambridge, Mass., 61, 64, 68 Canada, under French rule, 22, 99-109; English conquest of, 149-159; under EngUsh rule, 159, 207, 226, 286-289, 348-349; Dominion of, 448-50; North- west, 485 Canning, George, 320 Carnegie, Andrew, 530 Carnegie Institution, 516 Carolinas, 95, 107, 108, 136; see further, North and South Carolina Caroline, French Fort, 11, 410 Carpet-Baggers, 441, 443 Carson, Nev., 455 Cartier (kar' ty a), Jacques, 12 Cartwright, Edmimd, 251, 252 Carver, John, 52, 54 Cass, Lewis, 377 Catholics, see Roman Catholics Caucus, "King," 324, 325 Centennial Exposition, 443-444, 472 Central Pacific Railroad, 454-455 Cervera (ther-va' rii), 524 Champlain (shSm-plan), Samuel de, 19 (portrait), 20, 22-23, 31-33 Chancellorsville, battle of, 421 Channing, W. E., 340 Charles I, 59-60, 69-70, 71 Charles II, 70, 83, 87, 90, 104 Charleston, B.C., 96, 169, 173, 197, 218, 219, 335, 395-397, 402, 403, 404, 433 Charlestown, Mass., 61, 187 Charlotte, N.C., 477-478, 479 Charters, colonial, 142-143, 148 Chase, S. P., 379 Chattanooga, Tenn., 402, 404, 414, 425, 477 Chesapeake, The, 281 INDEX K Chicago, 34, 287, 303, 363, 364, 365, 366, 458, 461, 468, 472, 401, 519- 520 Chicago University, 516 Chickamauga (chik' a-mo' ga), battle of, 42s China, 361, 532; immigrants from, 454, 492. 525 Cibola (sT bold), 10 Cincinnati, 233, 303-304, 365, 458 Cities, growth of, 98, 121, 491; govern- ment of, 503-504; planning, 507 Civil Service Reform, 501-502 Civil War, 395-431 Claiborne, William, 73, 82 Clark, George Rogers, 2 10-2 11 Clark, William, 271-274 Clay, Henry, 282-283, 286, 316, 326, 328, 352, 378-379 (portrait) Clermont, The, 302 Cleveland, 303, 307, 365, 366, 468 Cleveland, Groyer, 496, 508 (portrait), 509, 52s Clinton, De Witt, 306 Clinton, George, app., iii Chnton, General Henry, 215-216, 217 Clipper ships, 366-367 Coal, 252-253, 298, 477, 485 Colbert, 107 Colfax, Schuyler, app., vi Colleges, 67-68, 133-134. 342-343, 516- 518 Colombia, United States of, 318 Colonial architecture, 121 Colonial system, old, 129, 164; new, 330, 348, 532 Colonies, British, see under names, Can- ada, etc. Colorado, 435; as a state, 460, 488, 505, 506 Columbia, S.C., 478 Columbia River, 272 Columbian Exposition, 472 Columbus, 2-5 Columbus, Ky., 413, 414 Commerce, 82, 127-132, 161, 165, 206, 235-236, 257-258, 267-268, 278-284; see app., xv Commercial High Schools, 515 Commission plan of city government, 503- 504 Compromise of 1850, 378-380 ConciUation, Boards of, 496 Concord, battle of, 178-180 Conestoga (con'-es to'-ga) wagons, 306 Confederate States, 391-431 CongregationaUsts, 62, 136 Congress, Albany, 154; Stamp Act, 167; Continental, 174-175, 182, 189, 191, 194, 195, 216, 230-237; first National, 242 Congress, Acts of, early 242-246; Alien and Sedition, 260; Embargo, 279; Non- Intercourse, 280; Tariff of 181 6, 301; National Road, 305; Missouri Com- promise, 316; Tariff of 1833, 332; Com- promise of 1850, 378-379; Kansas and Nebraska Bill, 381-382; Homestead Act, 434-435; Reconstruction, 437-441; Civil Service Act, 502; Interstate Com- merce Act, 509 Connecticut, colonial, 64-68, 128, 134, 140, 143, 148; in the Revolution, 167, 192-193; as a state, 231 Conservation, 489-490, 533 Constitution, formed, 239-241; amended, 263, 438, 441, 507, app., ix Constitution, The, 290-291 Continental Congress, see Congress, Con- tinental Conventions, 324-325, 504 Cooper, Peter, 335 Cooperation, 497-498 Corinth, Miss., 403, 414 Cornell, Ezra, 366, 517 Cornell University, 517 Cornwallis, 198, 218-220 Coronado (ko-ro-na' do), 10 Correspondence, committees of, 171, 172 Cortes (kor'-tez), 8 Cotton, 122, 254-255, 297, 298, 372-373, 406, 435-436, 475 Cotton-gin, 254, 255 Cotton-seed oil, 478 Crockett, David, 347 Cromwell, Oliver, 69 Cuba, 4, 159, 319, 381, 522-524, 526 Cumberland Gap, 208 lii INDEX Cumberland National Road, 304-305 Cumberland River, 403, 414 Curasao (koo' rii-so'), 88-89 Curtis, George William, 502 Custer, General, 456 Dallas, G.'M., app., v Dartmouth College, 134 Davenport, John, 65 Davis, Jefiferson, 3 13-31 5, 379. 30 1 (por- trait), 392. 393 Dearborn, Fort, 287 Debt, public, 244, 421, 431 Debtors, imprisonment of, 117, 340 Declaration of Independence, igo-igr Deerfield, Mass., 105-106 Delaware, 81, 91, 97, 239, 241, 438 Democratic party, 247, 328, 385, 386, 387. 390, 391, 420, 429, 442, 443, 508- Sio Denver, 455 De Soto (da so' to) , Ferdinand, 8-1 1 Detroit, 102, 103, 160, 209, 211, 229, 237, 287, 289, 363, 365, 366 Dewey, Commodore George, 523 Diaz (dee' iith), 3 Dickinson, John, 195 (portrait) Dinwiddle, Governor, 152 Dissenters, 89, 95 District of Columbia, 244, 264, 380, 420 Dollar, Spanish, 132, 231 Donelson, Fort, 413, 414 Douglas, Frederick, 438 Douglas, Stephen A., 379, 384, 385-386, 390, 397 Drake, Francis, 13 Dred Scott affair, 385, 386 Dress, colonial, 137 Duquesne (du-kan'). Fort, 152, 155, 157, IS8 Duquesne, Governor, 150, 151, 152 Dutch, see New Nctherland Dynamo, 464-465 East India Companies, 18-19, 77-78, 172-173 East Liverpool, O., 473 Ecuador, 318 Eaton, Theophilus, 65. Education, colonial, 67-69, 133-134; national, 340-343; in South, 481; new, 513-520. Edison, T. A., 465. Electoral College, 240, 259, 263. Electricity, 464-466. Elizabeth, Queen, 13-14, 21 Emancipation, 418-420, 438 Embargo, 279-280, 297 Emigration, "great," 60, 69; to Virginia, 87; to West Indies, 87-89: to Penn- sylvania, 91-92; second great, 97-98; German, Swiss, 111-112; Scotch-Irish, 114-115; see Immigration Employers' Association, 496-497 Endicott, John, 60 England, early explorations and settle- ments, 12-14, 21-22, 26; see under Vir- ginia, Massachusetts, etc.; Civil War in, 69-70; struggle with the Dutch, 77-85; struggle with France, 99, 103- 108, 149-159; Revolution of 1688, 104- 105; colonial policy, 127-131, 139-146; quarrel with American colonies, 164- 176; Revolutionary War, 178-221; Industrial Revolution, 250-253; Trade disputes with U. S., 258-259, 276-284; war with France, 266, 268, 276-284; Oregon question, 274, 350, 352, 356; War of 181 2, 286-295; American tariff, 300-301; Monroe Doctrine, 320-321; suffrage in, 323, 329; new colonial pwl- icy, 348-349; during American Civil War, 406-407, 419; Alabama Claims, 446; recent reform in, 450-451; growth of colonies, 522; emigration to United States from, 532 Episcopal church. 49, 89, 136 Ericsson (er' ik-siin), John, 416 Erie, Lake, battle of, 288-289 Erie, Pa., 150, 288 Erie Canal, 306-307, 312, 335, 336, 349 Espanola (2s-pan yo' la), 88 Essex, The, 290, 291-292 Evangeline, the poem, 157 Exports, from the colonies, 127-132, :6i; durijig Revolution, 206-207; from the INDEX liii United States, 235, 261, 278, 279, 458, 461, app., XV Expogition, Centennial, 443-44; later, 472, Factory system, 252, 297, 463 Fairbanks, C. W., app., viii Fall River, Mass., 473 Fallam, Robert, 37 Falmouth, Me., 203 Faneuil (fan' el) Hall, picture of, 141 Farming, in the colonies, 123-125; in the South, 254, 372-374. 439, 475-477; recent progress, 461, 488-489, 498 Farragut (far'a -gut), D. G., 415, 428 Federal Convention, 238-240; see Con- stitution Federalist party, 247, 268, 292-293, 327 Ferdinand VII, of Spain, 318, 319 Fisheries, 132, 295 Florida, 8, 116-117, 159, 221, 226; pur- chase of, 318 (area, app., iii); as a state, 381, 391, 441, 476, 479, 480 Forestry, 489-490 Fox, George, 90 France, early explorations and settlements, 12, 19-20, 26, 29, 31-38; in West Indies, 88; in Acadia, Canada, and Mississippi Valley, 99-103, 108; struggles with the English, 103-108, 149-159; aid in Revolutionary War, 213-221; French Revolution, 255-256; American dis- putes with, 256-261; sale of Louisiana, 266-268; Napoleonic wars, 276-284; Monroe Doctrine, 319-320; Revolu- tion of 1830, 329; Civil War in U. S., 406; Mexican afifair, 446-447; Third Republic, 451-452; new colonial empire, 522 Franklin, Benjamin, writings, 134-135; plan of union, 154; in France, 195, 213- 214; portrait, 214; at the Federal Con- vention, 238 Frederick the Great, 116, 149, 153 Fredericksburg, battle of, 418 Freedmen, 437-438 Free Soil party, 377 French and Indian War, 148-159 French Revolution, 250, 255-256 Friends, Society of, 94 Frontenac (froN' te-nak'). Fort, 157 Fruit farms, 486 Fugitive Slave Law, 376-377 Fulton, Robert, 302 Fur trade, 57, 79, 81, 102-103, 119, 273, 320, 349 Gadsden Purchase, 358; map, 357; area, app., V Gage, General, 178, 181, 186 Gallatin (gal' d-tin), Albert, 266 Galveston, Tex., 479, 503 Gama (gii' ma), Vasco da, 3 Garfield, James A., 502 Garrison, WiUiam Lloyd, 340, 377, 437 Gas-engines, 470-471 Gates, General, 200, 213, 218 Genet (zheh-na'), 257 George II, 117 George III, 165 (portrait) Georgia, 117-119, 241, 254, 373, 391,441 Germans, settlements of, 93-94, 111-113, 115, 119; later immigration of, 310, 370-371. 532; value of work, 371; in the Union army, 404 Germantown, Pa., 93-94 Germany, 112, 310, 370, 451, 522 Gerry, Elbridge, app., iii Gettysburg, battle of, 421-423 Girls, education of, 133, 343 Gladstone, W. E., 446 Gloversville, N.Y., 473 Gold, discoveries of, 358-360, 435, 485 Government, colonial, 139, 140, 142; reorganization during the Revolution, 192-195; federal, 238-247; changes in Jackson's time, 323-328; recent changes, 500-510 Grand Rapids, Mich., 478 Grangers, 497-498 Grant, U. S., 413-415, 423, 425-430, 442; portrait, 426 Gray, Captain, 274 Great Britain, see England Great Lakes, 33, 303, 365 Greek, study of, 134 Greek immigrants, 492 Greeley, Horace, 368, 394 (portrait), 508 Uv INDEX Greenbacks, 421 Green Mountain Boys, 185, 200 Greene, Nathaniel, 218-219 Grenville, George, 164-165 Guam (gwam), 524; area, app., viii Guerriere (gar-ry ar), The, 291 Guilford Court House, battle of, 219 Guthrie, Okl, 484. Hague Tribunal, 529-530 Haiti (ha' ti) , 88 Half Moon, The, 23, 24, T,i Hamilton, Alexander, 238, 242, 244, 245 (portrait), 246-247, 263 Hamlin, Hannibal, app., vi Hancock, General, 422-423 Hanover, N.H., 134 Hargreaves, James, 250-251 Harper's Ferry, 387-388 Harrison, Benjamin, 509 (portrait) Harrison, W. H., 282, 352 Harrodsburg, Ky., 209 Hartford, Ct., 65, 81 Harvard College, 68-69, i33. 170 Havana, 159, 523 Hawaii (ha-wi'gj, 361, 524, 5^5 Hay, John, 532 Hayes, R. B., 442 (portrait), 443, 502 Hayne, Senator, 332 Hendricks, T. A., app., vii Henry, Fort, 413, 414 Henry, Patrick, 162, 167 (portrait), 189, 2IO,-238 Hessian soldiers, 197 High Point, N.C., 478 High Schools, 68, 342, 513-516 Hobart, G. A., app., viii Holland, 49, 216, 221, 278 Homestead Law, 384, 434-43S Hooker, General, 425 Hooker, Thomas, 64 Hopkins Grammar School, 69 House of Representatives, see Congress Houston, Sam, 347 Howe, Elias, 369 Howe, General, 184, 186, 196, 197, 199, 200-201, 205, 215 Hudson, Henry, 23-24, 32-33. 77 Hudson Bay Company, 103-104, 349, 350 Huguenot (hu' g6-n6t), 96 Hull, Captain Isaac, 290-291 Hull, General, 287 Hungary, 452 Iberville (e b6r vel'), 106-108 Idaho, 274, 356, 434, 460, 487, 488, 506 Illinois, under French rule, 108, 148; Clark's expedition to, 211; as a terri- tory, 248, 311, 312; as a state, 313, 337, 342 Immigration, see Emigration; after 1815, 310, 3n; after 1845, 369-371; after Civil War, 433, 457, 485, 491-493; as a whole, 532 Impeachment, 440 Impressment of seamen, 280-283, 295 Indentured servants, 43, iii, 115 Independence, Declaration of, 189-191 Independents, see Separatists India, 2, 3, 5, 153, 164 Indiana, Clark's expedition to, 211; as a territory, 248, 311, 312; as a state, 313. 323. 342, 470 Indian Territory, 457, 483, 484 Indians, Champlain and, 29-32; attack Virginians, 47; in New England, 54- 56, 63-64, 66-67; in Maryland, 72; in New Netherland, 79-80; in Pennsyl- vania, 94; missionaries to, 101-102; as allies, 104-106; in French and Indian War, 154-155; in Pontiac's War, 160; in Kentucky and Tennessee, 209-210; Spanish missions among, 226-228; Wayne's victory over, 247-248; in Louisiana Territory, 271-273; fight at Tippecanoe, 282; Creek, 318; recent wars with, 456; become citizens, 483 Industries, colonial, 125-129; during Revolution, 205-206; development of, 250-255, 297-300, 367-369, 434; recent, 463-474, 475-480, 485-490, 491-498 Initiative, 505 Internal Improvements, 301-302, 305, 306 Interstate Commerce Act, 509 Inventions, 250-255, 365-369, 464 Iowa, 343, 349, 370, 381, 457 Ireland, 310, 370 Iron, 128, 252-253, 298, 467-469, 477 INDEX Iv Iroquois (ir-6-kwoi') , 30, 31, 32, 104, 154 Italy, 452, 492, 532 Jackson, Andrew, victory at New Orleans, 294; and Creeks, 318; Presidency, 325- 328, 331-332, 337-339. 347; portrait, 32s Jackson, "Stonewall," 409, 417, 421 Jamaica, 89 James I, 20, 21, 22, 48, 59 James II, 83, 84, 103-104, 113, 143 Jamestown, Va., 21-22, 40-44; fair at, 481 Japan, 361; laborers of, 492, 525 Jay, John, 243, 258-259 (portrait) Jefferson, Thomas, in the Revolution, 191, 19s; in France, 238; in the Cabinet, 242, 244; founder of Demo- cratic party, 246-247; Vice-President, 259-260; Presidency, 263-274, 276- 282; founds University of Virginia, 343 Jenckes, Thomas, 502 Jesuit missions, 101-102 Johns Hopkins University, 516 Johnson, Andrew, 437 (portrait), 439-441 Johnson, R. M., app., iv Johnston, A. S., 414 Johnston, J. E., 409, 410, 417 Joliet (zho' le-a'), Louis, 34 Jones, John Paul, 217 (portrait) JumonviUe (zhii' mon' vel'), 152 Jury, trial by, 47 Kansas, 10, 272; struggle in, 381-384; as a state, 470, 484, 506 Kansas City, 350, 458, 461 Kansas and Nebraska Bill, 381-382 Kaskas' kid, 108, 211 Kearny (kar' ni). General, 356 Kentucky, settlement of, 209, 211, 234; Mississippi question in, 236; admitted to Union, 248; Resolutions of, 260; as a state, 312, 314, 315, 323; in Civil War, 408, 413, 414, 415; slavery in, 438 Key West, 480 King, W. R., app., v King William's War, 105 King's Mountain, battle of, 218 Knights of Labor, 494 Knox, Henry, 243 Knoxville, Term., 402, 477 Ku Klux Klan (ku kluks), 442 Labor Unions, 493-495 Lafayette (la' fa' yet'), 214-215, 219, 256, 329 Lake Champlain, battle of, 289-290 Lake Erie, battle of, 288-289 Lands, Public, 232, 312, 434-435. 458 La Salle (la sal'), 34-35, 107 Latin, study of, 134 Lawrence, Kas., 383 Laws, see Acts Lee, R. E., 397-398, 410, 417-418, 421- 423. 427-430 Legislatures, colonial, 46, 57, 66, 74, 84, 139-142, 166; state, 193-194 Leland Stanford University, 516 Lewis, Meriwether, 271-274 Lexington, battle of, 178-180 Ley den (h'den), 49-50 Liberal RepubUcan Party, 508 Libraries, colonial, 47, 68; traveling, 518 Lincoln, Abraham, youth of, 313-314; candidate for Senate, 385-386; Presi- dency, 390, 393. 395-397, 398. 405, 418- 420, 426, 429-431. 436. 437. 439- Linotype, 470 Lithuanian immigrants, 492 Locomotives, early, 334-336 Longfellow, H. W., 157 Long Island, 80, 127 Lookout Mountain, battle of, 452 Los Angeles, 227, 505 Louis XIV, 103, 104 Louis XVI, 213, 214, 255, 256 Louisburg, 157 Louisiana, named, 35; under French rule, 108; Spanish, 159, 236, 259; Purchase of, 266-274; admitted to Union, 313; slavery in, 316; in Civil War, 391, 415, 423; industry in, 476-477 Louisville, Ky., 234, 303 Lowell, Francis, 29 Lowell, J. R., 380 Loyalists, 191-192, 207, 218, 286 Lumber trade, early, 129, 131 Lundy's Lane, battle of, 288 Ivi INDEX Lynn, Mass., 6i, 128 Lyon, Captain, 398 i Lyon, Mary, 343 (portrait) Macdonough, Commander, 289-290 Machine tools, 469 Mackinac, 102, 237, 287 Madison, James, during Revolution, 195; in Philadelphia Convention, 238-239 (portrait); Presidency, 276, 282-284 Magellan, Ferdinand, 2, 6-7 Magyar (Hungarian) immigrants, 492 Maine, settlement of, 99; admitted to Union, 316; boundary dispute, 333; adopts Initiative, 505 Maine, The, 523 Manassas Junction, 403, 409 Manhattan Island, 78; see New York City Manila, 159, 523, 524 Manitoba, 485 Mann, Horace, 340-341 (portrait) Manual Training High Schools, 515 Marconi, 465 Maria Theresa, 149, 153 Marietta, 233 Marion, Francis, 218 Markham, William, 92 Marquette (miir ket'), 33-34, 102 Marshall, T. R., app., ix Martinique (mar' tin-neek'), 88 Maryland, founding of, 71-75; trade of, 129; religion in, 136; government of, 140, 144; in French and Indian War, 156; attitude toward state land claims, 231; gives District of Columbia, 264; slavery in, 373, 438; in Civil War, 398 Mason and Slidell, 406 Massachusetts, settlement of, 24, 49-57, 59-62; Indian raids, 105-106; colonial industries, 126, 128; education, 133; government, 140, 141, 142, 143; land claims, 148, 231; resists parliament, 167, 170-174; in the Revolution, 178- 187, 193; Shays' Rebellion, 234-235; ratifies Constitution, 242; in 1812 War, 293; slavery in, 316; boundary dispute, 333; early railroads of, 336; reforms in, 340-341; shoe trade, 372; soldiers in Civil War, 397; education in, 514, 517 Massachusetts Agricultural College, 517; Institute of Technology, 517 Massachusetts Bay Company, 60 Massasoit, 55 Maximilian, Emperor, 447 Mayflower, The, 51 McClellan, G. B., 408, 410, 415-418, 429 McCormick, Cyrus, 367-368 McDowell, General, 409, 417 McKinley, William, 509 (portrait), 522, 523 Meade, General, 422-423, 426 Meat trade, 304, 458 Memphis, Tenn., 402, 403, 414 Menendez (md-nen deth), 11 Mennonites, 111-112 Merrimac, The, 415-417 Mexico, conquest of, 8; missions of, 226- 227; independence of, 319; war with, 345-348, 354-358; Maximilian in, 446- 447 Michigan, territory, 248, 287, 289, 342; as a state, 381, 467 Michigan Central Railroad, 363 Middle Ages, defined, 2 Miles, General, 524 Milwaukee, 303, 366 Mining, 487; see also Gold Minneapolis, 363, 461 Minnesota, 363, 457, 467; admitted to Union, app., vi Mint, U. S., 24s Minute-men, 178 Missionary Ridge, battle of, 425 Missions, Spanish, 11-12, 226-227, 345, 354; French, t,^, ioi Mississippi, as a state, 312, 313; secedes, 391; Reconstruction in, 441 Mississippi River, 9, 34-35, 236, 259, 266- 268, 403, 414-415, 423 Missouri, explorations in, 270, 271, 312; admitted to Union, 316-318; early trade of, 349; in Kansas struggle, 383; in Civil War, 398, 407-408; slavery in, 438; adopts Initiative, 505 Missouri Compromise, 316-318, 382, 385 Mobile, Ala., 108, 428 Mohawk River, 28, 81 Molasses Act, see Sugar Act INDEX Ivii Money, 132, 231, 441 Monitor, The, 415-417 Monmouth, battle of, 216 Monroe, James, 320 Monroe Doctrine, 320, 447 Montana, 271, 435, 460, 487, 488, 505 Montcahn, 158-150 Monterey, battle of, 356 Montgomery, Ala., 3gi Montreal, 22, 103, 159 Moravians, 116 Mormons, 360, 460, 488 Morse, S. F. B., 365-366 Morton, L. P., app., vii Mount Holyoke Seminary, 343 Mount Vernon, 222 Moyne, Pierre le, 106-108 Murfreesboro, battle of, 415 Napoleon I, 260, 266-268, 276-284, 318 Napoleon III, 446-447, 451 Nashville, 376, 403, 414, 429 National Association of Manufacturers, 497 National Farmers' Alliance, 498 National (Cumberland) Road, 304-305 Natural gas, 470, 477 Naturalization, 116, 258, 281 Naval stores, 129 Navigation Acts, 82, 131, 145, 165 Nebraska, 381-384, 457, 460, app., vi Needham, James, 38 Nelson, Lord, 266, 277 (portrait) Netherland, New, 23-24, 77-S5 Nevada, 435, 460, 505 New Amsterdam, 24, 77, 80, 83-84 Newcastle, Pa., 114 New England, beginnings of, 49-69; early trade of, 129, 130; local government in, 140, 143; attitude toward War of 1812, 280, 292-293; recent industries of, 463 New Hampshire, 68, 134 New Haven, 65, 66, 67, 69 New Jersey, beginnings of, 84, 97; edu- cation in, 134; religion, 136; under Andros, 143; in the Revolution, 203; in Philadelphia Convention, 240, 241; slavery in, 254; industries of, 463 New Mexico, 226, 376, 378, 380, 3S2, 484, 489. 505 New Orleans, 108, 159, 259, 268, 294, 298, 303. 304, 365, 415. 479, 504 Newport, R.I., 64, 203, 216 New York, colonial, 24, 77, 78-85, 97-98, 128, 140, 142, 143, 148; in the Revolu- tion, 167, 189, 191, 199-200, 203; land claims, 231; and the new Constitu- tion, 239, 242; Erie Canal, 306-307; railroads of, 336-337; industry in, 463; adopts Civil Service Reform, 502-503; education in, 517 New York City, 80, 98, 121, 134, 167, 168, 169, 173, 187, 196-197, 215, 220, 229, 307, 491, 501, 503 Newspapers, 134, 229, 368-369 Nonconformists, 59-60 North Carolina, colonial, 97, 112, 114, 115, 129, 140, 144, 148,; in Revo- lution, 218-219; and the Constitu- tion, 242 (app., ii); University of, 342; slavery in, 373, 392; in the Civil War, 410, 430; later events in, 478, 479 North Dakota, 271, 457, 460 Northwest Territory, 231-233, 248 Nova Scotia, 156, 207, 348 Oberlin College, 343 Ogden, Utah, 455 Oglethorpe, James, 117-119 Ohio, under French rule, 149-158; as an Indian territory, 160; settlement of, 208, 232-234, 247-248; admitted to Union, 248; as a state, 307, 323, 342, 470, 505 Ohio Company, first, 150, 151; of 1787, 232-233 Oil, discovery of, 434, 477 Oklahoma, 272, 470, 483-484, 505 Omaha, 455, 458, 461, 473 Ordinance of 1787, 232 Oregon, explorations in, 273-274; ques- tion of, 295; claimed by Russia, 320; Hudson Bay Company in, 349, 350; American settlers in, 351, 352; annexed, 356; admitted to Union, 376; recent events in, 486-487, 505, 506 Otis, James, 162, 167 Iviii INDEX Pacific Ocean, 5-6 Paine, Thomas, 190 Panama Canal, 527-529 Pan-American Conference, 531 Panic of 18371 338; of 1873, 456 Paper money, 205, 337, 338, 421 Parkman, Francis, 351 Parliament, English, 46, 59-60, 104, 127, 141, 165; Acts of. Sugar Act, 131-132; Sugar Act of 1764, 166; Stamp Act, 166-167; Townshend Acts, 169; Intoler- able Acts, 174; Quebec Act, 174; Re- form Acts, 329, 450 Parson's Cause, 162 Parties, see under party names Pastorius, 94 Patroons, 78-79 Penn, William, 90-95 (with portrait) Pennsylvania, settlement of, 90-95, 97; Germans in, 113; Scotch-Irish in, 114- 115; education in, 134; colonial govern- ment, 140; struggle with French, 148, 156; Indian war, 160; resists Stamp Act, 167; during Revolution, 197, 200- 201, 203-204, 215-216; slavery in, 254; early railroads, 335, 336, 337, 363; recent industries of, 463, 470 Perry, O. H., 288 Peru, 8, 319 Petroleum discovered, 434 Philadelphia, 96-97, 113, 121, 134, 168, 173, 200-201, 203, 238, 335, 363, 443, 473, 491, 503 Philadelphia Convention, 238-240 Philippine Islands, 159, 319, 524, 525-526, 532 Phonograph, 470 Pickens, Andrew, 218 Pickett, General, 422-423 Pierce, Franklin, app., v Pike, Zebulon, 272-273 Pilgrims, 49-58 Pitt, William, 157-162, 168 Pittsburg Landing, battle of, 414 Pittsburgh, 149, 151, 158, 298, 303, 363, 468, 495 Pizarro (pe-zSr' ro), 8 Plantations, early, 43, 124, 125; spread of, 254, 314. 373; failure of system, 439, 475 Playground movement, 519-520 Plymouth, 49-58, 67 Pocahontas, 41 PoHsh immigrants, 492 Polk, James K., 352, 3S4-3S8 Polo, Marco, 2 Pontiac's War, 160 Pony Express, 435 Poor Richard's Almanac, 135 Population, of early Virginia, 47, 87; of Plymouth, 57; by 1700, 97-98; by 1750, in; by 1783, 225; see appendix for census reports of 1790, etc.; at opening of Civil War, 400-401; later increase, 433; make up of present, 532 Port Royal, Acadia, 19, 99, 106 Port Royal, S.C., 410 Porter, Captain D. D., 291-292 Portland, Ore., 472 Porto Rico, 319, 524; area, app., viii Post Office, 229, 242, 366 Presbyterians, 89, 136 Prescott, Colonel William, 183-184 Presidency, 239, 240, 241, 263, 324-325 Princeton, battle of, 198 Princeton College, 134 Printing, in the colonies, 134-135; rotary press, 368 Privateers, 206, 217 Protection, see Tariff Providence, R.I., 64, 134, 297 Prussia, 149, 153, 451 Public lands, see Lands Pullman, 111., 495-496 Puritans, 59-60, 62, 74, 87, 90, 137 Putnam, Israel, 174, 181 Quakers, 89, 90, 91, 111-112, 137, 191, 394 Quartering Act, 169 Quebec, 22, 15S-159, 186, 199; see under Canada Quebec Act, 174 Queen Anne's War, 105-106 Railroads, 334-337. 363-364. 4°°, 401- 402, 403, 409, 454-456, 485 Raleigh (raw' li). Sir Walter, 13-14, 20 Ranches, 457-458 INDEX lix Randolph, John, 283 Recall, 505-506 Reconstruction, 430-443 Redemptioners, 112, 115-116 Reed, Major Walter, 526 Referendum, 505 Religious liberty, 265, 324 Representative system, 166, 329 Republican party, 384, 386, 387, 390, 391, 429, 442, 443, 508-510 Reservations, Indian, 456, 483 Revere, Paul, 178, 179 Rhode Island, settlement of, 63-64, 66; early education in, 134; religion, 136; colonial government of, 140, 143; in Revolution, 192-193; paper money of, 235; and the Constitution, 242, app., ii; factories in, 297 Rice, cultivation of, 125, 476-477 Richmond, Va., 44, 397, 402, 404, 427, 430, 433, 46s. 481 Roads, 228, 304-305 Robertson, James, 209 Robinson, John, 50 Rochambeau (ro shoN' boO, Count de, 219-220 Rockefeller Institution, 516 Rolfe, John, 45 Roman Catholics, 71, 74, 101-102, 136, 226-227 Roosevelt, Theodore, 510, 524, 530 Roosevelt dam, 488-489 Rough Riders, 524 Russia, 153, 277-278, 282, 284, 319-321, 447-448, 529 Sacramento, Cal., 358, 455 St. Augustine, 10 St. Lawrence River, 12 St. Louis, Mo., 270, 272, 303, 349, 363, 398, 413, 458, 472 St. Mary's, Md., 72 St. Paul, Minn., 461, 504 Salem, Mass., 61, 136-137 Salt Lake, Utah, 455 Samoan Islands, app., viii San Diego, Cal., 226 San Francisco, 226, 355, 360 , San Martin, General, 318-319 Santa Fe, 350 Santiago (san-te-a go), 524 Santo Domingo, 88, 266-267 Saratoga, battle of, 200 Savannah, Ga., 118, 218, 219, 429 Scalawags," 441 Schenectady, 81, 105 Schools, in Virginia, 47 ; in New England, 67-69; colonial, 133-134; later, 340- 343, 481, S13-520, 526 Schurz, Carl, 370, 502 Schuyler (ski'ler). General, 200 Scotch immigration, 113-114, 119, 136 Scott, Dred, 385 Scott, General W.,288, 357 Seattle, Wash., 486 Secession, 332, 391 Senate, 239, 240, 241, 506-507 Separatists, 49, 62 Servants, indentured, 43, 115-116; see Slavery Servian immigrants, 492 Seven Years' War, 153, 159 Seward, W. H., 379, 390, 394, 448 Sewing machines, 369 Shafter, General, 524 Shays' Rebellion, 234 Shenandoah Valley, 113, 402, 417, 427- 428 Sheridan, General, 428, 429 Sherman, J. S., app., viii Sherman, General W. T., 425, 426, 428, 429, 430 Shiloh, battle of, 414 Shoe and Leather trade, 128 Short ballot, 504 Siberia, 319-320 Sioux, 456 Sitting Bull, 456 Slater, Samuel, 253, 254 Slavery, 12, 43, 47, 119, 254-255, 31S, 34^, 372-374, 376-388, 418-420, 438 Smith, Captain John, 22, 41-42 (portrait), 52, 55 Smuggling, 131, 160-161, 172-173 South, 122, 331, 371-374, 390, 435-443, 464, 475-481 South America, 318-321 South CaroUna, colonial, 97, 115, 117, 118, 122, 125, 144, 148, 167, 168, 173; in Revolution, 207, 218-219; NuUi- k INDEX ficalion in, 332-333; first railroad in, 335; slavery in, 373; in the Civil War, 30 1, 430; after the War, 441 South Dakota, 460, 505 Spain, discoveries and exploration of, 3-12, 18, 21, 26, 88-89, 116; colonial policy of, 146; losses in Seven Years' War, 159; missions in California, 226- 228, 354; gives up Louisiana, 266- 268; loses American colonies, 318-321; war with, 522-524 Spice Islands, 2, 77 Spinning, 126, 250-252, 253, 299 Spoils System, 327, 500 Springfield, Mass., 65, 206, 235 " Squatter Sovereignty," 377 Stage-coaches, 228, 305-306 Standish, Miles, 51, 54 Stark, John, 181, 200 Stamp Act, 165-169 States, organization of, 193-194 Staunton, Va., 504 Steamboats, 302-303, 366-367, 467-468 Steam-engine, 251-252 Steel, 128, 466-467, 469 Stephens, A. H., 379, 391 Stephenson, George, 334-335 Steuben, Baron, 215 Stevens, Thaddeus, 439-440 Stevenson, Adlai E., app., viii Stowe, Harriet B., 381 Strikes, 339, 495-496 Stuyvesant (sti' ve sant), Peter, 83-84 (portrait) Suffrage, 65, 323, 506 Sugar Acts, 131-132, 145, 161, 165, 166 Sumner, Charles, 379, 439-440, 446 Sumter, Fort, 395-397 Sumter, Thomas, 218 Supreme Court, 239, 240 Swedes, settlement by, 81 Tacoma, Wash., 486 Taft, W. H., 502, 510, 530-531 Taney, Chief Justice, 385 Tariff, early, 244-245; of 1816, 300-301; of 1828 and 1833, 331-333; recent, 509 Taxation, 131, 165, 244-245, 331-333. 421 Taylor, Zachary, 3SS-356, 378, 379, 380 Tea, tax on, 1 71-173 Technical High Schools, 515 Tecumseh (tekum' se), 282, 287 Telegraph, 365-366, 435, 464, 465 Telephone, 464 Tenement question, 493 Tennessee, settlement of, 209; admitted to Union, 248; as a state, 315, 323, 326; secedes, 392, 397; in the Civil War, 398, 414-415, 425; Reconstruction of, 437; industry in, 476 Tennessee River, 209, 403, 404, 414 Territories of the United States, North- west, 231-233; Louisiana, 264-274; Florida, 318; Oregon, 349-352, 3S6; CaUfornia, 356, 358-360; New Mexico, 358; Alaska, 447-448, 485 Texas, 36, 226; independence of, 345-348, 352; annexation of, 354-356, 358; in Civil War, 423; industry in, 476-477 Thanksgiving Day, 55, 56, 61 Thomas, General G. H., 425, 429 Threshing machines, 124, 368 Ticonderoga, 185 Tilden, S. J., 443 Tippecanoe, battle of, 282, 287 Tobacco, 45-46, 124, 130, 132, 162, 206- 207 Toleration Act, 74 Tompkins, D. D., app., iii Topeka, Kas., 383 Tories, 191-192 Toronto, 289 Town meeting, 140 Townshend Acts, 169-170 Trade, see Commerce, Fur Trade Trade Unions, 339, 493-496 Trafalgar, battle of, 277 Treaties, Utrecht (17 13), 106; Paris (1763), 159; Paris (1783), 221; Jay's, 258; Ghent (1814), 294; with Mexico, 358 Trent affair, 407 Trenton, battle of, 197 Troy, N.Y., 473 Trusts, 472-473 Turnpikes, 304 Tuskeegee Institute, 481 Tweed Ring, 501 Tyler, John, 352 Typewriter, 470 INDEX Ixi Uncle Tom's Cabin, 381 Underground Railroad, 38 o Union Pacific Railroad, 454-455 United Brethren, 116 Universities, 342-343. S16-518 Utah, 360, 378, 380, 460, 488, 505, 506 Valley Forge, 204 Van Buren, Martin, 331, 340, 348, 377 Van Rensselaer, 79 Vanderbilt, " Commodore," 472 Venezuela, 318 Vermont, 248, 323 Vespucius, Americus, 7 Veto, 141, 239 Vicksburg, 403, 423 Victoria, Queen, 407 Vincennes, 211 Virginia, settlement of, 14, 20-22, 39-47, 87; Bacon's rebellion, 144; colonial industry in, 128, 129, 130; education in, 133; religion, 136, 265; conflict with French, 148, 150, 152-153, 154, 156; resists Stamp Act, 167; during Revolution, 172, 203, 219-220; land claims of, 231; ratifies Constitution, 242; debts of, 244; Resolutions of, 260; gives land for capital, 264; Uni- versity of, 265, 343;* slavery in, 265, 373; secedes, 392, 397; seat of War, 402, 407-410, 416-418, 427-428, 430; after War, 436, 478, 481 Vote, right to, 65, 323, 506 Wales, immigrants from, 92, 532 Waltham, Mass., 298 Wampum, 55 Warren, Joseph, 178 Washington, state of, 274, 356, 460, 486- 487, 506 Washington, D.C., 244-245, 263-264, 293 Washington, Booker T., 481 Washington, George, ancestors of, 87; in Ohio, 151-152; in French and Indian War, 155-156, 157; resists parliamen- tary measures, 169, 174; commander- in-chief, 183, 184-185; captures Boston, 186-187; later campaigns, 196-199, 200-201, 204, 219-220; between 1783 and 1789, 222, 230, 234, 238; Presi- dency, 242-248, 256-259; interest in a National Road, 305, 308; portraits, i8s, 243 Water power, 479, 488-489 Waterbury, Ct., 206, 473 Watt, James, 251-252 Wayne, Anthony, 248 Weaving, 126-127, 250-252, 299 Webster, Daniel, 328, 332, 352, 378-379 Welland Canal, 349 Wellington, Duke of, 286 West Indies, 77-78, 87, 131, 161, 206, 215, 23S7 257, 261, 266-267, 278, 526, 527, 529 West Point, 216, 404 West Virginia, 398, 408, 470 Western Reserve, 231 Whale fishery, 132 Wheeler, W. A., app., vii Wheeling, W.Va., 234, 305, 363 Whig party, 328, 378, 384-385 Whiskey Rebellion, 245 White, Father, 72 Whitney, Eli, 254 Wilderness, battle of, 427 Willard, Emma, 343 William and Mary, king and queen of England, 104-105; college, 134 Williams, Roger, 63, 64, 74 Will's Creek, 150 Wilson, Henry, app., vii Wilson, James, 238, 240 Wilson, Woodrow, 510 Winthrop, John, 60 (portrait), 61 Wisconsin, 370-371, 381, 515-516, 518 Witchcraft, 136-137 Wolfe, James, 158-159 Woman Suffrage, 506 Woolen Act, 127 Writs of Assistance, 161-162 Wyoming, state, 460, 487, 488, 506 Wyoming Massacre, 210 Yale College, 134 Yellow fever, 526 Yorktown, capture of, 220 Zuni (z6' nye) Indians, 10, 29, 30 -"ST h^W ■Vz. ^ ■Sv, 'Pe^,. ■Sf ^'f^^<^^ •■C2C2? ^. 'Wtt3e , . I..- /sco«o V ,^ ^sto" G O S .- BALElSHSV [hViulf, T is N ifE S S E Mompli J ijOLOMEIA g, Blrfijingham, /^ ', 1/ ©ATlANTX^C.UlOUS-^- ^) ^ \ ^^y/wnmlnslon \ ;^ MAP OF THE UNITED STATES AND ITS POSSESSIONS