NOTES Oi\ PORTUGAL. 
 
 t,^^^^ 
 
 x. 
 
 
 / 
 
 BY E. A. G. 
 
 
 1876. 
 
 'V9!/0- 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 
 PHILADELPHIA CATHOLIC PUBLISHING COMPANY, 
 1876. 
 
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> V 
 
UE. purpose in making this publication, was to 
 present a collection of considerations and 
 statistical details, which might lead the reader 
 to, at least, an approximate comprehension of 
 the situation of Portugal in the concourse of 
 civilized nations. 
 
 For that, we have had recourse to com- 
 p(. tent works, and have taken much from that 
 of Sr. Teixeira de Vasconcellos, a distinguished writer, and 
 of Sr. de Figueiredo, a very eminent consular functionary. In 
 addition, the excellent report of the Commercial Association 
 of Lisbon, for 1874, and some official documents have served 
 as guides. 
 
 Our department of Statistics is not yet very prolific in infor- 
 mation, and we are greatly in need of a work like the "Annuaire 
 de la Belgique,'' in which could be found the surest and most 
 exact details in all the branches of the administration. A step 
 has been taken in that direction ; but a long time will elapse 
 before anything of importance is effected. 
 
 There are in Portugal very good books on the history of that 
 country, and meritorious works in French are also to be found, 
 such as those of Ferdinand Denis, Buchot, Yoegel, etc. ; but 
 in the English language, we believe our publication is the first 
 of the kind, as we cannot affirm that the ^' Travels in Portugal," 
 by Latouche, or the work of Lady Jackson are similar to this 
 one. 
 
The reader will find here some facts connected with the history 
 of Portugal not known to many persons outside of that country. 
 One of these is the discovery of Australia by the Portuguese. 
 It is commonly supposed that La P^rouse was the first discoverer. 
 Whether that was the case or not, we leave the intelligent reader 
 to determine, when he has perused what is said concerning it in 
 the Appendix. 
 
NOTES ON PORTUGAL. 
 
 SUUM CUIQUE. 
 
 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 Despite tlie glorious part that has been played by the Portu- 
 guese in the history of Europe, and notwithstanding the 
 magnificent colonial empire founded by them in South America, 
 the inhabitants of North America know very little concerning 
 the small kingdom of Portugal. Americans are somewhat apt 
 to judge of a country by its extent alone. Possibly this mode 
 of estimating the strength and importance of a nation may be 
 natural to a race possessing the most magnificent domain, but it 
 is not always just. In the case of Portugal, we err greatly if 
 we consider that country to possess an importance proportionate 
 only to its extent. If we except a certain category of distin- 
 guished personages, who have made themselves acquainted with 
 European events, we shall find that even well-informed Ameri- 
 cans are cognizant of merely its existence as a part of Europe, 
 confined on the West and South by an immensely greater neigh- 
 bor — Spain, with which they imagine it is in some way con- 
 nected. They do not concede to it an independent existence, 
 but confound its destinies in respect to political, economical and 
 social life, with those of Spain. 
 
6 Notes mi Portugal. 
 
 Portugal has always desired to live in amity with its neigh- 
 bor^ a nation of the same race ; but the student in history will 
 find that the two kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsular have, up 
 to the present, pursued two paths as distinct from each other, as 
 are their customs, natures and aspirations. 
 
 There are in Portugal all the conditions befitting a truly in- 
 dependent nation. The Portuguese^ firm in their love of country, 
 and inspired by their traditions, could not even suppose that 
 their right to exist in an independent state would be questioned. 
 Portugal, in their eyes, is complete mistress of her destinies, and 
 exercises fully her dominion. *^ We live, ai:d we have always 
 lived, having our political interests completely distinct from 
 those of Spain." 
 
 The words we have just cited have never penetrated in their 
 proper sense, the minds of those writers who, ill-informed, to 
 say the least, afSrm quite the contrary. 
 
 We have read, in a very influential paper published in New 
 York, the following words contained in an article entitled 
 " Spain ^' : — " The destinies of the two nations have been 
 identical in the same manner as their political interests and his- 
 tory." To reply triumphantly to such an assertion, it will 
 suffice to repeat the remarkable words that Senor Estevan Col- 
 lantes, the Ambassador from Spain at Lisbon, pronounced when 
 presenting his credentials to the Portuguese monarch : " Portugal 
 owes her happiness to her popular king as well as to her free in- 
 stitutions. Spain desires to follow in the same road." 
 
 Nay, more. In the reply given by Alphonsus XII., to the 
 address of the Portuguese Ambassador who had come to con- 
 gratulate him on his elevation to the throne, we find the follow- 
 ing words : "Relying upon the great majority of the Spaniards, 
 I am resolved to re-establish peace, and with it found the proper 
 institutions of a constitutional monarchy, in order, that under 
 their influence, and in the same manner as they suceeeded in your 
 
Introduction. 7 
 
 nohle land, there may be developed the germs of wealth which 
 this country coDtains. In this way the commercial relations 
 existing between Spain and Portugal will strengthen still more 
 the bonds of friendship, which ought always to exist between 
 two nations, independent, indeed, but brothers on account of a 
 common origin." 
 
 The improvements in both morals and strength, to which all 
 well-governed nations aspire, have been already undertaken by 
 Portugal, and on a close examination it will be ascertained that 
 these endeavors have not been fruitless. 
 
 The American people cannot but sympathize with a nation, 
 which is indeed small as regards territory^ but is illustrious on 
 account of its glorious traditions and its constant struggle in the 
 field of investigation and enterprise. Celebrated discoveries and 
 conquests symbolized by the intimate union of the sword with, 
 the Cross, enobled the ancient Portuguese. "Jn hoG signo vinces'^ 
 was the legend that led them when they sought new countries. 
 Unlike the other nations of Europe they did not found simply 
 factories in the lands they conquered, but animated by religious 
 zeal, they planted in the new world the standard of the Cross, 
 and taught to the ignorant tribes that morality of Christianity 
 which is at once so sublime and so sweet. 
 
 The fleets of Portugal ploughed the stormy main, bearing her 
 bold sailors to magnificent discoveries. Whilst producing 
 Vasco de Gama, and Alphonsus d^ Albuquerque, a poet worthy 
 of the time, appeared in the person of Luiz de Camoens. The 
 exploits of the Portuguese argonauts demanded a fitting mins- 
 trel. The Lusiades will be for ever the greatest monument of 
 their glories, and the sublimest epic of the Peninsula. 
 
 After a long period of prosperity, the storms of misfortune 
 lell upon the country and reduced it to the second rank. The 
 Marquis de Pombal raised his native land from the depths of 
 despair. But this elevation was for only a short time. The 
 
8 Notes on Portugal, 
 
 wars with Napoleon, the loss of Brazil and of other colonies, 
 and civil contentions, all combined to reduce Portugal to misery 
 and distraction. 
 
 Despite all these circumstances, there existed in the hearts of 
 the people an earnest patriotism which kept alive the flame of 
 nationality. The love of independence reigned supreme. Out 
 of chaos came forth order, and to-day, Portugal stands before 
 the world, ready to enter upon a grand career. Several things 
 remain to be done ; certain shackles must be thrown off and 
 various abuses eliminated. Already she has instituted a reform 
 in her financial matters, thereby acquiring the esteem of the 
 enlightened world. Nor has the question of educating her 
 lower classes been neglected. In truth, in regard to that subject 
 as well as to the solution of the problem concerning the union 
 of religion with the civil authority, she shows an example that 
 miglit be studied very profitably by those states of Europe 
 which are afflicted with ecclesiastical and educational disputes. 
 
 Nor have the material improvements been neglected. Eail- 
 roads are being constructed, the high roads improved, and lines 
 of steamships established between the metropolis and the colon- 
 ial possessions. Thus are enlarged the commercial transactions, 
 the incentive of w^hich depend upon facility of communication 
 and cheapness of transportation. A great number of banks and 
 other institutions of credit, convenient to agriculture as well as 
 to the growing industries, has been founded. 
 
 With a large population, situated in the extreme west of 
 Europe, and possessing one of the best seaports in the world ; 
 having islands admirably situated in the road to the two 
 Americas ; Sovereign of vast colonies in Western and Eastern 
 Africa, India, China and Oceanica, Portugal can and ought to 
 be considered as a State of the greatest importance among the 
 powers of the second rank. 
 
 The relations between the United States and Europe are in- 
 
Introduction. 9 
 
 creasing at rapid strides. Attracted by its sympathy with the 
 Democratic movement, summoned by its vast commercial 
 interests to unite itself still more with the Old World, and im- 
 pelled by its own greatness to enter into the grand development 
 of civilization, and into the political life of the European States, 
 the great Republic requires a secure and free access to Europe. 
 Geograpically, Portugal occupies the same position to North 
 America as Belgium does to Great Britain. Being in the most 
 direct route, Portugal is that State of Europe with which the 
 most profitable relations could be maintained. 
 
 The varied productions of Portugal should be adverted to. 
 On the mountains we find the pine, tlie oak, the chestnut and 
 all the flora natural to an elevated region ; everywhere else — 
 cereals and fruits of all kinds, grapes, olives, oranges, figs, dates, 
 grenadines, etc. A slight effort alone is necessary to naturalize 
 the equinoctial plants. Formerly Portugal afforded nourish- 
 ment to a great number of the Spaniards, and was called by 
 Csesar the Sicily of Spain. But owing to neglect, the natural 
 resources of the Country have not been turned to great utility 
 during the past few centuries. If it is true that Geography 
 throws light upon, and even dominates history, is there a single 
 country to which this observation could be better applied than 
 Portugal. Hemmed in between Spain and the ocean, removed 
 from the general interests of European States, how could it 
 aspire to play an important role upon the continent ? But the 
 immensity of the ocean displays itself before it and seems to en- 
 courage adventure. It is then upon its fleets that the future 
 and the glory of the Lusitanian race depend. 
 
 The history of Portugal is explained by her Geographical 
 position. 
 
Desce^ption of Portugal. 
 
 Situated at the extremity of the Iberian Peninsular and con- 
 sequently of the European Continent, Portugal extends from 
 8°.46' to 11°.51' in longitude, and from 36.58' to 42.°7' in lati- 
 tude, thus covering a space of about 34,500 square miles. On 
 the north and east the Spanish provinces of Galicia, Yalladolid, 
 Zaraora, Salamanca, Estramadura and Seville, form a limit ; on 
 the west, the broad Atlantic presents a wide expanse of water, 
 on which, let us hope, future fleets will be wafted to the Tagus, 
 in as imposing armadas as they were wont to do. 
 
 Its most striking physical feature is displayed in its mountain- 
 ous appearance. Indeed, in all parts of the country, mountains 
 tower aloft. Unlike Spain, the plains are of small dimensions, 
 The ranges rise in Spain and, for the most part, run parallel 
 to the Pyrenees, terminating at the Atlantic. Its rivers like- 
 wise follow the same direction. The mountains, which are 
 chiefly composed of the ranges of Montesinho, Estrella, Cintra, 
 and Monchique, present incontestable proofs of their volcanic 
 origin. They abound in quarries of marble, rivalling the Pentel- 
 ican ; in mines of gold, silver,iron, copper and lead, and above 
 all, in hot and in mineral springs. Whilst speaking about the 
 last mentioned subject, namely, springs, we should mention that, 
 in St. Michael, one of the Azores, the celebrated waters called 
 
Description of Portugal. 11 
 
 '^das Furnas" are extremely beneficial for the diseases of the skin^ 
 rheumatism, scrofula, and others of the like description. On 
 the summits of these mountains we find the two principal lakes, 
 of which circumstances the poets have not failed to take advan- 
 tage. Lago Grande has furnished an inexhaustible theme. 
 The ranges, moreover, enclose a multitude of fertile valleys. 
 These valleys are to be found principally in the province of 
 Beira. Frequently these pleasant spots are devasted by terrible 
 earthquakes. Portugal, alas ! has reason to dread these dread- 
 ful phenomena of nature. We might mention those in 1356, 
 1597 and in 1755. The last one was the most calamitous. 
 By it the City of Lisbon was destroyed, and the whole of 
 Portugal thrown into mourning. The Azores and Madeira, 
 also, afford examples of volcanic action. The island of Pico, 
 one of the western Azores, is dominated by a volcano, which 
 elevates itself to a height of 7,500 feet. 
 
 Three of its most important rivers take their rise in Spfiin, 
 viz. : the Tagus, the Douro and the Guadiana. These empty 
 themselves into the Atlantic, as do all the other streams. We 
 have also the Lima — so famous formerly under the name of 
 Lethe — the Mondego, the Ave, the Sado, the Tamega, the 
 Agueda, the Erjes, and the Bezere. The majority of these 
 streams are merely torrents, alternately surcharged by the 
 melted snows of the mountains, and dried up by the heat of 
 the sun. 
 
 We now come to the various Provinces. They are as follows: 
 Minho, or Minho e Douro, Tras-os-Montes, Beira, Estremadura, 
 Alemtejo, and Algarves. The last province gives the title of 
 king, which the monarchs of Portugal bear in addition to their 
 more usual one. 
 
 The Climate of Portugal is variable according to the districts. 
 But it is, upon the whole, one of the finest in Europe. We do 
 not meet with the oppressive heats that reign in countries situat- 
 
12 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 ed in the same latitude. It is only the interior which suffers 
 somewhat from the heat of the sun and from drouth. This, 
 however^ is owing to the want of the forests. Cold is not felt 
 anywhere, except in the highest districts of the north. Snow 
 and ice are looked upon as curiosities, and the rivers are never 
 frozen over. 
 
 The seasons present a few peculiarities. There are what we 
 might call two springs during the year. The first commences 
 in February. During the next three months, a dry heat alter- 
 nates with stormy weather ; in general, however, soft and con- 
 tinued rains are not common. The harvest takes place in June, 
 except in the mountainous districts of the north-east, where that 
 time is July. This is also the period of the greatest heat, vary- 
 ing from a minimum of 20° Centigrade to a maximum of 40° 
 Centigrade. Then the want of rain and the heat of the sun 
 dry up the vegetation. But at the end of September the 
 equinoctial rains commence, being followed in October by the 
 second summer. Then burst forth the leaves, and flowers be- 
 deck the orange trees. The heaviest rains fall in November 
 and December. The coldest month of the year is January. 
 Another peculiarity is that thunder-storms do not occur in the 
 summer, but during the winter. 
 
 The climate of the Azores and Madeira, although warmer on 
 account of the latitude, is neither less agreeable nor less salubri- 
 ous than that of the Portuguese Continent ; the remarkable se- 
 renity of the sky attracts thither from the north of Europe many 
 invalids suffering from consumption. It must be admitted, 
 however that there have been a few epidemics. In 1857 the 
 yellow fever, brought from Brazil, caused dreadful ravages. 
 But these scourges would not have occurred, had there not been 
 a preparation made for them in the shape of defective sanitary 
 arrangements. Improve the drainage and sewerage, and typhus, 
 with its concomitant evils, will become unknown. 
 
Description of Portugal, 13 
 
 The Azores and Madeira form two provinces adjacent to the 
 Portuguese mainland, governed in exactly the same manner as 
 the rest of the kingdom. They do not possess, in the slightest 
 degree, the character of colonies. The island of Madeira, known 
 to this country through its wines especially, is 18 leaguse long 
 and 8 wide. The surface is mountainous, but of a tropical fer- 
 tility; as to the climate, it is so temperate and uniform, that 
 consumptives find there the means of prolonging their existence 
 and even of being cured, in the instances where the disease has 
 not advanced too far. Sugar cane and vine constitute the princi- 
 pal productions. The exportation of wines, before the oidium 
 tunkerisy was annually about 12,000 pipes. The most renowned 
 qualities are Malvasia, Serceal and Tinto. After having endured 
 the vine-disease for several years, many proprietors commenced 
 to plant sugar-cane, the cultivation of which had been abandoned 
 almost entirely. Cereals do not succeed in Madeira, and there is 
 consequently, a large amount imported. On the other hand, the 
 fruits and plants of Europe, Asia and Africa are well developed 
 in that island, thanks to favorable climatic influences. The 
 city of Funchal, the principal place on the island, is much re- 
 sorted to by foreigners, especially the English, the population is 
 distinguished for its refined manners. 
 
 Gongalo Velho Cabral, in 1432, discovered the isle of St. 
 Maria, which discovery led to that of the Archipelago of the 
 Azores. The latter event took place 1449, or in 1460, accord- 
 ing to the various opinions. The name Azores was given 
 because of the number of goshawks, which were seen floating in 
 the air: the arms of the Archipelago consist of a goshawk sur- 
 rounded by nine stars, representing the nine constituent islands. 
 They were peopled by Portuguese and Flemings, and were formed 
 into fiefs held by noblemen, who acknowledged only the king. 
 They are 200 leagues distant from Portugal, 38°, 38' latitude 
 and 29° 32^ iongtitude, and are for the most part, volcanic. 
 
14 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 The soil is generally very fertile, as are all soils which proceed 
 from the decomposition of basalt, and whose formation comes 
 from volcanoes. Although very mountainous, we find it rich 
 in exceedingly fertile valleys. The climate less dry than that 
 of Madeira, is, however, very healthy, and causes longevity 
 Indian corn, wheat, potatoes, yams, oranges, and wines, consti- 
 tute the chief agricultural wealth. Tobacco also is grown with 
 success. Cochineal and the culture of silk worms would be 
 very important sources of wealth, if serious attention were paid 
 to them. The best known ports are Horta, Angra, and Ponta 
 Delgada. The bay of Horta is the best for navigation. A 
 dock is about to be constructed for that place, which will 
 render immense service to the navigation of the world. Several 
 unfortunate circumstances prevented these islands from being 
 more developed. They were in past times often attacked by the 
 barbaric corsairs, and they had to undergo, on several occasions, 
 cruel* ravages caused by volcanic eruptions. Frequently by 
 reason of these eruptions islets were formed, which however 
 soon disappeared beneath the waves, despite the standard of 
 Her^ Britannic Majesty which the English have the habit of 
 planting on all treasure trove. 
 
 Formerly Terceira was the Capital of the whole Archipelago 
 and it is yet the seat of a Bishopric and of a military division. 
 It was in this island that the liberal troops commenced their 
 exploits against the armies of D. Miguel. The island is called, 
 like Oporto, the bulwark of Portuguese liberty. Indeed it must 
 be said that the Archipelago has always shown itself full of 
 patriotic sentiments. In taking the part of D. Antonio, Prior 
 of Crato who was the natural candidate against the usurpation 
 of Philip II of Spain, and in pronouncing, later on, so ener- 
 getically for the restoration of the Braganzas in 1640, the 
 inhabitants of the Azores have often deserved well of th^ father- 
 
Description of Portugal. _ 15 
 
 land. The city of Augra has borne the title of "Sempre leal" 
 since the reign of John IV. 
 
 Terceira has lost mi^ch of its ancient importance. Its port 
 has never been so famous as that of Horta. S. Michael has 
 became by its wealth, the first in the groups of the Azores; it is 
 the largest as well as the most densely populated. 
 
 The island which has the most intercourse with the United 
 States, is that of Fayal. The name of an illustrious American 
 citizen, the late Consul, Charles S. Dabney, will always remain 
 venerated by the country of his adoption. 
 
 To finish this glance at the Azores, we might say that the 
 home administrations have sometimes neglected to give satisfac- 
 tion to all their needs. But it should not be imagined, on that 
 account, that the Fayalese are the less attached to their father- 
 land. Patriotism burns with as intense a flame within the 
 breasts of the Fayalese as in the hearts of the inhabitants of the 
 metropolis. 
 
^ 
 
 ISTORICAL 
 
 P 
 
 KETCH 
 
 The father-land of the ancient Lusitanians, brothers of the 
 Celtiberians and cousins of the other Celtic races, through the 
 common bonds which the Gaelic root established between all the 
 nations of that great family, Portugal had attracted, at various 
 epochs, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians, before mighty 
 Rome succeeded in subduing the greater portion of the Iberian 
 Peninsula. It was only after severe struggles that the Lusita- 
 nians were finally overcome by the Romans. But they fell glori- 
 ously. The name of Viriathus is one of the noblest in their his- 
 tory. From the time he escaped from the base massacre of thirty 
 thousand Lusitanians by Servilius Galba, till his assassination 
 (140 B. C), the Romans encountered one whose name sj^read 
 fear amongst their legions. When the hero fell, murdered by 
 two of his own soldiers, the contest was not quite ended. Even 
 the women fought with desperate courage. We must pass rapid- 
 ly over the history of Portugal under the Romans. From the 
 moment Spain became Roman, Lusitania ceased to have a his- 
 tory of its own ; it was merely one of the finest provinces of the 
 Empire. On account of its situation, it was free from both 
 the civil contentions which soon desolated the Roman Universe, 
 and the inroads of the barbarians; its prosperity was almost 
 constant. Magnificent monuments attest this happy state. Look 
 at the aqueduct at Evora, the temple of Diana, the baths at 
 
Historical Sketch. 17 
 
 Cintra and the Amphitheatre of Lisbon. However, the 
 Empire began to fall into })ieces. Gaul first felt the evils of 
 the formidable attacks of the rude northern tribes ; the turn 
 of Spain followed and the Vandals, Suevi and Vieigoths were 
 delayed but a short time at the Pyrenees. These were succeeded 
 in 711 by the Arabs, who retained a firm hold until the com- 
 mencement of the 11th century. The Christian princes then 
 began to recover from the Paynim, by force of arms, the terri- 
 tory lying between the Minho and the Douro. In 1095 
 Alphonsus VI, king of Leon and of Castille, after having, mar- 
 ried his daughter to a prince of the iiouse of Hugh Capet, Henry 
 of Burgundy, who had come to seek fortune in the Peninsula 
 by fighting the Moors, created the chivalric foreigner count of 
 this same district increased by a portion of the province of Beira, 
 and which from that time bore the name of Portugal. At the 
 death of his father-in-law and sovereign, Henry made his power 
 independent and hereditary. He achieved rapid conquests and 
 his son Alphonsus I, still more fortunate, completely defeated 
 the Moors, near Ourique in 1139 : but more important advanta- 
 ges, gained over his cousin and sovereign Alphonsus VII, king 
 of Leon and Castille, whom the Cortes of Leon had proclaimed 
 emperor, acquired for him the title of king. Alphonsus I, being 
 frequently engaged in war with the former sovereigns of the 
 country, declared himself vassal of the Holy See, in order to 
 strengthen himself against their demands. His campaigns against 
 the Moors were crowned with success by the capture of Santarem 
 and of Lisbon in 1147. He died in 1185. The kinffdom was 
 
 o 
 
 extended by his successors, until it contained nearly its present 
 area. 
 
 We find that the direct line came to an end in 1383, when 
 the crbwn fell into the hands of John I, natural son of Peter I, 
 who was proclaimed king by the cortes. John I. strengthened 
 his throne by the brilliant victory of Aljubarrota gained over the 
 
18 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 Castilians. Then commenced the maritime and colonial power 
 of Portugal. By his queen, Philippa of Lancaster, he had 
 several sons. The eldest, Edward, succeeded him in 1433 ; but 
 the most celebrated was Henry the Navigator, who, during the 
 consecutive reigns of his brother and of his nephew Alphonsus 
 V, was the promoter of all the maritime expeditions, and thus 
 pushed on the greatness of the nation. 
 
 The first exploits were the taking of Ceuta in Morocco, in 
 1415; the discovery of Madeira and Porto Santo in 1419. Of 
 the Azores in 1432, and of the Cape Yerd in 1460. It was 
 during the reign of John II, the Perfect, that the Portuguese 
 monarchy entered into full enjoyment of power. The discovery 
 of the Cape of Good Hope in 1486, by Bartholomeu Diaz, marked 
 a new era. The negro sovereigns on the coasts of Africa had 
 submitted to John II. It was on the ocean, the true theatre of 
 Portuguese glory, that John II concentrated almost exclusively 
 his ambitious projects. Having assumed the title of ^'Lord of Gui- 
 nea,^' he had various expeditions led against the Moors in Africa. 
 The brilliant success of the Portuguese generals was eclipsed only 
 by the marvellous progress which the Portuguese marine had made 
 on the other side of the equator. It had been remarked by the 
 navigators, when they arrived in the neighborhood of that famous 
 line, that Africa went on increasing towards the west, and the 
 easier desire to ascertain the truth soon removed all ideas of 
 doubt. From Guinea the Portuguese were not long in advancing 
 to the kingdom of Benin, and thence to the Congo. At length, 
 on the second of August, 1486, Bartholomeu Diaz set sail with 
 two ships and a tender. Tormented by the vague reports that 
 had come to him concerning a king named Prester John, the 
 King of Portugal had charged that distinguished navigator to 
 go and verify the legends of which this mysterious personage 
 was the object. Bartholomeu scrupulously followed the instruc- 
 tions he had received, but was unable to ascertain any pertinent 
 
Historical Sketch. 19 
 
 information from the inhabitants along the coast. However, he 
 continued on his course, despite the most terrible tempests and 
 the protests of even the hardy mariners that accompanied him. 
 The result of his constancy was glorious. After various delays 
 and annoyances he finally reached a cape which he called the 
 Cape of Torments. Even then, he was not satisfied and the 
 voyage would have been extended, had he not encountered the 
 determined refusal of his companions. 
 
 After an absence of seventeen months, he returned home. 
 John II, delighted with his recital and prescient of future 
 benefits to be derived from the discovery, hastened to change 
 the mournful name "Cape of Torments'' into that of "Cape of 
 Good Hope." 
 
 Whilst this great enterprise was being pursued, a no less im- 
 portant discovery, or to speak more properly , series of discoveries, 
 was being prosecuted in the East. Diaz endeavored to unravel 
 the mystery of Prester John by sea, but two other Portuguese, 
 Pedro de Covilham and Alphonsus de Paiva, attempted to solve 
 the same question, by land. At Cairo they separated — Alphonsus 
 for Ethiopia; Covilham for the Indies. The former was unfor- 
 tunate in his efforts and soon died. His comrade touched at 
 Cananor, Calicut and Goa, was the first to learn what the Indies 
 actually were, traversed the vast ocean which separates them 
 from Africa, visited Sofala, and returned to Aden with the 
 most precioui news. 
 
 Having arrived at length in Cairo, he prepared to embark for 
 Portugal, full of sorrow for the death of Paiva, when a Spanish 
 Jew came to him on the part of John IL, and treated of Baby- 
 lon, Bagdad, and Ormuz. Covilham yielded, and having com- 
 mitted his papers to the Jew, he set out anew. Having traveled 
 for some time, he disappeared in Abyssinia. 
 
 These voyages of Covilham deserve a distinguished rank 
 among the great works of that epoch. Although he did not 
 
20 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 succeed in verifying the fables about Prester John, he had the 
 honor of being the first Christian to traverse the oceans of the 
 East. It could no longer be doubted that Africa was circum- 
 navigable, and that it was possible to open a new road to the 
 Indies. 
 
 But we must retrace our steps and treat of that greatest dis- 
 covery of modern times — the discovery of America. On a 
 certain day in 1493, J.ohn II., was startled by the news of the 
 arrival in the port of Lisbon, of two vessels bearing the arms of 
 Castille, and driven by tempests to seek shelter. They were 
 those of Christopher Columbus, who carried with him the most 
 striking proofs of his wonderous success. Great grief filled the 
 ibreast of John, when he remembered that he entertained preju- 
 cdices against Columbus, when that great man offered to execute 
 for Portugal what he had just accomplished for Castille ; thus 
 losing possession of a whole world, which the Castilians had 
 acquired by a single stroke, whereas, the Portuguese had pursued 
 the same end for 80 years. But des])ite his chagrin, he had a 
 generous heart. He refused the unworthy suggestions of his 
 evil counsellors, who wished him to hide in the blood of Colum- 
 bus the marvellous secret. He received the distinguished navi- 
 gator at his court, bestowed honors on him, and finally dismissed 
 him to his own sovereign, with ample tokens of his regard. 
 
 Although the Portuguse lost the honor of discovering America, 
 to them belongs the merit of having prepared the w^ay. The 
 initiative to that enterprise, as well to the doubling of the Cape 
 of Good Hope, had been given by the establishment of the cele- 
 brated school at Sagres, founded by the Infante Don Henrique. 
 
 Christopher Columbus had had his imagination inflauied by 
 ;the wonderful narrative of the explorations and conquests of the 
 Portuguese. Before he undertook the famous voyage, the result 
 of which was to add a new world to the old, he had married in 
 Lisbon, in 1471, the daughter of the celebrated navigator Per- 
 
Historical Sketch. 21 
 
 estrello, whose charts and memoirs undoubtedly contributed to 
 the realization of the plan conceived and carried out by the bold 
 and indefatigable adventurer. It will be seen that in less than 
 half a century, Portugal had conquered 4,500 leagues of coast, 
 captured Ormuz at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, and Socotra 
 at the mouth of the Red Sea, thas closing against the Mussul- 
 mans and Venice, the ancient roads to Hindoostan and 
 Indo-China, and diverting to its own advantage a coQimerce 
 which had been established for more than twenty centuries. 
 Alphonsus de Albuquerque went so far as to conceive the project 
 of diverting the course of the Nile into the Red Sea in order to 
 prevent commerce from following its ancient direction. 
 
 The discoveries and the geographical labors of the Portuguese 
 opened to the other nations' of Europe the highway of the seas. 
 It was the dawn of the renaissance. We had already entered 
 into modern history in which Portugal has since played no un- 
 important part. Although deprived of the honor of discover- 
 ing America, the subjects of John II., inspired by their 
 monarch's enthusiasm, did not hesitate to take advantage of the 
 new opening for enterprise. 
 
 John ordered a fleet to be immediately equipped, in order that 
 it might follow over the traces of the Spaniards. He hoped, by 
 reason of the incontestable superiority of his marine, that the 
 fruits of the success of Columbus would return to himself, and 
 that the ocean would not cease to be Portuguese. But Castille 
 hastened to exclaim against this supposed usurpation of its 
 rights, and it was found necessary for the Pope to act as media- 
 tor. The treaty of Tordesillas divided the world into two 
 hemispheres, one of which (the Eastern) was to belong to Por- 
 tugal, and the other (the Western) to Spain. 
 
 John, assured of the possession of the East, determined to re- 
 gain his former superiority by making vast conquests in Asia. 
 He therefore had an important squadron prepared, and gave its 
 
22 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 command to his most skillful mariner, Vasco da Gama. But he 
 did not live to see the fruits of his enterprise. 
 
 Our space does not allow us to make more than a passing eu- 
 logium on this great monarch. Although surnamed Perfect, he 
 had the greater part of the faults of the time, and pushed 
 justice to even rigor. But he practised with a constant zeal and 
 great success, his trade as king in the XVth century. To lower 
 the nobility, to unite himself to the people, and to maintain 
 peace with the rest of the Peninsula, in order to consecrate to 
 the ocean all the resources of his states, constituted the wisest 
 policy of the king of Portugal. It was he who prepared the 
 splendors of the Portuguese Monarchy. He possessed that at- 
 tribute common to all great men, an ardent love of letters and 
 art, so that it was his constant aim to attract to his court, men 
 distinguished in literature and the arts, of which, at that time, 
 Italy alone possessed the precious store. By him was the hither- 
 to unknown taste for these embellishments introduced into the 
 kingdom. 
 
 Several years elapsed before Yasco da Gama received from the 
 succeeding king, Emmanuel the Fortunate, the signal of de- 
 parture. Yasco received the letters and instructions (among 
 which were the memoirs and map of Covilhan) at Lisbon, and 
 having taken Communion with his 160 companions, set forth 
 towards his fleet. It was on the 7th of July, 1497, that the 
 four ships of Gama weighed anchor before the eyes of an im- 
 mense multitude of people praying for their success. 
 
 At the time Yasco da Gama was directing his course toward 
 the Indies, his enterprise was no less necessary than glorious. 
 The commercial relations of Asia with the West, formerly so 
 active and so prosperous at the period of Alexandria, Constan- 
 tinople and Caffa had been nearly ruined, during the time 
 those cities languished under the Mahommetan rule. What little 
 did exist, profited only Genoa, Florence, and, above all, Yenice. 
 
Historical Sketch. 23 
 
 It was therefore indispensable that Europe herself should go, 
 and ;vithout the mediation of the Italian republics or of the 
 Turks, demand from the East those productions that were in- 
 dispensable. In opening a new way to the commerce of Asia, 
 and in destroying the monopoly of the Italian cities, the Portu- 
 guese navigators did not contribute to the glory and prosperity 
 of only their land, they deserved the thanks of the whole West. 
 
 A northerly wind favored the little squadron, and it passed 
 without trouble the Canaries, the Cape Verd islands, touched at 
 St. Helena, where it remained a short time, and finally reached 
 the Cape of Good Hope. When arrived there the daring navi- 
 gators were agreeably surprised to find that instead of dreadful 
 tempests, they experienced delightful weather. This circum- 
 stance inspired them with new confidence, and they advanced 
 with ardor over the hitherto unknown seas. Having touched 
 along the African coast at various parts, amongst which were 
 the coasts of Natal, Mozambique and Melinda, Gama set sail 
 for the shores of India, where he arrived on the 20th of May, 
 1498. The spot at which he landed, is a few miles to the north 
 of Calicut on the Malabar coast. His reception by the Zamorin 
 of Calicut Avas not, on the whole, very satisfactory, owing to the 
 cabals of the Arabian merchants, who were jealous of what 
 they felt to be the overpowering ascendancy of the Portuguese. 
 But some enterchange of goods, etc., furnished sufficient grounds 
 for believing that the discovery would greatly redound to the 
 power and the glory of Portugal. The hardy adventurers soon 
 found it necessary to abandon the country for the present, and to 
 return to Europe for the necessary reinforcements. 
 
 The homeward voyage was devoid of remarkable incidents. 
 It might be mentioned, however, that owing to a mistake in re- 
 gard to relative positions caused by a frightful tempest, Vasco 
 de Gama lost the opportunity of being the first to tell the news. 
 Coelho, captain of the '^Berrio," arrived first in Lisbon, on the 
 
24 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 29th of July, 1499. Yasco arrived a month later. His return 
 was a triumph. Emmanuel covered him with honors, and 
 Vasco de Gama become Don Vasco, Count de Yidigueira and 
 Grand Admiral of all the Indian Seas. 
 
 No time was lost, and the command of the squadron sent 
 to gather the fruits of the glorious discovery, was given to Pedro 
 Alvarez Cabral. On the 8th of March, 1500, the expedition, 
 consisting of 12 ships, set sail. Cabral followed the course in- 
 dicated by his illustrious predecessor ; but a sudden tempest 
 carrying him to the westward, threw him upon an unknown 
 coast. He called the spot Porto Seguro, and the country Santa 
 Cruz. Being satisfied with merely admiring the beauty of the 
 country, he thought he would succeed in accomplishing, by chance, 
 the project entertained for so long a time by Christopher Colum- 
 bus, viz. : of going to India by the western route. The land he 
 had touched at and treated with so much indifference, is known 
 to-day as Brazil, in South America, never before seen by a 
 European. Thus chance assisted genius in revealing to man all 
 the mysteries of the globe. 
 
 Although important events occurred during the remainder of 
 the voyage, the discovery of the South American continent was 
 by far the most fortunate result. The Zamorin of Calicut con- 
 tinuing hostile, the Portuguese, after severe losses, determined to 
 seek an asylum with the king of Cochin China. The latter 
 being engaged in war with his lord paramount, was glad to re- 
 receive such allies. An alliance was formed with the king of 
 Cananor. In this manner, by fomenting rivalry between the 
 various States of India, the Europeans succeeded in obtaining 
 possession of those vast regions. The French, English, and 
 Dutch were only the imitators of the Portuguese, when they 
 pursued this policy. 
 
 Having thus established relations with a few of the princes, 
 Cabral at length weighed anchor, and after a long series of 
 
Historical Sketch. 25 
 
 frightful tempests, arrived in the Tagus with the debris of his 
 squadron. 
 
 Sufficient was now learned to make it appearant to Emmanuel 
 that although there were great difficulties to surmount, there was 
 also a grand empire to be founded by him in India. Uniting 
 promptness with energy, and being determined to venture 
 for success under the most favorable auspices, he summoned Vasco 
 de Gama himself to the command of a magnificent armada 
 consisting of 20 well armed ships. The expedition was success- 
 ful in all respects. The first thing was to spread the terror of 
 the Portuguese name at Sofala, Mozambique, Melinde, and 
 wheresoever treachery had been displayed. The report of his 
 severity had preceded him to Cananor, so that his reception there 
 was friendly in the extreme. Thence he hastened to Calicut, and 
 having made the demand that all the Mussulmans should quit 
 the kingdom, (which demand was not complied with) he opened 
 fire on the devoted place. The city was half ruined before the 
 Zamorin felt constrained to sue for a cessation of hostilities. 
 The Portuguese then made sail for Cochin China. There, all were 
 friendly, and the alliance was confirmed. But it must be con- 
 fessed that his cruelty effected the treaty. The superiority his 
 conduct assured him throughout Malabar, was still further 
 strengthened by a great naval victory which he gained over an 
 immense force sent against him by the Zamorin of Calicut. 
 
 When Gama, for the second time, quitted Hindoostan, he was 
 able to congratulate himself on having planted the seeds of a 
 mighty empire. 
 
 We cannot follow the Portuguese in their career of victory. 
 We should, however, mention the names of some of the great 
 captains of whom Portugal was so prolific at that time. The 
 names of Eduardo Pacheco, Alphonsus d^ Albuquerque, the 
 conqueror of India and the hero of Camoens, d^ Almeida, and 
 Menezes, shine in the first rank of the nobility as well as on the 
 
26 Notes on Portugal 
 
 {)ages of the history of Portugal. Titles of nobility continued to 
 be one of the recompenses reserved for great services to the State. 
 Vasco de Gama, become Don Vasco and Count, was a striking 
 proof of this, and his name reflects additional honor upon Em- 
 manuel, a king, who despite his defects, knew how to make use 
 of men of genius. 
 
 Few nations can present such a spectacle as Portugal offered 
 at the time of the death of Emmanuel the Fortunate. What 
 a marvellous picture! Out of the midst of a small nation, 
 until then but little known to the world, suddenly sprung 
 intrepid navigators and great generals. As a reward for their 
 boldness, we see Africa mapped out, the East Indies attached to 
 Euroj)e, the southern portion of America discovered, Oceanica 
 subdued, the routes to India changed, or to speak more properly, 
 supplemented, the monoi)ly of the Italian Republics ruined, 
 and Lisbon made the capital of commerce ; whilst Christianity 
 spreading out beyond its former limits, advanced to the regenera- 
 tion of the whole world. It seems to be a fable. Never have 
 such magnificent successes been gained with such feeble means 
 in so short a space of time, never has the strength of genius and 
 of courage been more gloriously exemplified. Indeed, the his- 
 tory of Portugal required not a historian, but a poet, for it reads 
 more like' an epic than a narrative. The deeds of glory found 
 a fitting minstrel in the person of Camoens. He did not invent, 
 he related. The reality was beyond the powers of fiction. The 
 history of Portugal, at this period, is the history of heroism. 
 
 In the midst of these splendors there were symptoms of a 
 decline. The emigration to the various conquered countries de- 
 peopled Portugal, and under John III, successor to Emmanuel, 
 industry suffered from want of men. Into the colonies, abuses 
 were gradually introduced, bad governors frequently appointed, 
 and the heroic fortitude of the Portuguese" changed into a vul- 
 gar love of money and its concomitant evil, luxury. These 
 
Historical Sketch. 27 
 
 causes soon led to the decadence of their power in the East 
 Indies, although it was for a time raised up by Jao de Castro. 
 In Africa, Alcazar, Arzila, Saff^ and Azamor were abandoned, 
 (1549), and only the strong cities of Ceuta, Tangiers, and Te- 
 tuan retained. These steps was taken principally because of the 
 contempt in which their African possessions were held, now that 
 India offered such a vast field. Even Brazil appeared to be of 
 little importance. Malefactors and abandoned women were the 
 chief elements of the European population when John III. 
 undertook to colonize it in order to counterbalance somewhat 
 the Spanish influence in America. It was only in 1549, how- 
 ever, that the number of European inhabitants was large 
 enough to be honored with a governor. Thomas de Souza, 
 with whom some Jesuits were appointed, was selected as gov- 
 ernor. But the policy universally adopted of planting the 
 seeds of colonial empire in the shape of the refuse of society, 
 had excited in the numerous tribes, a common hatred of the 
 Portuguese name, as they deemed all the whites to be of the 
 same stamp. What an unwise policy ! To think of colonizing 
 vanquished countries with such materials as are usually sent ! 
 To endeavor to found a new society with what corrupts and de- 
 stroys the best established communities. 
 
 In vain did the soldiers of Souza contend against the preju- 
 dices of the Indians. The religious element alone succeeded in 
 bringing about a successful issue. The Jesuits, those indefati- 
 gable pioneers of religion, and consequently of civilization, 
 plunged fearlessly into the forests, announced to the angry 
 savages the good news of the Saviour, weaned them little by 
 little from idolatry, and by the example of their own virtues 
 showed them that all Europeq^ns were not alike. In this con- 
 duet consists the principal glory of the Society of Jesus. At 
 length the armies of the governor, but above all, the preach- 
 ing of the Gospel by the Missionaries, established on a solid 
 
28 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 base the Portuguse rule in Brazil. For a long time, how- 
 ever, that land remained in the second rank of colonies, being 
 imperfectly known. The mines, rich in the precious metals and 
 in other minerals, remained undiscovered for a long period. 
 
 During the reign of Don Sebastian, at a time when Portugal 
 retained with difficulty the precious relics of her colonial em- 
 pire, a project w^as entertained of renewing, on the coast of 
 Africa, the great expeditions of John I., and of Alphonsus Y. 
 In vain did the wise men of the kingdom protest against this 
 imprudence. A small force departed in 1574, disembarked near 
 Tangier s, and gained several minor successes. But it was in 
 1578, that the grand effort was made. The decisive battle was 
 fought in the middle of the vast plain of Alcazar, on the 4th of 
 August, 1578. Despite the heroic courage of Sebastian, his im- 
 prudence, together with treachery on the part of some followers, 
 caused the ruin of the Portuguese. At first, success was on the 
 side of the Christians, and they penetrated in the first shock of 
 battle to the tent of Muley Moluc. But the end was a disas- 
 trous defeat. How many were killed, or how many were cap- 
 tured cannot be ascertained with any degree of certainty from 
 the contradictory statements of the contemporaneous writers. 
 But the material losses of the day are of secondary importance, 
 when we look at the results of the battle. 
 
 The news of the defeat spread consternation throughout the 
 land. All perceived that it was the ruin of not merely Don 
 Sebastian's army, but of Portugal. Farewell to glory. A fight 
 for national existence was about to commence. The empire so 
 miraculously acquired was destroyed, and complete destruction 
 threatened the national liberties, on account of the grasping am- 
 bition of mighty Spain. Camoens expressed the depth of uni- 
 versal grief, when, at the point of death, he exclaimed, ^^At least 
 I die with my country." It is a striking coincidence, that at 
 
Historical Sketch. 29 
 
 the very time Portugal lost lier power, she lost also the most 
 illustrous representative of her literature. 
 
 Then followed a period of anarchy and servitude. Phillip II. 
 of Spain, perceiving the weak condition of his unhappy neigh- 
 bor, determined to add their country to his already vast domin- 
 ions. He commenced by caresses and gold ; but he took 
 care to assist those devices by sending 22,000 men under the 
 famous Don Fernando de Toledo, Duke of Alba. How could 
 the Portuguese, divided and weakened by the loss of noble blood, 
 squandered in the last expedition to Africa, oppose such immense 
 power? But there were some Portuguese left, who were worthy 
 of their ancestors. These noble men, under the leadership of 
 Don Antonio, offered an obstinate defence. The end, however, 
 was inevitable. In 1583, Portugal and all her colonies were 
 compelled to acknowledge the power of Spain. Phillip was 
 master of a considerable part of Europe, of all that had been 
 discovered in America and in the Phillipines, and now we see 
 him adding to these immense possessions, Portugal, the empire 
 of the Indies, the Moluccas, with a crowd of commercial estab- 
 lishments from the Red Sea to Japan. 
 
 From 1585 to 1640, Portugal was a province of Spain and 
 shared in the successes and disasters of that country. It was a 
 ruinous period. To complete the destruction of the Portuguese 
 power, it required only the loss of her ships and sailors. This 
 final blow fell. Phillip II. of Spain, carried away by his eager 
 desire to fulfil his intention of extending his dominion until the 
 sun should never set on the Spanish possessions, determined to 
 overwhelm England. An armada was prepared, to the comple- 
 tion of which, the unfortunate Portuguese were required to con- 
 tribute all their naval strength. The result of this expedition 
 is too well known to require a repetition of its history. Shattered 
 by storms, and attacked incessantly by their weaker but more 
 active foes, the Spaniards, and with them the Portuguese, beheld 
 
30 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 the shores of Western Europe strewn with the wrecks of their 
 once gallant ships. # 
 
 Thus by becoming Spanish, Portugal lost her supremacy at 
 sea, which supremacy passed to the English. Having lost her 
 linest ships, and her most skilful sailors, she had to endure the 
 sight of her coasts blockaded and her commerce intercepted. It 
 was in 1589 that the English, under Drake, appeared on the 
 coast for the first time. Although they brought Don Antonio 
 who, as has been mentioned, had defended his country to the 
 last, it must be confessed that the liberty of Portugal was sub- 
 ordinate to their desire for pillage, and to the fear, lest Portugal 
 should regain her freedom. Her immense colonies and numer- 
 ous ships were objects of prey ; besides, commercial and mari- 
 time interests, rather than generosity, have always had the greatest 
 influence in the resolutions of the English. Having rid them- 
 selves of Don Antonio, whom they had in vain presented to the 
 oppressed Portuguese as liberator, the English did not trouble 
 themselves any farther about concealing their true intentions, 
 but commenced business on their own responsibility. In order 
 to assist the unfortunate people then languishing under the rule 
 of Spain, they pillaged Pernambuco, attacked the Azores, cap- 
 tured the fort of Arquin, on the coast of Africa, and confiscated 
 as Spanish all tlie Portuguese ships they encountered at sea, not 
 hesitating to vary these friendly acts by devastating several 
 times the unhappy country of which they declared themselves to 
 be the allies. Earo and all the south of Algarves, with Buarcos, 
 were visited Avith the usual results, by these allies, thus proving 
 to Portugal that she had no less to fear from her protectors than 
 from the tyranny of the Spanish Sovereign. 
 
 The Dutch and the English gathered the spoils of the colonial 
 Empire. The former made themselves masters of the East, and 
 acquired a part of Ceylon and Japan, in Asia ; Saint George de 
 la Mine, on the Gold coast, in Africa, and the half of Brazil, in 
 
Historical Sketch. 31 
 
 South America. Thus the sovereignty of the seas fell into the 
 hands of the Dutch ; only to be passed on to the English, from 
 whose hands it has at length passed and awaits the moment when 
 the Great Republic of the West will turn her attention from 
 petty party strife to a nobler prize than can be oftered by dema- 
 gogues, the lasting dominion of the Ocean. 
 
 Spain continued her exacting demands for money to such an 
 extent that the people were reduced to extreme poverty, in many 
 cases possessing no other food than that of bread and fruit. De- 
 spite the general weakness in regard to courage, and in forget- 
 fulness of disproportionate forces, an insurrection burst forth 
 during the period of servitude, which might have succeeded, 
 had not John Duke of Bragauza, who was looked on as the heir 
 to the throne, refused to join with the insurgents. It was in the 
 city of Evora, in Alem-Tejo, that this insurrection took place. 
 The Spanish garrison was driven out. But the city soon after- 
 wards expiated cruelly this glorious initiative. The powerful 
 Richelieu constantly incited the Portuguese to rise en masse, 
 and promised to send fifty ships and eleven thousand men, if they 
 would undertake to raise to the throne a prince of the blood royal. 
 Pinto Ribeiro, the secretary to Don Juan, Duke of Braganza, 
 endeavored to keep alive the flame of freedom, and succeeded in 
 enrolling, as conspirators, Don Miguel d' Almeida, Don Antonio 
 de Saldanha, Don Luis da Cunha, the Arch-Bishops of Lisbon, 
 Don Antonio d' Almada, Don George de Mello, and his 
 brother the Grand Huntsman, Don Rodriquez de Sa, and many 
 others of note. The conspiracy was carried on most secretly, so 
 that no clear idea of the state of affairs reached the ears of the 
 Spanish Minister, Olivares. On the morning of the 1st of De- 
 cember, 1640, the revolution broke out. Confined at first to 
 Lisbon, it spread rapidly throughout the provinces which were 
 not governed with much regard for the feelings of the popula- 
 tion, and which consequently *hated still more the Castilian name. 
 
32 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 Everywhere sorrow and despair were replaced by joy and hope ; 
 the period of slavery was over ; Portugal was born again. 
 
 The Duke of Braganza assumed the reins of sovereignty under 
 the title of John IV., and was soon recognized by, and taken 
 under the protection of, the Great Powers of Europe. Although 
 independent again, Portugal had much to fear from the power 
 of her neighbor, weakened though Spain had been by the 
 gigantic follies of Phillip II. and of Olivares. But fortune 
 continued to smile, and on the 26th of May, 1 644, the work of 
 Pinto Eibeiro was completed by the victory of Montijo, gained 
 by the Portuguese under Mathias d' Albuquerque. 
 
 The independence of Portugal was here assured and it had 
 been recognized by France, England, Holland and Sweden. 
 But despite the powerful protection of France, she did not re- 
 gain her colonies. Although Holland had political sympathies 
 with Portugal in regard to European affairs, she did not hesitate 
 to continue in her course of conquering the possessions of the 
 Portuguese in Asia and in America. The original masters of 
 Asia held only Diu, Calicut, Cochin, Cananor, Goa, Coulan, 
 Chaul, Daboul and Macao. In Africa only Mozambique, Sofala, 
 Melinda (which the Arabs soon after seized), the Congo, Angola, 
 Benguela, Saint Paul de hoanda and the islands of Fernando 
 Po, Gorea, Annobom. St. Thomas and Prince remained. But 
 the richest jewel of the crown, Brazil, was saved chiefly through 
 the efforts of Vieira, who defeated the Dutch so completely that 
 they were glad to capitulate and agree to leave Brazil immedi- 
 ately, thus abandoning their great collection of military material 
 at Pernambuco. This circumstance shed a kind of light on this 
 reign. 
 
 The succeeding king, Don Alphons YI was of a feeble na- 
 ture, and unable to govern his kingdom with any prospect of 
 success. His mother, the celebrated Dona Luiza Gusman, acted 
 as regent, and met with great success in the role she assumed. 
 
Historical Sketch. 33 
 
 France, occupied by other interests, was unable to extend to 
 Portugal the favor and protection she had hitherto shown. Re- 
 course was had to England ; a commercial and maritime nation 
 and the natural ally of the enemies of Spain. A bargain was 
 soon struck, by which the tutelage of Portugal was made com- 
 plete. It was agreed between Dona Luiza and Charles II of 
 England, that a force of about 1300 should be levied in the 
 British Isles, on condition that the arms and necessary equip- 
 ments should be bought in Great Britain. Thanks to this per- 
 mission, the Court of Lisbon flattered itself that liberty was 
 secured. It was not known at first what was the price of Eng- 
 land's apparent generosity. The growing vasalage of Portugal 
 became more naoifest in the following year. Under the pretext 
 of uniting the houses of Stuart and Braganza, and of assisting 
 the doomed country, Charles II. demanded 2,000,000 cruzados, 
 and the valuable possessions of Tangiers in Africa, and of 
 Bombay in India. 
 
 Dona Luiza did not retain the reins of power very long. 
 
 A conspiracy headed by Castelmelho, overthrew and compelled 
 lier to retire to a secluded life. Alphonsus, although assisting in 
 her downfall, was not seated on his throne long. His brother, 
 Don Pedro, compelled him to sign his abdication. That prince, 
 after having borne the title of Regent for a short period, mounted 
 the throne. 
 
 Now that some kind of peace was patched up with Spain, 
 Portugal turned her eyes to the East, in the hope that the 
 ancient splendor of Lisbon might return. But it was in vain. 
 The rivals in Asia — France, England and Holland, were too 
 powerful for Portugal to dream of profiting by their dissentions. 
 
 It was the same in the West, whence a ray of sunshine fell 
 upon the Portuguese. The discovery of rich mines promised to 
 more than compensate them for their losses in the East. Such 
 would have been the case had hard work been thought of as 
 
34 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 well as gold and silver. Despite the example of Spain^ ruined 
 by her inordinate thirst for gold^ the Portuguese, throwing on 
 one side agriculture and industry, thought only of their mines. 
 It was a fatal error. The treaty of Metliuen, signed December 
 27th, 1703, contributed not a little to the impoverishment of the 
 country. Fcr by it the English obtained the right to export to 
 Portugal all things requisite for it, receiving in return the wines 
 of Portugal. But instead of assisting the Portuguese it com- 
 pleted their subordination, as they were unable, as well as too in- 
 dolent^ to compete with the manufactures of England. In time 
 the mines of Brazil failed to produce sufficient to pay for the 
 iiTtports. England, on the other hand, did not consume a large 
 quantity of the wines, so that the balance of trade was entirely 
 in her favor. Whilst England thus levied a tax on Portuguese 
 indolence, John V. added to the general distress by devoting the 
 vast treasures chance had bestowed on him, to the construction 
 of useless buildings and works. Although at first successful in 
 war, he finally had reason to deplore having undertaken it. 
 
 The picture again is changed. A stop is made in the course 
 to ruin. The successor of John, Joseph I, was of mediocre 
 nature. He seemed little able to raise his country; and yet his 
 reign figures among the most glorious periods of the Portuguese 
 history. Why? On account of his having a great minister, 
 and because, in default of some more eminent quality, he had the 
 rare merit of never having withdrawn his fav orfrom him 
 
 This minister was Sebastian Joseph de Carvalho e Melho, 
 afterwards Marquis de Ponibal. Carvalho was born in Lisbon, 
 May 13th, 1699, and belonged to a good family. After the 
 usual course of study, etc., he was, to the astonishment of all, 
 appointed Secretary to the London Embassy, in which position 
 ne acquitted himself so well, that he soon received the Embassy 
 1o Vienna. Whilst there discharging his duties with singular 
 ability, he received in marriage the hand of the daughter of the 
 
Historical Sketch, 35 
 
 celebrated Austrian Marshal Dauii. At the time of John's 
 death, Portugal was in a deplorable condition. Within, nothing 
 but misery and distress, despite the immense wealth Brazil 
 poured into the small kingdom; without, weakness and humilia- 
 tion. For the Colonies of the East no longer existed, and those 
 of the West proddced wealth only to be poured into the hands 
 of the English. 
 
 Countino- upon the compliance of the king, and upon the 
 obedience of his colleagues, he determined to use all the means 
 in his power, and he did not hesitate to employ tyranny. His 
 dictatorship lasted 30 years, but it was absolutely necessary. 
 Portugal had to be saved in spite of herself. 
 
 His first care was to reanimate agriculture and industry, then 
 almost abandoned. If he did not succeed in elevating the 
 commerce of Portugal to its former height, he at least increased it 
 to a great extent, by suppressing the pirates, by instituting two 
 grand trading companies, and by introducing a new colonial 
 system. The revenues next received his attention and soon felt 
 the influence his masterly mind brought to bear on them. In 
 that respect his first care was to abolish immunities as much as 
 possible. He seized the royal estates that had been turned to 
 the benefit of the great families of the kingdom. 
 
 But the most important of the edicts issued by the indefati- 
 gable minister, was the one in 1752, on the exportation of gold 
 from Brazil. It was a blow aimed at the bonds by which 
 England held the country, and although the influence exerted 
 by the English annulled this patriotic design, great good was 
 effected. At any rate he diminished the evil, if he could not 
 destroy it. 
 
 Daring the dreadful earthquake which overthrew Lisbon on 
 the morning of the 1st of November, 1755, thereby destroying 
 30,000 people and an incalcuable amount of property, Pombal 
 showed himself worthy of the king's confidence. " To bury the 
 
36 Notes on Poy^tiigal. 
 
 dead, and help the living/' constituted his first care. In the 
 measures he took for the relief of the city, we see his wonderful 
 promptness and genius^ especially when he decided that an impost 
 of 4 J per cent, should be levied on all foreign merchandize. 
 
 Pombal did not refrain from attacking the Jesuits, whose 
 power perhaps had become too great. In 1773, he succeeded in 
 abolishing their institutions in Portugal, and in banishing them 
 from the kingdom. 
 
 In 1762, Spain sent a force of 40,000 men into Tras-os-Montes, 
 with a small body of French as auxiliaries. At first, succiess 
 attended the efforts of the enemy, who captured Miranda, Brag- 
 anza, OuteirOj Chaves, Freixel, Almeida and Yilladelha But 
 they were finally driven back with loss. Thus a great danger 
 was passed in safety. Pombal attended to the organization of the 
 army with such care, that, at the end of a few years, it consisted 
 of 24 regiments of infantry, 12 of cavalry, and 4 of artillery. 
 
 Indeed the influence of Pombal was felt everywhere, at 
 home and abroad. Prosperity once more returned to the king- 
 dom. His power was absolute but salutary. , Happy would Por- 
 tugal have been, had his services been retained. But his severity 
 had raised too many enemies against him. On the death of 
 Joseph I, Pombal was left exposed to the storm raised by his 
 enemies. The Queen, Dona Maria, felt constrained to sign a 
 decree condemning him as a criminal to exile. Death soon 
 released him from all further troubles Glorious as his services 
 had been, his ministry was but a halt in the rapid decadence, 
 which, for so many years, dragged this kingdom to ruin. The 
 great projects he had conceived were abandoned; the code he 
 had prepared remained unfinished ; the Marine and the roads 
 were neglected, and the finances, lately so flourishing, fell into 
 their former condition. 
 
 The mental state of the queen having undergone in 1792, a 
 serious alteration, her son, Prince of Brazil, D Joao Maria Joseph, 
 
Historical Sketch- 37 
 
 assumed the reins of power, in 1799. D Joao, as regent, after hav- 
 ing renewed the alliance with England, and seen himself badly 
 seconded by her against Spain, endeavored to treat with Russia, 
 and then with victorious France, Avith which country he desired 
 to connect himself. The treaty of Badajoz (June 16th 1801) 
 imposed on Portugal only the payment of a war indemity, and 
 the cession of Olivenca to Spain. But after the rupture of the 
 treaty of Amiens in 1806, the refusal of John to close his ports 
 to the Eno^lish vessels brouo-ht about the invasion of Portuo^al 
 by a French corps d' armee under the orders of Junot, Due d' 
 Abrautes, and the Court of Lisbon, perceiving the uselessness 
 of resistance, determined to embark for Brazil. It will be soon 
 seen that the consequences of this departure, by which it was 
 hoped to save the national unity on both sides of the Atlantic, 
 were exactly what broke it. 
 
 Portugal was divided. The northern portion with Oporto 
 as capital, was given to to the Infanta of Spain ; Algarves and 
 Alem Tejo, Napoleon bestowed on the infamous Godoy, Prince 
 of the Peace, as principalities, whilst the remaining districts, 
 namely, Estremadura, Beira and Tras-os-Montes, remained in 
 the hands of the emperor. Thus the all-powerful captain 
 suppressed one of the oldest kingdoms in Europe. According 
 to the words contained in the Imperial Moniteur, "The House 
 of Braganza had ceased to reign." The royal family fled to 
 Rio de Janerio. Junot, due d' Abrautes, bearing the modest 
 title of Governor General, was the true ruler. 
 ' The Peninsular war brought about by the assistance of the 
 English needs no description here. It will be sufficient to 
 mention Junot, Soult and Massena, as the principal French 
 commanders; and Wellington as the English leader. The 
 result of the contest was the expulsion of the invader from 
 Portuo^al. The French althouo;:h driven forth, left behind them 
 traces of their occupation. It was the sam.e as in Germany, 
 
38 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 Italy and all the countries into which the French troops pene- 
 trated. They had carried with them the new ideas resulting from 
 the Revolution J which ideas they left as an ineffaceable trace of 
 their stay. But although a great number of the young men 
 dreamt of establishing in their land, a government more worthy 
 of the age, the mass of the people did not understand these 
 theories. They rose to drive forth the foreigner, but political 
 liberty inspired them with only indifference. 
 
 John VI, refused to exchange Rio Janerio for Lisbon, and 
 adopted the new name of king of Portugal, Brazil, and Al- 
 garves. By his oljstinacy he brought about a severance of the 
 ties that bound Brazil to Portugal. 
 
 * This absence of the regent, resulted in handing Portugal 
 over to England. Bresford had the honor of reorganizing the 
 army and of contending with it against the French. To him was 
 confided the government, which he carried on merely for the 
 benefit of his native land, England, although he owed all his 
 dignities to the unfortunate land which he ruled. The pro- 
 tectorate of France seemed to some, preferable to the ruinous 
 supremacy of their allies. At last, on the death of Dona Maria 
 in 1816, the regent became king under the name of John VI. 
 
 In 1821, an insurrection broke out in Oporto. The cause 
 of the insurrectionists was indeed the same as that of the nation. 
 Consequently it soon spread throughout the kingdom. In vain 
 were troops under General Vittoria and Count d' Amarante sent 
 against the rebels. All fraternised with the insurgents. Lisbon 
 took ^advantage of their absence to revolt. The new Junta 
 which met in that city, proclaimed the downfall of the regents, 
 and adopting as the basis of Portuguese liberty, the constitution 
 of Cadiz, it hastened to announce that the Cortes would be 
 called. Portu2:al was at len2:th free. The desire for freedom 
 entered the hearts of the Brazilians, who thereupon rose in Para 
 
 * John did not assume the title of king during the lifetime of Dona Marie. 
 
Hldorical Sketch. 39 
 
 and in Pernambuco. John YI thus placed between two re- 
 volts^ was constrained to yield to the wishes of his people, and 
 at the instance of his son, Dom Pedro, promised a constitution.. 
 But the commission he appointed was composed of courtiersv 
 Perceiving this, again revolt lifted its head. Again was it ap- 
 peased by the promise of the king to confer his powers on Dom 
 Pedro, and by his announcing to the people that their desires • 
 would be satisfied. John VI, shortly afterwards set sail for 
 Europe, leaving Brazil in charge of Dom Pedro, 
 
 Unlike Ferdinand YII, of Spain, who swore to maintain the 
 Spanish Charter only because he feared the consequences of a 
 refusal, the king of Portugal, disregarding the dangerous advice 
 of several to listen to the suggestions of '^ absolutists'^ Europe? 
 committed the care of drawing up the Portuguese constitution to 
 the Cortes, and when that was done, hastened to ratify it, im- 
 posing, at the same time, the oath upon the princes and digni- 
 taries of the kingdom. • 
 
 J^at the reformer committed the criminal blunder of endea- 
 voring to despoil Brazil of its rights and to reduce it to the rank 
 of a simple colony. Of course, the natural result followed. 
 Brazil, indignant at this injustice, rose up in anger to protest. 
 The chief of this powerful insurrection was Andrada, whose 
 family were paramount in the province of St. Paul. 
 
 On the 12th of October, 1822, the declaration of indepen- 
 dence was proclaimed. Brazil became an empire under Don 
 Pedro. It was not until 1825, that her independence was ac- 
 knowledged by the mother country. Shortly afterwards John 
 VI died, leaving as his direct heir, Dom Pedro. This prince 
 was recognized by all as king. Besides being the eldest son, he 
 was also Emperor of Brazil, and thus was in a position to re- 
 unite the two crowns. But the Infante Dom Miguel, his brother, 
 entertained secret hopes of mounting the European throne. A 
 large cortege of Portuguese dignitaries headed by the Duke of 
 
40 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 Lafoes, embarked for Brazil, in order to carry to Dom Pedro tlio 
 homage of his European subjects. On tlicir arrival, in Eio Ja- 
 neiro, it was found difficult to reign over the two countries. 
 Dom Pedro at length determined to give his European States 
 to his daughter Dona Maria, on the sole condition that she mar- 
 ried her uncle, Dom Miguel. He had previously charged tlic 
 English Ambassador,, Lord Stewart, Avith a charter founded on 
 the English and French Constitutions, for the Portuguese. The 
 Queen, Isabella, was to retain the regency, with the Duke dc 
 Cadaval, the Patriarch of Lisbon, the Marquis de Vallada and 
 the Count dos Arcos, as councillors. 
 
 However, a large number of ih^ Portuguese consisting of the 
 nobility and the clergy, with half of the rural population, pro- 
 tested against the charter, thereby throwing the regency into a 
 state of confusion, from which it was drawn by General Sald- 
 anha. Saldanha being governor of Minho, had the charter sent 
 to him, wdicn he at once promulgated it throughout his districts. 
 This conduct w^as imitated by all the other governors. The 
 absolutists did not yield. An insurrection headed by the Count 
 d' Amarante broke forth. Twice were the insurrectionists driven 
 from the country. All in vain. They still maintained a bold 
 front, and, being aided by Ferdinand VII, King of Spain, to 
 whom the sight of a free nation existing as a neighbor was 
 highly displeasing, they were enabled to present an indomitable 
 obstacle to all the efforts of the government. At last Isabella 
 asked for the assistance of England. By means of this timely 
 help, the intestine agitation ceased for a time. Shortly after- 
 waxxls, perceiving that troubles were about to recommence, Don 
 Pedro transferred i\\Q regency to Don Miguel, in the hope that a 
 man's hand would be sufficient to quell the disturbances. But 
 Miguel excited by ambitious desires accepted the regency, in- 
 tending to use it as a stepping stone to the crown. He left Yi- 
 enna., in which city he had been sojourning, passed over to Eng- 
 
Historical Sketch. 41 
 
 land where he received royal honors, and finally disembarked at 
 Lisbon on the 22nd, of February, 1828, less as regent than as 
 usurper. Two months sufficed for him to reach the end of his 
 wishes. Pretending that, the entire nation had summoned him, 
 he mounted the throne. Absoluteism wat at length triumphant, 
 public liberty was at an end, 
 
 Dom Pedro, hearing of what had happened, repented that he 
 had confided so generously, and in order to lessen the evil 
 results of his misplaced confidence, he hastened to renew his ab- 
 dication in favor of Dona Maria. Tiiis princess then sailed lor 
 Europe, intending to go to Vienna, and there await the march 
 of events. 
 
 The Cortes confirmed the step taken by the usurper. But he 
 was not recognized by Europe. Indeed the Portuguese Am- 
 bassador in London, Duke de Palmella, resigned his trust His 
 example was followed by the other Portuguese diplomatist. But 
 these protests made but little difference to Miguel. Palmella, 
 Saldanha, Villaflon and others strove in vain to overthrow him. 
 All were compelled to fly to Spain, and thence to England* 
 Tyranny reigned supreme. Dona Maria, finding that only the 
 island of Terceira, then the principal of the Azores, remained 
 faithful to her&elf, Avent to England, in the hope of being able 
 to gain the assistance of George III. She found, however, that 
 no help was to be gained in that quarter. She determined to 
 return to Brazil, there to await the hour of deliverance. In 
 the meantime, Don Pedro had excited his Brazilian subjects 
 against himself, by various mistakes, the chief of which was the 
 favor he bestowed on the Portuguese Filisberto Caldeira The 
 people compelled him "to abdicate in favor of his son, Dom 
 Pedro IT. This step having met with entire success, he resolved 
 to leave the country of which he had been emperor. During 
 his voyage to Europe, he stopped at the island of San Miguel, 
 one of the Azores, to encourage the adherents of his daughter, 
 
42 Notes on Portugal 
 
 who were holding out there. Landing in England, he at once 
 went to workj and so successfully, that, within a short time, he 
 prepared two frigates, several smaller vessels and the munitions 
 requisite for carrying on the war, 
 
 Louis Phillipe of France, also aided him to a great extent, 
 by authorizing him to enlist recruits. The expedition consist- 
 ing of about 300 English, 600 French, and as many Portuguese, 
 on board several vessels, under the command of Sartorius, an 
 English captain, set sail for the Azores. Having made himself 
 complete master of these important islands, Dom Pedro made 
 at once for Portugal, and landed at Villa du Condo, distant 
 from Oporto about 14 miles. The recption of the new-comers 
 was not encouraging. It was found necessary to retreat to 
 O23orto, where they found warm friends, the people of that city 
 having always been ardent lovers of liberty. The Miguelists 
 hastened to beseige the place, as Pedro determined to remain 
 there rather than expose his small army of voulunteers to a 
 superior force in the open field, by inarching on Lisbon. Cholera 
 as well as the ravages of the sword devastated the camps of the 
 usurper. What added to the joy of the besieged, was, the arri- 
 val on the 1st of January, 1833, of reinforcements accompanied 
 by supplies, etc. These had been collected in London and in 
 Paris. General Saldanha and Baron Solignac, both distinguished 
 in the annals of the Napoleonic wars, assumed the direction of 
 military matters, whilst Napier superintended the marine. 
 
 Instead of remaining within the walls of Oporto, Pedro de- 
 termined to leave only a garrison in that city, and with the re- 
 mainder of his troops, make a bold effort for victory. The 
 Pedroists threw themselves against Algarves, deceived Mollelos, 
 who defended Alemtejo with 6000 militia, defeated Freitas 
 under the walls of Setubal, and, masters of that city, arrived 
 suddenly at Cacilhas, in front of Lisbon, on the opposite bank 
 of the Sagus. Defeating the troops placed in front of Cacilhas, 
 
Historical Sketch. 43 
 
 they thereby caused so much anxiety to the numerous garrison 
 in Lisbon under the Duke de Cadaval that it evacuated the city 
 and fled to Coimbra, and thence to tlie neighborhood of Oporto^ 
 which was being besieged by the usurper himself. Lisbon was 
 occupied by the liberators on the following day. Oporto also 
 ^vitnessed the defeat of Don Miguel's troops. The way was now 
 clear. Dona Maria quitted Paris and on Sept. 22nd^ disem- 
 barked at Lisbon. There she reoieved the crown from her 
 father, who retained for himself only the title of regent, an office 
 carrying with it a great deal of anxiety, since Don Miguel was 
 even more formidable. This Prince, repulsed in his attempts on 
 Lisbon, and driven from the strong lines, by which he threatened 
 the capitol, was compelled to retreat to Santaren, where he was 
 immediately besieged by Saldanha and Tercira. But the death 
 of Ferdinand VII, who was the most important aid to absolu- 
 tism in the Peninsula, struck a fatal blow at Don Miguel's cause. 
 
 The selecting of Dona Isabella, instead of Don Carlos, as his 
 successor, was also a great misfortune, for the usurper Don Carlos 
 came to Santarem less as an allied sovereign than as a fugitive. 
 To add to the approaching storm, a corps of Spanish troops 
 passed the frontier in order to watch over the plots that might 
 be directed against Isabella. 
 
 What could Don Miguel do against such odds, especially when 
 France, England, Spain and Portugal, formed a quadruple alli- 
 nace? Unable to escape, he threw himself into Evora, where 
 he was quickly enveloped by the forces under Saldanha and Ter- 
 ceira. On the the 26th of May, 1834, he surrendered. The 
 struggle was at an end. Dona Maria was sole sovereign. 
 
 The regent Dom Pedro, worn out by fatigue, felt the approach 
 of death. He hastened to call a council, and presented to it 
 several great reforms. To assure public peace, he abdicated the 
 regency, declared Dona Maria of age, and gave to her as hus- 
 band, Duke of Luchtehenberg, son of Eugene Beauharnais. 
 
44 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 Then having ,clone all that the world required of him, he occu- 
 pied himself with the repose of his soul. He died September 
 24th, 1834. 
 
 At length Dona Maria reigned, but it was with some difficulty 
 Hardly had her father breathed his last, when tha Cortes became 
 agitated, the clubs intrigued, the absolutists took fresh courage, 
 the vanquishing party divided, and Don Miguel dreamt of re- 
 gaining the crown. The anarchy of the kingdom had increased 
 to such an extent, that this prince startled Europe, by suddenly 
 departing from Vienna and entering the kingdom. But owing 
 to the active measures taken by England, with the consent of 
 the other powers composing the quadruple alliance, the crown 
 was assured to the queen, and the attempt of her. uncle failed . 
 
 The principal ministers of Dona Maria were Palmella, Freire 
 and Carralho, men of great ability. They were unable however 
 skillful they might be, to avoid recurring to the usual expedients 
 of meeting a deficit, viz : the sale of public property, loans, etc. 
 Even then they did not succeed in paying the public function- 
 aries, or in making up the deficit. The army, the marine and 
 the credit of Portugal fell into the deplorable condition to be 
 expected after 30 years of war and anarchy. 
 
 The liberals, who w^ere the enemies of the ministry, attributed 
 these misfortunes to the cabinet, and not to the real causes. The 
 ministry perceiving this, redoubled their efforts to place the 
 affairs of the kingdom on a solid basis, and to silence their ene- 
 mies. The opposition still continued. It was found necessary to 
 repress several emeute in the streets. A crisis was iminent; 
 when news arrived of the celebrated conspiracy of la Graufa in 
 Spain. 
 
 The natural consequences of the check Christina met with 
 soon followed. The movement produced in Madrid, had its 
 counter movement in Lisbon. The clubs became excited, the 
 secret societies armed, and the opposition threatened. Despite 
 
Historwal Sketeh. 45 
 
 the dissolution of the Cortes by Dona Maria, the ministry fell, 
 and the queen was compelled to accept Bernard de Sa, Lumia 
 res, and Passos, as her advisers. These latter set to work in a 
 vigorous manner, to introduce more advanced ideas of civiliza- 
 tion and of reform. The queen endeavored to excite a counter 
 revolution, but, although she had the assistance of the squadrons 
 commanded by Lord Paget and by Admiral Hugore, her attempt 
 failed. 
 
 The fall of Passos and the concessions made by the Cortes 
 did not pacify the queen, enraged at the failure of her attempt. 
 Again revolt raised its head. The Baron de Leiria, soon joined 
 by Saldanha and Tericia, excited an insurrection in the northern 
 provinces, under the cry of "viva carta.'' There was no doubt 
 that the queen was engaged in this affair. But the Cortes af- 
 fected to be ignorant of this complicity, and invested Mon. de 
 Bomfineand de Sa with extraordinary powers to repress the insur- 
 gents. The forces were equal. A long civil Avar seemed to 
 be on the point of breaking out, when the corps d'armie, which 
 Dona Maria had sent to the assistance of Isabella of Spain, 
 under the command of Viscount das Antas, made its appearance, 
 and settled the question, by declaring against the chartists, and 
 by beating them at Ruivaens, 
 
 A new ministry was formed and was composed of Das Antas 
 the conqueror at Ruivaens as chief, and of Mon. de Bomfine and 
 de Sa. One remarkable circumstance should be noticed in this 
 place. It is that, during all the troubles to which the kingdom 
 was a prey for so long a period, one thing remained unchanged, 
 it was the prestige of royalty. A beneficial prestige, since, it 
 preserved Portugal from complete anarchy and chaos. 
 
 The Portuguese had an opportunity of displaying their vigor to 
 Spain, who haughtily demanded the liberty of the Douro. All the 
 parties united for the purpose of refusing the summons of Spain. 
 They protested so plainly that the danger, which threatened to 
 
46 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 destroy them served only to prove their strength. Espartero^ the 
 Spanish regent, soon withdrew his demand. England having 
 countenanced Portugal in this refusal, thought it was a good 
 opportunity to request a renewal of the Methuen treaty. But 
 her request was made in vain. Taught by the 130 years of 
 misery, resulting, from the treaty, the Portuguese were unwillino- 
 to enter into the same trap. 
 
 In 1842, the Minister of Justice, M. Costa Cabral, aided by 
 the King, Ferdinand de Saxe Cobourg, second husband of the. 
 queen, and by others of high rank, went to Coimbra and pro- 
 claimed the abolition of the established constitution. He was 
 successful. Sustained by the protection of the Court, by the 
 servility of the two chambers, and by the friendship of his 
 brother, the Governor of Lisbon, and by the kindly neutrality 
 of Miguel ists, M. de Costa Cabral, had at first no difficulty to meet 
 with in regard to the parties. But he soon found the annual deficit, 
 the increasing debt, the wretched condition of the army and navy, 
 and the impoverishment of the people to be difficulties of great 
 magnitude. Some steps which he took for the amelioration of 
 public affairs were wise; but they were no^ enough. Popular 
 discontent continued. His enemies took advantage of the dis- 
 satisfaction caused by a new tax, to incite the inhabitants of 
 the province of Minho to revolt. Their example was followed 
 all over the kingdom; and the minister found it necessary to fly 
 from the kingdom with his brother. His enemies then stepped 
 into power. 
 
 They did not remain in power very long. The queen, aided 
 by France, England and Spain, soon contrived to overthrow 
 them. Costa Cabral was recalled. His reception was most 
 flattering. Having modestly refused the ministry, he oflered to 
 invest the Marshal Duke de Saldanha, with the office. But his 
 offer was declined by the Marshal, and also by the Duke de Ter- 
 ceira and by M. Duarto Leitao. Nothing remained for him, but 
 
Historical Sketch. 47 
 
 to accept it himself. He at the same time received the title of 
 Count de Thomar. The new president of the council, used his 
 power to correct abuses, to unite Portugal and Rome, to amelio- 
 rate the state of finances, to raise up commerce and agriculture, 
 and to reanimate the marine. 
 
 But he soon encountered opposition. His former adversaries, 
 disconcerted by the promptness of his return and by his un- 
 expected success, renewed their intrigues. The great lords of- 
 fended by his supremacy, the journalists angered by the severi- 
 ties of press laws, brought forward in 1850, the Miguelists, 
 disgusted with his reforms, and others converted into enemies 
 from one cause or another, all combined to overthrow him des- 
 pite the majority he had in the Cortes. A cheif was found in 
 the person of the Duke de Saldhana. At first the duke had 
 been the aid of the Count de Thomar. But constancy and fi- 
 delity are not characteristic of that personage. Incited by a slight 
 he had received, he threw himself into the ranks of the opposi- 
 tion. He declared war, by virulent attack on the war minister. 
 England, at the instigation of Lord Palmerston, assisted the fac- 
 tious parties, and by a judicious expenditure of money, brought 
 affairs to a condition satisfactory to herself. The Duke de Sald- 
 anha continued in his attacks. To be prime minister, or to be 
 chief of the opposition constituted the continual alternative in 
 which he passed his life. According to a newspaper, ^' O Pa- 
 triota,^^ he had already changed his opinions fifty-four times. 
 But his interests were always paramount, and now, aided by 
 England, who saw an opportunity of refastening the bonds, 
 which had almost ruined Portugal, he was enabled to present a 
 bold front. Although he met with some reverses, he succeeded 
 in overthrowing his patriotic adversary. The Count de Thomar 
 was banished and the Duke de Saldanha reigned in his stead. 
 The fall of the former had been accllerated by the ruin of the 
 Spanish Premier Marshal Narvaez, who had been in accord with 
 
48 Kotes on Portugal. 
 
 him. Only a few days after Narvaez fell, Saldanha succeeded in 
 inducing two battalions to revolt. Oporto was the first to rebel, 
 then Coirabra, and finally Lisbon, in which city, a leader was 
 found in the person of Sylva Cabral, a brother of t lie prime min- 
 ister. Dona Maria was compelled to accede to all the demands 
 made by the diseontented insurrectionists, and she had the 
 mortification of seeingthe Duke de Saldanha, enter Lisbon amid 
 the applause of an admiring populace. 
 
 The ministry was composed of the Marshals, Rodriguez da 
 Fonseca Magalliaes, Antonio Maria de Fontes, Pereira de Mel- 
 lo, (at present President of the Ministerial Council,) lerois d^ 
 Althoneguia, Almeida Garret, and Antonio Luiz de Sleabra. 
 The chief of the ministry was Fonseca Magalhaes, a vener- 
 able and enlightened man, who was assisted princi})ally by M. 
 Fontes de Mello. The latter inaugurated a new epoch of pro- 
 gress, of which there was a great need. M. Fontes was com- 
 posed of the stuff, proper for a statesman, with broad and deci- 
 sive views. Undoubtedly he was somewhat hasty in his measures, 
 but his colleague Fonseca Magalhaes endeavored to moderate 
 this patriotic ardor. It is to M. Fontes that the country is in- 
 debted for the first railroads. The public attention was too much 
 engaged with political theories, to spare time for such vital ques- 
 tions, as concerned roads, rail- ways, telegraph lines, agricultural 
 schools, the re-establishment of finance, the organization of the 
 army and navy, the improvement of the colonial administration, 
 the reform of the academy of science, the preparation of codes 
 (civil and penal) and in fine all the other objects, which political 
 discords had hitherto caused to be neglected. 
 
 The death of Dona Maria, which resulted from an unfortunate 
 accouchment, 15 Nov., 1853, made no change in public affairs. 
 Her husband Don Ferdinand II, acting as regent to D. Pedro 
 V (still under age,) retained in office, the Saldhana Magulhars 
 ministry. The queen was very much regretted; daughter of the 
 
Historical Sketch. 49 
 
 soldier-king Dom Pedro IV, placed upon the throne after the 
 most heroic efforts of the liberators, she inspired the highest re- 
 spect as qaeen, on account of her firm and courageous character. 
 The regent contributed on his side to the task of calming politi- 
 cal passions, and of directing the energies of his ministers to the 
 developement of industrial works, which are one of the princi- 
 pal sources of modern civilization, and which were in a back- 
 ward condition in Portugal. The fusion of the political parties 
 was effected by the choice of capable men for the various offices, 
 without regard to past politics. Thus ^rnentes- became impossible. 
 The Portuguese civil wars in this manner received their death- 
 blow, and thenceforward under the protection of a peace which 
 has lasted to the present day, both within and without, Portugal 
 entered upon a series of measures which were calculated to bring 
 her to a state of prosperity. We can ascertain the better what 
 Portugal has gained since that memorable epoch, by means of 
 statistics and the logical deductions made in the proper place, 
 than through the most brilliant and the most abstract oratorica- 
 declamations. When we touch on the commerce, the ao:riGul- 
 tare, and the finances of this kingdom as it stands at present, it 
 will be easy, by means of comparison, to judge of the real pro- 
 gress. 
 
 During the reign of Dona Maria II, Charles Albert, who 
 had sought refuge in Portugal, after having abdicated on the 
 unfortunate field of Novara, in favor of his son Victor Emman- 
 uel, died in Oporto. He had chosen as his asylum, that city, 
 which had always been the impregnable bulwarks of Por- 
 tuguese liberty. 
 
 Although the King Ferdinand retained the Saldanha-Magalhaes 
 ministry in power, he was, after a short period,cora pelled to replace 
 it with that of the Marquis de Louie, who, in his turn, gave 
 way to the Terceira cabinet. Dom Pedro V, eldest son of Dona 
 Maria II, 30th King of Portugal, and 26th of Algarves, recei- 
 W 
 
50 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 ved the power from the hands of his father, the regent, on the 
 16th of September 1855, after a visit he had made to the Courts 
 of France, England, Germany and Italy, 
 
 The Duke de Terceira organized a ministry, composed of 
 Fontes, Casal Ribeiro, Serpa, Ferreri, and Ferrao, and he him- 
 self retained the portfolios of war and of foreign affairs. This ad- 
 ministration, as well as those immediately preceding it, preserved 
 more or less, the character and spirit of conciliation, it main- 
 tained also the fusion of parties, introduced by Fonseca Magal- 
 haes. The incoming ministers devoted their attention to the 
 various improvements in roads, telegraphs, etc., so necessary to 
 the well-being of a country. 
 
 The cholera, yellow fever, and a sad dispute with France, 
 concerning the ship "Charles and George,^^ which had been 
 seized by the Portuguese, on the east coast of Africa, because of its 
 infraction of the slave-laws, were unfortunate events, which caused 
 much affliction to the young king, Dom Pedro V, in the begin- 
 ning of his reign. Dom Pedro displayed considerable courage 
 and resignation in the midst of these troubles. 
 
 Public instruction interested him deeply, and he founded in his 
 Chateau de Mafra, a school, over which he watched with great 
 care. He abandoned 1 30,000 of his modest civil list, in order 
 to create Professorships of national and foreign literature in the 
 academy of sciences at Lisbon. Dom Pedro married in 1858, 
 Princess Stephanie, daughter of Prince Charles of Hohenzollern 
 Sigmaringro. This amiable princess expired after a short illness 
 on the 17th of July, 1859, regretted by the Portuguese. Her 
 cultivated mind, religious and charitable tendencies, together 
 with her sweet character explain the cause of this regret. 
 
 The unfortunate Dom Pedro V, did not long survive the one 
 whom he adored with his whole soul, on the 11th of November 
 1861, he died, from a typhoid fever he had acquired during a 
 chase at Villa Yicosa, 
 
Historical Sketch. 51 
 
 The present head of the state, his next brother, succeeded him 
 immediately. He married on the 16th of October 1862, Prin- 
 cess Maria Pia de Savoy, daughter of Victor Emmanuel. 
 
 Dom Louis I, is endowed with qualities, which are indispen- 
 sable to a constitutional king, and he is thereby bound more 
 closely to the destinies of the nation. 
 
 We have determined to go no father in this historical aper9u 
 as it would not be wise to enter into the history of the recent 
 events, owing partly to the inconsistent reports received. Suffi- 
 cient has been placed before the reader to give some idea of the 
 history of Portugal, and to enable him to enter upon a perusal 
 of the succeeding articles, with a certain degree of interest, as 
 well as of ability to understand them. 
 
La 
 
 NGUAGE 
 
 AND L 
 
 ITERATURE. 
 
 Wpiilst proposing to give an idea concerning* our literature, 
 we deem it just to state at once, that Portugal indeed has a litera- 
 ture to itself; as Sismonde de Sismondi has it, her language in- 
 stead of becoming a dialect of the Castilian, has been looked 
 upon by that independent people as a mark of their sovereignty, 
 and it has been cultivated with zeal. The distinguished men, 
 whom Portugal has produced, have endeavored to give to their 
 country all the branches of literature; they have essayed every 
 branch, in order that they might not leave any advantage to their 
 neighbors, and the national spirit has given to their produc- 
 tions a character that is ^' quite different from that of Castilian 
 compositions/' 
 
 The history of the Portuguese language is naturally bound up 
 with the history of the race, since at each invasion of the Penin- 
 sula, by foreign colonies or by foreign armies, the language then 
 spoken must have undergone considerable alterations. The 
 colonies established on the coast brought their ideas, and com- 
 mingled them in course of time by the communications of com- 
 merce. The various strangers, who visited the ports, must have 
 had great influence in moulding the tongue The words of 
 Greek, Phoenician, Celtic, Iberian and Carthaginian origin 
 which are found in the Portuguese and Castilian languages indi- 
 cate this sufficiently. 
 
 It would be useless to discuss the question as to ^vhat was the 
 language generally spoken at the epoch when the Romans, en- 
 deavored to subject the Peninsula to their sway. The absence 
 
Language and Literature. 53 
 
 of decisive proofs renders it too perplexing a point to admit of 
 a solution. The rare vestiiiges of those times indicate rather a 
 melange of all the tongues introduced into the Peninsula than 
 the predominance of a single one. 
 
 The influence of the institutions and ofthe laws introduced by 
 the Romans became permanent^ and, after the complete conquest 
 of the country, we find that the general language must have 
 been only Latin. Christianity employed that tongue in its ser- 
 vices and especially in the preaching of the gospel. In fact the 
 Spaniards not only employed Latin as the general and usual 
 tongue ; they even gave to Roman literature such men as Seneca 
 and Lucan. 
 
 Although the Arabs conquered the country, no radical changes 
 were effected, as these benign conquerers allowed the subjugated 
 races to retain their customs, religion, and laws. Latin thus 
 escaped this new danger. It remained the official and religious 
 language, whilst Arabic and Hebrew languages, (which latter 
 had been brought into the country by the Jew) served for 
 industry, art, poetry and science. 
 
 When Portugal declared herself independent, the Court of 
 Leon spoke the Galician, which language was employed by the 
 Portuguese; but posterior events determined its decadence and 
 favored the developement of the Castilian and the formation of 
 Portuguese. The Court of Leon adopted the Castilian, and, 
 although the poets still continued to use Galician, the new lan- 
 guage of the court triumphed over and replaced it. The inde- 
 pendence of Portugal, the aversion of the Portuguese to the 
 Galicians, and the wars with the Castilians, insensibly drew away 
 the subjects of Alphonse I, from each of those two languages, 
 and created the Portuguese idiom. The Galician becme an ob- 
 scure and unimportant dialect in Spain, whereas Portuguese was 
 formed by civilization and the energy of a free spirit, it marked 
 
54 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 its place among the European languages toward the end oft he 
 13th century. 
 
 French and Provencal also have contributed to the formation 
 of Portuguese. 
 
 It is generally supposed that Spanish and Portuguese are 
 only two dialects of the same language, and people can scarcely 
 conceive how these two peoples, whose political organizations 
 were made under almost identical conditions, do not speak the 
 same language. 
 
 The influence of the Celtic, Greek, Phoenician and Carthagi- 
 nian origins, and the action of the Latin and Hebrew, having 
 been the same with the Portuguese and the Spaniards, there was 
 not for a long period, any material change in the constitutional 
 principles of the two languages; during the first part of the 
 monarchy of Alphonse I. Portuguese did not differ from Span- 
 ish to any great extent; the differences which now separate them 
 are only the consequence of the modifications occasioned by the 
 opposite directions vyhich the two nations had to give to their 
 activity. 
 
 Whereas the Spaniards, on account of their frequent contact 
 with the French, and their exploits in Italy, their occupation of 
 the low countries, and their relations with Austria^ were forced 
 to admit of more or less foreign influence in the idiomatic con- 
 struction of their language, the Portuguese, by their isolation in 
 Europe and by their conquest in distant lands, remained faith- 
 ful to their Latin origin. For the same reasons, the Arabic 
 vestiges are purer in Portugal than in Spain, although the 
 Spaniards have always retained the guttural sounds of '^ J '^ and 
 of ^' X,'' an Arabism quite unknown in Portugal. There are 
 many Arabic words preserved in Portugal, which have ceased 
 to be employed in Spanish. The two languages adopted the 
 word "alfaiate" (tailor) : the Spaniards used it up to the 15th 
 and 16th centuries. The Portuguese use it now, but the Span- 
 
Language and Literature. 55 
 
 iards have replaced it with ^^ sastre/' from the Italian "sartore.'' 
 Other examples could be cited. 
 
 Portuguese is rich in words, varied constructions, synonyms, 
 derivatives, words signifying a single action and in expressions 
 often untranslatable. Its pronunciation is sweet without the 
 breathings to be found in French and in Northern tongues, and 
 without the guttural sounds which are found so difficult in 
 Spanish and German. It combines the concision of Latin with 
 the copious abundance of Oriental tongues ; and without bein^ 
 severe like the Spanish, it is fi^er in its adornments than the 
 French, and more serious than the Italian, of which it possesses 
 the harmony and the sweetness. 
 
 There are, however, some serious defects, the use of diph- 
 thongs at the end of words and the nasal dissonance in '^ ao," 
 (pronounced "aon*'), add nothing to the beauty and the 
 euphony of Portugese. As the Royal Academy of Sciences has 
 not gone far in the dictionary it is preparing, all questions in 
 regard to the language must be decided by citations from the 
 Classic writers of the XVI century. The orthography has no 
 fixed rules, a want which is often felt. 
 
 Science and literature have always found a welcome in Port- 
 ugal from the very time that the monarchy was established, up 
 to the present day. Alphonse Henriques, the first King of the 
 Portuguese had as tutor, a poet, Egas Moniz, whose verses are 
 yet extant. The Arabian and the Jewish savants always re- 
 ceived protection from the Christian monarchs of their times. 
 Denis I and his natural son, D. Pedro, possessed that attribute, 
 so common to men of an exalted genius, a love of letters. 
 
 But it is not till we reach the 2nd dynasty that we come to 
 the Augustan age of Portuguese literature. It was during the 
 time of voyages and discoveries, of the introduction of printing 
 and of the perfecting of the Portuguese language, that we find 
 the epoch of the creation of a literature that would be worthy 
 
56 Notes on Portngal. 
 
 of the most advanced nations in Europe. What a galaxy of 
 brilliant names ! Vasco de Gama and Alphonse d' Albuquerque ; 
 King D. Duarte; the eloquent; Camoens, Ferreira, Gil Yicente, 
 S21 de Miranda and Bernardim RiKeiro ; Fernao Losses, 
 Azurara, Joao de Barros and D. Jeronimo Osorio ; Gran Vasco 
 and the Hollandas ; the Infante D. Henri, Pedro Nunes and 
 D. Joao de Castro, are names that will live for ever. 
 
 The 15tli century, the heroic age of Portugal, beheld the 
 blossoming of the flower of Portuguese poetry, the romances for 
 which productions Castilian literature was also noted. The 
 Portuguese ^' Cancioneiros '^ of that period are riclier than those 
 of the same kind to be found in contemporaneous Spanish 
 literature. Unfortunately, Portuguese poetry, which was espec- 
 ially poetry for a Court, neglected nature, and, in course of 
 time, became idyllic, insipid and destitute of originality. 
 
 The dramatic art, although occupying but a secondary rank 
 in Portuguese literature, has the incontestable merit of a 
 priority which she shares with only the native land of Trissin. 
 Sa de Miranda, who lived from 1495 to 1558, and his contem- 
 porary, Gil Vicente, were the predecessors of the two illus- 
 trious Spaniards, Cope de Vega and Calderon. Antonio 
 Ferreira (1528-1669), surnalned the Horace of Portugal,, on 
 account of his lyrics, was the author of the national tragedy of 
 Inez de Castro, as well as of a comedy, the *^ Jealous." But the 
 man, who alone ought to be considered as having erected an 
 immortal monument to Portuguese literature was Luiz de 
 Camoens, born in 1524, whom the ^^ Lusiades '^ places in the 
 rank of the glorious epic poets, Homer, Virgil and Milton. 
 Not one of the succeeding poets inherited any of his genius. 
 Soon the old taste for pastoral poetry invaded the literature 
 anew, and spread itself during the 17th century, in a deluge of 
 sonnets. The Spanish domination completed the literary de- 
 cadence of the country. 
 
Language and Literature. 57 
 
 It is true, that the new national dynasty, in tlie 18th century, 
 gave some encouragement to letters. In 1720, John Y founded 
 the " Academy of Portuguese History," and in 1757, was created, 
 under the name of Arcadia, another academy, which lasted till 
 1776. About the same time the works of the great French 
 writers were in the ascendant in Portugal, and drove out the 
 Italian tastes, which had lasted for so long a period. But the 
 effects were only superficial. There was a reaction from the old 
 bucolic taste, thanks to the united efforts of all the intelligent 
 men of the present literary epoch ; but this reaction, at first, 
 brought in merely a crowd of translations from the ancient and 
 the modern languages, and some weak imitations of foreign 
 models. 
 
 We meet with the first specimens of prose in the chronicles of 
 the 14th century. But this kind of writing remained in an un- 
 improved condition, until the 15th and the 16th centuries, after 
 the ^^ Renaissance.'^ Fernao Lopes' chronicle of John I. is a 
 proof of this improvement. Those two centuries were very pro- 
 lific in romances of chivalry, some of the most celebrated of 
 which belong to Portugal. Amadis de Gaul is the best known. 
 Among the historians, the first to acquire reputation was Joao 
 de Barros, whose "Asia " (1552,) continued by Diogo de Couto, 
 Is even at the present day the best guide in regard to the history 
 of the Portuguese discoveries in that part of the world. The 
 heroic age of the nation was specially treated by Fernao Lopes 
 de Castanheda, by the celebrated Alphonse d'Albuquerque, in 
 his commentaries, and lastly by Damiao de Goes, in his Chron- 
 icle of Emmanuel, the Fortunate. 
 
 A new era opened in 1833, when temporal absolutism in the 
 person of D. Miguel was abolished. Although the masses have 
 not yet displayed many signs of increasing intelligence, the elite 
 of the nation have felt the benign influences of the Goddess of 
 Liberty. Among the men that have pointed out the way for 
 
58 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 advance, there are two who are remarkable for several reasons ; 
 the Viscount D^Almeida Garret and Alexander Herculano de 
 Carvalho. The former^ a brilliant poet, minister, diplomatist 
 and orator, died in 1854. As familiar with the w^orks of the 
 French and of the Italian muse, as with the best traditions of the an- 
 cient national poetry, he displayed a great superiority in romance 
 and in lyric productions. Garret alone constituted a literature. 
 He was the author of the Romancero, Adozindaand Dona Bran- 
 ca, the graceful lyric badinage Eetrato de Venus, the humorous 
 "Travels in my Country," the tragedies Cato and Meropus, 
 and the national dramas Auto de Gilbicente, FreyLuiz deSousa, 
 and Arco de Sant'Arnna. 
 
 Herculano is also a writer of similar universality. His writ- 
 ings are stamped with the mark of sadness. His " A voz de 
 propheta/' Eurico, O monge de Cister, and "The Establishment 
 of the Portuguese Inquisition" are of a surpassing merit. We 
 cannot do more than mention the names of Rebello da Silra, 
 Mendes Leal, Andrade Corvo, Camillo CastelloBranco,Bulhao, 
 Pato, Antonio Pereira da Cunha, and A. Feliciamo de Castilho. 
 Two poems entitled " A noite do Castello " and " Os Cuimes do 
 bardo,'^ by Castilho, are gems in regard to sentiment and style. 
 
 Enough has been said to show that we should not regard Portu- 
 gal as a disinherited country in a literary point of view. There 
 exists a literary class, which, despite many annoying disadvan- 
 tages, has produced much. What is wanted is the serious 
 attention of a public more numerous and less indifferent than the 
 one for which it is obliged to work at present. It is to be hoped 
 that time, the great healer, will not hesitate to come to the 
 assistance of Portuguese literature. A new era has opened. 
 Patience alone is necessary. 
 
Political Of^GANizATioN. 
 
 The government of Portugal is monarchical, hereditary and 
 representative. The Constitutional Charter drawn up by Dom 
 Pedro IV, April 29th, 1826, at Rio Janeiro, and amended by 
 the additional act of July 5th, 1852, is the fundamental law of 
 the kingdom. It is divided into 8 sections, containing 145 arti- 
 cles; 1st of the territorial state of the Monarchy, and the estab- 
 lished church; 2d of the Portuguese nationality and 
 naturalization; 3d of the distinctions in regard to the national 
 powers and representation ; 4th of the chambers and the 
 electoral system ; 5th of royalty; 6th of the judicial power ; 7th 
 of the provincial and financial administration; 8th, finally, of the 
 general guaranties in reference to the liberty and rights of citi- 
 zens. It is at once a constitutional law and a programme of 
 excellent principles which require only a strict adherence, to 
 produce good results. 
 
 The King bears the title of "Very Faithful Majesty, by the 
 grace of God, King of Portugal and of Algarves of this side and 
 the other side of the sea, in Africa, Lord of Guinea, of the con- 
 quest, navigation and commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia and 
 India.^' 
 
 The national colors placed by Don Pedro, in the white 
 flag of the ancient monarchy, are blue and white vertically 
 divided, with the royal arms in the centre of the standard. 
 
 The heir apparent of the crown, formerly called "Prince of 
 Brazil,'^ takes the title of "prince royal,'^ and his first-born that 
 of " Prince of Beira.'' Both are termed Royal Highnesses. The 
 
60 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 person of the sovereign is, constitutionally, irresponsible, invio- 
 lable and sacred. His majority is fixed by tlie charter at 18 
 years. He is forbidden to absent himself from the kingdom 
 without having first obtained the consent of the Cortes. The 
 husband of the reigning queen has no part in the government 
 and assumes the title of king only after he has had a son or 
 daughter. He may, however, be invested with the regency 
 during the heir's minority. The civil list allowed the present 
 sovereign, Don Luiz I, amounts to about $400,000. The Court 
 is maintained on as simple a scale as possible, consisting of 
 comparatively few officers, the ruinous expenditures in the reign 
 of John Y having taught a lesson in that respect which will 
 never be forgotton. The officers are as follows: Grand-maitre 
 de la cour, Marshal Duke de Saldanha, Grand-aumonier, Patri- 
 arch of Lisbon, Grand-ecuyer, Duke de Loul6, Grand-maitre des 
 c^r^monies. Count de Eio Maior, Intendant (Administrador da 
 fazenda,) Councillor S. do Conto e Castro Marcarenhas, first 
 aide-de-comp to the king. General of Division, Marquis de Sa da 
 Bandeira. 
 
 The Portuguese Charter recognizes 4 powers ; the legislative 
 power, divided between the 2 chambers (who make, interpret, 
 suspend aud abrogate the laws), and the king (who sanctions 
 or rejects them) ; the moderator and the executive power, 
 both constituting the basis of the royal power ; lastly, the power 
 bestowed on the independent magistrates and on the jury, who 
 exercise it in the name of the sovereign. The king and the 
 assembly-general of the cortes form the national represen- 
 tation. The cortes consists of two chambers, one of 
 Peers and the other of Deputies. Head of the state, the king 
 alone is invested with the executive power, as well as with the 
 moderating power. By virtue of the last, he may convoke ex- 
 traordinarily the cortes, or prorogue them, create new peers and 
 dissolve, if he thinks proper, the elective chamber, with the sav- 
 
Political Organization. 61 
 
 iiig clause, that he must order new elections to replace it. He 
 nominates and renominates his ministers, can suspend them from 
 their functions (the magistrates being exceptions to this rule), 
 and he has the privilege of pardoning and of granting an 
 amnesty. 
 
 The executive power is exercised through the medium of his 
 ministers, acting under the ordinary conditions of a parliamen- 
 tary regime, and assisted by a council of state, the members of 
 Avhich are nominated for life by the sovereign. The king is 
 invested with the command of the forces by land and sea ; he 
 may declare war or make peace ; and, treating with foreign 
 powers, he directs the external politics. But according to the 
 10th Article of the Additional Act, he must have the approba- 
 tion of the cortes, when negotiating treaties, conventions and 
 concordats. He is the dispenser of all honors, dignities and 
 pardons, and confers not only the diplomatic, consular, mao-is- 
 terial and" political posts, but also the bishoprics and other 
 ecclesiastical appointments. 
 
 The charter guarantees to all citizens equality before the law 
 but without prejudice to the titles and other honorary privileo-es 
 belonging to the nobility. All the Portuguese without distinc- 
 tion, are admissible to the public functions, as well as to mili- 
 tary and naval appointments. Individual liberty, the security 
 of persons and of property, the inviolability of domicile and of 
 letters are also guaranteed, as well as the right of petition and 
 the liberty of the press. But the rules and formalities, the 
 observation of which determines the ordinary safeo-uard of these 
 liberties, can be, in virtue of a reserve in the final article of the 
 same charter, suspended by the government as well as by the 
 chambers, in the cases where the safety of the state demands it. 
 These suspensions have been numerous, especially durino- the 
 tempests of Maria's reign. 
 
 The chamber of deputies is renewed every 4 years. The 
 
62 Notes on Portugal 
 
 legislative sessions are annual and commence of the 2d of Janu- 
 ary. Although the legal duration is determined at 3 months, 
 it is as a rule prolonged beyond that time, according to the 
 number and the importance of subjects for deliberation. The 
 labors of the peers commence and end at the same time as those 
 of the deputies. There are 107 deputies. To be eligible for 
 the office, a certain revenue, minimum of which is fixed at 
 400,000 reis, (about $400,) must be enjoyed by the candidate, 
 although from this law the following are exempt, viz : officers of 
 the army and navy, priests, doctors, and in general, all those 
 who have completed a superior course of education. Every 
 citizen, possessing a revdnue of at least 100,000 reis, (or $100,) 
 is a voter. The above mentioned exceptions hold good in this 
 case also 5 indeed, all who have diplomas of a superior or second- 
 ary education may vote. 
 
 The initiative in regard to supplies, etc., belongs exclusively 
 to the chamber of deputies, and that chamber alone can decree 
 the right of indicting the ministers and councillors of the state. 
 
 The number of peers is unlimited. They are nominated for 
 life and the dignity is hereditary. To be admitted by right of 
 succession, one must be 25 years of age at least, and possess a 
 certificate of good conduct signed by 3 peers. The conditions of 
 a good education and of an intelligent capacity must also be ful- 
 filled. 
 
 There are seven ministers ; they are those of the interior, of 
 the finances, of justice and public worship, of war, of tne navy 
 and the colonies, of foreign affairs, of public works, commerce 
 and industry. 
 
 The abolition of the death penalty for political crimes is one 
 of the dispositions of the additional Act. Since the promulga; 
 tion of that act, it has been abolished, for even civil crimes, and 
 it exists only in the military code. 
 
 Roman Catholicism is the state religion, but all the other 
 
Political Organization. 63 
 
 sects are tolerated in Portugal, with this sole restriction, they 
 may not be publicly celebrated in temples possessing the charac- 
 teristic exterior of religious edi^s. 
 
 The judiciary power is untrammeled, and is composed of 
 judges and juries as in England, the United States, etc. The 
 judges are nominated for life, and may not be dispossessed of 
 office, except by a judicial sentence. 
 
 Justice is administered by the various courts, from which an 
 appeal can be made to a superior tribunal, endowed with the 
 functions similar to those of the U. S. Supreme Court. 
 
 In regard to administrative organization, Portugal is divided 
 into two distinct parts, the kingdom proper with the adjacent 
 islands, and the colonies beyond the sea. The latter division is 
 under the jurisdiction of the minister of ^' Marine and Colonies." 
 The kingdom proper, with Madeira and the Azores, will be 
 found to consist of 21 departments. These departments are di- 
 rected by a magistrate called " Civil Governor," who is appoint- 
 ed by the king. Without enumerating all his duties, we may 
 say that this official is the centre of the departmental administra- 
 tion ; his power is exercised over all the branches of the public 
 service, and extends, in cases of emergency, to the adoption of 
 extraordinary and dictatorial measures, according to the gravity 
 of the circumstances. Of course he must submit all his plans 
 for the approbation of the government. 
 
 A few remarks concerning some of the defects in the political 
 organization of Portugal might not be considered inopportune. 
 
 Most of the ministers that have succeeded one onother in 
 Portugal have recognized the necessity of a reform in our ad- 
 ministration. That this reform has not already been brought 
 about, is to be attributed chiefly to the resistance of the nation, 
 and of the interests that have been begotten from the natural 
 disposition of the people, which obstacles are always encountered 
 by modern science and innovation. 
 
64 Notes on Foriugal. 
 
 The proposition which was recently presented to the cortes by 
 the minister of the interior, A. E-odrigues Sampayo, contains the 
 project of establishing the administrative organization on a new 
 basis. She proposes to create a local political life, which has 
 hitherto been but little developed ; to establish the government 
 of the people by themselves, by means of popular suffrage ; to 
 confide to the elective bodies the management of their interests; 
 to educate and prepare the citizens progressively for assuming 
 the duties connected with the general administration of the state, 
 and finally to relieve the central government from occupying 
 itself with interests, the protection of which could be confided 
 more advantageously to the Superior District Courts, founded 
 by popular vote. In a word, in the proposed plan of reform, 
 the principle of decentralising is paramount and is instigated by 
 the necessity of bringing forth those adjuncts, so indispensable 
 to the life of a nation, which undoubtedly appears to be govern- 
 ed by liberal ideas. 
 
 One of the great difficulties encountered in the various branches 
 of the public administration, is found in the general disposition 
 of the nation. The initiative must always be taken by the 
 executive, when the performance of any work not immediately 
 connected with the management of public affairs, is demanded. 
 The people always wait for the action of the government. 
 
 In absolute monarchies, it is logical to expect that all should 
 look toward the central administration when anything is to be 
 projected, but the theory is inapplicable to a country governed 
 by institutions which have national sovereignty for base. 
 
 The great defect to which we allude will disappear before the 
 light which already penetrates into the minds of the Portuguese. 
 Undoubtedly the great obstacle to the introduction of the demo- 
 cratic doctrine, will be found in the natural indolence, and in a 
 certain indifference which so effects the .Portuguese that they 
 desire to be governed rather than to take the reins of government 
 
Political Organization. 65 
 
 into their own hands. However, when an error is recognized^ 
 there is also a manifest desire to correct it. It is not sufficient 
 that the laws of a country should be good ; the faithful execution 
 of them is equally important. They should be binding one very one. 
 
 The privilege^ which some publicfunctionariesenjoy,of not be- 
 ing accused, in the civil or the criminal courts, about their official 
 conduct, should be abolished. It is one of the points demanded 
 by the reform. This question, w^ith that of enlarging the popular 
 suffrage constitute two of the most important articles in the pro- 
 posed administrative code. 
 
 Thus this code creates decentralisation on a large scale, and 
 contains many salutary innovations. Let us hope that it will 
 be realized, despite the opposition offered by several districts. 
 Developed for public utility and without party-spirit, it will 
 mark a great step in the progress and happiness of the people, 
 and will overthrow the system of centralisation, which has been 
 for so long a time, an obstacle in the public affairs of PortugaL . 
 
 (5> 
 
? 
 
 THNOGRAPHY. 
 
 If we pass from the country to the inhabitants, we shall find 
 that the population of Portugal offers nearly the same character 
 as that of Spain, with at least, one single aboriginal element, the 
 Basque. But tlie melange of races is more strongly apparent in 
 the former than in the latter, although it occupies only a small 
 portion of the Peninsula. The blood of the ancient Lusitanians 
 was mixed with that of all the nations, which, whether as 
 conquerors or as conquered, have occupied the country; Cartha- 
 genians, Romans, German tribes, French of the feudal ages, 
 Arabs and Jews. The influence of the Moorish element upon 
 the mass of the people has not been less marked than in the 
 neighboring kingdom. Cut ofif by its position from the rest of 
 Europe, Portugal retains in many rural districts, the types of 
 the original inhabitants. In fact, their own character and phys- 
 iognomy have been retained unchanged. 
 
 The Portuguese are, in general, endowed with a great deal of 
 kind-heartedness. Ttiey are susceptible to impressions and 
 capable of courageous sacrifices; their lively and sensitive char- 
 acter sometimes carries them away, but rancor never burns 
 within their breasts. Although they have been accused of being 
 vindictive, an impartial observer would perceive that such is not 
 the case. Despite their penchant for ideas of liberty and of civic 
 equality, they are fond of honorary distinctions, such as decora- 
 tions and titles of nobility, to which, by the way, all meritorious 
 citizens in Portugal may aspire, no matter what their social 
 origin may be. Lately, these destinctions were distributed 
 
Ethnography, 67 
 
 somewhat profusely, and their value, which depends upon a 
 discriminating choice combined with parsimony, became a little 
 depreciated. 
 
 The Portuguese are of small stature, and possess a dark com- 
 plexion. Their eyes and hair are black, although numerous 
 exceptions to this rule are to be found in the north. If they are 
 not distinguished for regularity of features, or for elegance of 
 form, they are, as a rule, robust, sober, capable of bearing priva- 
 tion and fatigue. 
 
 The Portuguese ladies are always accompanied, during their 
 promenades, by a domestic, and it is impossible to do away with 
 this custom, just now, owing to various causes. They take very 
 little exercise, the want of which injures their health as well as 
 complexion. It is to be hoped that more healthy and civilized 
 habits will be adopted. Then in Portugal, as in the United 
 States and elsewhere, woman will be at liberty to go wheresoever 
 she pleases, assured beforehand of the respect and consideration 
 of every one. 
 
 I cannot say, notwithstanding my regret, that the Portuguese 
 women are, in general, as handsome as the American; but in 
 Beira some remarkable specimens of female beauty are to be met 
 with. A brunette complexion, teeth of an unequalled whiteness, 
 magnificent hair, and black eyes, filled with expression, distin- 
 guish many of the Portuguese women. Their height, it is true, 
 is not always graceful, and their walk might be less stiff in style. 
 They dress themselves with elegance for soirees, etc., but their 
 toilette in the morning, and for the promenade, is not always in 
 the best taste. In this respect they have much to learn from the 
 American ladies. Although the women have been reproached 
 with possessing a lax morality, they are, in general, good and 
 affectionate mothers, and they have, at times, proved their devotion 
 in a remarkable manner. 
 
68 Notes on PortugaL 
 
 Some writers, who have been struck by the Hebrew type of 
 the inhabitants in various parts, assert that the Jews were the 
 progenitors of the Portuguese. In this, they err. True, that 
 type is frequently met with, but only in isolated places. The 
 reason is, that, owing to the comparatively mild laws of Portu- 
 gal in regard to the persecuted Jews, these unfortunate outcasts 
 sought shelter in that country. They have undoubtedly exerted 
 great influence , but no greater than was to be expected from the 
 numbers that made Portugal their home. 
 
 Whilst speaking about the reception of the Jews by the 
 Portuguese, it would not be amiss to mention that hospitality 
 reigns supreme in Portugal. The stranger is certain of a warm 
 welcome. 
 
 We should not conceal the tact, that vanity somewhat tarnishes 
 the lustre of the brilliant qualities of the Portuguese. It is a 
 defect, which, it is pretended, is to be attributed to race and 
 climate, and which is excited and maintained by the reaction 
 against the loss of their political importance. Brought up in the 
 traditions of a glorious past, and emerging from the most difficult. 
 tests, without losing either liberty or independence the Por- 
 tuguese support with difficulty the raillery of their detractors, 
 and, whilst waiting for what the future must bring in exchange 
 for their effi^rts of regeneration and of progress, they recall their 
 former power in order to strengthen their perseverance and to 
 impose upon their adversaries. 
 
 It is easy to find among the Portuguese, faithful and devoted 
 friends as well as citizens that are sober, charitable and attached 
 to their homes. The peasant is good, honest, frugal and simple. 
 When he meets a person on the highway, he invariably salutes 
 him with " May God keep you.'' 
 
 Amusements are much liked by the Portuguese, who are eager 
 after what pleases the senses. The guitar is the most popular 
 instument of music. 
 
Ethnogra'phy. ' ■ 69 
 
 They like spectacles, religious processions, bull- fights, and 
 ^^ arraiaes.'^ This last means a popular reunion, something like 
 our fairs. Dancing, music, eating, etc., constitute the principal 
 features. Tents adorned with flags of different colors, are found 
 in them, containing meats, fish and articles of all descriptions 
 for sale. Some one has said, '^ Give to the Portuguese, arraiaes, 
 fire- works, and few taxes, and you are sure of keeping them con- 
 tented." In Portugal, bull-fights are very pleasing to even the 
 nobility. The bulls have their horns capped v/itli balls, thereby 
 making this amusement less barbarous and sanguinary than in 
 Spain, where the animals are killed with the sword, and where 
 the horses often run round the course completely disembowelled. 
 If the tourada is a very repugnant sight in Madrid, it is simply 
 an affair of skill and strength, in Lisbon. 
 
 Horse-racing and regattas are becoming very popular in Por- 
 tugal and in time these kinds of amusement will undoubtedly be 
 presented in all their display. 
 
 The Portuguese eat more fish than meat, and there are in the 
 markets, very many varieties of the finny tribe. Dried cod and sopa 
 secca, a kind of soup, are very popular dishes. The red- wine of 
 Termo is generally used to wash them down. Meat-stew, boiled- 
 beef, pork, sausages and rice-bouillon are found, in addition to 
 those articles mentioned above, on the tables of people in com- 
 tortable circumstances. The dinner hour is from one to two 
 o'clock, in the country; but in the cities, it is much later. 
 
 Formerly the Portuguese travelled very little, and consquently 
 remained in ignorance of foreign lands ; but now, thanks to the 
 facility and cheapness of communication on land as well as on 
 sea, they are to be found in all countries. Indolent by nature, 
 and living in one of the finest climates of the world, they are 
 not very energetic in their occupations. The eternal amanha 
 (to-morrow) is the greatest enemy of public and private well- 
 being. Natural intelligence is a gift, which belongs to almost 
 
70 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 all the Portuguese, but true culture of roind, and a solid 
 instruction are the portion of the minority. 
 
 In regard to morals, they differ but little at Lisbon from those 
 of the rest of Europe. French tastes reign in that city, and in 
 it are found all kinds of stores kept by French and Germans. 
 Almost every one speaks French, which remains the language 
 of the Diplomatic Corps. In society, despite that English influ- 
 ence, which is mentioned by all those traveling in the country, 
 the Minister from Great Britain is often obliged to use French, 
 as the number of Portuguese speaking English is limited, even 
 among their statesmen, litterateurs and savants. The principal 
 cities have their own clubs and circles, in which are to be found 
 persons of all ranks, provided they give proof of good education. 
 In this respect, Portugal shows herself in an advanced position, 
 for it possesses a society in which one meets, at all times, the 
 nobility, the clergy, the diplomatic corps, men of letters, etc. 
 
 The grandcs dames do not always take the names of their 
 husbands; they retain those of their families, a custom, which 
 causes great confusion to foreigners. 
 
 Bastards enjoy a position not to be found elsewhere. At all 
 times, legislation has favored them, whilst society receives them 
 on the same footing as legitimate children provided they have 
 been legally recognized. John I, the Chief of the Aviz dynasty, 
 although a bastard, was one of the most enlightened, radiant and 
 beloved of kings. 
 
 In regard to carriages, particularly in Lisbon, those to be 
 hired in the streets are coupes and caleches, drawn by two 
 horses. Private carriages are noted for a certain elegance and 
 solidity. Many are imported from Paris or from London. 
 The royal gala equipages deserve a special mention. They are 
 sculptured and gilt carriages of great value, containing superb 
 Venetian mirrors, as well as panels of a great magnificence. 
 One of them dates from the XYIIth century. Indeed the 
 entire collection is unique. 
 
Concluding Chaptei^on ISocial Life. 
 
 Portuguese society is divided into the clergy, nobility, middle 
 class and the populace. 
 
 Although the clergy have no longer the same riches and priv- 
 ileges as in former times, they occupy still a most eminent posi- 
 tion, T^hich fact can be better understood when we remember 
 that there is a state religion, and that this religion should be an 
 object of veneration to all. The history of the clergy is almost 
 the history of the country, and it should receive especial atten- 
 tion ; but want of space requires us to forego entering upon more 
 than a few pertinent remarks. When the monarchy was found- 
 ed the clergy had as much influence as the nobility, and this 
 influence was increased by the religious war, then carried on, 
 with bitterness, against the infidel. The priests themselves then 
 fought on the field of battle. They were more enlightened than 
 the other classes ; they alone possessed the precious seeds of 
 civilization, of which the Pope then had the initiative, and they 
 represented in society, heaven with its sweet recompenses and its 
 terrible punishments. It was to be expected from these circum- 
 stances, that the clergy would possess a place more important than 
 the nobility, over whom the Church exercised an influence as effica- 
 cious as that which it exercised over the king. In fact, monasteries 
 were founded everywhere, under the care of the mouarchs and 
 of the nobles ; very great donations in land and in privileges, 
 placed the clergy in an extraordinary state of fortune and power, 
 which made them stronger and bolder than the nobles and the 
 king. The domains of the church equalled those of the state ; 
 
72 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 the clergy possessed in them an absolute authority, and their in- 
 fluence starting from that, spread itself over the whole kingdom, 
 finding powerful auxiliaries in terrified consciences, in pious 
 souls, and in the general ignorance. Following the example of 
 the nobles, the priests meddled with all the intrigues of the 
 court, and often invoked the thunders of the Vatican upon 
 the heads of the sovereigns, who refused to comply wdth all 
 their demands. Fear often forced the monarchs to undergo the 
 increasing influence of the clergy, which weighed on them even 
 more than that of the noblity. 
 
 The expeditions sent out and the discoveries made by the 
 Portuguese, under the direction of the Infant D. Enrique, opened 
 a vast field to the ambition of the nobles, and afforded an oppor- 
 tunity to spread the faith. The church turned her attention to 
 the new fields, thus giving a moment of respite as well as some 
 sort of independence to the laity. The Inquisition admitted 
 into Portugal by the unreflecting piety, of John III., establish- 
 ed clerical influence on a still more solid base. The results 
 were very pernicious to the interests of the country, to the 
 development of the institutions, to the progress of its civiliza- 
 tion, and to the energy of the nation. 
 
 During the epoch of the Spanish Domination, the ecclesiasti- 
 cal dignitaries, leaving the illusions of patriotism to the lower 
 clergy, went over to the side of Phillip II., in the same manner 
 as the high nobility did, without troubling themselves about the 
 loss of Portuguese autonomy. 
 
 Although severe losses were endured afterwards, the clergy 
 possessed, however, up to the liberal epoch of 1834, great wealth 
 and many privileges. On the advent of the liberal party, D. 
 Pedro IV. and his ministers, put an end to such a state of 
 things. Perhaps they went a little too far in their desire to 
 make up for loss time. At the present time the clergy is poor, 
 and the great dignitaries of the church are no richer than the 
 
Concluding Chapter on Social Life. 73 
 
 car6s. Deprived of their tithes^ they remain at the charge of 
 the state, and are paid like other public functionaries. There is 
 a rate called congra, levied in each parish for the support of the 
 spiritual adviser. Undoubtedly the aim has been to impoverish 
 a class which has always shown itself opposed to liberal ideas. 
 The measures taken in 1834, in regard to the clergy, were mark- 
 ed with a severity which the events rather explain than justify ; 
 and when the minds of men became calm, the necessity of en- 
 dowing the ministers of religion in a proper manner, without 
 bestowing, as in the past, such vast possessions, was soon per- 
 ceived. 
 
 Although the clergy may have lost some of their ancient 
 prestige, they exert a marked influence upon the Portuguese 
 people. When its members are at the same time learned and 
 virtuous ; more occupied with the salvation of souls than with 
 the wretched goods of this lower- world ; when they inspire the 
 consideration and respect due to their exalted mission, they are 
 sure of being able to count upon the devotion of faithful souls 
 and to direct their consciences towards the word of Christ. 
 
 The liberal reforms gave to each one his natural position, the 
 means of utilizing his activity, and a certain amount of legit- 
 imate inflence. The odious privileges of former times being 
 abolished, an end has been put to the domination of one class over 
 another. The nobility, under the constitutional regime, is di- 
 vided into four groups ; the first includes the highest rank, here- 
 ditary or otherwise, consisting of the following : the Patriarch 
 of Lisbon, who precedes all, as cardinal ; dukes, marquises, 
 arch 'bishops and: counts, as well as viscounts, barons or 
 simple gentlemen to whom high nobility has been accorded; 
 bishops, peers of the kingdom, the sons and daughters of dukes 
 are counted amongst the first. The second group is formed by 
 viscounts and barons. The third is composed of the gentlemen 
 of the Royal Plousehold (Fidalgos da Casa Real), and lastly the 
 
74 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 fourth is that of the lower nobility, in which are found the 
 chevaliers and the commanders of the military orders, the 
 university professors, doctors in the various faculties, magistrates 
 military officers, and ecclesiastics who have reached the sub- 
 deaconship. 
 
 The bourgoisie is composed of those engaged in commerce^ 
 industry and the arts, as well as of agriculturists in easy circum- 
 stances. It should be remarked, however, that this class is only 
 a transitory one between the pupulace and the nobility, thus 
 occupying a position difficult to be found in other lands. 
 
 The orders of knighthood are the folio wing : ^^ Jesus Christ,^' 
 " Saint Benoit d' Aviz/' " Saint James of the Sword,'' '' The 
 Tower and the Sword," and the order of the ^^ Conception de 
 Villa Yicosa." The most ancient of these is that of " Christ,'' 
 which is only the continuation of the " Order of the Templars "; 
 it dates from 1318. Saint Benoit d'Aviz was created in 1162, 
 by Alphone I. ; the order of Saint James was instituted in 1177 ; 
 the " Tower and Sword " was instituted in 1459, and was re- 
 stored in 1808 ; the last order made its appearance in 1818. 
 
 At present the military commanders do not carry any pension, 
 with them. The greatest posts, whether military or civil, are de- 
 corated with the * 'Order of Christ," when any great services have 
 been rendered. The other distinctions are bestowed on various clas- 
 ses, according to the nature of the meritorious deed. The military 
 and naval services receive the " Saint Benoit d'Aviz;" science, 
 art and literature are honored with the " Saint James," whereas 
 a brilliant feat of arms, or an act of courage, whether civil or 
 military, will obtain for the hero the " Tower and the Sword." 
 
 These general rules have often been modified, and there does 
 not exist, at the present time, the same exactitude or the same 
 rigorous discrimination as in other lands. In our opinion, it is 
 necessary either to elevate the orders or to abolish them alto- 
 gether. 
 
Concluding Chapter on Social Life 75 
 
 In concluding our remarks on the clergy, we might mention 
 something concerning the ecclesiastical organization. The eccle- 
 siastical division of the kingdom and the adjacent islands 
 comprehends the patriarchate of Lisbon, the two arch-bishoprics of 
 Braga and of Evora, and 16 bishoprics. The number of parishes 
 was 3,788 in 1873. 
 
 The Portuguese Church forms four metropolitan provinces, of 
 which the centres are Lisbon, Braga, Evora, and Goa for the 
 possessions beyond the sea. Annexed is the list of the subdi- 
 visions: 1, Metropolitan province of Braga. — The Arch-bishop 
 of Braga bears the title of " Primate of the Spains,'' which title 
 is disputed with him by the arch-bishop of Toledo. The suffragan 
 bishops are those of Porto, Braganza, Aveiro, Coimbra, Yizeu 
 and Pinhel. 2. Metropolitan province of Lisbon. — The title of 
 patriarch given to the prelate governing this province is simply 
 honorary. His functions are those of an arch-bishop. His 
 vicar-general is arch-bishop in partibus. The dignity of Cardi- 
 nal is attached to that of ^^ Patriarch of Lisbon." The suffragans 
 are those of Lam ego, Guarda, Castello Branco, Leiria and Porta- 
 legre, upon the continent; of Angra and Funchal in the adjacent 
 islands, and of Cape Yerd, St. Thomas and Angola in Africa. 
 
 3. Metropolitan province of Evora. Three bishops assist the 
 Arch-bishop of Evora; they are those of Beja, Elvas and Earo. 
 
 4. Metropolitan province of Goa. The Arch-bishop of Goa 
 bears the title of '^ Primate of the East." His suffragans are 
 those of Cochin, Meliapor, Malacca and Timor, Macao, Nankin, 
 Pekin, and the prelacy of Mozambique in Africa. 
 
 The arch-bishops and the other dignitaries are nominated by 
 the king, but the nominations require to be confirmed by the 
 Pope. The crown has the right of nomination to ecclesiastical 
 benefices. The publication of the decrees made by councils, as 
 well as of " letters apostolic," depends upon the authorisation or 
 the refusal of the crown; the assent of the Chambers even is 
 
76 N^otes on Portugal 
 
 essential, when it is necessary to treat of a general question, or 
 of tlie conclusion of a concordat. 
 
 The question of organizing missions beyond the sea, and of 
 applying the best measures to present the complete ruin of the 
 ancient "Padroado/^ (patronage in reference to benefices,) pos- 
 sessed by the Crown of Portugal, in Asia and in Africa, has 
 recently attracted great attention. It is as important to the Holy 
 See as to Portugal, since it concerns the preservation of the 
 Roman Githolic missions in Hindoostan and elsewhere, now 
 threatened by the proselytizing societies, established in England. 
 It might go so far as to destroy the denomination of the Portu- 
 guese in those parts. There is a vast field in the interior of 
 Africa, the pacification and the conquest of which, in a peaceful 
 manner, could be effected by the Portuguese more advantageously 
 than by any other European nation. For, besides the fact that 
 other nations would find it necessary to commence from the 
 beginning, the prestige acquired from past deeds by the Portu- 
 guese is quite sufficient to allow these latter to dispense with 
 the use of violent means. The road has been prepared for the 
 missionary. He alone can effect what arms have failed to do, 
 viz,, the civilization of the subject races. 
 
Army and Nayy. 
 
 Before giving an idea of the military organization in Portugal^ 
 it would not be uninteresting to speak about the characteristic 
 qualities of our army. Whether against the domination of the 
 Moors, at the commencement of our history, or against the 
 Spaniards, when these latter attempted to destroy the independ- 
 ence of our native land, or against the various nations in Asia 
 and in Africa with whom we have come in contact, the Portu- 
 guese army has always given proof of a grand heroism. 
 
 This very century has seen that small nation, (undoubtedly 
 aided by the Spanish and the English,) maintain a bold front to 
 the victorious eagles of the "Great Napoleon. '^ The invasion 
 of the Peninsula by the French, was for the conquerer, a disas- 
 trous attempt. Wellington, who had been a witness on many 
 occasions of the courage displayed by his Portuguese allies, called 
 them '^the fighting cocks of the Peninsula Army.'' 
 
 In regard to instruction, it must be confessed there are some 
 improvements to be made, in order that the army may be on equal 
 terms, in that respect, with the armies of the great central Euro- 
 pean Powers ; still, it is not the less true, that much progress has 
 been made during the past few years. The equipments are being 
 renewed and placed in a condition suitable to the wants of the 
 present day. As to tactics and administration, the steps advised 
 by modern science have been adhered to, attention being paid, at 
 the same time, to the experience acquired by the nations who are 
 the most advanced in this subject. The country having an army 
 which is restrained in point of size by a limited conscription, 
 
78 Notes on Portugal 
 
 and being unable to place very considerable forces in the field, 
 as is the case with the nations that are accustomed to drilling the 
 entire population, it was necessary to think of organizing a good 
 reserve. This reserve has been created, and, in case of an in- 
 vasion, there would be a competent force to deal with the 
 enemy. 
 
 The Portuguese government lately promulgated its opinion in 
 reference to the question of ascertaining whether the action of 
 citizens, in case of invasion, should submit to every restriction. 
 It has been established that Portugal, not having a drilled na- 
 tion behind her regalar army to enter upon a campaign at the 
 first signal, as is the case in Germany and elsewhere, it would be 
 more than dangerous to impose any restriction on the action of 
 her natural defenders. 
 
 Besides the reserve, a National Guard would be able to ren- 
 der great service in the future, if it could be mobilized without 
 much delay. 
 
 The Portuguese army does not contain more than 30,000 men 
 of all arms ; but this number might be diminished, if a well 
 organized line of general defense could be counted upon. 
 Before 1855 the system of recruiting was somewhat arbitrary, 
 but since that date the impost of blood falls upon all classes of 
 society, with several exceptions. Substitution is allowed, and by 
 means of a private contract or of a sum paid to the government, 
 which then assumes the duty of providing a substitute, a person 
 may escape this onerous duty. 
 
 Military service is obligatory for eight years. After three 
 years passed under the " colors," the soldier returns home, but 
 he still belongs to the reserve, and it is only at the end of eight 
 years that he finds himself at liberty. Usually, the number of 
 men in active service does not exceed 20,000, the government 
 having the power of giving furloughs to the soldiers that are not 
 indispensable to the service. In this way there is an economy 
 

 Army and Navy. 79 
 
 efFectedj and a number of hands placed at the disposal of agri- 
 culturalnecessities. There are military five divisions, of which the 
 centresare, Lisbon, Yizen, Porto, Evora and Angra. 
 
 The Portuguese army, in time of peace, is on the following 
 basis : 
 
 Officers of general staff, • 32 
 
 Corps " 31 
 
 Engineers, - 58 
 
 Artillery, • 1 98 
 
 Cavalry, 224 
 
 " Infantry, 930 
 
 Total officers, 1,473 
 
 Rank and file : 
 
 Engineers, 508 
 
 Artillery, • 3,012 
 
 Cavalry, •' 3,184 
 
 Infantry, • 23,316 
 
 Total officers and men, 31,493 
 
 In time of war the numbers could be raised to 10,000. 
 
 The cannon-foundry, annexed to the general depot of war- 
 material is abundantly supplied with all the recent appurte- 
 nances designed to perfect the manufacture of canon, and from 
 it have issued almost all rifled guns as well as mitrailleuses, 
 employed in the Portuguese army. Here have been made the 
 various necessaries, so essential to a force desiring to be ready to 
 enter upon the performance of its duties at any moment. 
 
 We cannot enter into any further details. But sufficient has 
 been said to make it apparent that a corps d'armee of at least 
 50,000 men could be placed in line of battle. To the well- 
 known bravery of the Portuguese soldiers, it will be necessary 
 henceforward to add a rigorous discipline, which our unhappy 
 civil wars have enfeebled to a certain extent. An army of brave 
 men, well disciplined, well instructed and well equipped, will be 
 
80 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 able, in case of emergency, to preserve intact the national honor 
 and independence, especially since its role will always be de- 
 fensive and never aggressive. 
 
 If we compare the Portuguese navy with what it was in for- 
 mer times, we shall find it to be but a shadow ; but if we con- 
 sider what it was a few years ago, our surprise will be excited 
 at the great improvement that has taken place. The navy is 
 now more in accordance with the colonial needs. The aim has 
 been to make it sufficiently large so that our flag might be res- 
 pected in our distant possessions, at the same time that the 
 means of a communication with them are rendered easier. The 
 ministers of the navy for the past few years have applied them- 
 selves with zeal to the restoration of our naval glory, and we see 
 with satisfaction that already the effective force is in a state to 
 supply the most urgent wants of the service. 
 
 The complete transformation will require some time yet, 
 since the Portuguese government, adopting the same policy as it 
 follows in regard to the army and the military fortifications, 
 limits itself to such results as can be conveniently obtained, in 
 the present state of the treasury. 
 
 The ships, the equipment of which was proposed for 1873- 
 1874, are as follows : 
 
 Ships. Officers and Crew- Guns. 
 
 6 Steam Corvettes, 1,286 78 
 
 4 Steam Gun-boats, 309 13 
 
 2 Screw Steamers, 150 4 
 
 1 Side-wheel Steamer, 127 7 
 
 1 Steam Transport, 90 
 
 8 Sailing-vessels, 461 48 
 
 Ships Out of Commission. Guns. 
 
 2 Steam Corvettes, 32 
 
 4 Steam Gun-boats, 14 
 
 6 Sailing-vessels, 135 
 
 There are besides a few vessels of small dimensions, which 
 are used in the colonies. 
 
Army and Navy. 81 
 
 There are 9 vessels being constructed in England ; 1 trans- 
 port of 1,500 tons, and of a horse power of 1,250 ; 2 corvettes, 
 1,000 tons and 900 h. p. each ; three gun-boats, each of 530 tons 
 and of 500 h. p ; two river gun-boats of 280 tons and 40 h. p. 
 each, and finally, an ironclad (broadside) of 1,500 tons and 3,200 
 h. p. These vessels, the cost of whose armaments will amount 
 to about 1,750 contos, are intended to replace those that are ob- 
 solete. 
 
 Ever since 1862, the number of the armed ships allowed of a 
 naval resolve at Lisbon. It has been a practical school, of which 
 our marine had, prior to that period, stood in great need. There 
 is now a special school to train sailors, on board a v^essel moored 
 in theTagus. The effects of the improvements introduced have 
 been beneficial. The skillful manoeuveringof the Portuguese fleet 
 has elicited the admiration of foreign spectators. 
 
 There is no corps of marine infantry or artillery. The corps 
 of marines performs on board ship, the duties of gunners, and of 
 the seamen. That organization has produced very good results. 
 The corps is divided into three divisions and is composed of 
 nearly 2,000 men. 
 
 Annexed is the table of the Naval Heirarchy : 
 
 Vice- Admiral, 1 
 
 Rear- Admirals, 4 
 
 Post Captains, 8 
 
 Captains of Frigates, 18 
 
 Commanders, 24 ' 
 
 First Lieutenants, 48 
 
 Second Lieutenants, 90 
 
 There are, in addition, about 233 officers and personages of 
 various ranks, such as chaplains, naval constructors, doctors, 
 paymasters, pursers, etc. 
 
 The Supreme Council of Military Justice takes cognizance of 
 the crimes and faults committed by the individuals belon2:in(>' to 
 the naval forces. The merchant marine is, in some cases, sub- 
 ject to the same tribunal. (g) 
 
82 Notes on Portugal 
 
 The Marine Hospital in Lisbon is an excellent establishment 
 of its kind; we should mention also the Marine Barracks. As 
 regards the material for the fleet, there are two principal depots, 
 the Marine Arsenal and the National Rope-yard, both of which 
 are in Lisbon. The Arsenal is a vast edifice, containing the 
 construction yards, depots of arms, munitions and provisions, 
 the Naval Museum and School. Although the arsenal has pro- 
 duced very fine vessels, we find ourselves compelled, like many 
 other nations, to have recourse to the ship-yards of England, 
 when we wish to have men-of-war without delay, and at a lower 
 rate. Probably we do not yet possess suitable machines, etc., in 
 our yards. It would not be amiss to refer to the recent purchase 
 of a transport in the United States. 
 
 The rope-walk situated in Lisbon, on the banks of the Tagus, 
 employs 200 workmen. There are made all the ropes, cables 
 and sails, destined for the navy. This establishment, being in 
 possession of the best mechanical means, rivals similar ones in 
 other lands. 
 
 For purposes of marine conscription, the coast is divided into 
 four departments ruled by ^' intendants,'^ and each department 
 into seventeen maritime districts. 
 
 An advance has been made. In a not very remote future, we 
 shall possess a navy on a scale adequate to our wants as a colonial 
 nation. Not being designed to take the offensive, it will prove 
 sufficent for all the purposes we may have in regard to the main- 
 tainance of our national autonomy and the preservation of our 
 colonial empire. 
 
F 
 
 DUCATION. 
 
 Some years ago, instruction in Portugal was in a very imper- 
 fect condition ; the number of primary schools was deplorably 
 deficient ; the methods of teaching, unpractical, and the 
 teachers badly paid. As regards secondary education, which 
 corresponds with that obtained in academies in this country, 
 great defects have always existed. Latin, tlie elementary prin- 
 ciples of mental and moral Philosophy, Rhetoric, Algebra and 
 Geometry, were studied with some degree of success; but History 
 and Geography were very much neglected. The want of know- 
 ledge in the last two branches, had a bad effect upon tlie future 
 of such students as were adn^itted to the superior courses in the 
 University. The study of the science in general was very super- 
 ficial, because of the want of a good and solid foundation. In 
 the University of Coimbra, the greatest attention was paid to 
 Law and to Theology. The doctrines however were super- 
 anuated, and the professors were unfortunately attached to a 
 defective routine. The departments of Philosophy, Mathematics 
 and Medicine were exceptions to this rule. Whilst the positive 
 sciences remained stationary, the natural sciences followed, more 
 or less, the paths trodden abroad. This state of things was not 
 very encouraging. But to-day, although there is much to be 
 done in regard to public education, it must be confessed that our 
 system of instruction is a thousand times better than it was for- 
 merly. Primary instruction is extending itself throughout the 
 kingdom, and the creation of schools for the two sexes attracts 
 the daily attention of the Portuguese Official Gazette. The methods 
 have been improved, and the school-masters, without being 
 
84 Education. 
 
 well paid, have less reason to complain. Very good elementary 
 text- books have been introduced for the use of the educational 
 institutions. As to geographical studies, it must be declared 
 that there is much to be done in Portugal. It is a singular 
 circumstance that the nation so celebrated in the past for its 
 geographical discoveries, has shown itself indifferent, of late, to 
 this subject. However, Portugal lately made a respectable dis- 
 play at the International Geographical Exhibition in Paris, and 
 it is to be hoped that some great steps in advance will soon be 
 made. 
 
 At Coimbra there are five faculties, Law, Theology, Philoso- 
 phy, Mathematics and Medicine. The present educational 
 organization depends almost entirely upon a decree of the 20th 
 of December, 1844, which contains some salutary dispositions. 
 But it is reasonable to suppose that, in the course of thirty-two 
 years, a re- organization has become indispensable. A reform 
 proposed by the present "Minister of the Interior,^^ Eodrigues 
 Sampayo, is to be discussed in the Chambers. The department 
 of public instruction is under the jurisdiction of that minister. 
 A consulting committee is in immediate charge. All the duties 
 of administration etc., are attended to by it in the same manner 
 as by the "Boards of Education" in other lands. 
 
 By the proposed reform, it is enacted that all children from 
 6 to 12 years of age, with the usual exceptions, must attend some 
 place of instruction, whether public or private. Attention is paid 
 to the number of times the pupils are present. The aim has been 
 to make the districts capable of managing their own schools, in- 
 stead of depending upon the central government. The latter 
 alw^ays pays a certain quota of the cost incurred in erecting the 
 necessary edifices, etc. The desire is to form what, in this coun- 
 try, are called district committees, and to leave in their hands all 
 the details naturally connected with the schools. The govern- 
 ment will then vote annually a certain sum, which will be suffi- 
 
Notes on Portugal. 85 
 
 cient to assist the parish or district committee in an efficient 
 manner. 
 
 Thanks to the energetic steps already taken, great success has 
 been achieved. Whereas the number of primary schools had in- 
 creased from 455 in 1772, to only 991 in 1838, the increase has 
 been more rapid during the last quarter of the century, as can be 
 seen by the following figures : 
 
 1854 1,189 
 
 1865 2,123 
 
 1870-. .2,359 
 
 The regular scholars numbered 52,720 boys, and 10,217 girls, 
 in 1869. Of course there is a large number educated in private 
 schools, etc. It was ascertained that in 1864, there were 22,970, 
 in such establishments. Since that date, the number has un- 
 doubtedly increased to a great extent. 
 
 This public education is divided into two classes ; primary and 
 secondary. The former consists of reading, writing, the elements 
 of arithmetic, geography, history, grammar, deportment, and 
 christian doctrine : in the latter we meet with an advanced sta^e 
 of the same studies as in the primary. Geometry as applied to 
 industry, and linear drawing, are also taught. Other subjects are 
 introduced, according to the proficiency of the class. 
 
 There is one circumstance that militates against the rapid ad- 
 vance of primary education in Portugal. It is the want of good 
 teachers. The salaries are so low that the profession does not 
 afford many inducements to young persons to engage in it. This 
 objection would have been long ago "removed, had it not been 
 for the impoverishment of the public treasury. 
 
 Normal schools have been established in Lisbon, Porto, Coim- 
 bra, Evora, and in Yizeu, so ttiat some assistance is offered there- 
 by to the training of teachers for Iheir important mission. 
 
 Secondary education is in a more advanced stage. Yet it re- 
 quires some reforms. By the decree of 1844, a lyceum wases- 
 
86 Education. 
 
 tablished in the chef-lieu of each district. Besides these Ijce- 
 ums, there are schools of equal rank supported by the govern- 
 ment. The general course of studies extends over five years, and 
 embraces Portuguese, Latin, the Humanities, History, Elementary 
 Mathematics, Elements of Physics, Chemistry and of Natural His- 
 tory; the principles of Natural law. Literature, Rhetoric, Linear 
 Drawing, Erench and English. Greek is taught in the schools 
 of the first grade, and Hebrew at Santarem, Coimbra, and Lis- 
 bon. In the last city there is a chair of Arabic. German is 
 taught at Porto, Coimbra, and Lisbon. 
 
 The number of pupils in the lyceum was 
 
 in 1867—1868 • 3,121 
 
 " 1868— 1869 2,912 
 
 " 1869—1870 3,126 
 
 In the official schools of the same rank, there were 704 stu- 
 dents, in 1864; but this number fell to 618 in the following 
 year. 
 
 Portugal possesses, as establishments of superior instruction, 
 the University of Coimbra, the Polytechnic school of Lisbon, 
 the Polytechnic Academy of Porto, the schools of Medicine and 
 of Surgery in Lisbon, Porto and Eunchal, and the superior 
 course in literature. 
 
 There are, moreover, the Military College, Army School, Na- 
 val School, the Royal Conservatory of Lisbon, and many others. 
 But we have not the space to enter into an account of these, es- 
 pecially since they are analogous to those existing in other 
 countries. * 
 
Agriculture. Industf^ and Finances. 
 
 In a work on the rural economy of Portugal, published five 
 years ago, we find some note-worthy remarks. According to 
 M. Rebeleo daSilva, the Kingdom of Portugal is divided into 
 four agricultural districts of unequal extent; the north, the cen- 
 tre, the south and the mountains. M. Leince de Lavergne be 
 lieves, however, that it would be simpler to admit of only three 
 regions, each containing 3,000,000 hectares; the first, which 
 might be termed the maritime, or western, bordering along the 
 coast, comprising the ancient province of Minho, one of the rich- 
 est and best cultivated countries in Europe, the half of da Beira, 
 and a great portion of Estremadura, is, without doubt, the most 
 prosperous. The second, or the mountainous region, composed 
 of Tras-os-montes, the remainder of da Beira and of Estrema- 
 dura, is studded with mountains. The third, or the southern, 
 comprising Alemtejo, and the little Kingdom of Algarves, is 
 justly considered the least cultivated. 
 
 According to a memorial addressed to the Minister of Agri- 
 culture in 1868, half of the 9,000,000 hectares remains unculti- 
 vated. It is in the coast districts that we find the land treated 
 in a comparatively scientific manner. " The agricultural produc- 
 tion of Portugal is chiefly composed of cereals ; Indian corn, wheat, 
 buck-wheat, barley, oats and rice being the principal constitu- 
 ents. But the amount raised is insufficient for internal con- 
 sumption. The vegetables, as arranged according to their im- 
 portance, are potatoes, French beans, chick-peas, vetches, lus- 
 sines, ordinary peas and lentels. 
 
88 Agriculture, Industry and Finances, 
 
 The country produces oranges, lemons, figs, almonds, as well 
 as the fruits that are found in the orchards of Northern Europe, 
 The olive trees produce a large quantity of oil, the prej^aration 
 of which i-s being improved every day. The production of hemp 
 and flax, does not suffice for home use. To these articles we 
 should add cork, besides the products of the adjacent isles, such 
 .as coffee, &ugar, tobacco and cotton, although these last are culti- 
 waied to a very small extent. 
 
 There are forests in Estremadura and the provinces of the North, 
 •which if treated in a suitable manner, would well repay all the 
 necessary outlay, especially at this time when the means of trans- 
 portation are becoming numerous. The various kinds of wood, 
 as well as large quantities of turpentine, are the products of these 
 forests. The pines of the forest of Leiria, and the celebrated 
 forest of Bussaco, not far from Coimbra, with its magnificent 
 Lebanon Cedars and Indian Cypresses, are very remarkable. 
 The delicious hills of Cintra, covered with orange and lemon 
 groves, appear destined to maintain alive forever the mytholo- 
 gical tradition of the garden of the Hesperides. M. de Lavergne 
 thinks perhaps with reason, that the future of the country 
 depends principally upon its aboriculture. In this respect there 
 remains much to do. 
 
 The olive tree as well as the mulberry and other fruit bearing 
 trees, occupy the first rank in the aborisation of Portugal. The 
 olive gives only a mediocre return and extends over only 42,000 
 hectares of ground. France alone buys from us oil to the value 
 of 25,000,000 francs annually. The culture of silk-worms is 
 increasing with the development of mulberries. The return from 
 the silk-worms in 1868 reached 2,000,000 kilogrammes, of a 
 value of 8,400,000 francs. England and France were our prin- 
 cipal customers in that article. Portugal was fortunate in 
 escaping the disease which caused so much distraction among the 
 worms in the other parts of Europe. 
 
Notes on Portugal. 89 
 
 The country formerly produced scarcely enough wine for inter- 
 nal consumption. There is a doubt whether any wine was 
 exported, as some chronicles state, before the reign of Ferdinand 
 I, in the 14th century. But it is certain that, at the epoch of 
 our glorious discoveries, galleons sailed for the Indies, supplied 
 with our wines. This fact proves that even then the great last- 
 ing power of the Portuguese wines was known. During a period 
 of great sterility in Italy, English merchants came for the first 
 time to seek the black wines then produced on the banks of the 
 Dcuro, near Lamego. The English houses in Oporto bought 
 wines there and sent them to the English markets. There 
 existed then an exportation of wines from Oporto and Lisbon, to 
 the Baltic, to Brazil and elsewhere. But the greater part was 
 taken up by England. From 1678 to 1702, that amount did 
 not exceed 5,612 pipes annually. The yearly average of Oporto 
 wines exported to England from 1703 to 1756, was not over 
 16,218 pipes; from 1789 to 1815, it rose to 42,000 pipes. After 
 the Napoleonic wars, this increase disappeared, and ^Ye find the 
 average from 1815 to 1834, to be only 23,000 pipes. This was 
 owing to the establishment by England of equal custom dues on 
 all wines. 
 
 By means of careful analysis, oenologists have ascertained that, 
 despite their great deversity, Portuguese wines are wholly with- 
 out adulteration, on which account, they are appetizing, salubrious 
 and lasting. It is a fact that, from our different grapes, all the 
 wines known in the markets of the world can be made, without 
 altering their natural condition. All that is necessary is to adopt 
 such methods as have been recommended by certain oenologists, 
 among whom we find Vicomte de Villa Maior, Ferreira Lapa, 
 Antonio Auguste d^Aguiar, K. de Moraes Soares, and the 
 enlightened Minister of Andrade Corvo, who as Minister of 
 Public Works in 1866 and 1867, took the initiative steps. 
 
 The internal consumption absorbs six-sevenths of the pro- 
 
90 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 duction; the rest is exported. It Is not known out of Portugal 
 that we have an uncultivated space of 1 ,000,000 hectares, all of 
 which are admirably adapted for vineyards. Leaving aside the 
 other localities, and speaking of only the two river districts along 
 the Tagus, there could be raised within five or six years, millions 
 of hectolitres of excellent wines, in addition to what is now pro- 
 duced. As the cultivation of these lands promises to be a very 
 profitable investment, several projects are on foot to utilize them. 
 Men of capital were attracted by the very favorable appearances 
 of the wines displayed by Portugal at the last Exposition in 
 London. Should these projects be successful, wines will be sup- 
 plied to the markets of the world, at a much lower rate than at. 
 present; thus affording to persons of moderate means, the oppor- 
 tunity of substituting a nutritious wine for the adulterated stuff 
 which they now purchase at an exorbitant rate. Eminent per- 
 sonages, such as Count de Casal Eibeiro, Antonio Augusto 
 d'Aguiar, Anselmo Braumcamp, Palha de Faria Lacerda and 
 Jose de JNIello Gouvea, are devoting their attention to this 
 important subject. We may expect some results very soon. 
 
 For the past five years the average annual production has not 
 been less than 3,700,000 hectolitres. That production is annually 
 distributed in the following manner : 
 
 Liternal consumption at the rate of 70 litres Hectolitres. 
 
 to each person, 2,800,000 
 
 Exportation, 369,388 
 
 Distillation, Vinegar, etc., 550,612 
 
 Total 3,720,000 
 
 The exportation for the past five years ending in 1873 : 
 
 Quantity (Hectolitres). Value (Reis) 
 
 1869 325,353 6,904,393,300 
 
 1870 340,501 9,655,676,000 
 
 1871 341,484 7,742,655,000 
 
 1872 402,145,. 9,125,343,140 
 
 1873 437,459 9,689,183,759 
 
 Average 369 388 • 8 423.450,239 
 
 Portugal was represented in the last wine exposition in Lon- 
 
Agriculture^ Industry and Finances. 91 
 
 don in order that the knowledge of our ordinary wines might be 
 extended. These wines are cheaper, more varied, and less charged 
 with alchohol than Port and Madeira. The Commissioner from 
 Portugal was desirous of discussing the question concerning the 
 fictitious Port and other wines, which innundated the English 
 market, and also of inquiring into the real state of all matters 
 connected with the sale of Portuguese wines in England. 
 
 England has not consented until now to the request made bj 
 her own Chambers of Commerce as well as by the Portugese 
 Government, to modify and to a certain extent, to diminish the 
 high custom dues levied on Portugese wines. Owing to natural 
 strength, our wines are compelled to pay really 150 ^|o more than 
 French wines, although the tax, based on an alcoholic scale, is 
 the same for all. Despite the indisposition of the British Gov- 
 ernment'to accede to our proposition, we do not find that the im- 
 portation of the Douro wines has lessened. The importation 
 into England of those wines advanced from 35,619 pipes in 1864, 
 to 56,531 pipes in 1874. When the area for exportation in- 
 creases, we may be sure that the area of production will be ex- 
 tended over the 1,000,000 hectares which have not yet been cul- 
 tivated. 
 
 Although the pasturage is good, the rearing of cattle mieets 
 with serious difficulties by reason of excessive drouths and the 
 want of artificial meadows. The beef cattle, the most considera- 
 ble in numbers, are not fully developed. The horses, destitute 
 of fine forms, are vigorous. Birds, poultry and game abound. 
 We find hares, boars, partridges, deer, wild ducks, quails, and 
 many other kinds of game. Among the productions Avhich be- 
 long to the animal and the vegitable kingdoms, we could men- 
 tion the cochineal, which could, like silk, become an important 
 resource for the Azores. 
 
 Agricultural industry in Portugal is followed in four different 
 systems : actual culture by the proprietor himself, farm renting 
 
92 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 on shares, and by long Jeases. Small holdings are the rule, but 
 farming on a large scale also exists, and promises to be developed 
 still more, xigricultural machines are being successfully intro- 
 duced into the country. Their introduction will, undoubtedly, 
 improve the present system. An agricultural work lately wTitten 
 by Sr. Andrade Corvo, will, henceforth, be of great utility for 
 Portuguese farmers. Had we space we should do more than 
 advert to it. 
 
 In conclusion, let us takf^ a a^eneral srlance at Portu2:uese agri^ 
 culture, whilst citing the words .f M, dt l8\tigL<,i n /iis study 
 on the rural economy of Portugal. " Portugal is, by proportion, 
 richer and more thickly inhabited than Spain, Corsica, Sardinia, 
 Greece and all the analogeous countries. Portugal might be 
 compared with the sixteen departments which form the Provin- 
 yal region of France. Those departments measure 9,000,000 
 hectares, the exact extent of Portugal. The climate is not difierent 
 and the productions are the same. Mr. Perry in a recent pub- 
 lication, calculates the urban population of the kingdom at 706^ 
 600 individuals, and the rural at 3,583,500. The latter, there- 
 fore, bear a proportion to the whole population of five to six. 
 As Portugal is an agricultural country, its territory should suf-^ 
 fice for the maintenance of at least twice her present population. 
 The average production of the cereals mentioned in the begin- 
 ning of this article reaches 890,615,000 kilogrammes. The 
 average importation of foreign wheat, flour, corn and rye, is 
 40,969,980 kilogrammes. The average importation of wheat 
 from the Azores is 5,664,110 moios. It may seem strange that 
 there is a necessity for importing food. But this seeming anam>> 
 aly is due to the fact that the agricultural efforts of Portugal are 
 not by any means energetic. However, a smiling and prosperous 
 future is before them if the Portuguese will but devote them- 
 selves to that occupation, which is the production of all national 
 wealth, agriculture. 
 
Agriculture, Industry and Finances. 93 
 
 Other countries less fortunate in their soil and climate, such as 
 Bulgium and Holland, afford shining examples of what can be 
 effected by industry combined with frugality, even when nature 
 is apparently hostile. Nature being on the contrary, very 
 beneficent in her gifts to the Portuguese, it remains for them to 
 acquire wealth and happiness, by means of active and persevering 
 labor. All the elements of success are present. Let it be their 
 care to apply them in an indefatigable manner. 
 
 Portugal is rather agricultural than industrial. There are, 
 however, some industries pursued with success, the most import- 
 ant being the mineral. Some years ago, hardly any attention 
 was paid to mining in that country, so much had that branch of 
 public wealth been neglected. Only some savants reflected on 
 the great role which, in a future more or less distant, it would 
 play. The mineral production, a dozen years ago, was confined 
 to a coal mine at S. Pedro da Cova and Buarcos. The S. 
 Domingos mine has since offered new horizons to this industry, 
 and the importance of its development has been fully recognized. 
 It is, of its kind, the most considerable in the Penisula. The 
 explorations made in other parts of the country, and the great 
 number of the concessions demanded and obtained, give to the 
 question a great importance. Minerals are, then, a recent article 
 of export. Leaving aside the exportation from the S. Domingos 
 mine, from which are extracted more than 200,000 tons annually 
 which are embarked at a contiguous port. In 1 873, there left the 
 Tagus, 22,091 tons of iron, 4,039 of copper, 6,125 of manganese 
 and 2,267 of phosphate, making a total of 35,022 tons. The 
 iron is derived from the mines of Monges and of Serrinha, the 
 working of which has only just commenced. Iron is met with 
 in other districts, as has been ascertained from recent explor- 
 ations. On the 31st of December, 1872, there were 250 mines 
 conceded, whether provisionally or definitively, of which eighty- 
 eight were in active working. Thirty-one of them contained 
 
94 Notes on Portugal 
 
 manganese^ sixteen chopper, fifteen lead and silver, nine iron, nine 
 tin, five coal, twenty-eight antimony and one bitumen. 
 
 The considerable gains realized by foreigners who took hold 
 of the mines, have at last attracted the attention of the Portufruese 
 public, and the capitalists of the country are engaged in the work 
 of opening mines in various districts. The Transtagana Mining 
 Company possess four mines at Agustrel, which are rich in 
 copper. As the metal is found in masses, rather than in veins, 
 there is a scientific presumption that there is in these mines an 
 almost inexhaustible quantity. 
 
 Portugal is very rich in marbles, lime-stones and free-stones. 
 It would be tedious, however, to enter into any details regarding 
 them. 
 
 As to manufacturing industry, we can mention wool, silk and 
 linen as being worthy of special attention. Thci province of 
 Beira presents the woolen industry in its greatest development, 
 and it is the City of Covillia, which occupies the first rack in 
 this manufacture. The factories of that locality, produce 
 casimeres, velvet, cloths, raglans, saragossas, linsly-woolseys, 
 shawls and other articles. These factories annually consume 
 1,500,000 kilogrammes of wool. Lisbon and Oporto furnish 
 them the chemicals and drugs, and Spain sends indigo and large 
 quantities of cochineal and madder. The sumac comes from 
 Villa Nova de Foz Coa, the pastel from the district of Guardo, 
 and the soap from the Spanish frontiers. Brazil and the Portu- 
 guese colonies, are the principal outlets lor the products of this 
 national industry. The silk manufacture is very ancient in 
 Portugal, where it has had great privileges. Under the Marquis 
 de Pombal, a model for spinning manufactory was established 
 near Braganza, at the expense of the state, and the silks obtained 
 thence rivaled those of Italy. Advancing step by step, the 
 Portuguese silks were preferred to those of England. Although 
 they have now fallen back a little, owing to their inability to 
 
Agriculture, Industry and Finances. 95 
 
 contend with the French and the English establishments, 
 Portuguese factories continue to produce excellent velvets, rib- 
 bons, laces, etc. The silks are prepared at Lisbon, Lamego, 
 Porto, Sinfaes, Aniarante, Marco de Canavezes, Povoa de 
 Lanhoso, Armamar, Yalenco and Funchai. The principal 
 markets are the Portuguese colonies in Asia and in Africa, 
 Brazil and Spain. 
 
 This industry will play an important part in our commerce of 
 the future, if the artisans and others engaged in it will adopt the 
 designs and colors introduced into silk manufacture by the 
 French and the English. 
 
 .The manipulation of flax-seed is very considerable at Lisbon, 
 Oporto, Coimbra, Aviro, Santaremn, Guimaraes and other locali- 
 ties. The principle products from it are sewing thread, linens 
 of all kinds, table linen, laces, curtains etc. 
 
 The musiin manufactured at Guimaraes rivals that of foreign 
 lands. Portuguese laces deserve a special mention. They are 
 the result of an industry of modest proportions, exercised exclu- 
 sively by the women at Vianna de Minho, Horta, Island of 
 Fayal, Peniche, Setubal, and Villa do Conde. They are of the 
 Honiton kind, closely imitating guipure and chantilly, but they 
 are all made with the spindle. Its annual value mounts up to 
 30,000,000 reis. As soon as they become better known in Eng- 
 land and the United States the demand will become very great, 
 as they are of a really excellent character. Hitherto Spain and 
 Brazil have been the only markets for this industry. 
 
 The manufacture of hats and of shoes exists on a great scale, in 
 order to supply the demands made by the country, Brazil and 
 Spain. The superior kind of shoes made in Lisbon quite equal 
 the best Parisian. The expositions at London and Paris ac- 
 knowledged the skill of the Portuguese shoe-makers. 
 
 Metallurgy commences to reach importance in Lisbon and 
 in Oporto. In both cities are to be found well equipped foun- 
 
96 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 dries and machine shops for steam engines and agricultural ma- 
 chines. Chemical products, objects of wicker work and cane, 
 tanned leather, cables, ropes, watches, cutlery, and finally furni- 
 ture, are produced. The ceramic art is very far advanced. The 
 manufactory of Marinha Grande, near Lairia, for glasses and 
 crystals, and those of Yista Alegre at Aveiro, and of Sacavenein 
 the Lisbon District, for porcelain, are good. Printing has made 
 great progress in Portugal ; it is the industry, perhaps, that has 
 made the greatest progress. Two causes, however, militate 
 against the future of printing. These causes are the duties laid 
 on foreign paper, and the small demand for works of any kind. 
 
 There is an association in Lisbon for the encouragement of 
 manufacturing industries. Of this association, the King is the 
 protector. That personage displays the greatest interest in all 
 the proceedings of the society. The aim has been to get up in- 
 dustrial expositions to improve the methods of manufacture and 
 to instruct the working classes, by establishing libraries and read- 
 ing rooms. The illustrious Marquis d'Avila et de Bolama, whose 
 name is joined to all useful enterprises, is the president. 
 
 The value of the principal articles exported rise from 898,- 
 582,000 reis, in 1851, to 1,431,803,700 reis in 1861. 
 
 At the Vienna Exposition there were 430 out of 878 exhibit- 
 ors, rewarded. The necessity of organizing industrial statistics 
 and of havinig a journal which shall devote itself exclusively to 
 arts and trades, is felt every day. In Portugal there are want- 
 ing elementary books for the instruction of the industrial class ; 
 but we can hope that such a deficiency will not last long. A 
 good technological dictionary should be supplied at once. The 
 prix d'honneur was accorded by the Vienna Jury to the Muse- 
 um of the Portuguese Colonies, the collections of which displayed 
 the chief materials for the most important industries in the world. 
 In the second group, "Agriculture, Horticulture, and Forest 
 Industries," we find 312 Portuguese exhibitors, of whom 108 
 
Agriculture^ Industry and Finances, 97 
 
 were recompensed; in the fourth, "Alimentary Substances, 
 beverages included," there were 322 exhibitors, of whom 110 
 obtained rewards; in the fifth, ** Industries (textiles), etc.," we 
 have 120 exhibitors and 89 prizes, and in the third, " Chemical 
 Arts," 45 exhibitors and 33 prizes. 
 
 We should at this point render homage to the memory of the 
 late Fradesso da 8elveira who was the Hoyal Commissioner at 
 Vienna. He contributed the most to the remarkably successful 
 appearance our different industries presented in that Exposition; 
 and no little of the success our exhibitors met with is to be at- 
 tributed to the indefatigable efforts made by him. 
 
 The principal articles of export, are wines, vegetables, fruits, 
 olive oil, palm oil, minerals and marbles, skins, deather, ivory, 
 dried mciat, wjjI, salt, fish, colonial products, shoes, ropes, silks, etc. 
 
 Our cUief markets for exportation and importation are, Great 
 Britain, Brazd, Spain, Franje, and the African colonies. The 
 value of the importations rise from 2o,311,0JJ,iJ0J reis in 1870 
 to 27,161,000,000 reis in 1871 to 29,124,000,000 reis in 1872, 
 and to 32,414,000,000 reis in 1873. Tlie exports amount to 
 20,293,000,000 reis in 1870, to 21,461,000,000 in 1871, to 
 23,210,000,000 in 1872, and 23,291,000,000 in 1873. 
 
 If it is observed that the values mentioned in the official docu- 
 ments are aproximate for the great majority of goods, and defec- 
 tive for tlie exports, by taking into consitleration the discrepan- 
 cy between the values as ascertained from England and from 
 France, we can conclude that we are not very far from an equi^ 
 librium in the exports and imports. 
 
 The following table is instructive : 
 
 Value of coined gold imported into Portugal. 
 
 1870 .1,140 centos 
 
 1871 3,591 " 
 
 1872 1,795 <' 
 
 1873 3 917 " 
 
 The exports of specie have been insignificant during the same 
 period. (7) 
 
98 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 The customs were 3.677, centos in 1860, or 50 000 000 francs; 
 to-day they exceed 50 000,000 francs annually. In a vast country 
 like the United States^ all these figures might appear very modest, 
 speaking absolutely, but they do not the less denote the great pro- 
 gress our country has made although small in territory. The State, 
 T.'ji having since 1872, contracted a foreign loan besides the one 
 placed on the market by the house of Erlanger in London, (the 
 amount of which loan being nearly equal to that of the floating 
 foreign debt paid at the same time) the importation of specie men- 
 tioned above can have but a flattering signification in regard to 
 the financial oondition of the country. What gives more im- 
 portance to this fact is that, during the years previous to 1872, 
 despite the considerable loans contracted in London the export- 
 ation of specie exceeded the importation. Now the sending 
 abroad of gold takes place only for the purpose of paying the 
 coupons on the foreign debt, which occurs every six months in 
 London, Paris and Amsterdam. 
 
 The navigation has also followed a progressive scale. Several 
 reasons could be mentioned. But undoubtedly the development 
 of the commerce between Europe and South America through 
 Lisbon has had the greatest influence. The number of steam- 
 ships entering the Tagus is very considerable. In 1865, there 
 were 378,494 tons of merchandise imported, and 187,156 tons 
 exported, with 11,612 re-exported, making a grand total of 
 577,262 tons. In 1874 the exportations and importations 
 amounted to 966,431 tons, making an increase of 389,169 tons. 
 In 1869, 731 steamships, measuring 574,356 tons, and 1,787 
 sailing vessels, of 229,384 tons, entered the port of Lisbon; in 
 1873, there were 1,109 steamers of 784,819 tons, and 2,196 
 ships of 289,236 tons. In 1874, there entered 1,259 steamers 
 and 2,266 ships. 
 
Agriculture, Industry and Finances, 99 
 
 The progress of the exportation by Lisbon represented in tons 
 offers us the following results: 
 
 1870 35,000 tons. 
 
 1871 • 44,000 '•' 
 
 , 1872 49,000 '' 
 
 1873 69,000 " 
 
 There also the ports of Oporto, Figueira, Setubal, Vianna, 
 Caminha, Sines, etc., in which the progress has been similar. 
 One exception exists, viz: Yianna do Minlio, where the trade has 
 declined in favor of Oporto, owing to the new routes of commu- 
 nication opened through Minho. It would be a great step in; 
 advance, if attention were paid to the indispensable works for 
 improving the mouths of the ports by removing the bars. A 
 complete system of light houses should be established. The want 
 of them has been seriously felt. We might profit by the excellent 
 works on light houses, prepared by the learned Professor Henry 
 of the Smithsonian Institute. The docks in the islands of S. 
 Michel and Fayal, two of the Azores, will render great service 
 to the navigation which is growing up so rapidly between the 
 two worlds. By the decree of January 1st, 1 875, the quarantine 
 organization was placed on a footing more harmonious with the 
 necessities of free navigation, taking charge of the public health 
 at the same time. 
 
 The railroads have also followed the movement forward, as 
 the following figures prove: in 1868, the receipts were 1,019 
 contos, and in 1873, 1,713 contos. The length of the secondary 
 lines is constantly growing, thus affording a new element to the 
 circulation. 
 
 In October, 1873, the length of the railroads in operation was 
 795 kilometres (about 500 miles) without counting 80 kilometres 
 of, tram way. There are besides 74 kilometres in construction. 
 The subsidies granted by the government to the different com- 
 panies for the construction of the Northern and State railroads, 
 were 12,786,604 milreis for the Southern, and for the South- 
 
100 Notes on Portugal, 
 
 eastern, 3,821,793: a total of 16,608,397 milreis. Besides this 
 sum, the company of the south-eastern railroad has received 
 8,325,000 milreis or $7,250,000. 
 
 The revenues derived from the post-office and the telegraphs, 
 which amounted to only 493 contos in 1868-69, were 676 contos 
 in 1872-73. 
 
 We have, more than once, made allusion to our financial 
 situation, we shall now give the figures themselves. If we 
 compare the fiscal receipts of the country in the budget of 
 1850-51, with those of 1871-75, we find a very satisfactory 
 result. The receipts for 1850-51 were only 10,260 contos, 
 whereas for the last year, they amounted to 22,301 contos. They 
 have therefore more than doubled. This advance in the budget 
 receipts coincides with an increasing amelioration in the effective 
 receipt of the public revenues, which amounted to 22.231 contos 
 in 1872-73. Thus the deficit, so common in former years, has 
 therefore disappeard. On that desire was founded the success 
 of a large credit operation which the government lately under- 
 took for the purpose cf buying up the large floating debt, the 
 heavy charges of which weighed upon the treasury. The most 
 remarkable and significant fact in connection with our financial 
 condition; is to be f /und in the realization in the country itself, 
 without having recourse to foreign assistance of a loan of 
 38 000 contos. taken up by national capitalists. It was believed 
 abroad that the country would not be able to disembarrass itself 
 so soon, of its implacable creditors. Hereafter we shall be able 
 to depend upcn our own capitalists, instead of being compelled 
 to resort to the money markets of other lands. 
 
 Let us now see how our resources have been accumulated in 
 so short a period. Since 1851, the public debt has been the 
 culminary point of attraction for the available capital of the 
 country. According to the report of the financial interest in 
 
Agriculture, Industry and Finances. 101 
 
 1851-52 the principal of the debt without counting fractions, 
 was as follows: 
 
 30thof June. 1852. Internal debt, ...34 904 contos. 
 
 '' External debt, 42,902 " 
 
 Total, 77 806 contos. 
 
 In the budget presented to the Cortes for 1874-75, there was 
 demanded for the purpose of settling the interest, the sum of 
 10 570 contos, which at 3®|o would make the principal 352 333 
 contos. But in this interest are included 442 contos, for the 
 interest of bonds in the possession of the treasury. 14 739 
 contos should therefore be subtracted from the nominal debt, 
 which would then be reduced to 337,594 contos. The interest 
 payment is divided in the following manner.* 
 
 Interest for the foreign debt, 4 1 94 contos. 
 
 "/' internal " 5 934 *' 
 
 According to these figures the nominal debt is found to be 
 139 794 contos for the external, and 197 800 for the internal. 
 
 The subjoined table might be instructive. 
 
 1851—1852. Contos. 
 
 External debt, 42,902 
 
 Internal " 34 904 
 
 1874—1875. Cntos. 
 
 External debt, 139.794 
 
 Internal " 199,800 
 
 There has been, therefore, an increase of 96,092 contos in the 
 external, and an increase of 162 896 in the internal. This last 
 sum reduced to one half, that is to say at the rate of 6^ o which 
 is the normal rate of the money market, represents an effective 
 capital of 81 000 contos, as having been placed by the country 
 in the internal public debt since 1851. We should, however, 
 observe, when speaking of this mass of "richesse mobili^re" 
 that the external debt is also owned, to a great extent, in Por- 
 tugal, although, on account of the want of precise information, 
 *Subtracting the interest on the bonds possessed hj the treasury. 
 
102 I^otes on Portugal. 
 
 we do not know the total. However the " Committee of Public 
 Credit/^ to which are allowed the necessary funds to pay the debt 
 interest, paid in Lisbon, during the first six months of 1874, 
 coupons on the external debt to the amount of 112 contos, which 
 would represent a capital of 9,811 contos as held in Portugal. 
 
 The Spanish rentes in the treasury are valued at from 12,000 
 to 15,000 contos. Portugal possesses very large sums in Bra- 
 zilian bonds, as well as in those of other countries. On account 
 of the absence of official statements relative to this matter, the 
 amount cannot be approximated. Besides state bonds, there is a 
 security in Portugal, whicii like the first, has the guarantee of the 
 state, and which the government will soon make use of to defray 
 the expenses of constructing the railroads of Minho and Douro. 
 The obligations sent forth (to the value of 1,530 contos) for this 
 purpose have augmented the "riohesse mobiliere," and if the 
 figures are not important, they possess a certain significance, 
 when we consider the special nature of the security, and the end 
 towards which tends the capital brought to light by that oper- 
 ation. 
 
 Lately when the government opened the books for a subscrip- 
 tion of 1,755 contos of the second series of obligations for the 
 same railways, 82,000 contos were offered. 
 
 The Lisbon CJiamber of Commerce estimates 50,000 contos as 
 representing the amount consecrated by the country to its indus- 
 trial and its commercial activity, through anonymous societies, 
 credit establishments, insurance companies, factories, etc. 
 
 In the course of the financial year 1873-74, there were formed 
 twenty-eight companies under the limited liability system, with 
 an initial capital of 11,521 contos. The General Society of 
 Agricultural Credit figures for 2,160 contos ; different credit 
 establishments constituted at Oporto, and in the provinces for 
 6,990 contos, and mining and other companies for about 2,360 
 contos. 
 
Agriculture^ Industry and Finances. 103 
 
 In the Budget for 1874-75 the receipts from all sources were 
 calculated at 23,151,432,000 reis; the expenses at 24,129,133,596 
 reis. There is therefore a deficit of 976,701,595 reis; but this 
 deficit disappears for two reasons; firstly, we have placed the 
 ordinary and the extraordinary expenses together; secondly, the 
 sum representing the deficit will disappear soon, because of the 
 anticipated progressive increase of the estimated public revenues. 
 It might be said that we employ nearly half of our income to 
 pay the iuterests on the various debts; but these debts have 
 served to develope the productive force of the country, thereby 
 bringing about our present relative prosperity. 
 
 It is to be wished that, in the near future, we shall devote an 
 annual sum to the erasing of the debt-principal, as was decreed 
 in 1845. 
 
 In the general charges we include : 
 
 Reia. 
 
 The civil list for the Eoyal Family, 592,000 000 
 
 Expenses of the Cortes, * 84,731,892 
 
 Interest and the debt charges, 644 078,000 
 
 Different charges and inactive classes, 572, 838,088 
 
 Total, .«... 1,893.647,980 
 
 The expenses of the Ministries : 
 
 Reip. 
 
 Finance, 1 561,004.085 
 
 Interior, 1 928 579,516 
 
 Justice and clergy, 519,655 987 
 
 War, 3,422,180,094 
 
 Marine, 1,224 000,426 
 
 Foreign Affairs, 252 230,254 
 
 Public Works, Commerce and Industry, 1,321,514,617 
 
 Total, 10,229,164,978 
 
104 Notes on PortugaL 
 
 Extraordinary Expenses. 
 
 Ministry of Justice, subsidies to relrgions, etc,,- - • 2,^00 COO 
 
 To the Minister of Marine^ for rejmirs, etc., 45 CCO OCO 
 
 Public works, 1,020,000 000 
 
 Surveys and preservation of railroads, 368,480,000 
 
 Total, '•• 1,435,880,000 
 
 The receipts are derived from the following source. 
 
 Direct Taxes, 5,645,220,000 
 
 Postage and Registration, ^ 2,598,2(0,000 
 
 Indirect Taxes, 11,831,330,000 
 
 I^ational property and various other revenues,. • 2,633,966,000 
 
 Interest on bonds in Treasury, 433,7 1 6,000 
 
 23,152,432,000 
 The ordinary expenses. 
 
 General charges, - 1,893,647,980 
 
 Interest on debt, - 10,570,440,637 
 
 The expenses for the various ministries, 10,229,1 64,978 
 
 Total....... 22,693,253,695 
 
 Extraordinary Expenses, - 1,435,880,000 
 
 ' 24,129,133,595 
 

 T" 
 
 E Colonies. 
 
 Portugal possesses, even now, excellent Colonies, the reliques 
 of her once rich patrimony. In the historical sketch we spoke 
 about the famous discoveries of the Portuguese, and of the glori- 
 ous traditions which our ancestors left us. Our task now is to 
 show the present state of those colonies, and the prosperity which 
 they have acquired during the past few years, thereby accom- 
 panying the civilizing development of the mother-country. ' 
 
 Our posessions beyond the sea, containing an area of 45,842 
 square leagues, are composed of six provinces, viz : Cape Yerd 
 Islands ; St. Thomas and Prince ; Angola, Ambriz and Benguael 
 on the Western Coast of Africa; Mozambique, from the Bay of 
 Lourenyo Marques to Cape Delgado ; Goa with its dependencies, 
 and Macao, in Asia. In Oceanica, there remains to us the ter- 
 ritory of Timor. 
 
 The Archipelago of CapeVerd forms with the establishments 
 in Portuguese Guinea, the rich Province of Cape Yerd. 
 It produces coffee, sugar, brandy, molasses, cotton, indigo, 
 oil, salt, leather, wax, ivory, iron, lead, and tobacco. 
 Despite its great fertility, this province has not attained 
 the desirable degree of prosperity, on account of the drouths, 
 which have often produced the most lamentable famines. 
 The home-country has, by reason of this almost periodical scourge, 
 been compelled to submit to considerable sacrifices. These 
 general drouths are due principally to the want of rain. To 
 lessen the effects of the evil, efforts have been made to extend 
 arboriculture ; but the prejudices of ignorance have been great 
 
106 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 hindrances to the administration. The various trees fit for use 
 in building are beginning to fail, and fire- wood does not 
 exist in sufficient quantities. Fruit trees, such as the Cocoa-nut 
 tree, the fig tree, the orange tree and others, are to be met with. 
 The game is confined to a few hares, quails and heath-cocks. 
 The various domestic animals of Europe are sufficiently numer- 
 ous. The climate is good in the elevated districts, but it is un- 
 healthy along the coast, at Santiago and in the Island da Praia, 
 it is even dangerous. The area of the archipelago is about 127 
 square leagues. The population amounts to about 100 000 in- 
 habitants. The geographical position of their islands makes 
 them a kind of intermediary between Portugal and her other 
 posessions in Africa, and they assume an exceptional place. The 
 Province of CapeVerd is under the orders of a governor-general 
 In regard to public instruction, much progress has been made ; 
 for in 1855, there were only a few schools, whereas, in 1863, 
 there was established a lyceum, in the Island of S. Thiago. 
 There were, moreover, 40 schools, of which 9 were for girls. 
 The curriculum in the lyceum consists of theology, philosophy, 
 Latin, French, elementary mathematics, naval tactics and draw- 
 ing. 
 
 The Financial administration is confided to the " Finance 
 Committee, which has delegations at Bissau and Cacheu in 
 Guinea. There are Custom Houses in all the Islands, as well 
 as at Bissau and Cacheu, and 7 fiscal posts in Guinea. As re- 
 gards the judiciary, the province forms two districts, dependent 
 on the ''Court of Appeal'^ in Lisbon. A Bishop is at the head 
 of the insular hierarchy. For defense, there is a batallion of 
 Chasseurs, composed of 20 officers and 506 rank and file. The 
 control of the maritime service is placed in the hands of the 
 port captains in each Island. 
 
 The Province of St. Thomas and Prince comprises St. 
 Thomas, Prince and the fort of St. Jean Baptiste in the coast 
 
The Colonies. 107 
 
 of Mina. It is very fertile, but its climate is dangerous to 
 Europeans. Its prosperity was formerly great on account of its 
 extensive commerce in sugar, however, this industry has been 
 destroyed by the competition of Brazil. Besides sugar-cane, an ex- 
 cellent coffee is produced. Although corn, vegetables, potatoes 
 and other fruits of the soil are easily raised, the progress of agri- 
 culture has not been very great, owing to the want of labor and of 
 capital. The culture of cofiPee and cocoa is the most developed, 
 owing, without doubt, to the little labor requisite for these ar- 
 ticles. Cinnamon grows naturally, ginger is gathered equal in 
 quality, to what is known to diggers under the name of Oiircuma: 
 the Dande palm gives an Oil which is employed in the manufac- 
 ture of an excellent soap; the wild indigo of St. Thomas is bet- 
 ter than that in Cape Verd, yellow cotton grows along the 
 whole coast. The public works have not been neglected, especi- 
 ally those which relate to the Sanitary Condition of the Island 
 of St. Thomas. Work is constantly going on, for the drainage 
 of the marshes that occasion so much malaria in the Island. 
 This colony demands constant efforts for the removal of the ob- 
 stacles whicli prevent the development of its natural riches. Re- 
 volts and discords have, at times, nearly ruined it, and the lazi- 
 ness of its inhabitants has rendered it unhealthy, on account of 
 their inattention to sanitary measures. 
 
 The province is under the orders of a governor resident in St. 
 Thomas, assisted by a subaltern governor in Prince. It forms 
 part of the jurisdiction of the Court of Loanda. As regards ecclesi- 
 astical matters, it is under the administration of the Patriarch of 
 Lisbon. There are 9 parishes in St. Thomas, 1 in the Island of 
 Prince, and 1 in that of St. Jean Baptiste d'Ajuda. The schools 
 are on an excellent footing. A garrison of about 400 men serves 
 as defence. The sanitary service is placed in the hands of 5 
 surgeons and 3 pharmacians, assisted by a company of military 
 infirmarians. The superficies of St. Thomas is estimated at 270 
 
108 Notes on Portugal 
 
 square miles, and that of Prince at 72. The population in this 
 province has greatly increased. In 1 844 St. Thomas contained 
 only 8,169 inhabitants; in 1867, the number had risen to 16,513. 
 
 The vast province of Angola is bounded on the north by the 
 Ambriz and the Congo, on the east by various Savage Kingdoms, 
 on the South by the sandy deserts of Cape Negro, and on the 
 west by the Ocean, It extends along 850 Kilometres of Coast, 
 and embraces 85,000 square Kilometres of area. Its condition 
 is much more satisfactory than that of the Colonies of which we 
 have just spoken, and the Colony would be yet more prosperous if 
 its tranquillity were not disturbed by frequent insurrections, 
 which paralize its commerce. After quiet has been restored, 
 by means of difficult and costly expeditions, the fine possessions 
 always resumed its vigour. 
 
 The civil and military adminstration comprises 28 arrondisse- 
 ments, subordinate to the governors of Bengu^la, Mossamedes 
 and Ambriz. Public instruction does not require much reform. 
 There is at Loanda a seminary destined for the education of 
 missionaries, and attended, on the average, by 180 students. 
 The hygienic service is confided to a staff of 107 medical officers. 
 There are Custom Houses at Loanda, Benguela, Mossamedes 
 and Ambriz. The city of St. Paul de Loanda is the seat of the 
 Court of appeal composed of a President, 2 Counsellors and a 
 Royal procureur. Angola forms a Bishopric, the seat of which 
 is at Loanda, and is divided into 20 parishes. The military ad- 
 ministration is directed by the governor-general of the province, 
 who is the head of the armed force. This force forms an effec- 
 tive of 2,082 men. The irregular troops comprise 2 battalions 
 of volunteers, and 28 companies distributed throughout the ar- 
 rondissements. 
 
 Like all the Portuguese colonies in Africa, that of Angola is 
 very rich in the productions of the vegetal)le kingdom. Cotton 
 succeeds remarkably well, especially along the sea, and requires 
 
The Colonies. 109 
 
 only the trouble of planting it : two crops may be raised in the 
 year. 
 
 *Sugar-cane of an excellent quahity grows very well in the 
 interior, upon the banks of the rivers; indigo is to be met with 
 everywhere; the culture of rice is susceptible of considerable 
 development. Cocoa-nuts, wlieat, tobacco, coffee, the Dande 
 palm, the arachide, copal guin and tamarinds are produced. 
 The tobacco is of superior excellence, as is also the coffee, which 
 is often preferred to that of Brazil. Such varied and numerous 
 products must make this province incalculably valuable m the 
 course of time. But labor, capital, the means of transportation 
 and wise measures in the colonial administration are the first 
 necessities. 
 
 The mineral treasures are not inferior to the others; but they 
 are not yet explored, Tiiere have been discovered mines of 
 iron, sulphur, salt, nitre and copper. 
 
 The chief exports are brandy, cotton, palm oil, coffee and gin- 
 yuba in the grain. The exportation of cotton has increased from 
 29,488 kilogrammes in I85t), to 25,438,400 kilogrammes in 
 1867. Previous to 1868, Portugal was compelled to assist this 
 colony, by semiing money to make up the annual dedcit. This 
 has quite disappeared. 
 
 Mozambique, extends along more than 300 leagues of coast, 
 from (Jape Delguda to the ^xy of Lourenco Marques. Besides 
 the Islands of Cape Delgudo, and the Island of Mozambique, 
 this province comprises the vast territories of Rios de Sena, or 
 Zambezi, and of Sofaia, Inhambane and Lourenco Marques. 
 Its area is about 4,000 square leagues. It is bounded on the 
 North, by Zinguebar coast; on the East, by the Indian Ocean ; on 
 the South, by Caffraria, and on the West by unexplored coun- 
 tries. Its population is estimated in the absence of complete 
 statistics, at 70,000. Tlie province is divided into seven mili- 
 tary districts, viz: Mozambique, Quilimane, Tete, Sofala, 
 
110 Notes on Portugal 
 
 Inhambane, Lourenco Marques and the Islands of Cape Belgudo. 
 The state of public instruction leaves much to be desired, but 
 attention is being paid to it. The service of public hygiene is 
 confided to a staff of seventeen medical men. There is a military 
 hospital at Mozambique. Custom Houses are established at 
 Mozambique and Quilimane, Ibo, Inhambane, Lourenco Mar- 
 ques and Angoche. 
 
 The judicial administration comprehends two tribunals subject 
 to the Court of Appeal at Goa. A Prelate who is subject to the 
 Archbishop of Goa, rules church matters. The Governor-gen- 
 eral of the province has the command of the military. Reinforce- 
 ments have frequently been sent for the purpose of maintaining 
 tranquillity. 
 
 Cereals, fruits, meats, poultry, fish, gold iron, copper and 
 wood are the productions. The forests, tenanted by elephants, 
 offer great inducements for the investment of capital, especially 
 since they are traversed by rivers. Coal-measures are found in 
 various parts. The agricultural industry is not very flourishing. 
 Many efforts have been made by the government to promote the 
 culture of cotton. 
 
 In 1863, Sr. Mendes I.eal said, in a report on the provinces 
 beyond the sea; ^^The future of the Province of Mozambique, 
 perhaps the richest of all, consists in the opening of the Isthmus 
 of Suez, that gigantic work which was the thought of the great 
 AlTonse d' Albuquerque, and which is to-day the glorious emblem 
 of the perseverance of a man, whose name will remain forever 
 allied to the glories of this century.^' The Isthmus is open, and 
 we have to wait for colonial reforms alone, to witness the 
 immense development of which Mozambique and its regions are 
 susceptible. A steamship line between this country and the 
 metropolis would soon effect great advantages to both. A rapid 
 and regular communication is of the first necessity. 
 
 Portuguese India, comprises the territories of Goa, Damao 
 
The Colonies, 111 
 
 and Diu. That of Goa has an extent of 20 leagues from the 
 Fort of Tiracal, in the North, to Cape Eama in the South ; and 
 of 15 leagues from the Western coast of Hindoostan to the 
 mountains of Gates. It is bounded by the British posessions 
 and the sea. It is composed of a part of the continent and of 
 islands formed by estuaries and rivers. The principal island is 
 that of Tissuart, on which the city of Goa is built; it forms with 
 the continent two ports, which can receive ships-of-the-line. 
 
 The area of the Portuguese territory in India is about 2,075 
 square kilometres. Its population amounts to 438,600 Euro- 
 peans, Asiatics and Africans. The Governor-general resides at 
 Goa. In accordance with the re-organization of the armed force 
 decreed in 1871, the garrison consists of a batteiy of artillery, a 
 corps of police and an expeditionany battalion. The iiscalisation 
 of the customs, which was formerly in the hands of the army, is 
 undertaken by a special corps. There is at Goa, a Professional 
 Institute, very useful for industrial and commercial instruction, 
 as well as for the study of pilotage. As regards public instruc- 
 tion, Goa is the best provided of all the colonies. The sanitary 
 service is excellent, military hospitals are to be found at Goa, 
 Damao and Diu. The administration of justice is subordinate 
 to the Goa Court of Appeal. Goa is the seat of an Arch-bishop, 
 who bears the title of " Primate of the East.'^ This province, 
 the theatre of the great deeds which reflected so much honor on 
 Portugal, is very rich in productions of the soil. Salt, cocoas, 
 fruits, pepper, sugar-cane, coffee the cereal, tea and cotton are 
 produced. Rice, maize, spices and aloes abound. There are 
 mines of iron in the Bardez district and in other localities. The 
 forges of the country employ several hundred workmen. The 
 culture of all these natural riches is being developed every day. 
 The establishment of Macao, in China, and the Portuguese 
 territory of Fimor, in Oceania, form one province. The popula- 
 tion, which amounts to 35,000 inhabitants, is for the greater 
 
112 Notes on PoriugaL 
 
 part Chinese. According to the relation of Baron de Hobner, 
 there are no more than twelve families of pure Portuguese blood 
 in Macao, if we except tlie various employees of tlie government. 
 The ''cooiie brokers ^^ alone, prospered as well as tne keepers of 
 the gaiuoliiig houses, when that iliuscrious diplomat traveled in 
 China. But now, thanks to the measures taken, that state of 
 aftairs no longer exists. Tiie traiho m coolies has entirely ceased. 
 According to Baron de Hubner, the Chinese are prospering; tiiey 
 have estaoiished tiieinseives in the handsome houses torineriy 
 occupied by tiie Portuguese. The causes of the decadence of 
 commerce, as far as it concerns the Portuguese, are to be tound 
 in the powerful competition of the Chinese, and the opening of 
 the treaty-ports. Macao had been, since Liie middle of tiie Idth 
 century, liie iouiitain of Catholicism lor the extreme jj^ast. 
 
 iJuriiig modern times, Portugal iias sent to Macao, as govern- 
 ors, disciaguisned men, such as the Vicointe da Praia Urande, 
 Vice-aduiirai bergio de iSouza, Vicomte de baint Janerario and 
 many otiiers, wuose eiforts have been employed in ameliorating 
 the administration of the province. Tea is now exported by tne 
 Yi^ng-tse-kiaug ports, instead of by Canton and Macao. 
 
 It was at iViacao, that Camoens composed the poem, the 
 renown of which will shine to the end of ceniuries. s 
 
 Macao is the seat of a Bishop. The judicial administration 
 is subject to the Court of Appeal at Goa. 
 
 Tne climate is salubrious and the territory fertile, but the 
 cyclones cause ravages of a frightful extent. Macao has been 
 open to all nations since 1845. 
 
 One can recognize that colonization and indigruous labor are 
 the two principal questions connected with the future of the 
 Portuguese posessions. It had olten been observed, that the 
 labor a^ the natives can lend only a feeble assistance to the 
 eltbrts of the Europeans, on account of their lazy and vicious 
 habits; and unfortunately these failings have increased since the 
 
The Colonies. 113 
 
 abolition of slavery. Although that abolition is a triumph for 
 the principles of humanity, its results will remain deplorable, if 
 such a fact is not accompanied by other measures, which might 
 operate a complete transformation in the slave, by changing him 
 into a useful and educated citizen. One method, which has been 
 tried, with some good results for agriculture in certain colonies, 
 is that of the privileged concession of lands for a very small 
 rental to the States. The privileges accorded to individuals or 
 to societies, are: the free importation during the space of ten 
 years, of all the materials, machines, etc., destined for the culti- 
 vation of the earth and the transport of goods ; this exemption 
 as far as steam and sailing vessels are concerned, extends to only 
 those which are intended for coasting, or which are to be used 
 on colonial rivers. Tiiere is, moreover, an exemption for the 
 cotton which the concessionaire imports during those ten years, 
 as well as special facilities for having armaments for the defence 
 of the agricultural establishments in these lands which are under 
 the surveillance of the government. These privileges cease when 
 the concessionaires have allowed five years to elapse before they 
 commence cultivating. To encourage agriculture still more, the 
 government has been authorized to lay out great sums in the 
 purchase of the cotton harvests and of agricultural machines; 
 and in bestowing during the space of ten years, six annual 
 rewards on the cultivators ; one of four contos, one of two contos 
 and four of one conto of reis. 
 
 Let us now examine the figures of the last colonial budget. 
 The receipts of the provinces beyond the sea are estimated for 
 1875-1876 at 2,027,154,220 reis, and the Expenses at 1,930,- 
 163,828 reis. There is therefore a surplus of 96,990,392 reis, 
 and it is a very flattering result, when we consider that a few 
 years ago, the mother-country had to made up the deficit in the 
 
 Colonial budget. 
 
 It is the commencement, so to speak, of a most prosperous 
 
 (8) 
 
114 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 future. To convince ourselves of the truth of this, we have only 
 to compare the budgets of the different provinces for the past 
 
 decade. 
 
 For St, Thomas and Prince, 
 Year. Receipts. 
 
 1863-1864. 24,725,882, reis 
 
 1874-1875... 97,086,000 '' 
 
 For Angola. 
 1863-1864 ....... •..»." ..258,104,489 reis. 
 
 1874-1875. .-. .....542,234,000 '' 
 
 Increase, 284,129,511 " 
 
 The indirect imports produced as follows : 
 
 1863-1864 to 1869-1870 (average) -.184,324,240 reis, 
 
 1874-1875 ...400,360,000 '' 
 
 Increase, 216,035,760 " 
 
 When a colony in the space of five years only, by the regular 
 
 movement of its commerce, doubles the custom revenues, it is 
 
 evident that it contains in itself the greatest elements of life and 
 
 of wealth. 
 
 Mozambique. 
 1863-1864 .100,429,000 reis, 
 
 1874-1875. , 247,713,000 " ' 
 
 Increase, 147,284,000 '' 
 We see then that the receipts of the provinces beyond the sea 
 have now a surplus of about 97 contos of reis, over the expenses, 
 in which expenses are included the subsidies for the payment of 
 interest and for the retiring of the capital of 1,750 contos raised 
 for the purchase of the ships-of-war, to which we alluded, when 
 speaking about the marine. This sum of 97 contos shows an 
 actual increase of 5 per cent, on the receipts. It should be re- 
 marked that, during 1857-1858, there was a deficit of 182 
 contos in the colonial budget, and consequently, there were re- 
 
The Colonies. 115 
 
 sources for only four-fifths of the expenses, and whereas the ex- 
 penses were estimated at only 975 contos in 1857-1858, they 
 amount up, in this present year, to 1,930 contos, that is to say, 
 to twice the former sum. Moreover the receipts have increased 
 from 792 contos to 2,027, almost treble ! If the increase in reve- 
 nue had followed the same proportion, in the mother-country, we 
 should now have more than 28,000 contos of revenue; but to 
 have obtained that result, it would have been necessary to have 
 avoided civil wars ; the imposts should always have been borne 
 equally by the '^contribuables,'^ landed property and industry 
 should not have remained for so long a time without paying in 
 proportion to their values, the taxable articles should have 
 clearly designated by the proper authorities (the assessment even 
 now being defective,) and finally it should not have been per- 
 mitted to have electoral affairs settled by the various parties, in 
 a manner detrimental to the public treasury ! 
 
 These abuses have nearly disappeared, but it is not the less 
 true that their existence prevented the public revenues from be- 
 coming trebled, instead of doul^led, in the space of 20 years. 
 
 The Portuguese Colonies then are on the high-road to pros- 
 perity. The impetus has been given, and the most far-sighted 
 statesmen are neglecting nothing, that they might derive from 
 the Colonies, the immense resources which they contain. Direct 
 and regular communication by steam, between the two coasts of 
 Africa and Lisbon, the developement of the public works, the 
 questions relating to labor and to emigration, deserve the particu- 
 lar attention of the Portuguese administration. 
 
 We are informed that there is a project on foot, to raise a large 
 loan for public works and improvements in the Portugese pos- 
 sessions. To those who would wish to obtain a more exact ac- 
 count of the state of our colonies, we should recommend the ex- 
 amination of the last report presented to the cortes. It contains 
 
116 
 
 JSotes on Portugal, 
 
 of 189 pages and was skillfully prepared by the present minister 
 of Marine, An drade Corvo. As our language is not generally 
 spoken, it is possible that a French or an English translation 
 will soon be brought forth. Such translation would be of great 
 service to the honor and reputation of Portugal. 
 
Relations of Portugal with the 
 United States. 
 
 A personage who has contributed the most, of late years, to the 
 amelioration of public matters in Portugal, wrote in 1870, con- 
 cerning North America in the following terms: "The United 
 States, the most striking manifestation of Democratic power, 
 become connected more and more with the world, by their politi- 
 cal and commercial relations. Launched between two great 
 oceans, the Atlantic and the Pacific, ISTorth America unites itself 
 on one side with Western Europe, in manners, civilization and 
 commerce, as in its democratic aspirations ; on the other side, it 
 extends its maritime and commercial influence to Oceania and to 
 Asia; and by joining its interests with those of Eussia, large con- 
 quests are being prepared for civilization. In this manner, the 
 United States meets Europe on the East and the "West, Accus- 
 tomed to look upon liberal democracy and the republic as being 
 intimately connected with one another, public opinion (the 
 supreme arbiter of all public resolutions in the United States) 
 appears to give an equal value to the victories of modern ideas, 
 and to those of the republic. 
 
 But public opinion in the United States should understand 
 that in Europe there are traditions which it would be impossible 
 to efface; that the various forms of government are the conse- 
 quence and the result of those traditions, and that liberty, demo- 
 cratic progress and national independence, are not the less real 
 even without a republican exterior." 
 
 The government of the nation by the nation can take place 
 
118 Notes on Portugal, 
 
 in a constitutional monarchy as well as in a republic. Is it nec- 
 essary to cite examples? We cast our eyes around on the 
 horizon of Christendom, and we find that there is absolutely 
 more liberty in the limited monarchies than in the republics. 
 Eagland/ Portugal, Belgium, =« Holland and others, present an 
 aspect of tranquil prosperity „ Whereas France, Spain (lately a 
 republic), the South American Kepublics and Mexico, appear 
 torn by the worst of tyranny, that of demagogues. We need not 
 enter into a detail of the grievances under which those unhappy 
 countries labor. They are too recent to require recapitulation. 
 Portugal, possessing the most extensive liberties, could not 
 become any other than a monarchical country; and it is in pre- 
 serving, henceforward J the form of governinent she has had for 
 so many centuries, that her independence remains assured. As 
 for ourselves, and it is not, perhaps, merely a personal opinion 
 we have the conviction that if the republic were proclaimed at 
 Lisbon and at Madrid upon a solid base, the same day would 
 commence the danger against our nationality; for the republics 
 would, in time, become one. 
 
 In what a state are the former Spanish colonies, for the most 
 part ! Without dwelling on the very unfortunate financial situ- 
 ation of several, do we not see the parties at conflict with one 
 another during the presidential elections; and the ambition 
 for power, at any price, a permanent cause of demoralization. 
 The personal and the party interests are deemed to be of the 
 greatest value in the midst of these disorders. Better, we say, 
 to preserve and guard carefully the monarchical principle in all 
 the countries, in which it has been found possible to conciliate 
 political traditions in a profitable manner with the wise exigen- 
 cies of modern ideas. There, in a word, can be seen reigning 
 together, without the least antagonism, order and liberty. Por- 
 tuo^al is monarchical for the same reason that the United States 
 are republican; the aim of the institutions is almost identical. 
 
Relations of Portugal with the United States. 119 
 
 The two countries, under a political aspect, are united by a sort 
 of affinity, which we would be wrong to overlook. Thus brought 
 into contact by a natural sympathy, there remains to them only 
 to find out the best means for developing their commercial re- 
 lations. 
 
 Portugal is proceeding gradually to the arrangement of her 
 tariff in a liberal sense ; the reforms thus far adopted have 
 produced good results. She has not exaggerated the protection 
 due to her industries, and she has well understood that the ele- 
 ments forming the balance of commerce, namely, the imports 
 and the exports have the tie of reciprocity in such a way, that, to fa- 
 vor the one gives, at the same time life to the other. Moreover, it 
 should be remembered that Portugal being essentially an agricul- 
 tural country, the exchange of her natural products becomes easier 
 and more extended with " consuming " countries, the wealth 
 of which comes, in a special manner, from their cheaper and 
 better manufactures. Some years ago, we abolished the different- 
 tial dues levied on various nations, and made them uniform, re- 
 quiring only that there should be reciprocity. This measure 
 was, for a long time, violently opposed, under the pretext of 
 giving protection to Portuguese navigation, which did not remain 
 the less stationary. Protection did not cause it to grow at all. 
 The only benefit derived, accrued to a few persons, interested in 
 the monopoly. We are marching steadily and prudently to- 
 wards the "school of Free Trade,'^ in which, we think, all civilized 
 nations will yet be united. Railroads, steam-navigation and the 
 electric telegraph are charged with the first part of the game, 
 the interests of nations, when better appreciated, will effect the 
 rest. 
 
 As to what conaerns Portugal and the United States, we believe 
 that although their commercial relations are hindered at present 
 by causes quite exceptional or accidental, these relations will be- 
 come, in the near future, of a greater value. The culture of the 
 
120 Notes on Portugal 
 
 wine in Portugal, as was remarked in the article on argiculture, 
 has a great future before it. It would be a question of time 
 merely, if immediate steps were taken, in the disposal of the 
 available 1 000, OCO hectares to which reference was made. At- 
 tention should be paid? moreover, to improving the present 
 methods of wine-making. At present, Portuguese wines are sub- 
 ject to a smaller tax than beforcp owing to a law voted by the 
 last Congress. It might be added, that the elevation of the 
 tariff by the United States is a great obstacle to the development 
 of American foreign trade. While the enormous debt charges 
 left by the civil war continue to hang, like the sword of 
 Damocles, over the American budget, it would be very difficult 
 if not impossible, to diminish the custom-dues. We should not 
 lose sight of the sustained efforts of the partisans belonging to the 
 "Protectionist school/' who are opposed to the free introduction 
 of foreign products, no matter how much cheaper they may be, 
 than the similar fabrics produced in their own country. How - 
 ever, whilst reflecting on this present system, w^e should remem- 
 ber that the United States will not always be in the haijds of 
 the Protectionists. This nation had scarcely three millions of in- 
 habitants in 1706; it now possesses over forty millions. In the 
 near future it must become an immense market for our articles 
 of commerce, when some of the markets, of Europe may be 
 closed against us. Our country then has every motive for pro- 
 fiting of the commercial opportunities for a future magnificent 
 trade on this side of the Atlantic. Immediate steps should be 
 taken. 
 
 Annexed is a table of the actual state of trade between the 
 two countries. 
 
Relation of Portugal with the United States. 121 
 
 ^ I 
 
 >^^^-^o^~^^:3^p 1 
 
 >QQ9ew>. , 
 
 
 
 k, M 
 irits 
 ood, 
 loth 
 
 (TAL 
 
 2^ §§o-' 
 
 gols. 
 
 rks, 
 
 emic 
 
 ims. 
 psun 
 loth 
 
 
 
 anuiac 
 and W 
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Relations of Portugal with the United States. 123 
 
 Taking into consideration the geographical situation of the 
 port of Lisbon in regard to that of New York, the advantages 
 of a direct and regular communication, by means of a steam- 
 ship lino, between Portugal and the United States have often 
 been noticed. It is evident that the well known dangers and 
 risk of the present Trans-atlantic routes would be greatly dimin- 
 ished, if the route by way of Lisbon were adopted. Of course, 
 much remains to be done, in reference to the removal of the 
 present obstacles to the realization of such a plan as would 
 divert a portion of the present coloi-sal trade between American 
 ports and the ports of Great Britain, France and Germany, to 
 the proposed channel. An effort was made, some time ago, to 
 institute a line of steam-ships between New York and some 
 Mediterranean ports, which was to touch at Lisbon and one of 
 the Azores. But although the conditions of trade were deemed 
 favorable to the project, the refusal of Congress to vote a subsidy 
 was a serious check. 
 
 We believe that the question, concerning Portugal, is reserved 
 for the future. When by the completion of our system of 
 railroads, we are placed in easy and rapid communication 
 with the rest of Europe, by the north of Portugal, instead 
 of over the present line to Badajoz and Madrid, then 
 can we discuss the problem of steam communication with New 
 York in a practical manner. 
 
 In the interim, however, both sides should seek the means 
 of developing their mutual relations. America should diminish 
 her tariff dues to a great extent, some of which dues are particu- 
 larly hostile to the importation of our productions ; on the other 
 hand Portugal should extend her viticulture and sericulture over 
 the vast area which is at present entirely uncultivated, although 
 found to be very available to these two branches of industry. 
 The vegetable and the chemical products, which constitute so 
 important places in the list of our exports to the United States, 
 
124 Notes on Por^tugal. 
 
 must also be attended to. Before arriving at tlie epocli we de- 
 sire so earnestly, it seems to us that every other circumstance 
 presents rather the expression of a praiseworthy desire than a 
 solid base. If it were otherwise, speculation, which is the touch- 
 stone of promising and lucrative enterprises, would have, ere 
 this, taken hold of the subject, without waiting for the prompting 
 of rhetoric. 
 
 It is our opinion that the moment is near at hand for proceeding 
 to the revision of the commercial Treaty drawn up thirty-five 
 years ago, between Portugal and the United States, and for 
 concluding another which will contain advantages for the two 
 countries. 
 
 The commercial policy of the Washington cabinet appears to 
 be dominated, at present, by the principle of not establishing? 
 as the principal basis of negotiations, the concession, in the absolute, 
 of the same treatment enjoyed by the most favored nation ; there 
 are grounds for believing that the international arrangements, in 
 which the above sentiment is dominant, will be successively de- 
 nounced, thus leaving to the United States' government full 
 liberty to treat with any nation in such a manner that advan- 
 tages given to one nation, may not be extended to others. 
 
 It is thus, that lately, in article 12 of the Treaty of Com- 
 merce with Belgium, signed March 8th, 1875, there is an addi- 
 tion to the terms of the corresponding article in the 1858 treaty, 
 according to which treaty neither of the high contracting parties 
 may concede any advantage to a third power, conditionally or un- 
 conditionally, without extending the same advantage to the other 
 contracting party. The alteration consists in there being added 
 to the aforesaid article 12, the following : 
 
 "If one of the two contracting parties notify the other of its 
 intention to annul the said article, its effects ;vill cease one year 
 following the notification, the other articles of treaty remaining 
 in force, etc.'' 
 
 In the interests of the industries of Portugal as of the United 
 
Relations of Portugal with the United States. 125 
 
 States, we think it would be necessary to add an article to the 
 treaty formerly made, concerning the protection of trade -marks, a 
 measure so much the more urgent as it is known that Portu- 
 guese wines have fallen into disrepute, because of the Ham- 
 burg, Cette and other fabrications. 
 
 The contents of article 15 of the treaty now in force between 
 Belgium and the United States might serve as a guide for us. 
 It would be perhaps, necessary to establish new dispositions for 
 the transit of merchandize in the two countries. 
 
 Concerning the diiierential navigation dues, there was effected 
 between Portugal and the United States, posterior to the 1840 
 treaty, an arrangement, by which such dues no longer exist. It 
 would perhaps be possible to obtain, in future negotiations, that 
 certain articles of Portuguese export to the United States may 
 be admitted here on better conditions, compensation being given, 
 of course, on our side. 
 
 These indications can have no other than a very general char- 
 acter, as there must be a certain reserve in questions of this na- 
 ture. It appears to us that during the coming International Ex- 
 position in Philadelphia, the situation and the necessities of the 
 great American market, in relation to the consumption of the 
 principal Portuguese products, should be carefully studied, as 
 well as the advantages which Portugal might obtain from many 
 articles of American industry. Such a study would certainly 
 deserve the particular attention of the members of the Portuguese 
 Centennial Commission, and it should bring about a new arrange- 
 ment between the two countries. 
 
p 
 
 PILOGUE 
 
 We shall now make a few general remarks upon the present 
 interior and exterior condition of the country. 
 
 In Portugal there are indeed no dynastic parties; and the liberal 
 family does not contain the elements of demagogy in its organiza- 
 tion. In truth, there is no fear of party extremes, in regard to 
 either ultra mo iitanism or socialism. The liberals of the party 
 termed "regenerating/' aided by the ancient chartists, constitute 
 the conservative element, as they wish to preserve the already 
 existing institutions, at the same time introducing reforms in a 
 gradual manner. 
 
 Those called historico-progressists are the most important ad- 
 versaries to the regenerators. They possess almost the same 
 ideas as to the administrative material, but they desire to go 
 further than their antagonists in the realization of political re- 
 form. At any rate, the nistoric progressive party has not ren- 
 dered less service to the country than the regenerators. Both 
 deserve well of the Commonwealth. 
 
 A short time ago, a group headed by the Bishop of Yizen 
 when in power, applied the principle of administrative economy; 
 but they do not appear to have met with much success in their 
 purpose, because, although they diminished certain charges on 
 the State and made reductions in the salaries of the State- 
 employees, on the other hand they contracted heavy loans 
 abroad, during their term of office. The situation was indeed 
 critical, but in the means they adopted for the purpose of 
 ameliorating* it they did not display great financial ability. 
 
Epilogue. 127 
 
 The reformers were certainly distinguished for eminence, pa- 
 triotism and independent character. The Bishop it must be 
 conceded, possessed the best intentions, but he allowed himself 
 to be carried away by circumstances. 
 
 If the partisans of the Infant, D. Miguel dream of the restora- 
 tion of an absolute monarchy, it is because they are attached to 
 their traditions, rather than that they are convinced of the 
 practicability of their ideas. 
 
 Politics in Portugal have often been suited to mere personal 
 convenience. But lately the various principles have gone to the 
 limits ot the political field and the parties seem to tend to a 
 regular and profitable organization. Of course logic ends by 
 triumphing over everything, and political morality must, in 
 the future, become more respected than it has been in the past. 
 
 The former party leaders are being gradually shelved. In 
 Portugal as in the United States, politicians constitute an impedi- 
 ment. The elections are epochs of corruption, and the inter- 
 vention of the authorities in them is the worst defect in our ad- 
 ministration. Such abuses deserve to be corrected. The elec- 
 toral law is good, but those who should watch over the faithful 
 application of it, are sometimes culpable. It is perfectly 
 admissible that the government should morally assist the members 
 of its party, in the electoral labors, but it ought not to bring in- 
 fluence to bear through its agents. Let us hope that, endowed 
 with full liberty, the press attacking such proceedings in a sin- 
 cere manner, an end will be put to them. 
 
 Since 1851, civil wars and revolts have ceased in Portugal, 
 although a famous General in 1870 conceived a plan of revolt, 
 which assuming insignificant proportions utterly failed. This 
 general, however brilliant his qualities may have been, did not 
 make an effort of any great importance, and he was soon com- 
 pelled to remit the administration into other hands, accepting, 
 at the same time, a lucrative mission abroad. 
 
128 Notes on Portugal 
 
 Not many years ago, the finances of t]ie country were in a 
 wretched condition, although the resources of the country were 
 ample. The evil arose in part from bad financial administration 
 and from an anticipation in regard to giving to Portugal that 
 material development, without which the fountains of its natural 
 wealth would remain dormant. The nation has been compelled 
 at times, to resort to credit, thus obtaining capital, indeed at a 
 high rate of interest; but the country may justly claim the honor 
 of never having failed to meet its engagements. Portugal, even 
 in the direst distress of its treasury, has never had recourse to 
 violent means to obtain relief, such as the circulation of paper- 
 money, or the creation of excessive imposts. In tight times, the 
 rights of the State-creditors have always been respected, but the 
 public functionaries, who are already moderately paid, give up 
 a precentage of their salaries. Indeed the Portugese bonds dis- 
 play an upward tendency in the marts of the world, thanks to 
 good management, peace and the infiux of money brought back 
 by rich traders from Brazil. In a word, the public credit is being 
 strengthened on all sides. 
 
 Portugal is now blessed with the most liberal laws. The one 
 in reference to the press is worthy of mention. The only formality 
 required is, that the name of the editor must be given to the civil 
 authorities. 
 
 Undoubtedly Roman Catholicism is predominant ; but all the 
 other creeds are tolerated, not the slightest coercion being brought 
 to bear on any individual. This policy is, in our opinion, the 
 wisest that could have been adopted by Portugal. Instead of 
 being injurious to the interests of Rome, it is the truth that our 
 Holy Church prospers most vigorously wheresoever there is re- 
 ligious liberty. We can point to the spread of the true faith in 
 England and in the United States as a proof of our statement. 
 By all means let us keep the Church and State separate, but let 
 us not forget to render unto Caesar, the things that are Csssar's, and 
 unto God, the things that are God's. 
 
Epilogue. 129 
 
 The Chamber of Peers is not constituted in accordance with 
 the nature and the tendencies of the other liberal institutions, 
 now existing in Portugal. In this age of the world, the heredi- 
 tary principle cannot be adhered to. Sometimes it happens 
 that the heir of a Peer enters upon the important duties connected 
 with this chamber, without possessing the independence or the 
 capacity so essential to one that desires to exercise this high 
 mission. The illustrious Count de Casal Ribeiro proposed, 
 a short time ago, the reform of that chamber of which he is him- 
 self a member. But his plan contains a great defect, since it 
 retains the hereditary principle, thereby failing to possess the 
 requisite thoroughness. 
 
 Nevertheless it is a step in advance, as it promises more 
 guarantees concerning the competency and the personal worth of 
 future Peers, than can be found under the existing arrangements. 
 It is possible that the moment has not yet come, when a Senate 
 composed of elective and of nominated Senators would be effective. 
 Reforms, it must be admitted, cannot be introduced In a sudden 
 manner. But between a purely elective Senate and a chamber 
 of hereditary Peers, there must be a ''juste milieu." That juste 
 milieu, we think, has not been reached by Count de Casal Ribeiro. 
 That statesman has effected great good by establishing certain 
 categories of distinguished personages, such as admirals, generals, 
 leading judges, the higher ranks of diplomacy, etc., from which 
 cateo^ories the sovereign might select his future Peers. He makes it 
 essential that the heir of a Peer in order to gain access to the cham- 
 ber, must have reached his thirtieth year, be included in one of the 
 categories above mentioned, and at the same time possess a cer- 
 tain income. Let us finish with the hereditary Peerage, as has 
 been already done with the principle of " entail," respecting, 
 however, the rights of the immediate heirs. All perceive the 
 necessity of reorganizing the higher chamber on a basis more 
 consonant with the interests of the nation, than the present one. 
 (9) 
 
130 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 That Ministerial responsibility, now existing only in name 
 is another point worthy of attention, and the settlement of which 
 is so much the more indispensable, because, in Portugal, the 
 person of the King is inviolable, the Secretaries of State being 
 responsible for all the acts of the executive power. 
 
 A reform in the Court of Accounts has become necessary, 
 and perhaps a more thorough organization of this tribunal might 
 be adopted advantageously. The Tribunal of Accounts should 
 be superior to the government, for the simple reason that it has 
 the duty of revising the expenditures of the different departments; 
 it receives all the documents concerning the control. Honesty is 
 the rule in the various Portuguese departments. Indeed we never 
 meet with an example of a minister becoming enriched at the 
 expense of the public treasury, nevertheless we must guard against 
 the defects inherent in our nature, and the country, at any rate, 
 has an interest in knowing whether the expenditures of the pub- 
 lic revenue are subject to a vigorous fiscalisation. Naturally all 
 the appropriations should be devoted to the objects for which 
 they were intended, and all the items arranged before an order 
 for payment is given. As for the constituent organization of the 
 court, the members must be independent in their power, and su- 
 perior to party strife. No one would dispute the utility of such 
 a tribunal, charged with examining whether the budget-receipts 
 are duly employed, and the appropriations not exceeded. Such 
 should be the important powers of a court constituted for the 
 purpose detailed in the preceding lines, in all countries. 
 
 The principle of association, which has been so profitable in 
 other nations, has not yet received in Portugal the attention 
 which is due to it. 
 
 The abolition of the death penalty for civil crimes, which 
 abolition cast so much honor on the Portuguese name, instead 
 of increasing diminished the number of crimes. This fact 
 should strengthen the opinion of those who maintain that the 
 
Epilogue. 131 
 
 spread of religion and of instruction can effect more than the 
 dread spectre of death. 
 
 As the President of the United States mentioned in his last 
 Message to Congress, slavery exists no longer in the Portuguese 
 possessions. The complete emancipation recently decreed abol- 
 ishes every kind of seivitude. The nefarious traffic in coolies 
 by way of Macao is now extinct, thanks to the wise measures 
 adopted by the present minister of Marine and Foreign affairs, 
 Senor Andrade Corvo. 
 
 Much could be said concerning the improvements introduced 
 into Portugal during the last few years, but the limits we have 
 determined upon prevent us from doing more than citing the princi- 
 pal facts which occur to us. The Portuguese, whilst desirous of 
 obtaining free institutions have not forgotten the advantages of 
 order. They regard the dynasty now reigning with much affec- 
 tion, on account of the numerous favors bestowed on the nation 
 by the present and the preceding sovereigns. D. Pedro V. was 
 a model of great virtues, both as a king, and as the head of a 
 family. The present king knows well how to gain the sympathy 
 of his people. 
 
 In a memorable letter addressed to the noble Duke de Loul^, 
 then President of the Cabinet, whose recent death was deplored 
 by all his countrymen, the King endeavored to put an end to 
 the fears of his people, who imagined that he would accept the 
 Spanish crown, and in this manner, destroy the independence df 
 his country. He made use of the following phrase, "I was born 
 a Portuguese and I will die a Portuguese." 
 
 Portugal ccmtains a galaxy of illustrious names. If we have 
 not, as in the past, men of exalted genius, such as the Infante D. 
 Enrique, Vasco da Gama, Magalhaes Camoens, Alphonsus d' Albu- 
 querque, and the Marquis de Pombal, we can mention howevelr, 
 many distinguished names, the bearers of which have devoted 
 tl^eir, existence to the honor and profit of their country. 
 
132 Aotes oil Forty gal. 
 
 The Marshal-Dukes de Saldanha and Terceira, the Dukes de 
 Palmella and de Louie; the Marquises de Sa da Bandeira and 
 d^Avila et Bolama ; the Counts de Thomar and deCasal Ribeiro 
 (all of which titles were conferred after the revolution of 1834, 
 although some of the honored personages already belonged to 
 the nobility) Fontes Pereira de Mello, Braamcamp and many 
 others have rendered signal services to their country. We might 
 add the names of Jos^ Estevan de'Magalhaes and of Alexander 
 Herculano, both of whom are known at home and abroad ; the 
 former as a parliamentary debater, the latter as an erudite his- 
 torian. Rebello da Sylva, Mendes Leal, Andrade Corvo, Rod- 
 rigue Sampayo, Antonio de Serpa and Latino Coelho, have 
 contributed and do still contribute to the splendor of Portuguese 
 literature and journalism. 
 
 • We should not pass over the name of the noble Marquis de 
 Sa da Bandeira, without failing to refer to the services he per- 
 formed against slavery in our possessions beyond the sea. It 
 was he who obtained the complete emancipation of the enslaved 
 blacks, thus gaining for Portugal the praises of the whole world. 
 President Grant, in his late message to Congress, expressed the 
 opinion of all his countrymen, when he eulogized the Portuguese 
 in regard to the matter. We could compare the Marquis to the 
 lamented Lincoln and Charles Sumner, when we consider 
 his efforts in behalf of freedom. 
 
 As we have seen, the liberal institutions are not yet complete ; 
 but they are founded on a firm basis, and require only to be 
 faithfully adhered to, in order to produce the most beneficent 
 results. Now that the finances have been arranged, the future 
 prosperity of Portugal is , assured, as the efforts of all may be 
 directed henceforward to completing the system of railroads, 
 and to developing the colonies. It will be necessary, how- 
 ever, to see that the ramifications of the administrative depart- 
 ments become more enlightened, and active. 
 
Epilogue. 133 
 
 Whilst speaking of that stability so necessary in the politi- 
 cal administration, we ought, however, to add that this stability 
 can never be brought about by any coterie, or by means of con- 
 cessions, which could never emanate from strict morality. 
 
 In labor as well as in economy is found the true wealth of 
 nations, as of famdies. Liberty is precious only when she con- 
 tributes to the acquisition of the one or of the other. It is 
 indispensable, therefore, that Portugal should be a land of, not 
 only liberty, but industry and economy. 
 
 Portugal has maintained cordial relations with all the foreign 
 powers; but there are some, the friendsliip of which is of the 
 greatest importance to her. The first place is occupied by 
 England, a country that has been, according to the Portuguese, 
 their most faithful ally. The relations with Brazil and with 
 Spain, are no less worthy of consideration. England, great 
 amongst the first nations of the globe, has always followed prin- 
 ciples, which should serve as rules for free countries, and she has 
 undoubtedly contributed the most to the perfecting of the human 
 mind. Her moral force arises partly from her material power. 
 Look at her prodigious commercial activity, her immense naval 
 resources and the number of subject nations, which, beyond the 
 British Isles, acknowledge her sway ! We might particularize 
 the magnificent empire of Hindoostau, and the superb colonies 
 of Australia and of Canada. English interests with which the 
 national greatness and prosperity are bound up, require that the 
 brutal logic of might over right, should not be established in the 
 world. Owing to the great distance of her possessions, she would 
 find it difficult to retain them, even with the assistance of her 
 squadrons, were the doctrine of " vae victis" introduced into the 
 political relations of the world. It should be her aim to repre- 
 sent ttie rights of meum and teum in the councils of Europe* 
 Let her but show the road to the spoliation of other countries, 
 and she would find that she had been handling a two-edged 
 
134 Notes on Portugal 
 
 sword. Other nations would soon follow her example. Inflamed 
 by an eager lust after her rich dependencies, they would press 
 on to their conquest. Thus far she has adopted the policy vvi» 
 have adverted to. Her moral influence in the politics of Euroi)e 
 is great, owing to the comparative honesty of her conduct. This 
 influence is indispensable to her, if she desires to retain her for- 
 eign dominion. 
 
 Since the 18th century, England has rendered very great 
 services to Portugal. As soon as Portuguese autonomy was 
 fully established, consolidated and recognized, Spain became 
 the natural ally of Portugal, and the idea of closing the 
 whole Peninsula to whatsoever might be dangerous in re- 
 gard to foreign interference was the cherished dream of sev- 
 eral statesmen in both countries, chiefly towards the end of the 
 15th century. Events, however, followed one another, of such 
 a kind as to keep up a state of mutual distrust, and to provoke 
 a radical separation between the two nations, whose interests 
 should have brought about an intimate alliance. The domina- 
 tion of the Philips, which was the severest attempt against the 
 rights of the Portuguese, the revolution in 1 640, the war for the 
 restoration of the Braganzas, the accession of the Bourbons of 
 France to the Spanish throne, the French Kevolution and its 
 effects on Spain, and lastly the invasion of Portugal by the 
 Spaniards combined with the French, at the beginning of this 
 century, completed the antipathy of the one nation for the other. 
 In the absence of a good and solid alliance with our neighbors, 
 brothers by race, language and religion, and possessing, possibly, 
 the same aim, it was necessary to look for allies in another 
 quarter. The resolution of choosing Great Britain as our prin- 
 cipal political ally was a wise one, inasmuch as there already 
 existed commercial relations between the two countries. Great 
 Britain was the chief consumer of our principal agricultural pro- 
 
Epilogue. 135 
 
 dttoe wines, and the chief market whence we derived our importar 
 tjions. 
 
 Despite the efforts of some factious men, Portugal is no longer 
 the feudatory of England, as some of our adversaries once called 
 her. It may be remembered that Great Britain disputed our 
 right to certain possessions we claimed. The dispute was in re- 
 gard to the II ha de Bolama and other points in Guinea, and to 
 the territories situated in the Bay of Lourenco Marques, on the 
 Eastern coast of Africa. The two questions being submitted to 
 arbitration, were gained by Portugal. The Marquis d'Avila, 
 now President of the Chamber of Peers, defended the rights of 
 his country in the affair of da Bolama. The arbiter selected for 
 the Bolama question was the worthy President of the United 
 States, General Grant. The affair of Lauren90 Marques, which 
 was managed by the Portuguese barrister, Paiva Manso, was 
 submitted to the illustrious President of the French Republic, 
 Marshal MacMahon. 
 
 On the other hand, the traditions of our political history and 
 the important interests which unite us to the powerful English 
 nation, are great reasons why we should not allow a sundering 
 of our ties of friendship with England. An English writer, who 
 traversed our country a short time ago, in speaking of this alli- 
 ance, employed the following terms : " To us Portugal is, and 
 filways has been, an important part of Europe. The nation, 
 small as it is, is not without potentiality of influence in Euro- 
 pean affairs. A Portuguese army is an admirable one. These 
 facts should not be forgotten. This nation is our natural ally; 
 the vigor, the self respeot and that peculiar sturdiness of temper 
 which we pride ourselves upon, are also Portuguese character- 
 istics. The nation is to ourselves a friend, whose interests on 
 this continent are our interests, whose enemies in a great war are 
 quite certain to be our enemies, and who have left their own in- 
 
136 Notes 071 Portugal. 
 
 delible mark on the page of history by virtue of some great and 
 rare qualities, which happen to be those very qualities which 
 have made of ourselves a great and famous nation." 
 
 May heaven grant that English statesmen will never forget 
 these words, and that Portugal will always be able to flatter 
 herself that she has remained faithful to the English alliance, 
 an alliance that can be cemented only by the respect of their 
 reciprocal rights and duties. 
 
 Spain must eventually perceive the advantages of having her 
 relations with us, in regard to commercial interests, rendered 
 more intimate. Things are, undoubtedly, tending in that direc- 
 tion. The political state of Spain, when her civil war is once 
 settled, will reach the same stage as ours is at present; free and 
 independent of one another, as regards their respective auton- 
 omies, the two nations of the Peninsula must form, in the future, 
 a sort of ZoUverein. 
 
 Brazil is to Portugal, what the United States are to Great 
 Britain. In North America, England sees, her fairest daughter; 
 and if the Americans are justly proud of the fabulous progress 
 they have made during the past century, Great Britain can but 
 flatter herself, when considering the prosperity and greatness of 
 her former colonies. The battles of Concord and of Lexington, 
 which gave the first victories to the Independent of the United 
 States, cannot be regretted to-day by the English people. 
 
 If England throws a look of satisfaction towards the nation, 
 her race and her genius have contributed to create, Portugal 
 sees, with no less satisfaction, her former colony, Brazil, increas- 
 ing in strength, and rapidly becoming one of the most flourishing 
 empires in the world. She sees Brazil ruled by a member of the 
 Portuguese Poyal Family, a Prince of great capacity and virtue. 
 The visit which S. M. D. Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil, proposes 
 
Epilogue. 137 
 
 to make in a short time to the United States, will confirm the 
 opinions entertained in this country regarding him. 
 
 Portugal must maintain only the most intimate relations with 
 Brazil. Besides being the constant aim of the two governments, 
 the friendly concourse of the one with the other, is kept up the 
 more easily because of the mutual esteem that exists between the 
 two nations. 
 
 France and Italy belonging to the same race, the Latin, are 
 particularly dear to ns. French policy, when the struggle was 
 being cnrried on against England, mistrusting the temper of the 
 Portuguese, never tried to gain allies in that quarter. However, 
 the French are always welcome in Portugal, and their books fill 
 our libraries almost exclusively. The French language has 
 been, for a long period, familiar in Portugal, and it is from 
 France that we still receive the greater part of the elements of 
 knowledge which assist in improving the different branches of 
 the administration. Customs, manners, etc., are always French 
 importations with us. 
 
 Belgium is one of the countries we like to select as a model. 
 We mention her frequently, and we admit the progress she has 
 made in both moral and material' improvements. It is needless 
 to say that with all the nations of the world, Portugal is on some 
 terms of friendship, and if her relations with them are not 
 always very important in consequence they are at least carried 
 on with great cordiality. 
 
 In the interests of just criticism, we have alluded to the errors 
 and defects, which exist in our country, and from which even 
 the best ruled countries are not exempt. The impartiality with 
 which we have judged of events and institutions will have the 
 merit of not causing, in the minds of our readers, any suspicion, 
 when we speak with praise of public matters in Portugal. True 
 
138 
 
 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 patriotism, in our eyes, is that which seeks especially to inspire 
 confidence, by placing truth above all other considerations. 
 
 We could not select a better mode of ending, than by making 
 use of the memorable verse of Camoes. 
 
 Vereis j^nor da patria, nao movido 
 
 De preaiio vil, mas alto e quasi eternoj - : 
 
 Que nao e premio vil ser conhecido 
 
 Per una pregao do ninho meu paterno. 
 
 ,o ^^P 
 
The Portuguese Laws. 
 
 In speaking of Portugal and her laws after the introduction 
 of the liberal regime, we should be wrong not to mention the 
 name of the illustrious patriot, who was tlie intimate counsellor 
 of D. Pedro IV., and the initiator of the .;;*eat reforms which 
 have been operating in the country since the victory of liberalism 
 over absolutism. Portugal venerates the name of Mousinho da 
 Silveira; for, if the cause of D. Pedro IV., signified the vic- 
 tory of good principles applied to the hereditary succession on 
 the Portuguese throne, it was no less the triumph of the free 
 institutions which the charter has bestowed upon us. The gen- 
 erous ideas as well as the energetic action of that illustrious man 
 contributed to give to Portugal, a new epoch of aspirations, 
 social and financial, the impress of which will always remain on 
 the hearts of the Portuguese. The laws of May 16th, of July 
 30th, and of August 13th, 1832, shook, from top to bottom, the 
 whole Portuguese social body and produced a complete revolu- 
 tion. It was by these three memorable laws, that Mousinho 
 da Silveira traced the lineaments which so distinguish our pre- 
 sent political organization. Perhaps these reforms destroyed 
 many things, at that time which have not yet been replaced in 
 a solid manner; but it is not the less true that the 6lan of the 
 reformer was the starting point of all the ameliorations adopted 
 afterwar'ls by the lib3ral government for the organization of the 
 administrative powers, and for the creation of the elements that 
 reclaimed agriculture and indu-try, both of which had hitherto 
 suffered through the atrophy produced by the want of an organic 
 
140 Notes on, Portugal. 
 
 development, so essential to the life of nations. As has been 
 very well said by a Portuguese writer, Sr. Teixeira de Vascon- 
 cellos, without the legislation to which we have just alkided, the 
 struggle between the two brothers, D. Pedro and D. Miguel,, 
 would have had no important results; it would have been 
 regarded by the country, as a simple affair of personal ambition ; 
 the courage of D. Pedro, the diplomatic efforts of the Due de 
 Palmella, tne energy of Silva Carvalho, and the victories of 
 Marshals Saldanha and Terceira and of their companions in 
 arms, would not have been sufficient to vanquish the partisans of 
 D. Miguel. It was Mousinho da Silveira, the friend and the 
 counsellor of D. Pedro, who destroyed the superannuated edifice 
 of despotism, by patting an end to the confusion then existing 
 throughout the civil and military administrations; by abolishing 
 certain feudal rights, hereditary employments, the too great 
 power of the clergy, the tithes and their abusive application, 
 many privileges, and by establishing, as much as possible, 
 equality before the ]a^y. When speaking about Portuguese laws, 
 in general, it should be observed that they all bear the impress 
 of independence, and of a great tenacity in sustaining it against 
 powerful adversaries. In the spirit of our legislation, one sees 
 pride and courage allied to softness of national manners. ^' Odiosa 
 restringenda'^ has never escaped our legislators. During the 
 reign of D. Diniz, and of other Sovereigns, we see literature 
 honored highly; feudality disappearing before the free traditions 
 of the people, and before the enlightened justice of the Kingsj 
 religion honored and the clergy protected, and the power of the. 
 crown interposed vigorously in favor of the feeble against the 
 strong. 
 
 We might notice the zeal of princes, such as the Infante D. 
 Enrique and others, in pursuing the study of the arts and sciences, 
 and in making those branches assist enterprises, by which all 
 mankind has profited. Finally, it can be observed, in the his- 
 
The Portuguese Laws. 141 
 
 tory of Portuguese law, that, as early as the 18th century, 
 modern ideas already sought that development which philosophy 
 was to bestow later on. They found their personification in the 
 Marquis de Pombal, and prepared the Portuguese for the enjoy- 
 ment of the social reforms, usually brought about by revolutions, 
 without finding themselves stained with the crimes which dis- 
 graced France. 
 
 If one were to scrutinize the legal system of Portugal, it would 
 be easily found that the majority of the laws are excellent; but they 
 do not always meet with a strict interpretation. Time and enligh- 
 tenment alone can correct the abuses. The people endowed with 
 a supple character, and an intelligence which requires only to be 
 cultivated, lend themselves, without difficulty, to the introduction 
 of new laws. However, every nation has its special tendencies 
 which the codes would be wrong either to overlook, or to destroy 
 entirely, especially when these tendencies are not in opposition 
 to the principles of civilization. 
 
 Our various judicial codes can be placed in the same rank as 
 those of the most advanced nations. The present law concern- 
 ing weights and measures had to contend with a strong 
 opposition at the commencement of its application. Still such 
 opposition was to be expected, as it is impossible to change the 
 inveterate habits of centuries, without interfering with certain 
 prejudices. We cannot be astonished that the metric system, 
 although decreed on the 13th of December, 1852, was not gen- 
 erally adopted until the end of 1862. This did not arise from 
 ignorance of the advantages to be derived from the innovation ; 
 for, on the contrary, the differences of the weights and measures 
 were so great in the various parts of the kingdom, that the 
 adoption of a uniform. system for the whole country, besides 
 taking into accouift the advantages of uniformity with the other 
 countries that had accepted the metre, had become an absolute 
 necessity. 
 
Education Benevolence and Emigration 
 
 There is understood under the designation, Spf cial Instruction, 
 the teaching of the Fine Arts, which is confided to the following es- 
 tablishments; the Lisbon Royal Academy of Fine Arts; the Oporto 
 Academy of Fine Arts, and the Royal Conservatory of Lisbon. 
 The first has six professors; in it the historical, the ornamental 
 and the civil architectural styles of drawing are taught, as well 
 as historical and landscape drawing, sculpture, wood engraving, 
 and model drawing. The Oporto Academy, founded nearly a 
 century ago, possesses four classes, viz: historical drawing and 
 painting, civil architecture and sculpture, perspective and 
 anatomy. The conservatory possesses a school of dramatic art, 
 and one of music. Industrial and commercial instruction is 
 given in two Institutes at Lisbon, and at Oporto. The courses 
 are as follows : general instruction for workmen, the directors of 
 factories, and masters and foremen of work-shops; for the con 
 ductors of public works, conductors of machines, telegraphists^ 
 constructors of instruments of precision, without counting an 
 elementary as well as a complete course in commerce. Agricul- 
 tural education is divided into elementary and superior. There 
 were founded in 1852 for the former, district farms; and in 1869 
 experimental stations were prepared in the various districts. An 
 elementary course of agriculture is pursued in the lyceums. For 
 the superior agricultural education, there is a general Institute of 
 Agriculture, created in 1852, to which, in 1855, veterinary 
 i nstruction, until then a distinct course, was added. In several dis- 
 tricts, courses in agriculture a,nd zoology are given without being 
 
Education^ Benevolence and Emigration, 143 
 
 obligatory. Without furnishing special skill, the aim has been 
 to spread as much as possible, agricultural knowledge. 
 
 As regards scientific establishments, we should first mention 
 the Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, which contains three 
 principal classes, viz : natural sciences, mathematics and belles- 
 lettres. The number of effective associates, according to the 
 primitive statutes would be only eight. The number of super- 
 numeries has been raised to twelve, of the honorary members 
 also to twelve, and of the corresponding members to 100. Por- 
 tugal appears to have the desire of giving a greater development 
 to astronomic knowledge. It possesses three principal estal)lish- 
 ments, the Royal Observatory of Lisbon, the Observatory of 
 Coimbra, and that of the Polytechnic School of Lisbon (in con- 
 struction). That of Lisbon, ivhich Portugal owes to the 
 scientific labors and the liberality of the late Pedro V., was 
 constructed on the plan of the Observatory of Palkowa. The 
 Observatory of Coimbra, founded by the Marquis of Pombal, is 
 annexed to the building of the University, and is destined 
 chiefly to practical instruction in Astronomy, as comprised in 
 the Faculty of Mathematics, Geodesic labors, of the actual 
 state of which it is impossible for us to give an exact idea, by 
 reason of want of space, are very far advanced in Portugal, and 
 to those who would wish to have a complete knowledge of the 
 works executed, or in course of execution-^as far as hydro- 
 graphy is concerned, we can do nothing better than to indicate 
 t6 them a book recently published in Portuguese, by M. Gerardb 
 de Pery, under the title "General Geography and Statistics of 
 Portugal and her colonies.'' Portugal possesses also two meteor- 
 ological observatories, one in Lisbon, and the other at Goimbra; 
 eleven ports of observation on the continent, and three in 
 the adjacent islands. As regards museums of natural history, 
 there are two, one in Lisbon, and one at Coimbra. The one in Lis- 
 bon possesses precious ornithological, cOnchologieail and geologi- 
 
144 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 eal collections of not only the country and its colonies, but also 
 of other lands. We might mention the Museum of Archaeology, 
 possessing already 1,600 objects of art; the Museum of the 
 Academy of Sciences, in which there is a rich numismatic 
 collection, and finally the Industrial Museum, created by that 
 indefatigable promoter of Portuguese industry, the late M. Fra- 
 desso da Silveira, formerly Royal Commissioner at the Vienna 
 Exposition. 
 
 There are in Portugal four public libraries with a special 
 donation from the state. The principal one is the National 
 Library of Lisbon ; the three others are at Evora, Braga and 
 Villa Veal. Besides those we have just mentioned, the State 
 possesses several other very important ones in the various scientific 
 establishments. There are, of course numerous private libraries. 
 The Academy of Sciences in Lisbon, the University of Coimbra, 
 the Libraries of Evora and of Mafra possess very rare works and 
 very ancient manuscripts, The National Library, in Lisbon, at 
 present contains more than 300,000 volumes ; that of the 
 Academy of Sciences, 75,000, and that of the University, 
 58,000. 
 
 In the matter of benevolence, Portugal is one of the countries 
 of Europe, in which it is exercised most 'liberally. From the 
 most distant times, there have existed institutions of charity 
 such as the miserieordias, charitable institutions of an origin 
 especially Portuguese, the religious fraternities, poor-houses, 
 foundling hospitals, etc., some of which (but by far the minority) 
 created and sustained by the public treasury, and others main- 
 tained at the expense of private charity. Of these establishments 
 of every kind, according to statistics collected in 1861, there were 
 9,861, possessing an annual revenue of more than 2,000 contos 
 of reis. The number of those institutit)ns has greatly increased 
 since 1861. If the religious establishments were in the past the 
 origin of the majority of the charitable institutions in question, 
 
Education J Benevelenee and Emigration' 145 
 
 it is not the less true, that, in more recent times, the spirit of 
 charity, apart from all idea of religious fanaticism, has contri- 
 buted by itself to the foundation of many of thf^m. According 
 to the table of statistics, there is one charitable institution to 
 every 403 inhabitants. It might be remarked that perhaps 
 charity has exceeded the real necessities of the times. 
 
 It has often betn remarked how considerable is the number 
 of illegitimate births in Portugal, and indeed the ancient laws, 
 by giving to children born out of wedlock a somewhat regular 
 and convenient position in the family, encouraged the abuse. 
 The establishment of rodas also contributed much to illegitimate 
 births among the populace; but since 1870, the advantage of 
 suppressing the rodas in the Misericord las has been recognized, 
 and whereas in 1870 — 1871, 2,559 children were exposed (in 
 the Misericord ias of Lisbon)^ the year after the number was 
 reduced to 794, ani in 1873— 1874, to 357. We must there- 
 fore affirm that the abolition of the rodas in Portugal has been 
 amongst others, one of the good measures adopted by the admin- 
 istration, to avoid the sad and often repeated abuses. 
 
 Two causes have been indicated as particularly favoring the 
 current of Portuguese emigration towards the two Americas; 
 repugnance to military force, and the desire after riches. At any 
 rate, it is useless to add that there are everywhere, the same 
 reasons which produce a penchant for expatriation. Germany 
 probably affi)rds the best example of this. In recent times, it is 
 not. the want of work which could explain or justify the mania 
 for emigration, for the want of laborers for agriculture is being 
 felt in some provinces, where the wages have been elevated. 
 The temptations held out by the emigration agents constitute 
 the principal motive. The larger portion is directed to Brazil, 
 and the smaller to the United States. The provinces of Minho 
 and Beira Alta, as well as the Azores, are the regions of Portu- 
 gal, which furnish the largest contingent of emigrants. Accord- 
 (10) 
 
146 
 
 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 ing to statistics which we have before us, the fifth part is composed 
 of minors of fourteen years. 
 
 Districts, 
 
 1874. 
 
 Aveiro, . . . ^ 
 
 925 
 
 Beja, .... 
 
 2 
 
 Braga, . . , . 
 
 . 1,062 
 
 Braganza, 
 
 . 19 
 
 Castello Bra 11 CO, . 
 
 3 
 
 Coimbra, .... 
 
 . 384 
 
 Faro, .... 
 
 
 Guarda, . . . . 
 
 . 37 
 
 Leiria, 
 
 12 
 
 Lisboa, .... 
 
 . 623 
 
 Pcrto, . . 
 
 . 2,900 
 
 Santarem, 
 
 . • . . 2 
 
 Yianna, . . 
 
 638 
 
 Villa Keal, . 
 
 . . . 733 
 
 Vizeu, 
 
 760 
 
 Angra, .... 
 
 1,123 
 
 Horta, 
 
 273 
 
 Ponta Da^nda, ' 
 
 . 869 
 
 Funchal. 
 
 3 
 
 Total, .... 10,368 
 
 Minors, fourteen years, . . . .2,177 
 
 Total number for five years ending 1874, 46,828. 
 
 The mortality among the emigrants to Brazil is very great. 
 Of those who return home, the great majority return even poorer 
 than before, and often by the assistance of charitable institutions, 
 founded in Brazil by Portuguese. A relatively small number 
 acquire fortune, but only after hard labor and privations 
 of all kinds. Another class (and it is the very smallest) 
 obtain immense fortunes and remain in Brazil, forming the 
 
Education^ Benevolence and Emigration. 147 
 
 most solid and important base of the Empire, without, at the 
 same time, losing sight of the interests of their native land. Of 
 late years, many former Portuguese residents in Brazil, have 
 returned to Europe, taking with them considerable capital, which 
 has served to augment the banking wealth of the country. 
 According to the averages of the years, from 1871 to 1874, the 
 annual mean of emigrants to Brazil is 11,689. 
 
 In the United States there exists a colony of Portuguese 
 (chiefly in Massachusetts,) whose love of country always re- 
 mains alive, and who return to their native heath, after having 
 acquired some thousands of dollars. In 1872-73 there were 
 1,194 Portuguese emigrants to the United States; of this number 
 505 returned home, and twenty were naturalized. 
 
^INE j^v 
 
 EGIONS. 
 
 For the better explanation of the Portuguese wine exhibition 
 in London, the kingdom of Portugal was divided into eight wine- 
 bearing regions, viz: 1. Douro; 2. Tras-os-Montes ; 3. Minho; 
 4. Beira-Alta; 5. Beira-Baixa; 6. Extremadura; 7. Alemtejo; 
 8. Algarves. 
 
 First region, Douro. This region, divided into the sub- 
 regions of Alto Douro, Superior Douro and Inferior Douro 
 covers a superficies of 35,000 hectares, and is distinguished for 
 a great variety of wines, which variety arises from the difference 
 of geologic formations and altitudes. The annual average of 
 wines produced is computed at 80,000 pipes, of 500 litres each, 
 or 40,000,000 litres. The first quality, amounting to 10,000,000 
 litres, is chiefly exported, being the finest and most precious 
 wines known in the markets of the world. The second quality 
 is frequently equal to the first, and is sometimes mixed with it. 
 Brazil is the principal market for this class, which mounts up to 
 nearly 30,000 pipes. The third quality (30,000 pipes) is ])artly 
 consumed in the country and partly reserved for reduction to 
 brandy, which is added to the wines of the 1st and 2d qualities. 
 The first quality is })riced (per pipe of 500 litres) at about $55.00 
 gold, the second at $40.00, and the third at $22.40. The fine, 
 generous port wine belongs to the first class. 
 
 Second region — Tras-os-Montes. Thi.s region formerly a pro- 
 vince occupies a space of 1,111,556 hectares, and produces 
 :annually 66,600 pipes (500 litres each), of which some are expor- 
 ted to Spain, and others transported down the Douro to Oporto. 
 
Wine Regions. 149 
 
 But the greater part is consumed in the localities of its pro'luc- 
 , tion, or is distilled, being sold as brandy to mix with the Douro 
 wines. The red wines of Tras-os-Montes are chiefly pale, soft, 
 mild aromatic, more or less acidulous, and to a certain extent 
 alcoholic. There are some red wines, and in the Braganza 
 district white wines are met with. 
 
 PEICES. 
 
 1st quality— per pipe of 500 litres $33.00 
 
 2d " " '' '' 22.50 
 
 3d " " '' " 15.00 
 
 Third region — Minho. Minho occupies an area of 713,719 
 hectares, and produces 100,000 pipes or 50,000,000 litres. Its 
 wines, like all the others of Portugal, on account of the 
 singularity of their composition, are known under the denom- 
 ination of vinhos verdes (tart wines) in opposition to vinhos 
 maduros (mellow wines). They are also named wines of enfor- 
 cado (vines tied to trees and growing up by them). The wdnes 
 of Minho are sour and biting, being thus distinct from all the 
 other wines of Portugal, but when well fabricated they make an 
 agreeable and healthy drink, being very refrigerant and diuretic^ 
 Learned oenologists assert that the Minho wines, when well pre- 
 pared, should have a large foreign consumption. 
 
 PRICES. 
 
 1st quality — per pipe of 500 litres $27.50 
 
 2d '' '' '' " 16.75 
 
 3d '' '' " ^' 11.00 
 
 Fourth region — Beira Alta. We have here 1 ,054,073 hectares, 
 producing 30,000 pipes or 15,000,000 litres. The wine pro- 
 duced near the river Dao is the first; it is largely bought up by 
 French merchants. The red wine of Beira Alta is thin, of little 
 color, soft, savoury, aromatic and mildly alcoholic. 
 
150 Notes on Portugal 
 
 PRICES. 
 
 1st quality — p^er pipe • $33.50 
 
 2d '' " 22.00 
 
 3d " '' 13.50 
 
 Fifth region — Beira-Baixa This region contains 1,343,600 
 hectares, and produces 140,000 pipes. With the exception of 
 the famous red wines of Bairrada, white wines are generally 
 produced, and are exported by Mondego (Figueira da Foz) to 
 Brazil. The wines of Tortosendo, Alpedrinha, Valle de Prazeres 
 rival the best foreign and domestic wines, and they are considered 
 as being of the most precious types of Portugal. 
 
 PRICES. 
 
 1st quality — per pipe |38.50 
 
 2d " " 21.75 
 
 3d '' " 13.50 
 
 Sixth region — Extremadura. Extremadura contains 1,795,786 
 hectares, producing 190,000 pipes. We have the valuable red 
 wines of Setubal, with the well known muscadine of St. Ubes, 
 from the vineyards at Azeitao and Palmella; the red thick and 
 durable Almada brands, the Lavradio, the saccharine Benavente, 
 the Almeirim, the Chamusca, the w^hite Carcavellos, the thin 
 soft and acidulated Gollares, the red and the white Termo, the 
 Cartaxo, the Santarem, the Macao, the white Bucellas which is 
 well known in foreign countries, the red and thick Torres- 
 Vedras, the Arruda, the Cadaval, the delicious Caldas da Painha 
 e Alcobaga, the Leiria, the Batalha, the Ourem, the saccharine, 
 alcoholic, and soft Torres Novas, and" lastly the' sweet, soft, pale 
 and medium alcoholic Thomar. 
 
 PRICES. 
 
 1st quality — per pipe • • -^ $44.6(> 
 
 2d '' " •• 33.75 
 
 3d " " ■ 22.25 
 
 4th " " 13.50 
 
 The seventh region — Alemtejo contains 2,441,097 hectares, and 
 
Wine Regions. 151 
 
 produces 65,000 pipes. The production is small. There was an 
 old proverb says that Alemtejo is a country of bad bread and bad 
 wine (terra de mau pao e mau vinho). The best kinds are those 
 obtained near Lisbon and Eedondo, those of Cuba, Yidigueira, 
 Villa de Frades, Ferreira and Serpa in the Beja district, and 
 those of Elvas, Castello de Vide and Eibeira de Niza. 
 
 PEICES. 
 
 1st quality — per pipe $33.25 
 
 2d " " 22.25 
 
 3d '^ ^' J6.50 
 
 Algarves, the 8th district, contains 485,835 hectares, and 
 annually produces 18,000 pipes. The wines of Ihis region are 
 not inferior to the wines of Madeira, Gerez and Malaga. The 
 most esteemed are those of Javira, Olhao, Portimao and Lagos. 
 
 PEICES. 
 
 1st quality — per pipe $33.25 
 
 2d " " 26.50 
 
 3d '' '^ 16.50 
 
 Whilst on this subject, we might append a few remarks con- 
 cerning a recently disputed wine question in Portugal. It treats 
 of knowing whether the common wines, named de Pasto may be 
 included within twenty- six degrees of the Sykes proof-spirit 
 instrument, without its being indispensable to extend the limit of 
 the said wines to 30° or 34° of that alcoholic measure. Good 
 authorities in Portugal maintain that the proposed change would 
 be useless, as soon as a better system of fabrication should be 
 adopted. This being the case, the prejudice, which is attributed 
 to the English alcoliolic scale, would no longer exist. But this 
 opinion meets with opposition, and to know which side is right, 
 it is evidently necessary to wait for future experience, which 
 naturally depends upon radical change in the present methods 
 of fabrication, whi(;h change at any rate has become essential. 
 There are four points to which attention should be devoted : the 
 
162 Notes on Portugal, 
 
 wines should be fabricated, not according to the old defective 
 methods, but after the recently improved modes; second, coun- 
 terfeit wines should be prevented altogether; the bottling, cork- 
 ing and storage of the wines should be arranged in such a 
 manner, that no injury would result from the necessary voyage, 
 and last, a lowering of the tariff of the importing countries 
 should be effected, so that our wines may not be handi-capped, 
 when competing with the similar productions of other countries^ 
 

 ^^^^^^^^ 
 
 liMiwff7iiiiti\ifflr "ill 
 
 
 Colonial Treaty Lately Concluded. 
 
 After Portugal had gained the victory in the contest with 
 England concerning the Bay of Lourenyo Marquez, the govern- 
 ment of the King did not hesitate to recognize that it was 
 necessary to profit by the great resources which were offered to 
 the commerce of Southern Africa and to civilization, by the mag- 
 nificent position of the aforesaid bay, if it were known how to 
 use, in a practical manner, all the resources of a port, which, on 
 account of its proximity to the two republics of Transvaal and 
 of the Orange river, is the most convenient for the imports and 
 exports of the two States. The territories of those two republics 
 are very rich in natural productions and in the most precious 
 minerals attract from all parts of the world laborers, capital and 
 intelligent persons able to explore and appraise them. The Bay 
 of Lourenco Marquez is then destined to be the centre of a con- 
 siderable traffic, when highways and a railroad have been con- 
 structed to connect the port with the interior regions. 
 
 According to a treaty recently made, it is believed that the 
 importation and exportation of not only all meridianal Africa 
 and Transvaal, but also of a large part of Orange Free State, 
 will be conducted through the port of Lourenfo Marquez. The bay 
 by its situation and configuration, offers a broad anchorage ground, 
 and a safe shelter to vessels of every tonnage, a facility to be so 
 much the more appreciated, when we remember that storms and 
 tempests are frequent on those coasts. The province of Mozam- 
 bique cannot fail, by this arrangement concluded between Por- 
 tugal and the Republic of Transvaal, to derive a development 
 
Colonial Treaty LatUy Concluded. 154 
 
 more extreme than heretofore, the republic and the province 
 having been both placed on an equal footing, neither having 
 any advantage over the other as regards facilities for transit, etc. 
 In the article devoted to the colonies, it was stated that a plan 
 had been adopted, which was to lead to their more rapid devel- 
 opment. We learn that the Government has asked the Chamber 
 of Deputies for a capital of $5,000,000, destined for necessary 
 public works on the two coasts of Africa. The said sum is to 
 be devoted to the amelioration of the defective sanitary arrange- 
 ments, and thereby to the reducing to a minimum of the fevers 
 which so constantly arise; to shortening by canals the unnec- 
 essary length of the river navigation, caused by the meandering 
 of the rivers, and at the same time, promoting the system of 
 irrigation; to establishing light-houses, repairing the ports, 
 adding quays, custom-houses, jetties and small forts, (the latter 
 to serve, in cases of necessity, as aids to the military and naval 
 forces); and lastly to opening routes connecting the interior with 
 the coast, the want of which routes has hitherto retarded the 
 exploration of mines, etc. It is beyond question that^ by these 
 measures, Angola and Mozambique must become extensive 
 sources of wealth to Portugal, since capital and immigration will 
 be attracted thither by such improvements. 
 

 The Discovery of Australia by the 
 -Portuguese. 
 
 We believe that it would be interesting to reproduce, in this 
 place, the translation of a letter written by a Portuguese naviga- 
 tor, Godinho de Eredia, from which letter, i: would appear that, 
 towards the end of the 16th Century (between 1597 and 1600), 
 the Portuguese already knew of the existence of Australia under 
 the name of ^^ Terra do Ouro" (land of gold). 
 
 The letter was addressed by the cosmograph to the Viceroy 
 D'Francisco da Gama, fourth Count da Yidigueira, wlio had 
 taken possession of the government of the Portuguese Indies, 
 25th of May, 1597, Avhich government he handed over to Ayres 
 de Saldanha, 25th of December, 1600. Eredia addressed his 
 sentiments of condolence to the Viceroy, on the occasion of the 
 death of the third Count of Vidigueira, D. Vasco da Gama, 
 grandson of the great Admiral. We might add that Godinho 
 <le Eredia died in 1615. 
 
 Translation of Letter: 
 
 Most Illustrious Sir : — Upon the arrival of the men-of-war, 
 your most Illustrious Lordship received bad news. For that, 
 acting as a faithful servant, I immediately went to the Palace to 
 manifest to you the grief I bear for the death of Senhor Dom 
 Vasco da Gama, (whom God has taken to his eternal mansion): 
 but, as often as I went, I never could gain admittance, since 
 your most Illustrious Lordship, being secluded in your apart- 
 ments, naturally did not receive. 
 
The Discovery of Portugal. 156 
 
 Notwithstanding, I call to your Lordship's mind, that you 
 have been happy and fortunate in attaining what you wished 
 and hoped for, viz : men-of-war safely arrived, with persons 
 from Portugal, in time for the enterprise after ^^gold." 
 
 As the enterprise is, rather your most Illustrious Lordship's 
 idea than mine,, I have no need to remind you the 13th of 
 September is the most proper time to begin the voyage to 
 Malacca ; nor is there any occasion to exaggerate this affair of 
 discovery, as your most Illustrious Lordship knows it well, and 
 is well informed of everything in regard to it, and therefore will 
 do what is most necessary, because when you think it is time for 
 the discovery of the gold, I shall then receive my commission. 
 If I do not receive it, I may yet attain my purpose, by soliciting 
 protection for the enterprise. ; 
 
 At any rate, I cannot fail to call to your most Illustrious 
 Lordship's attention, that the attainment of the discovery of the 
 gold depends also upon the knowledge of the winds that blow 
 on the ^^Mar do Oro" (sea of Gold); because without knowledge 
 and forethought, there would be danger of meeting there the 
 roughest weather in the world. 
 
 It must also be known that in the said ^^ Mar do Oro," are to 
 be encountered winter storms, from March to July ; therefore, 
 if I get my commission in this Moncao (monsoon) of September^ 
 I could stay in Malacca all November, and sail in December, for 
 Solor, whence I could start by January, for Tymor, Ende or 
 Sabbo, and winter in any of those islands. I could there obtain 
 better information about the gold, and by August or September, 
 by the help of Almighty God, start for the discovery of the 
 happy ^'Island of Gold." 
 
 If I get my commission in April I should have to stay in 
 Malacca, during June, July, August, September and October, 
 and sail in December for Solor. Therefore ordain what may be 
 most useful to the service of God, of the King, and of your most 
 
157 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 Illustrious Lordship, as I am only your servant and an instru- 
 ment for the discovery of this gold, as my conscience is urging 
 me to embark in the said discovery, because God will help me 
 to succeed, I therefore ask clamorously of your most Illustrious 
 Lordship to employ me to obtain such a boon from whom it 
 ought to come. May Jesus Christ guard you in health for the 
 protection of this East India and of your servants. (Signed). 
 
 Em' EL GODINHO DE ErEDIA. 
 
MARquis D' Ayila e de Bolama. 
 
 Among tlie modem statesmen by whom Portugal is honored, 
 the Marquis d'Avila, born at Fayal in the Azores, is worthy of 
 special mention. As a scientific man and as a political person- 
 age, he has not ceased to play one of the most marked roles in 
 the affairs of Portugal, for more than forty years; first, in the 
 quality of deputy to the Cortes for twenty-six years, and after- 
 wards as a Cabinet Minister and Counsellor of State. Endowed 
 with a very varied instruction and indefatigable in work, the 
 Marquis d'Avila knew how to multiply his activity, and to 
 apply himself under several forms, to the profit of the nation. 
 We see him assisting in the counsels of the kingdom during the 
 most difficult epochs, and at the same time taking part in the 
 labors of the Academy of Science, watching in' the national 
 industry, and assuming the superior direction of the credit estab- 
 lishments, instituted for the development of agriculture. A 
 delegate to the Congress of statistics in Brussels, 1853, Paris, 
 1855, and Berlin 1863, and at the Congress for the unification 
 of coins in 1867, as well as Royal Commissioner for the Inter- 
 national Exhibition in Paris, he has acquired for himself a dis- 
 tinguished rank among his colleagues. In 1865, he represented 
 Portugal in Madrid, as Minister Plenipotentiary, and held the 
 same charge in Paris in 1868. In 1870, he was the President 
 of the Cabinet and Minister for Foreign Affairs. To-day he 
 performs the high functions of Counsellor of State and President 
 of the Chamber of Peers. Whether as savant, orator, cabinet 
 minister or diplomatist, his character has always been brilliant 
 
159 
 
 Notes on Portugal. 
 
 and honorable ; the laws of which he took the initiative in the 
 Chambers, his part also in the labors of different Congress, as 
 well as the reports he has written concerning his .missions in 
 foreign countries, sustains his reputation at home and abroad. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Intoduction . . . . . . 5 
 
 Descrii'tion of Portugal . . . .10 
 
 Historical Sketch . .16 
 
 Language and Literature . . , 52 
 
 Political Organization .... 59 
 
 Ethnography . . . . . .66 
 
 Social Life . . .71 
 
 Army and Navy . . . Tt 
 
 Education . . . . .83 
 
 Agriculture, Industry and Finance . . .8*7 
 
 The Colonies . . . . . .105 
 
 Relations of Portugal with the United Staies . 11*7 
 
 Epilogue . . . . . 126 
 
 The Portuguese Laws . . , . . 139 
 
 Education, Benevolence and Emigracio.v . . 142 
 
 Wine Regions . .148 
 
 Colonial Treaty Lately Concluded . . . 153 
 
 The Discovery of Australia by the Portuguese . 156 
 
 Marquis d Avila e de Bolama . . . 158 
 
EXPLANATORY and ERRATA. 
 
 Milreis = 1,000 reis = $1,084. 
 
 Conto of reis = 1.000,000 reis = $1,084. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 ennobled instead of enobled. 7 
 
 Peninsula " Peninsular. ... 10 
 
 Devastated *' Pevasted ..11 
 
 Zezere " Bezere 11 
 
 It must be admitted that there have 
 have been a few epedeiuics on the 
 
 Continent 12 
 
 Leagues instead of Leaguse 13 
 
 Longitude '' Longtitude . . 13 
 
 Angra " Augra 15 
 
 Visigoths '* Vieigoths 17 
 
 Portuguese •' Portuguse 21 
 
 Apparant ** Appearant 25 
 
 Loanda '* hoando 32 
 
 Vassalage " Vasalage 33 
 
 Incalculable " Incalcuable .... 35 
 
 Beresfoi d * Bresford 39 
 
 Absolutism " Absoluteism.. . .41 
 
 Villaflor " Villaflon 41 
 
 Tagus " Sagus 42 
 
 Capital " Capitol 43 
 
 Terceira " Tercira 43 
 
 Leuchtenberg Luchtehnberg. . 43 
 
 Granja " Graufa 44 
 
 Hugon '* Hugore 45 
 
 Terceira ** Tericia 45 
 
 Carvalho instead of Carralho 44 
 
 FAOB. 
 
 Mm. de Bomfim Mon. de Bonfine 45 
 
 Saldanha " Saldhana 47 
 
 Jervis d' Athoguia in-^tead of J erois 
 
 d' Althoneguia 48 
 
 Seabra instead of Meabra 48 
 
 Magalhaes " Magulhaes 48 
 
 Oratorical " Oraiorica 49 
 
 Development Developenjeni. .53 
 
 Lope '* Cope. 56 
 
 Vicente " l)icente 58 
 
 Silva " vSilra 58 
 
 Ciumes ** Cuimes 58 
 
 valiant *' radiant 70 
 
 Hierarchy " Heirarchy 81 
 
 Leonce " Lei nee 87 
 
 Lupines *' Lussines 87 
 
 Aveiro '' Aviro. 95 
 
 Sacavem " Sacavene 96 
 
 Contos *' Centos 97 
 
 The customs were 3,677 contos in 
 
 1860, or 20,200,000 francs 
 
 Culminating " Cuhmnary 100 
 
 Benguela *" Benguael 105 
 
 Delgado ' Delgudo 109 
 
 Timor '' Fimor Ill 
 
 Indigenous " Indigruous. .. .112 
 Percentage " Precentage.. . .128