Book .ji^-- COPYRIGHT DEPOSI'i Long. East 10 of Gn THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON BY CHARLES DOWNER HAZEN Professor of History in Columbia University WITH MAPS NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1917 •H Copyright, 1917, BY HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY Published February, iqij MAR 22 19 i 7 THE QUINN & BODEN CO. PRESS RAHWAV, N. J. ©CI.A455998 *VUQ ( PREFACE No historian believes that history repeats itself. Yet, between different ages there are frequently- striking analogies and resemblances. It is prob- lems that repeat themselves, not the conditions which determine their solution. One of these problems, recurrent in European annals, is that of the maintenance of a certain balance of power among the various nations as essential to their freedom, the maintenance of a situation to which they are accustomed and which they have found tolerable, a change in which would be prejudicial or dangerous to their peace and safety. Several times in modern history this balance has been threatened and Europe has purchased immunity from servitude by freely giving its life blood that life might remain and might be worth living. To an age like our own, caught in the grip of a world war, whose issues, however incalculable, will inevitably be profound, there is much in- struction to be gained from the study of a similar crisis in the destinies of humanity a cen- iv PREFACE tury ago. The most dramatic and most impres- sive chapter of modern history was written by the French Revolution and by Napoleon. And between that period and our own not only are there points of interesting and suggestive com- parison but there is also a distinct line of causa- tion connecting the two. For the convenience of those who may wish to review this memorable and instructive period I have brought together in this volume the chapters dealing with it in my Modern European History. In the opening twentieth century, as in the opening nineteenth, mankind has been driven to the ordeal by battle by the resolve to preserve the most cherished things of life. Now, as then, civilization hangs upon the arbitra- ment of the sword. It is not churches alone that owe their existence and their power to the blood of the martyrs. The most precious rights of nations and of individuals have not only been achieved, but have been maintained inviolate, by the unconquerable spirit of the brave. " Great is the glory, for the strife is hard! " C. D. H. January 10, 1917. CONTENTS PAGE Introduction : The Old Regime in Europe . i CHAPTER I. The Old Regime in France 55 II. Beginnings of the Revolution . . . ioo III. The Making of the Constitution . . 129 IV. The Legislative Assembly . . . . 152 V. The Convention 180 VI. The Directory 229 VII. The Consulate 267 VIII. The Early Years of the Empire . . . 290 IX. The Empire at Its Height .... 318 X. The Decline and Fall of Napoleon . . 338 Index 371 MAPS IN COLOR Europe in 1789 Frontispiece Europe in 1740 1 Italy in the Eighteenth Century, 1770 . . . . 14 The Growth of Prussia under Frederick the Great . 26 Germany in 1789 32 The Partition of Poland 54 France before the Revolution 62 France by Departments 140 Northern Italy Illustrating Bonaparte's First Campaign 244' Europe in 181 1 340" in black Egypt and Syria 257 - Map Illustrating Campaigns of Napoleon . ,. . 364 Jffoi-nd |CP«. V ^^^v^^^^^ \ nx^ t ate*' .BALTIC SEA i» „,,„_ U^-^C \f V** \ \ iWV * SO^ <&Ev lDESBrkft>~(V reat GO' rf* <* ' - *» t.sir %k^\ )NY ajtiftw 1 Ef; »V^ fcYtf 3 * jaP ol TcK>'" I Brwvt _y STWA (p r «*i I I French Empire I 1 States under Napoleonic contror UTT— — -E^LChr§t □ .dependent State, /tf j^Jjfr Su^M} Scale of Miles J JI Co ^ O R T ^Arenday* !^ 7' * hv * C / ™ ^^J^S^-^— SL^, ^ Cha P e ''e^ Fran|fJ '<<•.„ -~ie5TW, ^ * ^>;,,. "'"lie/ ■V'«-o *-<*>„ ( *UOBe?g "c. X P„° ^gordealn^ i -Si£|fcttJ i '"/e noble "arte,,, r 7^ nci V/ M r Long. East 10 w*il Cu (jr| b #1£ R marif| ^"T" / *mR»» fevirg % v/»~*553^v» ^ ^ 1V* S »^ SEA. ^ BosnaSgr: at»» \y Naples Ban ^sarimlisiC f -YVfirarantQ} \ # *-*___5al — — carts** " Corf^\V°uina^ VPVI Previ'xa u ^ Uvarinoi ;*#iL iV DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON 341 or by a single ruler. It has run the risk several times in its history of passing under such a yoke, but it always in the end succeeded in escaping it. Universal dominion is an anachronism. The secret of Great Britain's hold upon many of the component parts of her empire lies in the fact that she allows them liberty to develop their own l ife in their own way. But such a conception was utterly beyond Napoleon, contrary to all his instincts and convictions. His empire meant the negation of liberty in the various countries which he dominated, France included. Na- poleon's conquests necessarily ranged against him this powerful and unconquerable spirit. The more conquests, the more enemies, only waiting intently for the moment of liberation, scanning the horizon everywhere for the first sign of weakness which to them would be the harbinger of hope. This they found in Spain, and in the Austrian campaign of 1809 in which the ma- chinery of military conquest had creaked, had worked clumsily, had threatened at one moment to break down. There was a force in the world which ran di- rectly counter to Napoleon's projects, the prin- ciple of nationality. Napoleon despised this feel- ing, and in the end it was his undoing. He might have seen that it had been the strength of France 342 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE a few years earlier, that now this spirit had passed beyond the natural boundaries and was waking into a new life, was nerving to a new vigor, coun- tries like Spain, even Austria and, most con- spicuously, Prussia. Prussia after Jena underwent the most serious humiliation a nation can be called to endure. For several years she was under the iron heel of Napoleon, who kept large armies quartered on her soil, who drained her resources, who inter- fered peremptorily in the management of her government, who forbade her to have more than 42,000 soldiers in her army. But out of the very depths of this national degradation came Prus- sia's salvation. Her noblest spirits were aroused to seek the causes of this unexpected and im- measurable national calamity and to try to rem- edy them. From 1808 to 1812 Prussians, under the very scrutiny of Napoleon, who had eyes but did not see, worked passionately upon the prob- lem of national regeneration. The result sur- passed belief. A tremendous national patriotism was aroused by the poets and thinkers, the philosophers and teachers, all bending their ener- gies to the task of quickening among the youth the spirit of unselfish devotion to the fatherland. An electric current of enthusiasm, of idealism, swept through the educational centers and DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON 343 through large masses of the people. The Uni- versity of Berlin, founded in 1809, in Prussia's darkest hour, was, from the beginning, a dy- namic force. It and other universities became nurseries of patriotism. Prussia underwent regeneration in other ways. Particularly memorable was the work of two statesmen, Stein and Hardenberg. Stein, in con- sidering the causes of Prussia's unexampled woes, came to the conclusion that they lay in her defective or harmful social and legal institu- tions. The masses of Prussia were serfs, bound to the soil, their personal liberty gravely re- stricted, and, as Stein said, " patriots cannot be made out of serfs." He persuaded the King to issue an edict of emancipation, abolishing serf- dom. The Prussian king, he said, was no longer "the king of slaves, but of free men." Many other reforms were passed abolishing or reduc- ing class distinctions and privileges. In all this Stein was largely imitating the French Revolu- tionists who by their epoch-making reforms had released the energies of the French so that their power had been vastly multiplied. The army, too, was reorganized, opportunity was opened to talent, as in France, with what magical results we have seen. As Napoleon forbade that the Prussian army should number more than 344 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 42,000 men, the ingenious device was hit upon of having men serve with the colors only a brief time, long enough to learn the essentials of the soldier's life. Then they would pass into the reserve and others would be put rapidly through the same training. By this method several times 42,000 men received a military training whose effectiveness was later to be proved. Thus Prussia's regeneration went on. The new national spirit, wonderfully invigorated, waited with impatience for its hour of probation. It should be noted, however, that these reforms, which resembled in many respects those accom- plished in France by the Constituent Assembly and the Convention, and which were in fact sug- gested by them, rested, however, on very differ- ent principles. There was in Prussia no asser- tion of the Rights of Man, no proclamation of the people as sovereign. In Prussia it was the king who made the reforms, not the people. The theory of the divine right of the monarch was not touched, but was maintained as sacred as ever. There was reform in Prussia but no rev- olution. Prussia took no step toward democ- racy. This distinction has colored the whole subsequent history of that kingdom and colors it today. "Everything for the people, nothing by the people," was evidently the underlying DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON 345 principle in this work of national reorganization. Even these reforms were not carried out com- pletely, owing to opposition from within the kingdom and from without. But, though incom- plete, they were very vitalizing. Napoleon's policies had created other enmities in abundance which were mining the ground be- neath him. His treatment of the Pope, whom he held as a prisoner and whose temporal power he had abolished by incorporating his states, a part in the French Empire and a part in the Kingdom of Italy, made the Catholic clergy everywhere hostile, and offended the faithful. Rome, hith- erto the papal capital, was declared the second city of the Empire and served as a title for Na- poleon's son. All rights of the Pope were thus cavalierly ignored. The subtle and vast influ- ence of the church was of course now directed to the debasement of the man it had previously conspicuously favored and praised. In addition to combating the rising tide of n ationality , Na- poleon henceforth also had his quarrel with the Papacy . Into these entanglements he had been brought by the necessities of his conflict with England, by the continental blockade. For it was that system that drove him on from one aggression to another, from annexation to annexation. 346 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE That system, too, created profound discontent in all the countries of the continent, including France itself. By enormously raising the price of such necessaries as cotton and sugar and cof- fee and tea, products of Britain's colonies or of the tropical countries with which she traded, they introduced hardship and irritation into every home. The normal course of business was turned inside out and men suddenly found their livelihood gone and ruin threatening or already upon them. To get the commodities to which they were accustomed they smuggled on a large and desperate scale. This led to new and severe regulations and harsher punishments, and thus the tyrannical interference in their private lives made multitudes in every country hate the tyranny and long for its overthrow. Widespread economic suffering was the inevitable result of the continental system and did more to make Napoleon's rule unpopular throughout Europe than did anything else except the enormous waste of life occasioned by the incessant warfare. That system, too, was the chief cause of the cup-, ture of the alliance between Russia and France, in 1812, a rupture which led to appalling disaster for Napoleon and was the beginning of the end. The whole stupendous superstructure of Na- poleonic statecraft and diplomacy fell like a DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON 347 house of cards in the three years 1812, 1813, and 1814. The Franco-Russian alliance, concluded so hastily and unexpectedly at Tilsit in 1807, lasted nominally nearly five years. It was, however, un- popular from the beginning with certain influen- tial classes in Russia and its inconveniences be- came increasingly apparent. The aristocracy of Russia, a powerful body, hated this alliance with a country which had abolished its own nobility, leaving its members impoverished by the loss of their lands and privileges. There could be no sympathy between the Russian nobility, based upon the grinding serfdom of the masses, and the country which had swept all traces of feudal- ism aside and proclaimed the equality of men. Moreover the Russian nobility hated the con- tinental system, as it nearly destroyed the com- merce with England in wheat, flax, and timber, which was the chief source of their wealth. Fur- thermore, the Czar Alexander I, having obtained some of the advantages he had expected from his alliance, was irritated, now that he did not ob- tain others for which he had hoped. He had gained Finland from Sweden and the Danubian Principalities from Turkey, but the vague though alluring prospect of a division of the Turkish Empire still remained unfulfilled and was, in- 348 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE deed, rece'ding into the limbo of the unlikely. He wanted Constantinople, and Napoleon made it clear he could never have it. Moreover Alex- ander was alarmed by Napoleon's schemes with the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, a state made out of the Polish provinces which had been ac- quired by Prussia and Austria. Alexander had no objection to Prussia and Austria losing their Polish provinces, but he himself had Polish prov- inces and he dreaded anything that looked like a resurrection of the former Kingdom of Poland, any appeal to the Polish national feeling. But the main cause of Alexander's gradual alienation from his ally was the continental blockade. This was working great financial loss to Russia. Moreover its inconveniences were coming home to him in other ways. To enforce the system more completely in Germany Na- poleon seized in 1811 the Grand Duchy of Old- enburg, which belonged to Alexander's brother- in-law. Thus the alliance was being subjected to a strain it could not stand. In 1812 it snapped, and loud was the report. Napoleon would not allow any breach of the continental blockade if he could prevent it. He resolved to force Rus- sia, as he had forced the rest of the continent, to do his bidding. He demanded that she live DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON 349 up to her promises and exclude Biitish com- merce. The answers were evasive, unsatisfac- tory, and in June, 1812, Napoleon crossed the Kiemen with the largest army he ever com- manded, over half a million men, the "army of twenty nations," as the Russians called it. About one-half were French. The rest were a motley host of Italians, Danes, Croatians, Dal- matians, Poles, Dutchmen, Westphalians, Sax- ons, Bavarians, Wiirtembergers, and still others. For the first time in his military career Napoleon commanded the cooperation of Austria and Prus- sia, both of which were compelled to send con- tingents. There were 100,000 cavalry and a nu- merous and powerful artillery. He had around him a brilliant staff of officers, Murat, Ney, Eugene Beauharnais, and others. It seemed as if no power on earth could resist such an engine of destruction. Napoleon himself spoke of the expedition as the " last act " of the play. It was not quite that, but it was a supremely important act, one full of surprises. From the very start it was seen that in numbers there is sometimes weakness, not strength. This vast machine speedily commenced to give way beneath its own weight. The army had not advanced five days before the commissary department began to break down and bread was lacking. Horses, im- 35Q NAPOLEON BONAPARTE properly nourished, died by the thousands, thus still further demoralizing the commissariat and imperiling the artillery. The Russians adopted the policy of not fighting but constantly retreat- ing, luring the enemy farther and farther into a country which they took the pains to devastate as they retired, leaving no provisions or supplies for the invaders, no stations for the incapaci- tated, as they burned their villages on leaving them. Napoleon seeking above everything a battle, in which he hoped to crush the enemy, was denied the opportunity. The Russians had studied the Duke of Wellington's methods in Portugal and profited by their study. It was 700 miles from the Niemen to Moscow. Na- poleon had had no intention of going so far, but the tactics of his enemy forced him steadily to proceed. The Czar had announced that he would retire into Asia if necessary, rather than sign a peace with his enemy on the sacred soil of Russia. Napoleon hoped for a battle at Smo- lensk, but only succeeded in getting a rear-guard action and a city in flames. This policy of continual retreat, so irritating to the French Emperor, was equally irritating to the Russian people, who did not understand the reason and who clamored for a change. The Russians therefore took up a strong position at DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON 351 Borodino on the route to Moscow. There a bat- tle occurred on September 7, 1812, between the French army of 125,000 men and the Russian of 100,000. The battle was one of the bloodiest of the whole epoch. The French lost 30,000, the Russians 40,000 men. Napoleon's victory was not overwhelming, probably because he could not bring himself to throw in the Old Guard. The Russians retreated in good order, leaving the road open to Moscow, which city Napoleon entered September 14. The army had experi- enced terrible hardships all the way, first over roads soaked by constant rains, then later over roads intensely heated by July suns and giving forth suffocating clouds of dust. Terrible losses, thousands a day, had characterized the march of 700 miles from the Niemen to Moscow. Napoleon had resolved on the march to Mos- cow expecting that the Russians would consent to peace, once the ancient capital was in danger. But no one appeared for that purpose. He found Moscow practically deserted, only 15,000 there, out of a population of 250,000. Moreover the day after his entry fires broke out in various parts of the city, probably set by Russians. For four days the fearful conflagration raged, consuming a large part of the city. Still Napoleon stayed on, week after week, fearing the effect that 352 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE the news of a retreat might produce, and hoping, against hope, that the Czar would sue for peace. Finally there was nothing to do, after wasting a month of precious time, but to order the retreat. This was a long-drawn- out agony, during which an army of 100,000 men was reduced to a few paltry thousands, fretted all along the route by which they had come by Russian armies and by Cossack guerrilla bands, horrified by the sight of thousands of their com- rades still unburied on the battlefield of Boro- dino, suffering indescribable hardships of hun- ger and exhaustion and finally caught in all the horrors of a fierce Russian winter, clad, as many of them were, lightly for a summer campaign. The scenes that accompanied this flight and rout were of unutterable woe, culminating in the hid- eous tragedy of the crossing of the Beresina, the bridge breaking down under the wild confusion of men fighting to get across, horses frightened, the way blocked by carts and wagons, the bridges raked by the fire of the Russian artillery. Thousands were left behind, many fell or threw themselves into the icy river and were frozen to death. In the river, says one writer, when the Russians came up later they saw " awful heaps of drowned soldiers, women, and children, emerging above the surface of the waters, and DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON 353 here and there rigid in death like statues on their ice-bound horses." A few thousand out of all the army finally got out of Russia and across the Niemen. Many could only crawl to the hos- pitals asking for " the rooms where people die." History has few ghastlier pages in all its annals. Napoleon himself left the army on De- cember 5th, and traveled rapidly incognito to Paris, which he reached on the 18th. " I shall be back on the Niemen in the spring," was the statement with which he tried to make men think that the lost position would be soon re- covered. He did not quite keep the promise. He did not get as far back again as the Niemen. But 1813 saw him battling for his supremacy in Germany, as 1812 had seen him battling for it in Russia. The Russian disaster had sent a thrill of hope through the ranks of his enemies everywhere. The colossus might be, indeed appeared to be, falling. Had not the auspicious moment arrived for annihilating him? Particularly violent was the hatred of the Prussians, who had, more than other peoples, felt the ruthlessness of his tyranny for the last six years. They trembled with eager- ness to be let loose and when their King made a treaty of alliance with Russia and subsequently made a more direct and personal appeal to his 354 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE people than any Prussian monarch had ever made before, they responded enthusiastically. There was a significant feature about this Treaty of Kalisch with Russia. Russia was not to lay down her arms against Napoleon until Prussia had recovered an area equal to that which she had possessed before the battle of Jena. But the area was not to be the same, for Russia was to keep Prussia's Polish provinces, now included in the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, whose doom was decreed. Prussia should have compensation in northern Germany. Could Napoleon rely on the Confederation of the Rhine and on his ally Austria? This re- mained to be seen. A reverse would almost surely cost him the support of the former and the neutrality of the latter. Their loyalty would be proportioned to his success. There was with them not the same popular wrath as with the Prussians. On the other hand, their princes had a keen eye for the main chance. Austria surely would use Napoleon's necessities for her own advantage. The princes of the Rhenish Confederation wished to retain the ad- vantages they had won largely through their complaisant cooperation with Napoleon during recent years. Austria wished to recover advan- tages she had lost, territory, prestige, badly DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON 355 tattered and torn by four unsuccessful cam- paigns. Napoleon, working feverishly since the return from Russia, finally got an army of over 200,000 men together. But to do this he had to draw upon the youth of France, as never before, call- ing out recruits a year before their time for serv- ice was due. A large part of them were un- trained, and had to get their training on the march into Germany. The army was weak in cavalry, a decisive instrument in following up a victory and clinching it. Napoleon was back in central Germany before the Russians and Prussians were fully prepared. He defeated them at Liitzen and at Bautzen in May, 1813, but was unable to follow up his vic- tories because of the lack of sufficient cavalry, and the campaign convinced him that he could accomplish nothing decisive without reinforce- ments. He therefore agreed, in an unlucky mo- ment, as it later proved, to a six weeks' armistice. During that time he did get large reinforcements but his enemies got larger. And during that in- terval the diplomatic intriguing went against him so that when the armistice was over Austria had joined the alliance of Russia, Prussia, and England, against him. He defeated the Aus- trians at Dresden (August 26-27), his last great 356 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE victory. His subordinates were, however, beaten in subsidiary engagements and he was driven back upon Leipsic. There occurred a decisive three days' battle, the " Battle of the Nations," as the Germans call it (October 16-18). In point of numbers involved this was the greatest bat- tle of the Napoleonic era. Over half a million men took part, at most 200,000 under Napoleon, 300,000 under the commanders of the allies. Na- poleon was disastrously defeated and was sent flying back across the Rhine with only a small remnant. of his army. The whole political struc- ture which he had built up in Germany collapsed. The members of the Confederation of the Rhine deserted the falling star, and entered the alliance against him, on the guarantee of their posses- sions by the allies. Jerome fled from West- phalia and his brief kingdom disappeared. Meanwhile Wellington, who for years had been aiding the Spaniards, had been successful and was crossing the Pyrenees into southern France. The coils were closing in upon the lion, who now stood at bay. The allies moved on after the retreating French toward the Rhine. It had been no part of their original purpose to demand Napoleon's abdication. They now, in November 1813, of- fered him peace on the basis of the natural DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON 357" frontiers of France, the Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees. He would not accept but procrasti- nated, and made counter-propositions. Even in February 1814 he could have retained his throne and the historic boundaries of the old Bourbon monarchy, had he been willing to renounce the rest. He dallied with the suggestion, secretly hoping for some turn in luck that would spring the coalition apart and enable him to recover the ground he had lost. In thus refusing to recog- nize defeat, refusing to accept an altered situa- tion, he did great harm to France and completed his own downfall. His stiff, uncompromising, unyielding temper sealed his doom. He was no longer acting as the wise statesman, responsible for the welfare of a great people who, by their unstinted sacrifices, had put him under heavy obligations. His was the spirit of the gambler, thinking to win all by a happy turn of the cards. He was also will incarnate. With will and luck all might yet be retrieved. He had said, on leaving Germany, " I shall be back in May with 250,000 men." He did not ex- pect a winter campaign and he felt confident that by May he could have another army. The allies, however, did not wait for May, but at the close of December 1813 streamed across the Rhine and invaded France from various directions. France, 358 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE victorious for eighteen years, now experienced what she had so often administered to others. The campaign was brief, only two months, Feb- ruary and March 1 8 14. Napoleon was hope- lessly outnumbered. Yet this has been called the most brilliant of his campaigns. Fighting on the defensive and on inner lines, he showed mar- velous mastery of the art of war, striking here, striking there with great precision and swiftness, undaunted, resourceful, tireless. The allies needed every bit of their overwhelming superior- ity in numbers to compass the end of their re- doubtable antagonist, with his back against the wall and his brain working with matchless lucid- ity and with lightning-like rapidity. They thought they could get to his capital in a week. It took them two months. However, there could be but one end to such a campaign, if the allies held together, as they did. On the 30th of March Paris capitulated and on the following day the Czar Alexander and Frederick William III, the King of Prussia, made their formal entry into the city which the Duke of Brunswick twenty-two years before had threatened with destruction if it laid sacrilegious hands upon the King or Queen. Since that day much water had flowed under the bridge, and France and Europe had had a strange history, signifying much. DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON 359 The victors would not longer tolerate Na- poleon. He was forced to abdicate uncondition- ally. He was allowed to retain his title of Em- peror, but henceforth he was to rule only over Elba, an island nineteen miles long and six miles wide, lying off the coast of Tuscany, whence his Italian ancestors had sailed for Corsica two cen- turies and a half before he was born. Thither he repaired, having said farewell to the Old Guard in the courtyard of the palace of Fontaine- bleau, kissing the flag of France made lustrous on a hundred fields. "Nothing but sobbing was heard in all the ranks," wrote one of the soldiers who saw the scene, "and I can say that I too shed tears when I saw my Emperor depart."' On the day that Napoleon abdicated, the Sen- ate, so-called guardian of the constitution, ob- sequious and servile to the Emperor in his days of fortune, turned to salute the rising sun, and in solemn session proclaimed Louis XVIII King of France. The allies, who had conquered Na- poleon and banished him to a petty island in the Mediterranean, thought they were done with him for good and all. But from this complacent self-assurance they were destined to a rude awakening. Their own errors and wranglings at the Congress of Vienna, whither they repaired in September 1814 to divide the spoils and de- 360 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE termine the future organization of Europe, and the mistakes and indiscretions of the Bourbons whom they restored to rule in France, gave Na- poleon the opportunity for the most audacious and wonderful adventure of his life. Louis XVIII, the new king, tried to adapt him- self to the greatly altered circumstances of the country to which he now returned in the wake of foreign armies after an absence of twenty-two years. He saw that he could not be an absolute king as his ancestors had been, and he therefore granted a Charter to the French, giving them a legislature and guaranteeing certain rights which they had won and which he saw could not safely be withdrawn. His regime assured much larger liberty than France had ever experienced under Napoleon. Nevertheless certain attitudes of his and ways of speaking, and the actions of the royalists who surrounded him, and several unwise measures of government, soon rendered him unpopular and irritated and alarmed the people. He spoke of himself as King by the grace of God, thus denying the sovereignty of the people; he dated his first document, the Charter, from " the nineteenth year of my reign," as if there had never been a Republic and a Na- poleonic Empire; he restored the white flag and banished the glorious tricolor which had been car- DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON 361 ried in triumph throughout Europe. What was much more serious, he offended thousands of Na- poleon's army officers by retiring or putting them on half-pay, many thus being reduced to desti- tution, and all feeling themselves dishonored. Moreover many former nobles who had early in the Revolution emigrated from France and then fought against her received honors and distinctions. Then, in addition, the Roman Catholic clergy and the nobles of the court talked loudly and unwisely about getting back their lands which had been confiscated and sold to the peasants, although both the Con- cordat of 1802 and the Charter of 1814 dis- tinctly recognized and ratified these changes and promised that they should not be dis- turbed. The peasants were far and away the most numerous class in France, and they were thus early alienated from the Bourbons by these threats at their most vital interest, their property rights, which Napoleon had always stoutly main- tained. Thus a few months after Napoleon's ab- dication the evils of his reign were forgotten, the terrible cost in human life, the burdensome taxation, the tyranny of it all, and he was looked upon as a friend, as a hero to whom the soldiers had owed glory and repute and the peasants the secure possession of their farms. In this way a 362 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE mental atmosphere hostile to Louis XVIII, and favorable to Napoleon, was created by a few months of Bourbon rule. Napoleon, penned up in his little island, took note of all this. He also heard of the serious dis- sensions of the allies now that they were trying to divide the spoils at Vienna, of their jealousies and animosities, which, in January 1815, rose to such a pitch that Austria, France, and Eng- land prepared to go to war with Prussia and Russia over the allotment of the booty. He also knew that they were intriguing at the Congress for his banishment to some place remote from Europe. For ten months he had been in his miniature kingdom. The psychological moment had come for the most dramatic action of his life. Leav- ing the island with twelve hundred guards, and escaping the vigilance of the British cruisers, he landed at Cannes on March 1. That night he started on the march to Paris and on March 20 entered the Tuileries, ruler of France once more. The return from Elba will always remain one of the most romantic episodes of history. With a force so small that it could easily have been taken prisoner, he had no alternative and no other wish than to appeal directly to the confidence of the people. Never was there such a magnificent re- DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON 363 sponse. All along the route the peasants received him enthusiastically. But his appeal was par- ticularly to the army, to whom he issued one of his stirring bulletins. " Soldiers," it began, " we have not been conquered. We were betrayed. Soldiers! Come and range yourselves under the banner of your chief: his existence depends wholly on yours: his interests, his honor, and his glory are your interests, your honor, your glory. Come! Victory will march at double-quick. The eagle with the national colors shall fly from steeple to steeple to the towers of Notre Dame. Then you will be able to show your scars with honor: then you will be able to boast of what you have done: you will be the liberators of your country." Regiment after regiment went over to him. The royalists thought he would be arrested at Grenoble, where there was a detachment of the army under a royalist commander. Napoleon went straight up to them, threw open his grey coat, and said, "Here I am: you know me. If there is a soldier among you who wishes to shoot his Emperor, he can do it." The soldiers flocked over to him, tearing off the white cock- ades and putting on the tricolor, which they had secretly carried in their knapsacks. Opposition melted away all along the route. It became a 364 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON 365" triumphant procession. When lies would help Napoleon told them — among others that it was not ambition that brought him back, that "the forty-five best heads of the government of Paris have called me from Elba and my return is sup- ported by the three first powers of Europe." He admitted that he had made mistakes and assured the people that henceforth he desired only to follow the paths of peace and liberty. He had come back to protect the threatened blessings of the Revolution. The last part of this intoxicat- ing journey he made in a carriage attended by only a half-dozen Polish lancers. On March 20 Louis XVIII fled from the Tuileries. That evening Napoleon entered it. " What was the happiest period of your life as Emperor?" some one asked him at St. Helena. "The march from Cannes to Paris," he instantly replied. His happiness was limited to less than the "Hundred Days" which this period of his reign is called. Attempting to reassure France and Europe, he met from the former, tired of war, only half-hearted support, from the allies only remorseless opposition. When the diplomats at the Congress of Vienna heard of his escape from Elba they immediately ceased their contentions and banded themselves together against "this 366 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE disturber of the peace of Europe." They de- clared him an outlaw and set their armies in mo- tion. He saw that he must fight to maintain himself. He resolved to attack before his ene- mies had time to effect their union. The battle- field was in Belgium, as Wellington with an army of English, Dutch, Belgians, and Germans, and, at some distance from them, Bliicher with a large army of Prussians, were there. If Na- poleon could prevent their union, then by defeat- ing each separately, he would be in a stronger position when the Russian and Austrian armies came on. Perhaps, indeed, they would think it wiser not to come on at all but to conclude peace. In Belgium consequently occurred a four days' campaign culminating on the famous field of Waterloo, twelve miles south of Brussels. There on a hot Sunday in June Napoleon was disas- trously defeated (June 18, 1815). The sun of Austerlitz set forever. The battle, begun at half- past eleven in the morning, was characterized by prodigies of valor, by tremendous charges of cavalry and infantry back and forth over a sod- den field. Wellington held his position hour after hour as wave after wave of French troops rushed up the hill, foaming in and about the solid unflinching British squares, then, unable to break them, foamed back again. Wellington DECLINE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON 367 held on, hoping, looking for the Prussians under Bliicher, who, at the beginning of the battle, were eleven miles away. They had promised to join him, if he accepted battle there, and late in the afternoon they kept the promise. Their arrival was decisive, as Napoleon was now greatly out- numbered. In the early evening, as the sun was setting, the last charge of the French was re- pulsed. Repulse soon turned into a rout and the demoralized army streamed from the field in utter panic, fiercely pursued by the Prussians. The Emperor, seeing the utter annihilation of his army, sought death, but sought in vain. " I ought to have died at Waterloo," he said later, "but the misfortune is that when a man seeks death most he cannot find it. Men were killed around me, before, behind — everywhere. But there was no bullet for me." He fled to Paris, then toward the western coast of France hoping to escape to the United States, but the English cruisers off the shore rendered that impossible. Making the best of necessity he threw himself upon the generosity of the British. "I have come," he announced, "like Themistocles, to seek the hospitality of the British nation." In- stead of receiving it, however, he was sent to a rock in the South Atlantic, the island of St. Helena, where he was kept under a petty and 368 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE ignoble surveillance. Six years later he died of cancer of the stomach at the age of fifty-two, leaving an extraordinary legend behind him to disturb the future. He was buried under a slab that bore neither name nor date, and it was twenty years before he was borne to his final resting-place under the dome of the Invalides in Paris, although in his last will and testament he said : " My wish is to be buried on the banks of the Seine in the midst of the French people whom I have loved so well." INDEX INDEX Abukir Bay, 255, 257 Acre, 256 Acton, Lord, opinion of Fred- erick the Great, 24 Aiguillon, Duke d', 122 Alexander I (Russia), concludes Peace of Tilsit, 313-316; and Napoleon at Erfurt, 330-331; desires to break the Franco- Russian alliance, 347-349; en- ters Paris, 358 Alexandria, 254-255 Alfieri, on Italian nationality, 15 Alsace, feudal dues in, 159-160, 168 America, Seven Years' War in, 6, 7, 26; revolt of the English Colonies in, 11-13; as model for France, 133-134, 137, 221- 222 Amiens, Peace of (1802), 273- 274, 288, 297 Antwerp, 296-297 Archangel, 37 Archives, National, 227 Areola, battle of, 241 Arrondissements, 140 Artois, Count of, and the Revo- lution, 124, 148, 157; plots against Bonaparte, 287 Asia, Seven Years' War in, 6, 26; Russia and, 33, 350 Assembly. See National, Con- stituent, and Legislative — assignats, 143-144 Auerstadt, battle of, 311 Augereau, 236, 276 August 4, 1789, 121- 123, 159; Louis XVI and the decrees of, 125-126 August 10, 1792. I73-I7S, 233 Aulard, on the Convention, 181 ; on Robespierre, 213 Austerlitz, battle of, 301-302, 3*3, 335, 366; results of, 304- 308, 323, 333 Austria, in 1789, 2, 16-19; in the Seven Years' War, 6, 27-28; and Prussia, 18-19, 21, 24, 26, 31, 52-53, 244; and Poland, 31, 53, 244; and Russia, 31, 53, 244; and the emigres, 156, 168; France at war with, 168- 173, 225-226, 229-230, 238-243; Prussia aids, against France, 172-173; and the Treaty of Campo Formio, 246-247; joins coalition (second) against France, 260, 271 ; war against, in Italy and Germany, 271-273 ; joins England and Russia in coalition (third) against Na- poleon, 299-302, 318; signs Treaty of Pressburg, 302-303; not included in the Confedera- tion of the Rhine, 315, 339; and the Continental Blockade, 321 ; begins war against France (1809), 333-335; makes Peace of Vienna with Napoleon, 335- 337; becomes ally of Napo- leon, 339, 349; development of nationality in, 342; and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 348; joins Russia, Prussia, and England against Napoleon, 355 ; and the Congress of Vi- enna, 359-360, 362; and the Waterloo Campaign, 366 Austrian Netherlands, France in possession of, 225, 229. See also Belgium 37i 372 INDEX Austrian Succession, wars of (1740-1748), 26, 52 B Baden, 16; gains of, in South Germany, 303 Bailly, 116, 204 Baltic Provinces, conquered by Russia, 37 Bank of France, founded by Bonaparte, 286 Barnave, 205 Bairas, 223-224 Basel, Treaty of (1795), 225, 229, 310 Bastille, 86; fall of, 1 19-120, 129, 148 Batavian Republic. See Holland Bautzen, battle of, 355 Bavaria, 16; Austria sends army into, 300; gains of, in south Germany, 303; becomes a kingdom, 303 ; and the Con- federation of the Rhine, 308; Napoleon fights Austrians in, 334 Baylen, 328, 329 Bayonne, 324 Beauharnais, Eugene, 349 Beauharnais, Josephine. See Josephine, Empress Beaulieu, 239 Belgium, emigres in, 148; war in, 170, 229; Austrian posses- sions in, ceded to France, 247 ; French conquest of, 274 ; Code Napoleon put into force in, 285; England's jealousy of French conquest of, 296, 299; Napoleon attacks the allies in, 366-367. See also Austrian Netherlands Berg, Murat becomes Duke of, 305 Berlin, war party in, 310-31 1; Napoleon issues decrees from, 312; University of, founded, 343 Berlin Decrees, 312, 319 Berthier, 253, 258 Bliicher, 366-367 Bonaparte, Caroline, marries Murat, 305 Bonaparte, Charles, 230 Bonaparte, Elise, becomes Prin- cess of Lucca, and Carrara, 305 Bonaparte, Jerome, 231, 305- 306; becomes King of West- phalia, 315, 339; flees from Westphalia, 356 Bonaparte, Joseph, becomes King of Naples, 304, 323; ab- dicates and becomes King of Spain, 325, 329, 339 Bonaparte, Louis, becomes King of Holland, 304; refuses to enforce the Continental Block- ade, 322; forced to abdicate, 322, 338 Bonaparte, Lucien, 262, 264-266, 305 Bonaparte, Napoleon. See Na- poleon Bonaparte, Pauline, becomes Duchess of Guastalla, 305 Borodino, battle of, 351, 352 Boulogne, 298, 300 Bourbons, banner of the, 120, 360; House of, in France, 125, 170; overthrow of, in France, 168, 323; monarchical party desires restoration of, 168, 220, 281 ; centralization of gov- ernment under, 193, 271 ; Eng- land and the, 250; Napoleon and the, 275, 279, 288; House of, ceases to rule in Naples, 304, 323 ; House of, in Spain, 323-325; restored in France, 360-362 Bourgeoisie, in France, under Old Regime, 80-82 Bourrienne, 252, 264 Braganza, House of. See Por- tugal Brandenburg. See Prussia Brazil, 323 Bremen, 322, 338 Breze, de, 117 Brienne, 231 INDEX 373 British Isles. See England Brumaire, 206; the 18th and 19th, 263-265, 267 Brunswick, Duke of, issues manifesto, 172-173, 175, 358; leads forces against France, 177 Buzot, 166 Cadoudal, Georges, 287, Caen, 190 cahiers, 111-112, 135 Cairo, French march to, 254-255, 257 Calonne, 107-108 Cambaceres, 269 Campo Formio, Peace of, 245- 247, 250, 273, 296, 303, 306 Canada, acquisition of, by Eng- land, 2, 7 Cannes, 362, 365 Carnot, 198 Carrier, 201-202, 206 Catherine II {1762-1796), 44-46, 50, 53 Catholic Church (Roman), posi- tion of the clergy of, under the Old Regime, 72-76; under Louis XVI, 85; Voltaire and, 85, 94-95 ; clergy of, in the States-General, 109-116; atti- tude of clergy of, toward the National Assembly, 118; clergy of, renounce privileges, 122; Constituent Assembly and, 142-147; Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 144-147, 154; and state separated, 226 ; the Bour- bons and, 279; Bonaparte and, 279-283, 336, 345; position of, in Germany altered by Bona- parte, 307-308; clergy of, in Spain against Napoleon, 327; clergy of, and the Bourbon restoration, 361 Ceylon, 274 Charles, Archduke of Austria, 242, 334-335 Charles IV (Spain), abdicates, 324 Charter of 1814 (French), 360- 361 Chateaux, war upon the, 121, 148 Chatham, Earl of. See Pitt Chaumette, 206 Church. See Catholic Church (Roman) and Orthodox Greek Church Cintra, 329 Cisalpine Republic, 247 ; becomes Kingdom of Italy (1805), 294. See Italy City Council of Paris. See Paris, Revolutionary Com- mune Civil Code, 284 Civil Constitution of the Clergy. See Constitution Clement XIV (Pope), 30 Clergy. See Catholic Church (Roman) Code Napoleon, 284 Committee of General Security, created, 187, 193; work of, 195, 217 Committee of Public Safety, created, 187, 193; work of, 194-217 Commune (Paris). See Paris " Conclusion " of March, 1803, 307 Concordat (1802), 280-281, 361 Conde, Prince of. See Eng- hien, Duke d' Condorcet, 205 Confederation of the Rhine ( 1806), formation of, 308, 315, 339, 354; members of, desert Napoleon, 356 Congress of Vienna, 359-360, 362, 365 Conservatory of Arts and Crafts, 227 Constantinople, seat of Ortho- dox Greek Church, 33 ; Russia covets, 46, 348; Napoleon's ambitions for, 256 Constituent Assembly, composi- tion and character, 118, 153, 205; comes to Paris, 127-128; 374 INDEX and the making of the Con- stitution, 129-151, 193, 344; and the German princes, 160; and the codification of the laws, 284. See National As- sembly Constitution, demand for, 112, 116; making of the, 129-151 ; of 1791, 134-Hi, 152, 175, 191, 221, 270; Civil, of the Clergy, 144-147, 154; of 179 3, 191-192, 220; of 1795 (Year III), 221- 222, 229, 261 ; of the Year VIII (1799), 268, 294 Consulate (1799-1804), 267-289 Consuls, 265, 267-269. See also Consulate Continental System, 318-322, 338- 339, 345-349 Convention (France), called, 175-176; work of, 180-229, 277, 284, 318, 344; becomes prisoner of the Commune, 189; Bonaparte defends the, 224-225, 233 Corday, Charlotte, and Marat, 204 Cordelier Club, 161-162 Corsica, Bonaparte and, 230, 232-233, 235, 259, 359 corvee, 106 Council of Elders, 221-223, 262- 265 Council of State, 269, 284-285 Council of the Five Hundred, 221-223, 262-265 Counter-revolutionaries, 124, 147 coup d'etat, 262-263, 265, 268 Courland, 37 Couthon, 218 Crimea, Russia gains, 45 customary laws, 64 Dalmatia, handed over to Aus- tria, 247; ceded to Napoleon, Danton, as a monarchist, 150; as a leader, 162, 198; becomes head of the provisional ex- ecutive council, 176; on the importance of Paris, 182; and the Jacobins, 183 ; as peace- maker, 188-189; dropped from Committee of Public Safety, 193; and the Revolutionary Tribunal, 195; and Robes- pierre, 209-212, 213; advocates moderation, 210 ; fall of, 212; on education, 227 Dantonists, 210 Danubian principalities, 347. David, 215 Davout, 311 Dego, 238 Denmark, and the Continental Blockade, 321 Departments, of France, 140- 141; civil war in, 190, 225; government of, under the con- sulate, 271 ; of the Empire, 338 Desaix, 253, 272 Desmoulins, Camille, 210 Diderot, 45, 89 Diet, German (Imperial), 17, 160 Directors. See Directory Directory, composition of, 222; work of, 226, 229-266, 277, 284, 318; abolition of, 265 Dresden, battle of, 355 Ducos, becomes Consul, 265 Dumouriez, 187 Dupont, General, 328, 329 Eastern Question, Russia and, 46 Education, work of the Conven- tion for, 227; system of na- tional, reorganized, 286 Egypt, Napoleon and, 251-256, 258-260, 271, 280, 317; French compelled to evacuate, 273; England promises to evacuate, 274 Elba, Napoleon sent to, 359; his return from, 362, 365 Elders, Council of. See Council of Elders Elizabeth (1741-1762), and the Seven Years' War, 44 INDEX 375 Emerson, on Napoleon, 291 Emigres, intrigues of, 156-157, 168, 172, 184; many, guillo- tined, 202; laws against, re- laxed, 279 ; Louis XVIII's pol- icy toward, 361 Empire, the, 274 ; early years of, 290-317; at its height, 31 8-337; decline and fall of, 338-368 Empress Josephine. See Jose- phine (Beauharnais), Empress Enghien, Duke d', 288, 324 England, in the eighteenth cen- tury, 2-14, 47-48; acquisition of Canada and India by, 2, 7-9; evolution of the par- liamentary system of gov- ernment in, 3-6; colonial pol- icy of, 6; in the Seven Years' War, 6-8, 26; territorial gains by Peace of Paris {1763), 7-8; and the American Revo- lution, 11-13; young Russians sent to, 37; Montesquieu's opinion of the government of, 91 ; Rousseau on the govern- ment of, 97; influence of the government of, on French Constitution, 133, 136-137; at war with France, 187, 225-226, 229, 250-260, 271, 273; makes Peace of Amiens with France, 273-274; French bishops in, 279; Napoleon and, 296-303, 312, 314, 3i6, 318-323, 338-339, 345-346; issues Orders in Council, 319; and Portugal, 320, 323, 334; and Spain, 329- 333; and the Congress of Vi- enna, 359-360, 362; and the Waterloo Campaign, 366-367 Equality, Bonaparte and civil, 275, 285, 293 Erfurt Interview (1808), 330-331 Essling, battle of, 334 Esthonia, 37 Europe, Old Regime in, 1-545 Seven Years' War in, 6, 26; emigres eager to embroil, with France, 148, 156, 158; Treaty of Campo Formio changes the map of, 246-247; at peace, 274; ascendency of France in, 295 ; Napoleon alters diplo- matic system of, 314; and the Continental Blockade, 321, 345- 349; effect of capitulation at Baylen upon, 328; Napoleon seeks to dazzle, 330; Napoleon preeminent in, 339-340; Con- gress of Vienna determines future organization of, 359- 360, 362, 365-366 Eylau, battle of, 313 Federal Convention (U. S.). See Philadelphia Convention Ferdinand (later Ferdinand VII) of Spain, 324-325 Feudalism, in Prussia, 19; in France, 71, 83; abolished in France, 121-123, 275-276; in Alsace, 159-160, 168; in Spain, 332 Finland, Alexander I and, 314, 32i, 347 First Consul. See Napoleon Five Hundred, Council of the. See Council Florida, acquired by England from Spain, 1763, 7-8 Fontainebleau, 359 Fouquier-Tinville, 217 Fourteenth of July. See July 14, 1789 Fox, and the American Revolu- tion, 11 France, the Old Regime in, 2, 55- 99 ; and the Seven Years' War, 7-8, 26-27 ; and the American Revolution, 11-12, 100; and the Jesuits, 30; aids Prussia against Austria, 52; effect of the Revolution in the life of, 56; beginnings of the Revolu- tion, 100-128; and the making of the Constitution, 129-151; government of, under the Con- stitution of 1791, 134-141 ; Civil Constitution of the 376 INDEX Clergy of, 144-147 ; Legislative Assembly of, 152-179; and the emigres, 156-157; declares war against Francis II of Austria, 168; becomes a democracy, 175 ; Paris becomes dominant in the affairs of, 175-178; un- der the Convention, 180-228, 344; republic established in, 180-181 ; civil war in, 190, 225; dechristianization of, 206-209; under the Directory, 229-266; and Corsica, 230; Savoy and Nice ceded to, 238; and the Treaty of Campo Formio, 246- 247; threatened with invasion, 258, 260; under the Consulate, 267-289; and the Peace of Amiens, 273-274 ; Concordat determines relations of church and state in, 281-283; Code Napoleon, 284-285 ; Bank of, founded, 286; early years of the Empire in, 290-317; be- comes chief Adriatic power, 303 ; influence of, in South Germany, 309; the Empire at its height in, 318-337; annexes Holland and northern coasts of Germany, 322, 338 ; and the Papal States, 322, 345; alli- ance of, and Russia renewed, 33i, 333; gains of, by Peace of Vienna, 336; the decline and fall of Napoleon, 338-368; rupture of the Franco-Russian alliance, 346-353 ; peace offered to, on the basis of the natural boundaries, 356-357; allies in- vade, 357; Louis XVIII pro- claimed King of, 359; and the Congress of Vienna, 359"36o, 362 ; policy of Louis XVIII in, 360-361; Napoleon returns to, 362 Francis I (Austria). See Francis II Francis II (Holy Roman Em- pire), France declares war against, 168, 170; retires from Vienna, 301 ; becomes Francis I (Austria), 309; daughter of, marries Napoleon, 336-337 Frederick II (the Great), 1740- 1786, 20-32, 50, 310; and the Pragmatic Sanction, 53 ; Na- poleon visits tomb of, 312 Frederick William I (Prussia), 22 Frederick William II, 32 Frederick William III (Prussia), policy of, 310-313; enters Paris, 358 gabelle, salt tax, 68-69 Galicia, disposition of, by Peace of Vienna, 335 Gaza, 256 General Security. See Commit- tee of General Security " Generalities," in France under the Old Regime, 61 Genoa, in 1789, 2, 14, 47; and Corsica, 230 ; becomes the Li- gurian Republic, 244; and Na- poleon, 248; Massena driven into, 271-272 George I (Elector of Hanover), King of England, 1714-1727, 4-5 George II, King of England, 1727-17 60, 4-6 George III, King of England, 1760-1820, 8-12; and the Amer- ican Revolution, 11-12 German Empire. See Holy Ro- man Empire Germany, in 1789, 16-32; Fred- erick II and, 31-32; influence of, in Russia, 40-41 ; emigres in, 148, 156; states of, at war with France, 187, 229; France in possession of provinces west of the Rhine, 225; cam- paign through southern, 230; congress of states of, 247; French driven out of, 260; French defeat Austrians in, 273 ; French bishops in, 279 ; Code Napoleon put in force INDEX 377 in states of, 285 ; Napoleon seizes Hanover, 298 ; Napoleon sends Grand Army across, 300; Bavaria and Baden gain pos- sessions in south, 303; trans- formation of, by Napoleon, 306-315, 326, 339 5 northern coasts of, annexed to France, 322, 338; kings and princes of, summoned to Erfurt, 330; troops from, sent to aid Na- poleon, 334-335 ; Napoleon bat- tles for supremacy in, 353- 356; Prussia to have compen- sation in northern, 354 Gironde, 166 Girondists, personnel, 166-168; desire war, 169; and the Jacobins, 178, 181-186, 188- 190; leaders of, expelled from the Convention, 189-190, 193, 205 ; call the departments to arms, 190; Lyons and, 200; twenty-one, guillotined, 203 ; offices open to, 278 Godoy, 324 Goethe, 331 " Governments," in France under the Old Regime, 61 Great Elector (Prussia), 1640- 1688, 21 Great Khan, 34 Great Saint Bernard pass, 272, 301 " Great Terror," 205, 217 Greece, 150 Grenoble, 363 Guilds, abolished, 122, 276 H Hamburg, 322, 338 Hanover, House of, in England (17 14 — ), 3; Napoleon seizes, 298 Hapsburg, House of. See Aus- tria Hardenberg, 343 Hebert, and the Pere Duchesne, 206; guillotined, 210 Hebertists, 209; and the Com- mittee of Public Safety, 210 Hohenlinden, battle of, 273 Hohenzollern, House of. See Prussia Holland, government of, in 1789, 2; young Russians sent to, 2>7 \ at war with France, 187, 225; makes peace with France, 225, 229; loses colo- nies, 273 ; colonies of, restored, 274; Louis Bonaparte becomes king of, 304; and the Conti- nental Blockade, 322; annexed to France, 322, 338 Holy Roman Empire, in 1789, 2, 16-19, 159; comes to an end, 308-309. See also Germany " Hundred Days," 365-367 I Illyrian Provinces, 336 India, acquisition of, by Eng- land, 2, 8; in the Seven Years' War, 7; Napoleon and, 251, 256; Wellesley and, 329 Industrial Revolution, in Eng- land, 3 Inquisition, in Spain, 332 Institute, 227 Intendants, under the Old Re- gime, 61-62, 271 Invalides, 368 Isnard, 166 Istria, handed over to Austria, 247 ; ceded to Napoleon, 303 Italy, in 1789, 14-16; states of, enter war against France, 187 ; Bonaparte and, 230, 234, 237- 250, 326; French driven out of, 258, 260, 271 ; Bonaparte leads army into, 271-272; northern, abandoned to the French, 273 ; Code Napoleon in force in, 285; Napoleon King of, 294, 314, 338; England jealous of French domination in, 296- 299; Austria eager to recover her position in, 299; Venetia ceded to the Kingdom of, 303; 378 INDEX and the Continental Blockade, 320; Napoleon annexes part of the Papal States to the King- dom of, 322, 338, 345; troops from, go to aid Napoleon, 334 J Jacobin Club, personnel, 161-162, 196; Robespierre and, 213 Jacobins, and Girondists, 168, 178, 181-186, 188-190; desire war, 169; organize demonstra- tion against the King, 171- 172; and the insurrection of August 10, 1792, 17s; and the Commune, 176, 189-190; be- come masters of the Conven- tion, 190; Robespierre and, 212; lose power, 220; offices open to, 278 Jaffa, 256 Jena, battle of, 311, 313, 342, 354 Jesuits, given refuge by Fred- erick II, 30 Jews, under Louis XVI, 85, 145 ; position of, in South Germany improved, 309 Josephine (Beauharnais), Em- press, and Napoleon, 233-234, 245, 30i, 313; crowned, 294; divorced, 336 Jourdan, 230 Julian calendar, introduced into Russia, 41 July 14, 1789, 1 19-120, 124 June 20, 1792, 171-172, 233 Junot, 329 K Kalisch, Treaty of, 354 " King of Rome," 337 Kleber, 253, 258 Kunersdorf, battle of, 28 Lafayette, and the events of October 5-6, 1789, 126-127 ; and the Declaration of the Rights of Man, 129 Lamartine, 166-167 Lannes, 253 Law of 22nd Prairial, 215-216, 218 Law School, of Paris, 227 Lebrun, 269 Legendre, 172 Legion of Honor, 286 Legislative Assembly, 152-179 Legislative Body, 269 Legislature, 269 Leipsic, battle of, 356 Leoben, preliminary peace of (1797), 242, 245 Lettres de cachet, 58, 86-87, 93, 112, 119 Liberty, political, in France, 87 ; Voltaire and, 95; Rousseau and, 95-98; Montesquieu and, 95, 135 ; Louis XVI proclaimed the Restorer of French, 123; Napoleon and, 275, 277 Library, National, 227 Ligurian Republic. See Genoa Lisbon, 323; Wellesley lands at, 329 Livonia, 37 Lobau, Island of, 334 Lodi, 239, 242 Lombardy, Austria controls, 230, 239; Austria relinquishes her rights in, 247 Lomenie de Brienne, 108-109 Louis XIV, 100 Louis XV, and the Seven Years' War, 13 ; extravagance of, 100; death of, 101 Louis XVI, government under, 57-87, 100-128; extravagance of, 60, 66; and Protestantism, 85 ; and the beginnings of the Revolution, 100-128; his char- acter, 100-103; his ministers, 102-111; and the States-Gen- eral, 113-115; and the National Assembly, 115-118; and the revolution in Paris, 120; pro- claimed the "Restorer of French Liberty," 123 ; and the decrees of August 4, 1789, 125- 126; leaves Versailles, 127; and INDEX 379 the Constitution of 179 1, 134- 137, 140-141, 270; and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 146-147; and the flight to Va- rennes, 148-151 ; and the Legis- lative Assembly, 153-176; and the Declaration of Pillnitz, 156-157 ; his brothers, 156, 279, 287; treason of, 166, 170; Jacobins and, 171-172, 233; Duke of Brunswick and, 172- 173; seeks safety in the As- sembly, 174; suspended, 175- 176, 180 ; trial and execution of, 185-186, 205 Louis XVIII, legitimate ruler of France, 279; proclaimed King, 359; grants Charter, 360; pol- icy of, 360-362; flees, 365 Louise, Queen, 310 Louvre, Museum of, 227, 243, 249 Liibeck, 322, 338 Lucca, 305 Luneville, Treaty of, 273, 296, 306 Liitzen, battle of, 355 Lyons, 190, 200 M Machiavelli, 25 Mack, General, 300-301 Madrid, 332 Malesherbes, 87 Malta, 254, 274 Mamelukes, 254-255 Mantua, siege of, 240; fall of, 242 Marat, a monarchist, 150 ; in- cites the September Massacres, 178; and the Jacobins, 183; and the Girondists, 188; the Commune and, 189; Charlotte Corday and, 204 Marengo, 272, 278, 280, 287, 301 ; anniversary of, 313 Maria Theresa, Empress of Aus- tria, 24, 52, 103 Marie Antoinette, Queen of France, extravagance of, 60; her influence over Louis XVI, 101-104, 106, 124-127, 147; and the flight to Varennes, 149- 150; treason of, 166, 170; Duke of Brunswick and, 173; imprisoned, 176; death of, 203-204 Marie Louise, Archduchess of Austria, marries Napoleon, 336-337 Marmont, 237, 253 Marseilles, 190, 201 Marsh, the, 182 Massena, 235, 271, 276 Medical School, of Paris, 227 Melas, 271 Metz, 147 Michelet, on the Constituent As- sembly, 132 Milan, capital of Lombardy, 230; Bonaparte and, 240, 245, 248; Napoleon issues decrees from, 320 Mirabeau, on Prussia, 20; im- prisonment of, 87, 119; defies the King, 117; on the Consti- tution of 1791, 142; and the royal flight, 147; a leader in the Constituent Assembly, 205 ; compared with Robespierre, 213 Modena, Duke of, and Bona- parte, 244, 247-248 Mondovi, 238 Mongols, 33-34 Monk, General, 287 Montcalm, defeated by Wolfe, 7 Montebello, 245 Montesquieu, influence of, 81, 89-92, 95, 135, 193; Rousseau and, 97 Moreau, and the campaigns in Germany, 230, 271, 273; and Napoleon, 240 Moscow, ancient capital of Rus- sia, 33, 35, 42; Napoleon's march to, 350-351 ; his retreat from, 352-353 Mt. Tabor, 256 Mountain, the, 181. See also Jacobins 38o INDEX Municipalities. See Communes Murat, Joachim, brings cannon to the Tuileries, 224; sails with Bonaparte, 253; returns to France, 258; and the 19th of Brumaire, 265; humbly born, 276; becomes Duke of Berg, 305; and the army in Spain, 323; becomes King of Naples, 325, 339; and the Russian Campaign, 349 Muscovy, Principality of. See Russia Museum of the Louvre, 227, 243, 249 N Nancy, Bishop of, 122 Nantes, Edict of, revoked (1685), 85; city of, 202 Naples, Joseph becomes King of, 304, 323 ; Murat becomes King of, 325, 339 Napoleon, and the Revolution, 1, 18, 51. 53; witnesses attack on the Tuileries, 174; defends the Convention, 224-225; and the codification of the laws (Code Napoleon), 227, 284-285; and the Italian campaign/ 230, 234- 250; early life of, 230-233; career of, under the Directory, 233-266; as Consul, 265, 267- 289 ; his religion, 280 ; and the Concordat, 280-283; Pius VII and, 244, 248, 280-283, 293-294, 322, 327, 338, 345; and the Duke d'Enghien, 288; Consul for life, 288; Emperor of the French, 288, 290-337 ; " Pro- tector " of the Confederation of the Rhine, 308; and Fred- erick William III, 310-313; concludes Peace of Tilsit, 313— 316; and England, 318-333; and Spain, 323-333; and Alex- ander I at Erfurt, 330-331 ; and Austria, 333-337; divorces Josephine and marries Marie Louise, 336-337 ; decline and fall of, 338-368; Russia, Prus- sia, and Austria his allies, 339 ; forced to abdicate, 359; re- turns to Paris, 362, 365; and Waterloo, 366-367; sent to St. Helena, 367 ; death of, 368 National Archives, 227 National Assembly, Third Es- tate declares itself, 115; no- bility and clergy join, 118; becomes Constituent Assem- bly, 118; effect of the Revolu- tion in Paris upon, 121-123; threats against, 126; goes to Paris, 127; sends for Louis XVI, 149; adjourns, 151; self- denying ordinance, 151, 160. See also Constituent Assembly National Guard, organized in Paris, 120 National Library, 227 Nazareth, 256 Necker, 102; financial reforms of, 107-108; recalled, 109; in- capacity of, iio-iii, 113; dis- missed, 118-119 Nelson, Admiral, and the French, 254-255, 316-317 Ney, 276, 313, 349 Nice, ceded to France, 238 Nile, battle of the, 255 Noailles, Viscount of, moves the abolition of seignorial dues, 122 Nobility, in France, under the Old Regime, 76-80; position of, in the States-General, 109- 116; attitude of, toward the National Assembly, 118; re- nounce feudal dues, 122; abol- ished, 123, 137, 275 Non-juring priests, origin, 145- 146; and the war in the Vendee, 154-155 ; murdered, 178; guillotined, 202; laws against, relaxed, 279 Normal School, 227 North, Lord, ministry of, 1770- 1782, 10-12 Notre Dame, 208, 294, 363 Nova Scotia, acquired by Eng- land, 1763, 7 INDEX 38i o October 5-6, 1789, 126-128 Old Regime, in Europe, 1-54; in France, 55-99, *33, 153, 276- 277; desire to restore, 155; Bonaparte prevents the res- toration of, 275 Oldenburg, Grand Duchy of, 348 Orders in Council, 319 Orleans, Duke of, ambition of, 125 ; death of, 204-205 Papacy. See Catholic Church (Roman) Papal States, in 1789, 1 ; Napo- leon and, 247, 322, 338, 345 Paris, Peace of, 1763, 7-8; cap- ital of France, 58, 62, 70, 307; paupers in (1788), 84; Parle- ment of, demands convocation of the States-General, 109- 110; and the events of July 14, 1789, 1 18-120; organizes the National Guard, 120; Archbishop of, 123 ; King and Assembly come to, 127-128; Louis XVI plans to escape from, 148-149; celebrates "the end of the Revolution," 152; political clubs in, 161-162, 196; Assembly provides army for protection of, 171 ; destruction of, threatened, 173; insurrec- tion in, 173-174; Revolutionary Commune of, 174-178, 188-190, 205-210, 212, 219; September Massacres in, 177-179; the Convention and, 180-228; Ja- cobins and, 182; executions in, 202-205 ; organizes insur- rection against the Conven- tion, 223, 235 ; Schools of, 227; Museum of, 227, 243, 249; Napoleon and, 231, 233, 234, 243, 248-249, 252, 259, Z\2, 317, 362, 365, 367-368; Councils re- turn to, 265 ; government cen- tralized in, under the Con- sulate, 271 ; becomes center of German politics, 307-308; ec- clesiastical court in, 336; capitulates, 358 Parlemcnts, 79, 106 Parma, Duke of, and Bonaparte, 244, 247 Patterson, Elizabeth, 306 Peninsula War, 322-333 Pere Duchesne, 206 Peter the Great, 1689-1725, 35-44 Peter III, of Russia, 44 Philadelphia Convention, 134, 141 Philip Equality. See Orleans, Duke of Piacenza, 239 Pichegru, 287 Piedmont, in 1789, 14; emigres in, 148; in the war against France, 225, 229-230; cedes Savoy and Nice to France, 238 Pillnitz, Declaration of, 156 Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, Prime Minister of England, I757-I76i, 6-7; and the Amer- ican Revolution, n Pitt, William, the Younger, 273 Pius VI (Pope), 244, 248 Pius VII (Pope), and Louis XVIII, 279; and Napoleon, 280-283, 293-294, 322, 327, 338, 345 Plain, the, 182 Plebiscite, 289 Poland, in 1789, 2; Partitions of, 3i,45, 52-53, 158,244,315,335; Napoleon goes to, 313; Alex- ander I and, 348 Polytechnic School, 227 Portugal, and the Jesuits, 30; Napoleon and, 320, 322-323, 329, 334; Duke of Wellington and, 329, 350 Potsdam, 312 Pragmatic Sanction, 53 Prairial, Law of 22nd, 215-216, 218 Press, freedom of, suspended, 176; liberty of the, and Bona- parte, 277 382 INDEX Pressburg, Treaty of, 302-303 Protestantism, outlawed in France, 85 ; Protestants and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. 145 Provence, Count of, 156-157 Prussia, in the eighteenth cen- tury. 2, 16-32; in the Seven Years' War. 6, 26-29: and Austria, 18-19, 21, 24. 26, 31, 52-53, 244; rise of, 19-32, 46; and Poland. 31, 53, 244; and Russia, 31, 53. 244; and the emigres, 156; joins Austria in the war against France, 172-173, 2J5 ; makes peace with France. 225, 229, 310; policy of Frederick Wil- liam III of, 310-311; Napoleon and, 312-313, 315, 3iS, 339, 349 ; not included in the Con- federation of the Rhine, 315, 339; and the Continental Blockade, 321 ; development of nationality in, 342-345 : and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 348; King of, makes treaty of alli- ance with Russia, 353 : and the Congress of Vienna, 359"36o, 362 ; and the Waterloo Cam- paign. 366-367 Public Safety. Sec Committee of Public Safety Pyramids, battle of the, 255 Quesnay, 89 Ramolino, Laetitia, 231 Reign of Terror, 168, 192, 210, 228; Danton and. 210-211 Republic, established in France, 168, 1S0-181 ; under the Con- vention, 180-228 ; and the Con- stitution of 170?. 222-223; un- der the Directory, 229-266; under the Consulate, 267-289; England recognizes the French, 273 Republican Party, in France, 151 Revolution, American, 11-13, 129; beginnings of the French, 100- 128 Revolutionary Commune of Paris. Set Paris Revolutionary Tribunal, created, 187, 193, 212: Marat and, 188; work of, 195-196, 199, 201-205; Robespierre and, 212-213, 215- 216. 218 Rhenish Confederation. See Confederation of the Rhine Rhine, French control of Ger- man territory west of, 274, 285, 296, 299, 306-310; Confedera- tion of the. See Confedera- tion Rights of Man, Declaration of, 129-134, 138, 141, 164, 171, 199- 200, 276, 344 Rivoli, 242 Robespierre, a monarchist, 150; leader of the Jacobin Club, 161, 183; opposes war with Austria, 169; overthrow of, 176, 219, 233, 263; on the Re- public, 181 ; demands execu- tion of Louis XVI, 185-186; and the Girondists, 188; and the Commune, 189 ; and the Committee of Public Safety, 193-195: and Danton, 209-212; becomes master of the Ja- cobins, 212; as dictator, 213- 217; arrest of, 218 Roland, Madame, influence of, 167 ; death of, 203 Roman Catholic Church. See Catholic Church (Roman) Romanoff. House of, 1613—. See Russia Rome. 249. 294, 320; King of, 337; Napoleon annexes, 338, 345 Rossbach. battle of. 28 Rousseau, Jean Jacques, influ- ence and work of, 81, 84, 86, INDEX 383 89, 95-98, 213-215, 232, 275; on Corsica, 235 Russia, in 1789, 2, 32; in the Seven Years' War, 6, 27-28, 44; early history, 32-46; and Poland, 31, 45, 53, 244; and Asia, 33-34; Peter the Great and, 35-44 ; and Sweden, 37, 40, 45; and Turkey, yj, 45, 299; influence of Germany in, 40- 41 ; enters war against France, 187 ; enters new coalition, 260, 271 ; joins England against Napoleon, 299-302, 312; Alex- ander I of, concludes Peace of Tilsit, 313-316, 318, 321, 330; takes Finland, 321 ; Alexander I of, and Napoleon at Erfurt, 330-331 ; alliance of, and France renewed, 331, 333, 339; gains part of Galicia, 335-336; rupture of Franco-Russian al- liance, 346-353; makes Treaty of Kalisch with Prussia, 354; and the Congress of Vienna, 359-36o, 362 St. Cloud, 263-2G5 St. Helena, Napoleon and, 251, 283, 291, 298, 365 Saint-Just, 185 ; arrest of, 218 St. Petersburg, 42-43 Sans-culottes, 164 Sardinia. See Piedmont Savoy, ceded to France, 238 Saxony, overrun by Frederick II, 27, 29; and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 315 ; and the Confederation of the Rhine, 339 Schonbrunn, Peace of, 335-336 Senate, under the Constitution of the Year VIII, 269; approves new constitution, 288; dis- solves Napoleon's marriage with Josephine, 336 ; proclaims Louis XVIII King of France, 359 September Massacres, 176-179, 188, 233 " Septembrists," 178 Seven Years' War, 1756-1763, 6-8, 26, 44 Siberia, Russia conquers, 34 Abbe, on the Third Es- tate, 82; and Bonaparte, 261- 265; and the Constitution of the Year VIII, 268 Silesia, Frederick the Great takes, 24, 26, 29, 52 Smith, Goldwin, on the Amer- ican Revolution, 11 Smolensk, 350 Social Contract, by Rousseau, 96- 98 Sophia, regent during the minor- ity of Peter (later the Great), 36 Spain, and the Jesuits, 30; en- ters war against France, 187, 225; makes peace with France, 225, 229; ally of France, 273; colonies of, restored, 274; and the war between France and England, 320, 322-333, 341 ; Charles IV of, abdicates, 324; Joseph becomes King of, 325, 329, 339; development of na- tionality in, 342 ' Spirit of Laws, 1748, by Montes- quieu, 90 States-General, demand for con- vocation of, 109; meets May 5, 1789, hi, 113-115, 129. See National Assembly and Con- stituent Assembly States of the Church. See Papal States Stein, 343 Strassburg, Archbishop of, 74 Stuarts, in England, 3, 5 Suffrage, universal, in France, 175, 191 ; abandoned, 221 " Suspects," 199 Sweden, in the Seven Years' War, 27; and Russia, 37, 40, 45; Alexander I and, 314, 347; allied with England, 321 Swiss Guard, 120, 174 Switzerland, in 1789, 2, 47 Syria, invasion of, 256-257 384 INDEX Talleyrand, 307 Talma, 331 Taranto, 298 Tariff, Napoleon establishes high protective, 297 Temple, King and Queen impris- oned in the, 176 Tennis Court Oath, 116 Terror. See Reign of Terror and " Great Terror " Thermidor, 206; death of Robes- pierre on the 9th of, 217-218 Third Estate, in France, under Old Regime, 80-84; position of, in the States-General, 109- 114; declares itself the Na- tional Assembly, 115; swept away, 275 Tilsit, Peace of, 313-316, 318, 321-322, 330, 347 Tithes, under the Old Regime, 71, 83; abandoned, 122, 276; abolished in South Germany, 309 Tories, in England, 5; and George III, 10; in America, 11 Toulon, suspects in, 201 ; Bona- parte and, 224, 233, 253 Trafalgar, battle of, 316, 318 Tribunate, 269 Tricolor, adopted, 120 ; stamped upon, 126; cockade, 164; ban- ished, 360 Trieste, Austria retains, 303; ceded to France, 336 Trinidad, 274 Tuileries, Louis XVI and, 127, 149-150, 171, 184, 186; at- tacked, 173-174; Convention meets in, 189, 224, 233; Com- mittee of Public Safety in, 194; Napoleon returns to, 362, 365 Turgot, on the taxation of the peasantry, 83 ; and Louis XVI, 102, 104; financial reforms, 104-107, 108; influence of, on Napoleon, 232 Turin, 238 Turkey, in 1789, 2; and Russia, 37, 45, 299; and Egypt, 251, 254; Sultan of, declares war against Bonaparte, 256-258 ; Alexander I's designs against, 314; Alexander I gains the Danubian principalities from, 347 Tuscany, 359 U Ulm, 300-301, 316 United States, Constitution of, compared with French Consti- tution of 1791, 134, 141 Valengay, 325 Valmy, 179 Varennes, flight to, 149, 151, 153, 161, 162 Vendee, nobles in, 78; civil war in, 146, 154, 187, 190, 201, 261 Vendemiaire, the 13th of, 224, 233. Venetia, and the Cisalpine Re- public, 247 ; ceded to the King- dom of Italy, 303 Venice, in 1789, 2, 14, 47 ; young Russians sent to, 37; over- throw of, 244-245; disposal of, 247 ; bronze horses of, 249 Verdun, besieged, 177 Vergniaud, 166 Versailles, life at, 58-61, 74-75; government of France directed from, 62; States-General to meet in, 109, 113, 129; soldiers appear near, 118; tricolor in- sulted, 126; people march to, 126-128; King and Assembly leave, 128; royalists at, 310 Vienna, Marie Antoinette and, 104 ; campaign directed against, 230, 240; Napoleon enters, 300- 301, 334; Peace of, 335-336; Congress of, 359-36o, 362, 365 Vincennes, 288 Volney, Bonaparte and, 281 INDEX 385 Voltaire, influence of, 45, 64, 81, 84, 89, 232; and the Roman Catholic Church, 85, 94-95 ; im- prisonment of, 86, 93, 119; work of, 91-95 ; compared with Rousseau, 95-96 W Wagram, battle of, 335 Warsaw, Napoleon goes to, 313; Grand Duchy of, 315, 335-336, 339, 348, 354 Waterloo, 14, 168, 251 ; battle of, 366 Wellesley, Sir Arthur (later Duke of Wellington), and the war in Spain, 329, 356; mili- tary tactics of, 350 ; and Napo- leon at Waterloo, 366-367 Wellington, Duke of. 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