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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF COR- 
 PORATION SCHOOLS AS TO THEIR 
 ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION, 
 AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 BY 
 
 ALBERT JAMES BEATTY 
 
 A. B. KNOX COLLEGE, 1900 
 A.M. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, 1915 
 
 f-^-T^y-^Qo 
 
 THESIS 
 
 SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE 
 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE 
 
 DEGREE OF 
 
 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 LN EDUCATION 
 
 IN 
 
 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 1917 
 
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF COR- 
 PORATION SCHOOLS AS TO THEIR 
 ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION, 
 AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 BY 
 / 
 
 ALBERT JAMES BEATTY /W 1 
 
 A. B. KNOX COLLEGE, 1900 
 A. M. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. 1915 
 
 THESIS 
 
 SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE 
 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE 
 
 DEGREE OF 
 
 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 IN EDUCATION 
 
 IN 
 
 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 1917 
 
 C '^^lA ■'' - ,_^ 
 
.< 
 
 ^ 
 
 A 
 
 p. of 9. 
 
 AUG 2 lilt 
 
tr. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Part One 
 
 Chapter 
 
 I. Introduction : the problem, the purpose, the plan, 
 the limitations, the organization of material. 
 II. Historical Sketch of Apprenticeship : the rise, 
 the growth, and the decay of the gild appren- 
 ticeship system. 
 
 III. Public and Private Trade Schools and the Cor- 
 
 poration School: the rise, the growth, and 
 the present status of the factory apprentice- 
 ship school, the National Association of Cor- 
 poration Schools. 
 
 Part Two 
 
 IV. The Efficiency of Corporation Schools as Tested 
 
 by the Business Concerns which Maintain 
 Them: the five purposes for which the cor- 
 poration school is maintained, conclusions. 
 V. Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools 
 as to Instruction: The Teachers' Efficiency 
 Score Card, the scoring of teachers, tabulation 
 of results, conclusions. 
 
 VI. Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools 
 as to Motivation of Work : the motives avail- 
 able for different types of schools, the theory 
 of motivation, conclusions. 
 VII. Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools 
 as to Curricula and Courses of Study: the 
 3 
 
essential features of curricula, sample curric- 
 ula, conclusions. 
 
 VIII. Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools 
 as to Textbooks and Lesson Sheets: the 
 essential features of a good textbook, text- 
 books and loose leaf lesson sheets discussed, 
 the faults of each, conclusions. 
 
 Part Three 
 
 IX. Summary of Conclusions, — The Cooperative 
 School, a Solution of the Problem of Voca- 
 tional Education. 
 
LIST OF TABLES, ILLUSTRATIONS, and 
 CURRICULA 
 
 Table 
 
 I. Summary of time spent and list of particular 
 
 investigations. 
 II. Corporation continuation schools. 
 
 III. Cooperative special training schools. 
 
 Teachers' Efficiency Score Card. 
 
 IV. Comparative scores made by five students. 
 
 V. Scores of eighteen corporation school teachers. 
 VI. Scores of twenty-one teachers in public secondary 
 
 schools and technical schools. 
 VII. Graphical representation of the data of Tables 
 VI and VII. 
 
 VIII. Cooperating companies and schools. 
 
 Curricula 
 
 A. Mechanics' short course, Packard Motor Car 
 
 Company. 
 
 B. Students' training course in stock room, Western 
 
 Electric Company. 
 
 C. Engineering for college graduates. Western Elec- 
 
 tric Company. 
 
 D. Bridge Engineers, American Bridge Company. 
 
 E. Union School of Salesmanship, Boston. 
 
 F. Electric Engineering, University of Illinois. 
 
 G. Scientific, Crane Technical high school, Chicago. 
 
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CORPORATION 
 
 SCHOOLS AS TO THEIR ORGANIZATION 
 
 ADMINISTRATION, AND METHODS 
 
 OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 PART ONE 
 
 Chapter I 
 Introduction 
 
 This study is the outgrowth of an interest in voca- 
 tional education which the writer developed in pursuing 
 a course in that subject. It is an attempt to evaluate a 
 single type of organization for vocational education 
 known as the corporation school. It is an investigation 
 of the training of apprentices and other employees as 
 this training is at present conducted by those business 
 concerns in the United States which undertake to prepare 
 their new employees for efficient service and their old 
 employees for better service. 
 
 The purposes of this study are : first, to trace briefly 
 the rise and the decline of the old trade-apprenticeship 
 system; second, to describe briefly the rise, the growth, 
 and the present status of factory apprenticeship schools ; 
 third, to study the corporation schools of the United 
 States from the point of view of their efficiency ; fourth, 
 to show how corporation school directors and instructors 
 may make a greater use of such psychological and peda- 
 gogical principles as the experience of public secondary 
 schools and technical schools has shown to be valuable; 
 and fifth, to discover if possible in what manner corpora- 
 tion schools on the one hand and public secondary schools 
 and technical schools on the other hand may be mutually 
 
 7 
 
8 Study op Corporation Schools 
 
 helpful in the solution of the problem of vocational edu- 
 cation. The solution of the problem proposed in the fifth 
 purpose, is the desired outcome of this study. 
 
 With these purposes in view, the writer has, during 
 the past two years, personally visited a large number of 
 corporation schools in the Middle West, studied their 
 organization, visited their classes, and observed their 
 methods of instruction; and from a much wider field 
 than it has been possible to survey personally, he has 
 examined in detail their textbooks and lesson sheets, their 
 curricula and courses of study. 
 
 The first step in this investigation was to become rea- 
 sonably familiar with the literature of corporation 
 schools. This literature was not large and consisted 
 mainly of magazine articles describing the work of indi- 
 vidual schools. 
 
 The second step was to initiate a systematic gathering 
 of information both by personal visitation and by cor- 
 respondence. Shortly after beginning to gather this in- 
 formation, the writer learned that the National Associa- 
 tion of Corporation Schools,^ through one of its commit- 
 tees, was undertaking to gather practically the same in- 
 formation as that desired for this investigation, and an 
 arrangement was made whereby the writer assisted this 
 committee in collecting, tabulating, and interpreting the 
 data with the understanding that he might use for this 
 study any of the data collected. During the year 1916-17 
 the writer has been a regularly appointed member of this 
 committee and is still acting in that capacity. 
 
 This appointment has been fortunate, for as a mem- 
 ber of this committee, — the Committee on Special Train- 
 ing Schools, — the writer has had the cooperation and ad- 
 vice of the other members of the committee who are recog- 
 nized experts in this field. He has had access also to a 
 
 *Refs. 19, 27, 31, 33. (References are numbered serially in each 
 chapter.) 
 
Introduction 9 
 
 vast quantity of the educational materials of these 
 schools, and to much confidential information which he 
 otherwise could not have obtained. He has also been the 
 recipient of many favors at the hands of corporation 
 officials and the corporation school directors. 
 
 Throughout this investigation, comparisons have con- 
 stantly been made with public-school organization, ad- 
 ministration, and practice; and an attempt has been 
 made to discuss these observations in such a manner as 
 to enable administrators and instructors of both public 
 and corporation schools to profit, not only by their own 
 inadequacies but also by the points of superiority of the 
 other type of school. 
 
 This study has not been limited to the collection and 
 evaluation of statistical data, nor have the conclusions 
 reached been drawn wholly or largely from such data, 
 though they are frequently reinforced by such statistical 
 information as is available. Such a statistical study, if 
 feasible, would be highly valuable, but the comparative 
 recency of the corporation school movement, and the lack 
 of a recognized system or uniformity in keeping the rec- 
 ords of these schools make such a study impossible. 
 
 This is not a discussion of the need of industrial train- 
 ing. This need has already demanded and received a 
 large place in the educational literature of the past three 
 decades,^ and numerous societies have been formed for 
 the purpose of fostering industrial training.^ 
 
 This is not a historical study, though it has seemed 
 necessary to preface it with a historical sketch as a back- 
 ground or point of departure. The history of appren- 
 ticeship is a most tempting topic, but that history has 
 been written in a number of extensive studies,* and the 
 real purpose of this study precludes more than a brief 
 
 «Ref. 2, Chap. VII. Refs. 24, 28, 29. 
 "Refs. 28, 80. 
 *Ref8. 1-8. 
 
10 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 excursion into any subsidiary fields however inviting 
 they may be. 
 
 The material of this thesis is organized into three 
 parts: Part One, comprising Chapters I, II, and III is 
 a preliminary survey of the field; Part Two, consisting 
 of Chapters IV to VIII inclusive, is the main body of the 
 thesis ; Part Three, consisting of Chapter IX, is a sum- 
 mary of the conclusions reached and a discussion of them. 
 
 Chapter I sets forth the general plan of the investi- 
 gation. 
 
 Chapter II is a historical sketch of apprenticeship. 
 It traces briefly the rise, the character, and the causes 
 of the decline of the old craft-apprenticeship ; it empha- 
 sizes the economic and social character of the institution 
 of apprenticeship, and the economic, social, and indus- 
 trial evolution which has demanded a new system of ap- 
 prenticeship. 
 
 Chapter III recites the principal causes which led to 
 the factory apprenticeship system, and traces the estab- 
 lishment of private and public trade and technical schools 
 and the factory apprenticeship school. This chapter in- 
 troduces the materials and facts which have been col- 
 lected by the writer in his personal visitation of corpor- 
 ation schools. It treats of the organization and the work 
 of the National Association of Corporation Schools and 
 shows the growing interest of business concerns in the 
 training of their employees. It describes the various 
 types of corporation schools differentiated to meet differ- 
 ent needs. It cites the fact that the trade apprenticeship 
 school and the school of retail salesmanship touch two 
 very large and important groups of workers, and sug- 
 gests that so far as the interests of these groups are con- 
 cerned, the point of helpful contact between the corpora- 
 tion school and the public school is to be found in some 
 form of cooperative organization. 
 
 Part Two presents the detailed information which 
 
Introduction 11 
 
 the writer has collected in pursuing this study which has 
 occupied approximately one fourth of his time for two 
 years. The following summary shows something of the 
 extent of the study, though it makes no account of the 
 amount of committee work which the writer has per- 
 formed. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Number of corporation schools and company officials with whom cor- 
 respondence has been carried on 49 
 
 Number of corporation school and company officials interviewed 41 
 
 Number of corporation schools visited 28 
 
 Number of public secondary schools and technical schools visited 19 
 
 Number of cooperative schools visited 8 
 
 Number of days spent in visiting corporation schools 10 
 
 Number of days spent in visiting public secondary schools and tech- 
 nical schools 20 
 
 Number of 'teacher efficiency' scorings made in corporation schools 19 
 
 Number of 'teacher efficiency' scorings made in public secondary schools 
 
 and technical schools 39 
 
 Number of schools whose curricula and courses have been examined .... 46 
 Number of corporation school courses for which sets of lesson sheets 
 
 have been examined 31 
 
 Number of 'corporation school' textbooks examined 27 
 
 Number of other textbooks examined 75 
 
 Number of corporation school classrooms and shops visited 44 
 
 Number of public secondary school and technical school classrooms 
 
 visited 46 
 
 In Part Two the writer undertakes to determine the 
 efficiency of corporation schools : to compare the corpora- 
 tion school on the one hand with public secondary schools 
 and technical schools on the other and to show how the 
 work of these two types of schools may be mutually 
 helpful in the solution of the problem of vocational edu- 
 cation. 
 
 Chapter IV introduces the main part of the thesis 
 and undertakes to show the efficiency of corporation 
 schools as determined by such standards as are set up by 
 business concerns themselves. The aims advanced by 
 business concerns in the establishment of training de- 
 partments are : first, to develop to the limit the efficiency 
 of the individual employee ; and second, to increase in- 
 
12 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 dustrial efficiency in general. They determine this effi- 
 ciency by the extent to which they contribute to the fol- 
 lowing results: first, an increased supply of trained 
 employees; second, an increase in the number of men 
 quEdified for promotion; third, an improved product; 
 fourth, a decreased turnover of labor; and fifth, less 
 waste of materials and fewer accidents. 
 
 Chapter V describes that part of this study in which 
 the corporation schools have been compared with public 
 secondary schools and technical schools in the matter of 
 instruction. It describes in detail the ''teachers' effi- 
 ciency" score card which has been ^ developed and which 
 embodies the ten points used as a basis of making this 
 comparison ; and sets forth in detail the procedure and 
 the results of this scoring. 
 
 Chapter VI is a discussion of motives. It treats of 
 the various motives available for both types of schools, 
 and undertakes to show that corporation schools have an 
 advantage over the other type of schools in certain mo- 
 tives which seem to be inherent in the corporation school. 
 
 Chapter VII is a comparison of the courses of study 
 and curricula used in corporation schools with those used 
 in public secondary schools and technical schools. This 
 comparison is based upon an examination of the outlines 
 of courses and curricula found in the literature secured 
 from these schools, and is made on three points : logical 
 arrangement of courses and course-topics, time allotments 
 to various courses and course-topics, and appropriateness 
 of subject matter. 
 
 Chapter VIII is a comparison of the two types of 
 schools as to lesson-sheets and textbooks. Such principles 
 of textbook making as seem to be commonly recognized 
 are formulated, and the lesson-sheets and textbooks which 
 have been secured from both types of schools have been 
 examined in the light of these principles. 
 
 Part Three, consisting of Chapter IX, is a considera- 
 
Introduction 13 
 
 tion of the fundamental principles which govern the 
 character of education in a democracy, and a discussion 
 of the inadequacy of the corporation school in the light 
 of these principles as a solution of the problem of voca- 
 tional education. This chapter summarizes the conclu- 
 sions reached in the chapters of Part One and Part Two, 
 and shows how the cooperative trade and continuation 
 school which may be made to embody the points of ad- 
 vantage of both corporation schools on the one hand, and 
 of public secondary schools and technical schools on the 
 other, offers the nearest approach to the solution of the 
 problem of vocational education. 
 
14 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 Chapter II. 
 Historical Sketch of Apprenticeship 
 
 Business concerns have not usually been credited with 
 philanthropic motives, and their assumption of the re- 
 sponsibility for the training of their employees has not 
 usually been attributed to philanthropy. This task has 
 been undertaken as a matter of necessity which has grown 
 out of economic and social conditions. 
 
 The most important of these factors are, the decline 
 of the old apprenticeship system^ which was so successful 
 in the small shop of the past which, within the last gen- 
 eration has given way to the factory ; and the inability 
 of other organized means of education to provide in an 
 adequate measure that specific trade and vocational train- 
 ing demanded in the modern factory. 
 
 The apprenticeship of the gild system which served 
 tradesmen so well in the past, but which is to the present 
 generation in America almost unknown, had its origin 
 in the social and industrial fabric of a time so remote that 
 the earliest historians speak of it as a matter of course.^ 
 
 ' ' The craft gild or trade gilds of the Middle Ages had 
 their origin in necessity. All sorts of industrial frauds 
 and shoddy workmanship were practiced by the more 
 irresponsible artisans, and the gilds were originally 
 formed to protect their members against unskilled and 
 dishonest labor. ' '^ 
 
 Apprenticeship reached its greatest success as a means 
 of training skilled workmen in England and on the Con- 
 tinent during the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries.* 
 
 met. 31, p. 121. 
 2Refs. 10, 11, 12. 
 »Ref. 13, p. 100. 
 *Ref. 1, 3, 4. 
 
Apprenticeship IS 
 
 But even at its best the gild apprenticeship system was 
 not a complete or satisfactory solution of the industrial 
 situation of the period. True, it did furnish to the young 
 man who was fortunate enough to secure an apprentice- 
 ship, not only the mastery of a skilled trade but also 
 access to the only practical education of the times, and a 
 social standing fully equal to that of his master. Masters 
 were required not only to teach the apprentice his trade 
 and to furnish him good food, clothing, and shelter, but 
 also to educate him and to give him religious instruction.^ 
 The English apprentice from the Fourteenth to the Six- 
 teenth centuries became to all intents and purposes, dur- 
 ing his apprenticeship, a member of his master's house- 
 hold, entitled to participate in all social activities upon a 
 perfect equality with his master's family. 
 
 The price the apprentice paid for these privileges was 
 not small. It included in some cases, the payment of a 
 very considerable sum of money^ and the giving of a 
 bond to remain in the service of his master usually for a 
 period of seven years without wages or other remunera- 
 tion than that mentioned above. It was a big price to 
 pay for the learning of a trade but there was no other 
 way. Apprenticeship was the only door through which 
 one could become a master or even a journeyman entitled 
 to ply a skilled trade. The privileges of skilled workmen 
 and masters were a much desired goal but the journey 
 thereto was long, arduous and expensive. 
 
 This golden age of apprenticeship corresponds very 
 closely to the period af cathedral building on the con- 
 tinent, and the high character of the craftsmanship is 
 still attested by many of those noble structures. 
 
 The regulation of apprenticeship was usually exer- 
 cised by the gilds, or craft gilds, which included all the 
 members of any particular craft in each town or parish, 
 
 •"Ref. 1, pp. 50 et. seq. 
 «Ref. 1, Chapter II. 
 
16 Study OP Coeporation Schools 
 
 and which usually ruled with an iron hand. The weavers, 
 the dyers, the spinners, the goldsmiths, the carpenters, 
 and the workers in practically every skilled trade were 
 organized into craft gilds which controlled not only the 
 work of their particular trades but the individual and 
 social life of the members as well. 
 
 Ai^ stated above, the apprenticeship system was not a 
 complete or satisfactory solution of the industrial prob- 
 lem. At the very time when the system was at its best the 
 lower strata of society, — the serfs and the unskilled la- 
 borers — were without education or training of any kind, 
 and their suffering and degradation were almost beyond 
 description. At the same time, the gentry as a class were 
 densely ignorant of any useful occupations and lived in 
 idleness, filth and vice.*^ 
 
 The stratification of society was horizontal and dis- 
 tinct, and the oppression and misery of the lower strata 
 resulted partly from the upper class, the gentry, but most 
 of all from the middle class dominated by the gilds.* 
 
 The decline of the golden age of the gilds and of ap- 
 prenticeship dates from the middle of the Sixteenth Cen- 
 tury, and may be attributed, in part at least, to the arro- 
 gance of the gilds and to the restrictions which they 
 placed upon skilled labor. ''Limitation of the number 
 of apprentices and the long term of apprenticeship re- 
 sulted in prejudice against the gilds and a resulting un- 
 willingness to recognize the privileges enjoyed by the 
 gilds. "9 
 
 The specific events which mark the beginning of the 
 decline of apprenticeship in England are: the passage 
 of the Artificers Act, or the Statute of Apprenticeship, 
 as it is called by some writers,^^ in 1562 ; and the law of 
 1601, making it compulsory upon free holders and mas- 
 
 'Ref. 14. 
 
 «Ref. 15, p. 3-4, and 275. 
 »Ref. 2a, pp. 91, 92. 
 WRef. 4, p. 88. 
 
Apprenticeship 17 
 
 ters to accept as apprentices such beggar children as 
 might be designated by the parish clerk.^ ^ 
 
 The former of these laws provided : first, for govern- 
 ment control of the amount! of wages which might be de- 
 manded,^ 2 thus prohibiting the extortion frequently 
 charged to gilds; second, a seven-year apprenticeship 
 open only to the sons of freemen, and prohibiting any 
 one^^ not having served an apprenticeship from carrying 
 on any craft ; and third, the appointment of government 
 officers to enforce the regulation of the gilds. The pre- 
 amble of this law states that its object was to reenact, to 
 codify, and enforce the many regulations which had been 
 permitted by gild influence to become inoperative.^* 
 
 Writers disagree as to the effect of the Artificers Act 
 upon the gilds, ^^ but whether due to the operation of this 
 act or not, the influence of the gilds waned steadily after 
 the Sixteenth Century. 
 
 The second law, called the Act of 1601, entitled An 
 Act for the Relief of the Poor, elevated the apprentice- 
 ship system to a position of great economic importance 
 while it produced an almost exactly opposite effect ulti- 
 mately, upon the gilds.^^ The fifth section of this law 
 provided that, "parish authorities may bind out such 
 poor children, male and female, as apprentices until they 
 arrived at the age of maturity. "^^ This law had the effect 
 of continuing the institution of apprenticeship at a time 
 when the gilds were on the decline. In fact the operation 
 of this law had much to do with this decline. The ultimate 
 influence upon apprenticeship, however, was unfavor- 
 able. Naturally the great increase in the number of ap- 
 prentices resulting from this law had its counterpart in 
 
 "Ref. 1, p. 66. 
 
 "Ref. 4, p. 91. 
 
 "Ref. 4, p. 103. 
 
 "Ref. 4. 
 
 "'Ref. 4. Chap. III. 
 
 "Ref. 16, Chap. VI. p. 322. 
 
 "Ref. 1, p. 61. 
 
18 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 a deterioration of the system. Masters, no longer subject 
 to gild regulations, neglected the education of their ap- 
 prentices, and denied them the social equality of the 
 home. No general law to compel masters to attend to the 
 education of *' parish" apprentices, aside from craft in- 
 struction, was enacted in England until 1802.-^ 
 
 Other influences which contributed to the decline of 
 apprenticeship were: the rise of the rural industries; 
 the waning influence of the gilds owing to the rapid in- 
 crease of skilled labor, making it impossible for the gilds 
 to control longer the price or the conditions of labor; 
 and later, the rise of capitalism and the factory sys- 
 tem. This decline covers the period from the middle of 
 the Sixteenth Century to the present time. While the 
 number of apprentices was greatly increased as the result 
 of the act of 1601, during the Seventeenth Century the 
 efficiency of the apprenticeship declined rapidly from the 
 points of view of industry and of social welfare. Since 
 the Seventeenth Century the number of apprentices has 
 gradually decreased, while the demand for skilled trades- 
 men has uniformly increased. 
 
 The industrial history of this period of decline is 
 marked by such dark pages as child labor and the debtos^'s 
 prison. ^^ The larger number of apprentices and the de- 
 cline of the vigilance of the gilds in governing the treat- 
 ment of apprentices, made it possible for unscrupulous 
 masters to take large numbers of apprentices, and then 
 by economies in feeding, housing, and educating them to 
 make their services extremely profitable. In these condi- 
 tions is found the origin of the almost unbelievable evils 
 of child labor in the Nineteenth Century in the factories 
 of England and the United States. ^^ 
 
 What has been said of apprenticeship in England and 
 
 "Ref. 1, p. 61. 
 
 "Ref. 1, pp. 62 et seq. 
 
 *>R€f. 17, pp. 14 et aeq. 
 
Apprenticeship 19 
 
 on the Continent applies in a large measure to the United 
 States. Trade apprenticeships, however, were never so 
 common in the United States as in Europe, owing to the 
 advent of the factory system before the United States 
 had attained any great importance as a manufacturing 
 nation. The condition of apprentices and the laws relat- 
 ing to them in the American colonies were generally more 
 favorable to the apprentice than in Europe. In Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1642, in Connecticut, in 1650, and in Vir- 
 ginia, in Queen Anne 's reign, legislation provided for the 
 instruction of apprentices in reading, in the laws of the 
 country, and in religion, over a century before such en- 
 actments were made in England. ^^ 
 
 The factory system in Europe was not an outgrowth 
 of the introduction of steam power and labor saving 
 machinery, but it was the direct growth of the newer 
 apprenticeship system which developed, in part at least, 
 as the result of the Artificers^ Law and the Law of 1601. 
 
 But whatever may have been the origin of the factory 
 system, it has, by the division of labor, and by the use of 
 power machinery, revolutionized many of the skilled 
 trades. Now, instead of mastering a trade and turning 
 out a finished product, the factory worker needs but to 
 become an expert in a single process, or in the operation 
 of a machine which makes, not a complete product, but 
 a minor part of it. The factory thus has a tendency 
 to develop piece-workers rather than all-round mechanics 
 or masters of trades, and has resulted in an almost entire 
 discontinuance of trade apprenticeships. 
 
 In 1895, forty typical building-trades employers had 
 12,000 men and only eighty regular apprentices, though 
 the normal number allowed according to union rules was 
 1,600.22 The United States Census 23 in 1909-10 shows 
 a total of 77,371 apprentices in the United States, or one 
 
 «Ref. 1, p. 61. 
 »Ref. 16, p. 1142. 
 »Ref. 22a, p. 52. 
 
20 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 for every 322 adult workers, when there was approxi- 
 mately 25,000,000 wage earners in occupations aside from 
 agriculture. 
 
 '^ The rapid development of labor saving machinery in 
 the Nineteenth Century, and the growing complexity of 
 manufacturing and marketing processes have created a 
 demand for skilled workmen in almost every line of man- 
 ufacture and business, far beyond the ability of any here- 
 tofore known method of apprenticeship to supply. In 
 this condition is found the basis of the need for a new 
 method of apprenticeship. The evolution of this new 
 method of apprenticeship is described in the next 
 chapter. 
 
Trade and Corporation Schools 21 
 
 Chapter III 
 
 Public and Private Trade Schools, and the 
 Corporation School 
 
 The assumption by organized society of the responsi- 
 bility of teaching any new subject has always been pre- 
 ceded by private enterprise assuming that responsibility,^ 
 from motives of either business or philanthropy. If the 
 private project meets with success and popular approval, 
 the burden is usually somewhat tardily assumed by the 
 public. Hence it was, that long before public sentiment 
 had become conscious of the duty of assuming the burden 
 of teaching the prospective industrial worker the rudi- 
 ments or the mastery of a trade or vocation, first, trades- 
 mens' organizations and later private philanthropy had 
 felt the need and had provided for it by establishing trade 
 schools. Business concerns had also succumbed to the 
 pressure of necessity and had undertaken the task of 
 training their young workers for various positions. 
 
 The most notable, because the most successful exam- 
 ples of craft gild schools for apprentices are to be found 
 in Germany.2 
 
 ' ' In Germany as in no other country, the people have 
 been unwilling to break with the past, ' ' and a conscious 
 effort has been made to perpetuate by legal enactments, 
 the handicraftsman and the small tradesman, and espe- 
 cially the institution of apprenticeship. The effect of this 
 legislation is shown in the statement that "30 per cent 
 of German industry is still carried on under the handi- 
 craft system. ' '^ 
 
 ^Ref. 14, p. 232. 
 
 *Ref. 16, pp. 899, et seq. 
 
 •Ref. 17, and Ref. 22, p. 775. 
 
22 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 These ends have been accomplished by enacting two 
 quite distinct sets of laws, one affecting the small trades- 
 man and the gilds and the other those phases of industry 
 affected by the factory system.^ The advantages of the 
 apprenticeship system have been maintained by legally 
 restoring the powers and privileges of the gilds. * ' Nine- 
 tenths of the present trade schools {Facliscliulen) are the 
 work of the gild schools, the origin of many of which is 
 in the Middle Ages/'^ ''Of the 251 industrial schools 
 participating in an educational exposition in Dresden, 
 in 1898, 88 were founded by societies, 48 by the state, and 
 47 by private individuals. ' '^ While it has been the policy 
 of most of the German states to assume the control and 
 assist in the support of these schools,'^ many of them still 
 retain, in a large measure, their original character. 
 
 Gild schools in France in the Middle Ages were nu- 
 merous, and their industrial importance was great, but 
 the arrogance of the gilds brought a reaction upon them- 
 selves in 1776 which greatly limited their powers, and the 
 drastic laws of 1791 definitely abolished the gilds. 
 
 It was left for private enterprise to initiate the move- 
 ment to rehabilitate French industrial training, which 
 had been so ruthlessly destroj^ed by the revolution. The 
 Duke de la Rochelle, at his own expense established a 
 school ' ' with a department for industrial training, which 
 was the first institution for special trade instruction in 
 France. ' '^ It was declared a national school by the First 
 Republic in 1799. Upon this humble foundation, has 
 been developed a thorough system of state industrial and 
 technical schools. 
 
 In Great Britain, the movement was somewhat later 
 in developing, and private enterprise is credited with in- 
 
 *Ref. 20, pp. 7-8. 
 
 oRef. 16, p. 905; Ref. 18, pp. 530, 536; Ref. 22, p. 775. - 
 
 •Ref. 16, p. 872. 
 
 'Ref. 16, p. 874; Ref. 22, p. 775. 
 
 •Ref. 16, p. 704; Ref. 21, p. 98. 
 
Trade and Corporation Schools 23 
 
 stituting the movement which has grown in recent years 
 into a real interest in vocational training. This move- 
 ment was initiated about 1784, by David Hale, who built 
 at his own cost, a boarding house and school for five hun- 
 dred charity children from the New Lanark cotton 
 mills. "9 
 
 The modern industrial technical school and technical 
 school movement dates from 1801, in which year Dr. 
 George Burbeck, established mechanics' classes at An- 
 derson's University, at Glasgow; and it received a new 
 impetus in the founding of the Mechanics' and Appren- 
 tices' Library in 1823. ''The first building erected in 
 England with accommodations for the various depart- 
 ments of scientific work for the dyer, the carpenter, the 
 mason, and the machine maker, was built by private 
 subscription for the Manchester Mechanics ' Institute, in 
 1824. "10 —s^ 
 
 The development of trade apprenticeship schools in 
 the United States may be said to date from the activity 
 of the Worcester (Massachusetts) County Mechanics' 
 Association, which was formed in 1841 for the purpose 
 of ''perfecting the mechanics' art", and which in 1866 
 opened a school for apprentices with 140 members the 
 first year. 11 The New York Trade School, foundedi^ by 
 Col. Richard T. Auchmuty, in 1881 was also "a pioneer 
 venture. ' ' 
 
 As to public industrial education, one authority 
 states,! 3 that up to 1870, no school of an industrial char- 
 acter existed except the higher institutions established as 
 the result of the first Morrill Act, passed in 1862. 
 
 Though private industrial and technical schools, and 
 schools fostered by trade unions, increased in number i* 
 
 •Ref. 18, p. 6. 
 
 lORef. 18, p. 25. 
 
 "Ref. 19, p. 47. 
 
 ^=Ref. 16, pp. 20-22 and 987. 
 
 "Ref. 16, p. 20. 
 
 "Ref. 16, Chap. I. 
 
24 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 these schools were quite unequal to the task of developing 
 competent workers, fast enough to meet the growing de- 
 mands of industry. Public sentiment, too, was slow in 
 developing to a point where industrial and trade training 
 seemed to be a public responsibility. Business concerns 
 were therefore forced to undertake the training of their 
 jown apprentices. 
 
 This condition existed both in the United States and 
 in Great Britain, and to a less extent in Germany, because 
 the German State early recognized the necessity for state 
 support of industrial and apprenticeship schools.^ ^ 
 ~ So far as the writer has been able to ascertain, the first 
 apprenticeship school maintained by a business corpora- 
 tion was established by the Chaix Printing Company of 
 Paris, in 1863.^^ The oldest American corporation school 
 is that founded by the R. Hoe Printing Press Company 
 of New York in 1875. ^^ Notwithstanding these few 
 pioneer corporation schools, the movement did not attain 
 any considerable impetus until about 1905,^^ since which 
 time the growth in the number of such schools has been 
 quite rapid. 
 
 A corporation school as defined for this study is a 
 school maintained by a business concern, quite indepen- 
 dently of outside control, for the purpose of fitting its 
 new employees for efficient service, or for the further 
 training of its older employees to fit them for positions 
 of greater responsibility, as foremen, executives, or tech- 
 nical experts. 
 
 This definition is amplified by the aims set forth by 
 the National Association of Corporation Schools. This 
 Association^^ is composed of over one hundred business 
 concerns which maintain apprenticeship schools, and in 
 
 »Ref. 23; Ref. 21, pp. 153-4; Ref. 21, p. 9. 
 
 "Ref. 16, p. 857. 
 
 "Ref. 16, p. 23; pp. 207-8. 
 
 "Ref. 16, p. 145 et seq. 
 
 i«Rof. 27, PT5. 27-34. 
 
Trade and Corporation Schools 25 
 
 addition to business concerns, a large number of indi- 
 vidual members who are in sympathy with the move- 
 ment. 
 
 The aims2<^ of this association as set forth in its con- 
 stitution are : ' ' first, to develop the individual employee 
 to his highest efficiency ; second, to increase the efficiency 
 of industry ; and third, to influence courses in established 
 educational institutions more favorably toward indus- 
 try. ' ' The first two of these aims dominate, to a marked 
 degree, all the corporation schools visited by the writer, 
 and the literature of other schools not visited indicates 
 that these aims are practically universal. 
 
 It is pertinent here to describe briefly the National 
 Association of Corporation Schools whose aims are set 
 forth above ; for while this association does not include, 
 by any means, all the business concerns which conduct ^, 
 apprenticeship schools, its aims and the means by which 
 it undertakes to accomplish them are doubtless applica- 
 ble to most corporation schools. The National Associa- 
 tion of Corporation Schools was organized at New York 
 University, January 24th, 1913, ^i where representatives 
 from forty-eight concerns maintaining such schools had 
 assembled in response to a general invitation issued by 
 the New York Edison Company, and the National Cash 
 Register Company, of Dayton, Ohio. The constitution 
 of this Association proposes the means by which the aims 
 stated above may be realized. Section 1^2 says, ''The 
 object of the Association is to aid corporations in the ed- 
 ucation of their employees by providing a forum for the 
 interchange of ideas, and by collecting and making avail- 
 able, data as to successful and unsuccessful plans in edu- 
 cating employees. ' ' 
 
 Membership in the Association is of three classes : 
 Class A. composed of concerns which maintain corpora- 
 
 ^'ORef. 27, p. 9. 
 
 "Ref. 31, pp. 50-54, Ref. 32. 
 
 ==Ref. 31, p. 32. 
 
26 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 tion schools; Class B. composed of officials of schools 
 maintained by Class A. members ; and Class C. composed 
 of individuals who are in sympathy with the objects of 
 the association. 23 
 
 No sooner had the Association fairly got to work, than 
 the great diversity of educational interests which are en- 
 gaging business concerns became apparent. These vari- 
 ous types of educational efforts are clearly shown by the 
 enumeration of the several committees^^ to which the 
 Association has assigned specific phases of corporation 
 school work. This work is assigned to the following 
 committees : 
 
 1. Special training schools, 
 
 2. Advertising, selling, and distribution schools, 
 
 3. Retail salesmanship schools, 
 
 4. Office work schools. 
 
 5. Unskilled labor, 
 
 6. Trade apprenticeship schools, 
 
 7. Public education, 
 
 8. Employment plans, 
 
 9. Safety and health, 
 
 10. Allied institutions, 
 
 11. Vocational guidance, 
 
 12. Administration and supervision. 
 
 Each of the first six committees represents a distinct 
 type of school whose characteristics are indicated by the 
 name of the committee. The other committees, except the 
 twelfth, whose function is obvious, represent the means 
 by which the Association undertakes to realize its second 
 and third aims ; they embody the broader outlook of cor- 
 poration school administrators upon the great problem of 
 *' increasing industrial efficiency'' through social uplift, 
 and through a more general solution of the problem of 
 
 23Ref. 31, p. 32. 
 2<Re£. 27, pp. 23-25. 
 
Tbade and Corporation Schools 27 
 
 vocational training than is furnished by the corporation 
 school. 
 
 We now take up the discussion of the six types of cor- 
 poration schools, and reserve for the latter part of this 
 chapter the discussion of the means of realizing the third 
 aim of the Association. The second aim and its accom- 
 plishment, we discuss only incidentally. 
 
 1. Special Training Schools 
 
 The ''special training school" is a term applied to! 
 the training departments which business concerns main- 
 tain for college graduates and other technical men. * ' It 
 is an organized effort to produce by training, all-round 
 men whereas the present tendency in organization is to 
 train specialists. Some key-note words will keep the 
 purposes of special training schools before us. 
 
 "Breadth, round out experience. 
 
 ''Make company men before you make department 
 men. 
 
 ' ' Know the system as a whole. 
 
 ' ' Make men more versatile. 
 
 ' ' Get the theory plus the practice. 
 
 ' ' Broaden their vision. ' ' 
 
 The above quotations'^ present an approach to the 
 ideal purpose of the special training schools, an approach 
 which is seldom even approximated in practice. 
 
 The students who are enrolled in these schools usually 
 enter directly from college and in the majority of cases 
 they have had little or no practical business, or execu- 
 tive26 work ; and the purpose in such schools is to make 
 as quickly and as economically as possible that vital con- 
 tact between the theoretical work of the technical school 
 and the practical routine of the manufacturing or com- 
 mercial institution. 
 
 *Ref. 19, p. 250. 
 
28 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 In attempting a classification of the special training 
 schools, based upon printed materials secured from the 
 various companies the writer encountered a difficult task 
 because of the great variety of schools maintained. This 
 diversity consists not only in the specific purposes for 
 which the schools are maintained but also in the organi- 
 zation and the methods employed to accomplish those 
 purposes.2''' 
 
 An examination of the literature of special training 
 schools shows three dominant purposes in these schools : 
 first, to train new employees for specific work ; second, to 
 teach a business as a whole ; and third, to help employees 
 to fit themselves for advancement. The first of these pur- 
 poses provides in reality a species of apprenticeship, 
 though the aim is a narrow specific ability instead of the 
 mastery of an entire field or trade. The second purpose 
 has developed because individual corporations have come 
 to realize that an employee can be brought to his highest 
 efficiency only by giving him a broad and intelligent view 
 of the entire business as well as a mastery of the specific 
 duties of his position. The third purpose applies to those 
 employees who have shown themselves capable and 
 worthy of promotion. 
 
 The plans of organization by which these purposes 
 are attained are classified for the purposes of this study 
 into five types: A, B, C, D, and E. 
 
 Type A schools are distinguished by the fact that the 
 student-employee spends all of his time in school and 
 does no productive work. This type of school is designed 
 to get definite results in the minimum of time by inten- 
 sive study. These courses are open usually only to tech- 
 nical graduates and to exceptionally efficient old em- 
 ployees. 
 
 Type B schools differ from those of Type A not in the 
 purpose but in the method. Under this plan, students 
 
 2'Ref. 27, pp. 81-83. 
 
Trade and Corporation Schools 29 
 
 divide their time between study and productive work, 
 the proportion varying with different companies. 
 
 There may be one serious handicap for this latter 
 type of school. This is due to the attitude toward these 
 student workers of some foremen and department heads 
 under whom students acquire their experience. The feel- 
 ing on the part of these foremen that the student gradu- 
 ates are being trained for positions better than those they 
 themselves hold or hope to hold, has seemed to prejudice 
 them toward the special-training-course men to such an 
 extent as seriously to handicap the system. At least one 
 large concern which has been conducting such a school 
 for several years, has recently decided either to abandon 
 the plan or to modify it in some manner so as to overcome 
 the difficulty. The author feels that this particular dif- 
 ficulty is not common as the above case is the only one 
 which has been called to his attention as serious enough 
 to endanger the success of the plan. 
 
 Type C schools are marked by the following charac- 
 teristics : 
 
 1. The student's time is made as nearly entirely pro- 
 
 ductive as possible, no time being given by the 
 company for related instruction ; 
 
 2. Students are assigned to work in various depart- 
 
 ments of the plant where they work under the 
 same conditions as other employees ; 
 
 3. There is little or no supervision aside from that 
 
 given by department superintendents and 
 foremen ; 
 
 4. Students are assigned to all or at least to several 
 
 departments in turn, the better to learn the 
 whole business of the firm. 
 
 The manner of selecting the students for this type of 
 school is the same as in Types A and B. 
 
 Type D includes the company continuation school. 
 The continuation school is a German product, but it is 
 
30 ' Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 gradually makingi its way into the educational system of 
 the United States. The broad utilitarian aim which per- 
 vades the continuation school is expressed in the phrase 
 ' ' Learn while earning and earn while learning. ' ' 
 
 The purposes of the company continuation school are : 
 first, to aid employees to equip themselves for advance- 
 ment by specific training for more technical work ; second, 
 to enable employees to continue their general education ; 
 third, to increase the efficiency of employees in their 
 present positions; and fourth, to discover for each em- 
 ployee the particular kind of work which he can do most 
 efficiently. 
 
 This type of school is marked by a somewhat broader 
 educational outlook than is present in some of the other 
 types, as is shown by the provision that a considerable 
 part of the student's time be given to general education 
 instead of confining him to such work as promises greater 
 immediate efficiency in a particular position. 
 
 In contrast with the rigid methods of selecting stu- 
 dents in the first three types of schools, here we find no 
 restrictions whatever. Any employee who desires to do 
 so may enroll as a continuation student and attendance 
 is usually voluntary, though it is required in some schools 
 for certain classes of students. 
 
 The number of continuation schools is rapidly increas- 
 ing, and the writer believes that this type of school is 
 destined to play an increasingly important part in the 
 solution of the problem of industrial training and effi- 
 ciency. 
 
 Table II compiled by the writer in 1916 shows the 
 names of the companies which are maintaining continua- 
 tion schools, and the characteristics of their work. 
 p Type E is the cooperative school. This type is sim- 
 ilar to Type B, except that the study part of the school 
 is conducted under and administered by public or private 
 school authorities. In case of cooperation with public 
 
Trade and Corporation Schools 
 
 31 
 
 schools the expense of the ' ' educational ' ' work is usually 
 paid out of public funds, while the company pays the 
 employee for the time he spends on productive work. In 
 some cases the company pays the student for the time 
 spent in school. 
 
 TABLE II— TYPE D. COMPANY CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Companies 
 
 Employees 
 
 Subjects'* 
 
 Time 
 
 American Bridge. 
 
 Bing & Bing 
 
 Chicago Telephone. , 
 Commonwealth Edi- 
 son 
 
 Commonwealth Steel . 
 Curtis Publishing. . . 
 
 Mountain States Tele- 
 phone & Telegraph 
 
 Newport News Ship- 
 building & Dry 
 Dock 
 
 New York Edison. . . 
 
 Norton & Norton 
 Grinding 
 
 Public Service Cor- 
 poration of New 
 Jersey 
 
 any 
 
 any 
 any 
 
 any 
 
 any under 22 
 
 any 
 
 Fore River Ship- 
 building any 
 
 General Electric . . . office 
 
 B. F. Goodrich .... any 
 
 Goodyear Tire & 
 
 Rubber foremen & 
 
 inspectors 
 
 International Har- 
 vester boys 16-20 
 
 Illinois Steel any 
 
 Kops Bros any 
 
 Metropolitan Life 
 
 Insurance any 
 
 typists 
 any 
 
 any 
 
 any 
 any 
 
 machinists 
 commercial 
 
 (g) (s) bridge 
 building 
 
 (g) mechanics 
 
 (s) plant main- 
 tenance 
 
 (g) (s) 
 
 (g) 
 
 (g) office and 
 commercial 
 work 
 
 (g) English 
 (s accounting 
 (g) reading 
 course 
 
 (g) drafting, 
 
 shop practice 
 (g) 
 (g) 
 
 (s) life insurance 
 (g) stenography 
 (s) actuarial 
 work 
 
 (g) electricity 
 & telephone 
 work 
 
 (g) mechanical 
 
 drawing 
 (g) (s) technical 
 
 accounting 
 
 (8) 
 
 (g) 
 
 evening 
 
 & (c) 
 
 evening 
 
 (c) 
 day 
 day 
 
 evening 
 
 evening 
 evening 
 
 day & 
 evenins 
 
 evening 
 
 day 
 
 (c) 
 evening 
 
 evening 
 
 (0) 
 
 evening 
 
 day & 
 evening 
 
 evening 
 
 day & 
 evening 
 
32 
 
 Study op Corporation Schools 
 
 Prudential Insurance any 
 Cumberland Tele- 
 phone & Telegraph any 
 
 Southern Bell Tele- 
 phone & Telegraph 
 
 Simons Manufactur- 
 ing any 
 
 Standard Oil of New 
 
 York any 
 
 Swift & Company . . . office boys 
 
 Tidewater Oil clerks 
 
 Westfnghouse Air 
 
 Brake office boys 
 
 Western Electric . . . any 
 
 Winchester Arms . . . any 
 
 Yale & Towne Man- 
 ufacturing any 
 
 (g) 
 
 (s) telephone 
 practice 
 
 (s) accounting 
 (g) 
 
 (8) 
 (g) 
 
 (s) accounting 
 
 (g) 
 
 (g) 
 
 (g) English, me- 
 chanical draw- 
 ing 
 
 (g) efficiency, 
 mechanical 
 drawing 
 
 day 
 
 evening 
 
 day 
 
 day 
 
 day 
 
 Sat. P. M. 
 
 day 
 evening 
 
 evening 
 evening 
 
 *(g) general subjects, (s) special subjects, (c) correspondence. 
 
 In this type of school we find at work the principle 
 of cooperation. It represents a recognition on the part 
 of business concerns, of the applicability to their educa- 
 tional work, of that principle which in recent years has 
 resulted in so many changes in the conduct of corporate 
 business. 
 
 There are two distinct plans of cooperation: co- 
 operation between several business concerns in the same 
 or related fields, and cooperation between business con- 
 cerns and public or private schools. Table III, based 
 upon data collected in 1916, shows typical schools of 
 Type E. 
 
 I 
 
Trade and Corporation Schools 
 
 33 
 
 TABLE III.— COOPERATIVE SPECIAL TRAINING SCHOOLS 
 
 Schools 
 
 Cooperating Companies 
 
 Company Schools. 
 
 Central Stations Institute 
 
 Commonwealth Edison Company- 
 Federal Sign Company (Electric) 
 Illinois Northern Utilities Company 
 (Owning 21 subsidiary compan- 
 ies) 
 Middle West UtUities Company 
 (Comprising 140 subsidiary com- 
 panies) 
 Public Service Company of North- 
 ern 111. (comprising five compan- 
 ies) 
 
 National Electric Light Assn. 
 (Correspondence courses) 
 
 Electric light companies in all parts 
 of the United States 
 
 Denver Gas and Electric Light Com- 
 pany, Gas & Electric School 
 ( Correspondence courses ) 
 
 Thirty-nine companies in all parts 
 
 of the United States 
 
 Public Schools. 
 
 University of Cincinnati 
 
 University of Akron 
 University of iPittsburgh 
 Georgia Institute of Technology 
 Dayton High School 
 Cass Technical High School 
 
 Departments of commerce in sixteen 
 large universities 
 
 Cincinnati Milling Company 
 National Cash Register Company 
 Western Electric Company and 
 "Nearly 100 other firms, repre- 
 senting the principal phases of 
 construction, manufacture and 
 transportation."^ 
 
 Thirty-four cooperating firms. 
 Forty-eight cooperating firms. 
 Seven cooperating firms. 
 National Cash Register Company. 
 Thirty-one cooperating firms, 
 
 (partly trade apprenticeship 
 
 courses) 
 
 National City Bank, New York. 
 
 Schools whose aim is to discover and develop selling 
 ability are divided into two groups : one having reference 
 to wholesaling, selling to the trade, and the selling of 
 proprietary or patented goods either to individual cus- 
 tomers or to the trade, and the other having reference to 
 the development of retail salesmanship. Each of these 
 two groups is the subject of study of a separate commit- 
 tee of the National Association of Corporation Schools, 
 the former being assigned to a Committee on Advertising, 
 
 "Ref. 48, p. 16. 
 
34 
 
 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 Selling and Distribution, and the latter to the Committee 
 on Retail Salesmanship. 
 2. Advertising, Selling, and Distribution Schools 
 The scope of the work carried on in schools of this 
 character is shown in the following outline :^^ 
 
 1. Salesmanship 
 
 a) relation to other phases of the business, 
 
 b) salesman's dignified work, 
 
 c) opportunities in salesmanship, 
 
 d) importance of selling knowledge to every busi- 
 
 ness man, 
 
 e) selling as a stepping stone to executive posi- 
 
 tions, 
 
 f ) what the salesman has an opportunity to learn, 
 
 g) the salesmen are ''born not made" fallacy re- 
 
 futed, 
 
 h) the field of marketing, 
 
 i) divisions of selling, 
 
 j) definition of a sale, 
 
 k) factors of a sale, 
 
 1) the selling process, 
 
 m) the training of salesmen.^o 
 
 3. Retail Salesmanship Schools 
 
 The field of retail salesmanship includes approxi- 
 mately one million people in the United States, a larger 
 number than in any other one single field which is 
 touched by corporation education activity .^^ The depart- 
 ment stores of New York City alone employ over 28,000 
 sales-people.^^j So important has the training of sales- 
 people become that there have been formed a Department 
 
 »Ref. 27, pp. 476 et seq. 
 
 ••Bureau of Salesmanship Research, Carnegie Institute of Technology, 
 Pittsburgh, Penn. See Ref. 27, p. 364, also Printers' Ink, April 6th, 1916. 
 "Thirteenth U. S. Census Report, 1910, Vol. IV, p. 93. 
 •^Miss Beulah Kennard, Sec. No. 49, LaFayette St., New York City. 
 
Trade and Corporation Schools 35 
 
 Store Educational Association32 in New York City, a 
 Union School of Salesmanship in Boston, and numerous 
 other agencies have taken up the study of salesmanship 
 and the training of sales-people. 
 
 Few, if any, of the department stores have had their 
 training work organized long enough to have any avail- 
 able literature outlining their curricula. Many of them, 
 however, are pursuing at least a part of the work indi- 
 cated in the following outline taken from the bulletin on 
 the New York Department Store Educational Associa- 
 tion: 
 
 1. Stock 
 
 a) classification in departments, 
 
 b) materials and qualities, 
 
 c) arrangement and care, 
 
 d) color, form, and style, 
 
 2. Salesmanship 
 
 a) types of customers, 
 
 b) approaching a customer, 
 
 c) closing the sale, 
 
 d) demonstration sales for discussion, 
 
 3. Commercial ethics 
 
 a) relation of employees to the store, 
 
 b) relation of employees to each other, 
 
 c) relation of the store to its customers, 
 
 4. System 
 
 a) rapid calculation, 
 
 b) business arithmetic, 
 
 c) business English. 
 
 4. Office Work Schools 
 
 Office-work schools undertake to train employees in 
 practically all of the mechanical phases of office practice, 
 and the extent of the work covered in different schools 
 varies from instruction in the simplest forms of book- 
 
36 Study op Corporation Schools 
 
 keeping to a thorough training in accounting, filing, in- 
 dexing, correspondence, stenography, typing, multi- 
 graphing, dictaphone operating, and general office effi- 
 ciency. 
 
 The fact that instruction in office work varies from a 
 minimum of practically zero to a complete training cover- 
 ing a year or more has made it practically impossible to 
 classify such schools or to secure any adequate data as 
 to their number. 
 
 5. Schools for Unskilled Labor 
 
 The fifth phase of corporate educational activity is 
 directed toward the unskilled laborer. This may take 
 the form of classes in common-school subjects or, what is 
 perhaps of greater importance, the teaching of English 
 to foreigners. 
 
 It has been impossible to secure statistics as to the 
 number of firms conducting such work, or as to the num- 
 ber of adult employees who are enrolled in school work, 
 but some notion of the importance of this work may be 
 gained from the fact that one firm, the American Bridge 
 Company at Ambridge, Pennsylvania, has an enrollment 
 of 125 adult foreigners at a single plant.*^ The Ford 
 Motor Company reports 2,700 foreigners in the Ford 
 English SchooF* and other companies^^ report equally 
 important work of this character. What company offi- , 
 cials maintaining these schools think of this work is sum- J 
 marized in Chapter IV. 
 
 6. Trade Apprentice Schools 
 
 The purpose of the trade apprentice school is to 
 impart to each apprentice the mastery of a skilled trade. 
 
 "Ref. 27, p. 748. 
 
 "Ref. 36. 
 
 »Ref. 27, p. 197, pp. 746 et. 9eq. 
 
Trade and Corporation Schools 37 
 
 These schools touch a much larger number of employees 
 than any other type of corporation school, and are there- 
 fore doubtless the most important. 
 
 Apprentices are accepted usually at ages sixteen to 
 twenty, and a legal indenture of apprenticeship is drawn 
 up, which sets forth the length of the apprenticeship, the 
 wages to be paid, and the details of the agreement. The 
 great diversity of these agreements makes it difficult to 
 characterize any considerable number of them. The in- 
 denture used by the Packard Motor Car Company speci- 
 fies: 
 
 a) the name of the trade to be taught ; 
 
 b) a deposit of twenty-five dollars to be forfeited to 
 
 the company if the apprentice fails to complete 
 his apprenticeship ; 
 
 c) the conditions upon which the agreement may be 
 
 legally terminated ; 
 
 d) a bonus of one hundred dollars to be paid by the 
 
 company upon the satisfactory completion of 
 the apprenticeship ; 
 
 e) a probationary period of one hundred hours at the 
 
 end of which, the applicant is either dismissed 
 or formally accepted and a legal indenture ex- 
 ecuted between the company and the appren- 
 tice's parents or guardian; 
 
 f) a three years' term of apprenticeship of 2,700 
 
 working hours ; 
 
 g) the rating of apprentices by foremen, upon a per- 
 
 centage basis, those receiving a high rating se- 
 curing thereby a time premium which may be 
 counted as vacation or to reduce the term of 
 apprenticeship ; 
 h) a wage scale of sixteen cents per hour for the first 
 six months, and an increase of two cents per 
 hour at the beginning of each succeeding six 
 months ; 
 
38 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 i) a decrease in the term of apprenticeship at the op- 
 tion of the company in case the apprentice is a 
 graduate of the Detroit high school. 
 
 Many companies in training their apprentices and 
 other employees not regularly apprenticed, instead of un- 
 dertaking to give them the academic and technical part 
 of the training, enter into a cooperative agreement with 
 public or private schools to give this training, while the 
 practical part of the training is given in the shop under 
 actual shop conditions. The importance of this coopera- 
 tive movement and its bearing upon the solution of the 
 problem of vocational education is discussed in Chap- 
 ter X. 
 
 The reports as to the number of students in corpora- 
 tion schools do not give definite information as to the 
 classification of students. In 1916, the Codification Com- 
 mittee of the National Association of Corporation Schools 
 (See Advance Report of this Committee) collected sta- 
 tistics from forty-seven member-companies showing a 
 total of approximately 12,000 students in all kinds of 
 schools maintained by these member-companies. The 
 Bulletin of the National Association of Corporation 
 Schools— (March 17th, 1916, p. 10)— gives a total of 
 approximately 30,000 students in corporation schools 
 maintained by member-companies. In the opinion of the 
 writer, the schools maintained by member-companies of 
 the National Association of Corporation Schools number 
 approximately half the entire number of corporation 
 schools in the United States, so that according to this esti- 
 mate there are about 60,000 students in all corporation 
 schools in the United States. 
 
 The data collected by the writer (see Chapter IV) 
 shov/ that less than 1.000 of these students are college 
 men or technically trained men, from Vv^hich we conclude 
 that a large proportion of these 60.000 workers are in the 
 Bchools for retail sales-people or in the trade apprentice 
 schools. 
 
Efficiency 39 
 
 PART II 
 THE EFFICIENCY OF CORPORATION SCHOOLS 
 
 Chapter IV 
 
 The Efficiency of the Corporation School as Tested 
 BY Business Concerns Which Maintain Them 
 
 We now come to an examination of the corporation 
 school in the light of the aims of such schools as set forth 
 by the National Association of Corporation Schools. 
 These aims are:^ first, "to develop to the limit the effi- 
 ciency of the individual employee; and second, to in- 
 crease industrial efficiency in, general. ' ' 
 
 In this chapter we set forth the results of our investi- 
 gation of the efficiency of corporation schools as deter- 
 mined by such standards as have been set up by business 
 concerns themselves. 
 
 In Chapter II reference was made to the high state 
 of development of craftmanship under the craft-gild ap- 
 prenticeship system, and the origin of the corporation 
 school was found in the decadence of that system. 
 
 It would be highly desirable to compare the efficiency 
 of the present system with that of the system which it 
 has displaced but such a comparison would be manifestly 
 misleading if not impossible. The social and industrial 
 conditions which were dominant factors in the older sys- 
 tem have undergone an almost complete transformation, 
 and the present system of apprenticeship is affected by 
 many new factors quite lacking under the old system. 
 Among these new factors are a wide-spread general edu- 
 cation, and the many opportunities for special technical 
 
 *Chap. HI. 
 
40 Study op Corporation Schools 
 
 training, a great increase in the number of trades and 
 professions, and entirely different methods of manufac- 
 turing owing to the almost universal use of power ma- 
 chinery. Any conclusions, therefore, which might be 
 based upon such a comparison would be almost valueless, 
 not only on account of widely different conditions but 
 also because of an almost complete lack of data for com- 
 parison. 
 
 Business concerns have assumed the responsibility for 
 the training of their apprentices not, as a rule, from phil- 
 anthropic or humanitarian motives, but for business rea- 
 sons, though one of the leaders in corporation school work 
 says that ''It is a movement to introduce the human ele- 
 ment into industry. "2 This recognition of the human 
 element is becoming increasingly common, especially in 
 those firms which have organized training departments. 
 The improved conditions cited, though they may be cred- 
 ited largely to the training departments, are due partly 
 to recent legislation requiring better working conditions, 
 and the installation of safety appliances.^ 
 
 The warrant, however, for a training department 
 must still be found in purely business reasons which ap- 
 peal to stock holders, and directors whose duty it is to 
 produce dividends. These reasons are five in number: 
 first, an inadequate supply of young employees to meet 
 the demand of developing industry; second, a lack of 
 highly skilled or technically trained men qualified for 
 promotion ; third, a demand for a higher grade of com- 
 mercial products than can be produced by unskilled 
 labor; fourth, a too frequent turn-over of labor; and 
 fifth, a very considerable annual expense through waste 
 of material and through accidents resulting from the 
 carelessness or ignorance of untrained operatives. 
 
 The evidence of improvement in efficiency on these 
 
 'Ret. 34, p. 12. 
 'Ref. 33, pp. 57-58. 
 
EmciENCY 41 
 
 five points is of two kinds : first, the almost unanimous 
 opinion of the officials of the firms which maintain these 
 schools ; and second, extracts from the records of a large 
 number of these concerns. 
 
 In the writer's correspondence with company offi- 
 cials and corporation school directors, the almost uni- 
 versal tenor is to the effect that their schools supply 
 these deficiencies and produce these results. Personal 
 interviews with officials and company employees rein- 
 force this evidence. 
 
 The strongest objective evidence of the efficiency of 
 these schools from the company 's standpoint, lies in their 
 rapid multiplication in recent years. The report of the 
 first annual convention of the National Association of 
 Corporation Schools^ shows that but five corporation 
 schools had been established before 1905, while the fourth 
 annual report,^ shows that this number had grown to 201 
 apprenticeship schools. Further evidence is in the fact 
 that the writer has been unable to learn of the discon- 
 tinuance of any of these schools except in a few cases 
 where cooperative relations have been established with 
 public or other educational agencies.^ One authority*^ 
 reports six of 112 schools discontinued, but he fails to 
 state the reasons for their discontinuance. 
 
 In but a single case has a company official reported 
 the apprentice school as unsatisfactory^ and the reason 
 for that failure was, to be found in the unfavorable atti- 
 tude of the older employees toward the apprentices. 
 
 The fact that the older apprenticeship schools con- 
 tinue to exist and that new schools are multiplying rap- 
 idly is strong evidence that they are accomplishing the 
 purposes for which they are established. 
 
 *Ref. 31, p. 120. 
 
 "Ref. 27, pp. 164 et. seq. 
 
 •Ref. 18, pp. 282, 289, 294, 301. 
 
 ''Industrial Education in Cincinnati, p. 4. Also Ref. 38, p. 199. 
 
 •See Chap. III. Type B. 
 
42 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 1. TJie development of trained workers 
 
 The number of applications for apprenticeships varies 
 with business conditions, and business conditions of the 
 past few years have developed a great demand for work- 
 ers. The evidence gained by the writer's correspondence 
 and consultation with company officials supports the 
 statement that the corporation school, in a great measure, 
 meets this demand. There are approximately 60,000 stu- 
 dent-apprentices in the corporation schools of the United 
 States and this number constitutes a constant source of 
 supply of trained workers.^ 
 
 2. The development of managerial talent 
 
 The development of managerial talent is another aim 
 set up by business men. Here, too, the evidence is in 
 favor of the corporation school. ^^ The Chaix Printing 
 Company of Paris, France, which operates the oldest 
 corporation school, reported in 1902,1^ that of the 1,200 
 employees of the company, including many of the fore- 
 men, 250 were graduates of the apprentice school. Mr. 
 Norman Colyer, of the Southern P'acific Railroad Com- 
 pany, reports that, of 68 important promotions, 18 per 
 cent were given to graduates of the special training 
 course, 12 thus giving 18 per cent of the better positions 
 to a small fraction of one per cent of the employees of the 
 company. 
 
 The Winchester Repeating Arms Company, reports^^ 
 that a large number of their apprenticeship graduates 
 are now company foremen. The Pennsylvania Railroad 
 Company school is credited with being ' ' a most valuable 
 selective medium for drawing men into official work.*'^* 
 
 •Ref. 27, p. 325 et acq. 
 
 "Ref. 16, p. 386. 
 
 "Ref. 16, p. 857. 
 
 "See bulletin Students' Course, S. P. R. R. Co. 
 
 "Ref. 19, p. 192. 
 
 "Natl. Assn. Corp. Schools, Bulletin June, 1914. 
 
Efficiency 43 
 
 Another report states that 65 per cent of the executives 
 of the company come up through the apprenticeship 
 school. 
 
 The development of foremen and company executives 
 is one of the functions of the special training school de- 
 scribed in Chapter III. Here a distinct type of appren- 
 tice is sought and only men who have had some technical 
 training, and in most cases a complete technical training, 
 are sought for these courses. Many of the companies 
 which maintain such courses find it necessary every year 
 to visit the universities and technical schools, in compe- 
 tition with other concerns, to seek the services of desirable 
 new executive material in the graduating classes. 
 
 During the months of January and February, 1917, 
 in reply to a questionnaire sent to all the member com- 
 panies of the National Association of Corporation 
 Schools, the writer collected data from twenty firms 
 which maintain special training schools. The question- 
 naire asked, among other things, the characteristic fea- 
 tures of the special training courses offered and the ap- 
 proximate number of technical men employed each year. 
 These twenty firms reported a maximal annual demand 
 in their training departments for a total of 887 college 
 graduates and men with technical training or experience. 
 These men are selected with great care and they are 
 usually given such special training in the business of the 
 company and in practical engineering as will fit them for 
 important technical and managerial positions. 
 
 Some of these special training schools have been in 
 operation for twenty-five years and the writer has not 
 had information of the discontinuance of a single school 
 through a failure to accomplish this end. The persist- 
 ence of these schools is strong evidence that they accom- 
 plish the second end for which they are established by 
 developing men for managerial positions. 
 
44 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 3. Improvement in quality of output 
 
 The third criterion applied by business men to their 
 apprenticeship schools is the improvement in the quality 
 of the work done. Unfortunately, here few data are 
 available, though all company officials report, so far as 
 reports are available, that one of the noticeable outcomes 
 of their training departments is the improved quality 
 of the work. One firm reports a reduction of unit office 
 cost per business transaction, from $1.16 to $.57 in three 
 years, because of better trained office help, making a 
 total saving to the company of $45,000. Another firm 
 handled 11,247 more orders during one year, with four- 
 teen fewer employees, all on account of greater efficiency 
 as a result of training. ^^ A representative of a large rail- 
 road company reported that through their system of 
 training men, his company had made more progress in 
 four years than in the preceding twenty-five years when 
 dependence was upon other means of getting trained 
 men.i^ 
 
 4. Decrease in tJie turn-over of labor 
 
 The fourth test applied by business concerns to cor- 
 poration school efficiency relates to their effect upon the 
 turn-over of labor. 
 
 It is not in order in this study to examine into the 
 details of the causes which affect the tenure of employees. 
 This has been done by other writers. ^^ It is essential here 
 to report only the bearing which corporation schools have 
 on the question. 
 
 The manager of one large department store stated 
 that his firm could not interest itself in the training of 
 sales-people because of a turn of labor five times a year, 
 and a training department would simply mean the train- 
 
 «Ref. 19, p. 650. 
 "Ref. 19, p. 220. 
 i^Ref. 19, p. 677. 
 
Efficiency 45 
 
 ing of people for other stores. Most company officials 
 interviewed show a somewhat broader spirit, and where 
 schools have been in existence long enough, the officials 
 are almost unanimous in reporting an increase in the 
 tenure of employees, and they credit this improvement 
 to the corporation school. 
 
 This credit, however, cannot be given wholly to the 
 training department, for many concerns, simultaneously 
 with the installation of training departments, have in- 
 stalled welfare work, one of the chief functions of which 
 is to decrease the turn-over of labor. ^^ 
 
 Extracts from the reports in the hands of the writer, 
 on the lengthened tenure of employees follow : 
 
 Mr. L. Atherton, director of apprentices at the plant 
 of Swift and Company, reports that at the end of six- 
 teen months the average tenure of the boys in his depart- 
 ment has been increased from 3.5 to 8.5 months. Of 395 
 boys hired during three years, 192 were at the end of 
 that time still in the employ of the company.!^ 
 
 Mr. Townley, assistant superintendent of the J. L. 
 Hudson Department Store Company, of Detroit, reported 
 a ''very marked improvement" in the turn of labor, and 
 he credited the improvement, in part at least, to the edu- 
 cational department. 
 
 The Cadillac Company, of Detroit, graduated a total 
 of 144 apprentices from their training courses in 6 years, 
 of whom 63 were still with the company at the end of that 
 period, while 36 were in the automobile service of other 
 companies. 
 
 The Denver Gas and Electric Company has since the 
 installation of its student training course, taken on 145 
 men, 116 of whom — or 67 per cent — are still with the 
 company. 
 
 The Denison Manufacturing Company reports that it 
 
 "Ref. 19, p. 721. 
 "Ref. 19, p. 642. 
 
46 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 costs from $50 to $75 to train a new: worker, and that it 
 has saved approximately $25,000 in 4 years by reducing 
 the turn-over of labor from 68 per cent in 1911 to 28 per 
 cent in 1915, through proper training and supervision of 
 employees. 2<^ 
 
 The General Electric Company is reported as. spend- 
 ing $831,000 in hiring and discharging annually over 
 22,000 employees.2i The purpose of the training and 
 welfare work of this company is to reduce this enormous 
 expense. 
 
 Another company reported 2,649 college men taken 
 into its special training course during the past 10 years 
 and 55 per cent of those taken during the past 7 years 
 still with the company.22 
 
 The Winchester Repeating Arms Company reported 
 that about 90 per cent of the apprenticeship graduates 
 remain permanently with the company and that several 
 of these graduates are now f oremen.^^ 
 
 The Southern Pacific Railroad Company report shows 
 9 graduates of their student course still in the employ of 
 the company, with an average term of service to date, of 
 8 years, and 3 months. 2* 
 
 The Burroughs Adding Machine Company shows 
 after 8 years of experience that, with 20 apprentices at 
 all times, 25 per cent of them remain permanently with 
 the company.25 
 
 The most complete statement available contains data 
 for 1913, from 33 companies, all but 3 of which have 
 established schools since 1905 :^^ 
 
 Total number of trade apprentices 7,420 
 
 Total number of graduates 1,978 
 
 Total number still in the employ of the company where training 
 
 was received 1,854 
 
 Total number in executive positions 129 
 
 soRef. 19, pp. 667, 668. 
 
 ^New York Evening World, Nov. 21, 1916. 
 
 "Ref. 19, p. 196. 
 
 "•Ref. 19, p. 192. 
 
 **Norman Colyer, Southern Pacific R. R. Bulletin, Training Courte. 
 
 *Natl. Assn. Corp. Schools, Bulletin, June, 1914. 
 
 "•Ref. 31, p. 120. 
 
Efpiciency 47 
 
 This table shows that 93 per cent of the graduates 
 remain with the company where their training was re- 
 ceived. 
 
 These figures for corporation schools compare very 
 favorably with the following report of the persistence in 
 service of the electrical engineering graduates of Purdue 
 University. This report covers the period from 1890 to 
 1915, during which time there were 1,081 graduates in 
 electrical engineering. It shows the present occupation 
 so far as obtainable of all these graduates. ^^ 
 
 Present occupation Number of men Per cent of 
 
 total 
 
 Manufacturing 350 32.2 
 
 Power plants 131 12 
 
 Railroad 66 6.1 
 
 Communication 67 6.2 
 
 Miscellaneous 473 43.5 
 
 1,081 100 
 
 The Miscellaneous group is further subdivided as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Present occupation Number of men Per cent of 
 
 t total 
 
 Public Service companies 26 2.8 
 
 Teaching 58 6.8 
 
 Non-electric 60 6.6 
 
 Non-engineering 100 9.2 
 
 Miscellaneous 117 10.8 
 
 Not accounted for 113 10.4 
 
 478 100. 
 
 If we may assume that the above figures from cor- 
 poration schools and from this technical school are fairly 
 representative of the two types of schools, we are war- 
 ranted in the conclusion that men trained in corporation 
 schools show a greater tendency to persist in the kind 
 of work for which they were trained than graduates of 
 other technical schools. 
 
 "Ewing, D. D. Engineering Education, Lancaster Penna., Feb., 1917. 
 
48 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 5. Reduction in waste and in number of accidents 
 
 The fifth end attained by the companies which have 
 installed training departments is a reduction in the waste 
 of materials and a decrease in a much more serious waste, 
 that of human health and human life as the result of 
 accidents. 
 
 It is not possible to credit the corporation school with 
 all that has been accomplished in this direction, though 
 company officials agree that the corporation school has 
 been a very important contributor to this improvement. 
 The fact that in many concerns the welfare work and the 
 training work are carried on by the same department 
 and by the same officials, makes it quite impossible to de- 
 termine how much of this improvement is the result of 
 the educational department. 
 
 Safety and health have become the slogan of a very 
 wide-spread propaganda, even more wide-spread than the 
 corporation-school movement. A large part of the agi- 
 tation for safety and health has been crystallized into the 
 National Safety Council, an organization of nation-wide 
 scope which has undertaken to coordinate and unite the 
 welfare work which is now a part of practically every 
 modern up-to-date corporation. ^^ 
 
 ' ' Fewer accidents and longer terms of service invari- 
 ably result from medical attendance, physical examina- 
 tions, * safety first* advice, sanitary lunch rooms and 
 toilet rooms, and sanitary heat and light. ' '^9 it requires 
 no argument to show that whatever makes an employee 
 more healthful, more comfortable, and more intelligent 
 will make him a more profitable worker, will increase 
 his term of service and will reduce his number of acci- 
 dents.^^ 
 
 One of the most fruitful sources of accidents is the 
 inability of foreigners to understand English. 
 
 »Ref. 34. 
 
 »Ref. 19, p. 684 and 800. 
 
 *>Ref. 27, p. 311 
 
Efficiency 49 
 
 This fact is recognized by all employers of large num- 
 bers of foreigners, and the teaching of ' ' English for For- 
 eigners "^^ is one of the most important forms of corpor- 
 ation school work. This work is being fostered by :^^ the 
 National Association of Maniifacturers,^^ the National 
 Association of Corporation Schools, the National Educa- 
 tion Association, the North American Civic League for 
 Immigrants,^* the Young Men's Christian Association,^^ 
 some from business and some from civic motives. 
 
 Typical of the latter group of interests is the work 
 of the United States Bureau of Education in the Division 
 of Immigrant Education.^^ 
 
 So far as information has come to the writer, the 
 unanimous verdict of the firms conducting this work, is 
 that it tends very strongly to reduce the number of ac- 
 cidents. One company reports^*^ a decrease in 3 years of 
 64 per cent in the number of accidents attributable to 
 the safety department and to the teaching of English to 
 foreigners. Other companies report^ ^ a decrease of from 
 60 to 80 per cent in the number of accidents and they at- 
 tribute the improvement to the same sources. 
 
 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 The data cited in this chapter and the reports from 
 individual companies do not, by any means, exhaust the 
 information at hand or available, bearing upon the five 
 points in question. These data have been selected because 
 they are typical of the large amount of evidence which 
 has been examined. The writer believes that this evi- 
 
 "Ref. 87 . 
 
 ""Ref. 34, pp. 515, 521, 723, 725, 747, 753; Ref. 35; Ref. 27, pp. 
 339-42. 
 
 "Headquarters No. 30 Church St., New York City. 
 
 "'Hoadqiiarters No. 173 State Street, Boston, Mass. 
 
 »Ref. 2, p. 363; Ref. 36. 
 
 '*U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, Immigrant Education. 
 
 "Ref. 87. 
 
 '"Ref. 36, p. 33. 
 
50 Study of Cobporation Schools 
 
 dence is sufficient to show that corporation schools ac- 
 complish the ends for which they have been organized 
 by supplying a more nearly adequate number of 
 trained employees, by fitting men for promotion, by re- 
 ducing the turn-over of labor, by improving the output, 
 and by decreasing the number of accidents. 
 
 One of the important items in the argument is the 
 fact that practically no negative evidence on these points 
 has been found. 
 
 The corporation school stands the efficiency test which 
 business concerns apply to it. In the following four 
 chapters are given the results of the comparison of cor- 
 poration schools with public secondary schools and tech- 
 nical schools. ^ 
 
Instruction 51 
 
 Chapter V 
 
 Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools as 
 
 TO Instruction 
 
 In this chapter are given the results of the compari- 
 son of the corporation school with public secondary 
 schools and technical schools in the matter of instruction. 
 
 This study had scarcely been begun, when the writer 
 repeatedly encountered the statement that one of the main 
 points of superiority of corporation schools over other 
 technical schools and public schools is a superior teaching 
 force, and this claim, emanating both from corporation- 
 school teachers themselves and corporation officials as 
 well, has been kept continuously in mind as various 
 schools of both types have been visited. 
 
 There is something about a good teacher which all 
 recognize as the distinctive mark of his ability, yet this 
 something is so intangible as to elude isolation. Some 
 call it personality, some sympathy, and some intuition. 
 While we cannot accurately define it or isolate it, every 
 supervisor and every student readily recognizes it in the 
 true teacher. 
 
 In addition to this essential personality, a successful 
 corporation-school teacher should have had enough shop 
 experience to enable him to handle any practical problem 
 which is likely to arise. He must know more than the 
 students do in order to hold their respect. Students ex- 
 pect a teacher not only to know more than they them- 
 selves, but to be a master of the subject he teaches. 
 
 In order to meet the demand for well-qualified in- 
 structors several of the larger corporations have estab- 
 lished teacher-training courses for the purpose of giving 
 to prospective teachers technical training, not only in 
 
52 Study op Corporation Schools 
 
 class management, but also in the handling of subject- 
 matter according to approved pedagogical principles. 
 This movement is one of the most hopeful signs and it 
 cannot fail to contribute to a more scientific technique of 
 teaching. Among the organizations which are training 
 corporation-school teachers are: the American Steel 
 Company,^ the American Telephone and Telegraph Com- 
 pany, ^ the Union School of Salesmanship, and the Na- 
 tional Association of Corporation Schools in cooperation 
 with the New York University. 2 This awakened con- 
 sciousness on the part of corporation school adminis- 
 trators toward the technique of teaching suggests that a 
 comparison of the teaching in corporation schools with 
 the teaching in public secondary schools and technical 
 schools may be valuable. 
 
 At the beginning of this study, copious notes were 
 made on the teaching observed, but these were soon found 
 to be inadequate for making a measurably accurate com- 
 parison between the two groups of schools. The better 
 to accomplish this end a score card was needed, adapted 
 to the scoring of engineering teaching and such other sub- 
 jects as are usually taught in corporation schools. 
 
 A teacher's efficiency score card suitable for scoring 
 the teaching in corporation schools should take into con- 
 sideration those points which the efficiency engineer con- 
 siders in investigating the efficiency of any business or 
 manufacturing concern. Among these points are economy 
 of time, economy of effort, and economy of materials. 
 The writer has been permitted to make an adaptation of 
 Professor Charles Hughes Johnston's Ten-Point Scale 
 for this purpose.^ 
 
 It was desired to have a score card which should not 
 take into account the teacher's personality as a separate 
 
 iRef. 27, pp. 325, 335-7. 
 
 'New York University Bulletin, Dept. Store Education Courses, Jan. 
 «, 1916. 
 
 •Not yet published. 
 
Instruction 53 
 
 TEACHERS' EFFICIENCY SCORE CARD 
 
 School Lesson Topic 
 
 Teacher Observer 
 
 Subject Date 
 
 Length of Observation Time of day 
 
 Ite ms Scored* (O ver) Score] P | F [Mj G | E | 
 
 I. TECHNIQUE OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMEN T | | I I I I 
 
 1 smoothness in classroom work for whole period 
 
 2 mechanical skill and skillful use of de-vices 
 
 3 economy of time and effort 
 
 4 good physical and mental conditions 
 
 5 good order, industry, — avoiding distractions 
 
 II. RECITATION TECHNIQUE 
 
 1 choice of methods — lecture, laboratory, quiz, ge- 
 
 netic, textbook, problem, project, excursion 
 
 2 memory drill and reviews 
 
 3 consideration for maturity of students 
 
 4 use of local and illustrative material 
 
 III. DEFINITENESS OF AIM | | | | | | 
 
 1 logical and pedagogical organization 
 
 2 elimination of irrelevant materials 
 3 clarity of aim 
 
 4 attainment of aim 
 
 IV. ASSIGNMENT OF NEXT LESSON | | | | | | 
 
 1 relating the present lesson to the next 
 
 2 suggestions of methods of attack and study 
 
 3 amount of assignment 
 
 4 deflniteness of assignment. 
 
 V. PRACTICAL AND COMMON SENSE | | | | | j 
 
 1 relating theory to practice 
 
 2 consideration of economic and cost factors 
 
 3 prevalence of common sense judgments 
 
 4 evidence of common sense atmosphere 
 
 VI. MENTAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 1 ability to realize cause and effect 
 
 2 ability to make scientific inferences 
 
 3 ability to generalize and conceptualize 
 
 4 ability to think logically 
 
 VII. RESPONSIVENESS OP CLASS | | | | | | 
 
 1 effective and adequate response 
 
 2 spontaneous response 
 
 3 responses from entire class 
 
 4 -rronp coi pcraMon nnd responsibility 
 
 Vill. CLASS^ATTITUDE TOWARD"LEARNiNG | | | | | | 
 
 1 respect for the educative process 
 
 2 students blase, bored, superficial, interested 
 
 "t i-oopc'intivn botwocii toiu'lier and students 
 
 4 sympathetic relations of teacher and students 
 
 IX. ^BREADTH OF VIEW | | | | | | 
 
 1 use of source material 
 
 2 use of supplementary materials 
 
 8 vub«ervience to textbook or syllabus 
 4 hospitality toward students' contributions 
 X^ ^DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE | | | | | | 
 
 1 good form, voice and language in classroom 
 
 2 appreciation of thoroughness of knowledge 
 8 refinement in manner, speech and thought 
 4 appreciation of form vs. mere knowledge 
 
54 Study of. Corporation Schools 
 
 item to be scored, not that personality* is an unimportant 
 f a ctor in any teacher 's success, but it has seemed prefer- 
 able so to organize the score card to be used that the scor- 
 ing of the items in it, will take into account, the teacher's 
 personality as it affects the item in question. 
 
 On the preceding page is shown the writer's adapta- 
 tion of Professor Johnston's Ten-Point Scale. 
 
 The back of the Score Card is reproduced below : 
 
 TEACHERS' EFFICIENCY SCORE CARD 
 
 Explanations and directions for scoring a teacher's classroom efficiency. 
 Bead these instructions carefully. 
 
 1. The aim of this score card is to enable teachers and supervisors 
 
 to conpernte inteH'gently in improving teaching by scoring important items 
 in the process. 
 
 2. Use the subtopics as the basis of your judgment, but score main 
 points only. The naming of specific subtopics need not prevent the con- 
 sideration of others not named but presumably equally important. 
 
 3. Score points as they come in evidence, not necessarily in the order 
 printed. 
 
 4. Do not score any point upon which there is insufficient evidence. 
 
 5. The observer should focus attention not upon teacher, or upon 
 pnpils -n isolat'ori hnt upon the entire cooperative classroom activity, and 
 should also keep in mind the factors over which the teacher has no con- 
 trol, such as former classroom practice and local school and community 
 prejudices. This suggestion applies specially to items, I, II, VII, VIII, 
 and X. 
 
 6. The observer and the teacher should have a thorough understand- 
 ing of the score card and its purpose before a class is visited, and no final 
 judgment shonkl be formed until at least three diflPerent scores have been 
 made. If possible these visits should include the time when some definite 
 larger unit of instruction is being developed. A visit should include at 
 least half of a recitation period and should include either the beginning 
 or the end of the period. 
 
 7. The rankings: P. P. M. G. and E. may be understood to repre- 
 sent approximately equal steps between the poorest teaching likely to be 
 found and the best possible — say, roughly equivalent to rankings of 1, 3, 6, 
 7, 9, plus or minus on a scale of ten. 
 
 *School Review Monograph. No. VI. 
 
Instruction 55 
 
 The score card is not a grading card nor a measuring- 
 stick or scale. The fundamental element of a scale is a 
 series of approximately equal steps between a lower point 
 of zero and an upper point of approximate perfection. 
 No such claim is made for this score card, nor is it as- 
 sumed that the ten items of this score card are of even 
 approximately equal importance. They are all im- 
 portant, but no attempt has been made to establish a rank- 
 order nor any weighting of the ten items. 
 
 The line drawn through the scores entered for the va- 
 rious items therefore cannot in any sense be considered 
 the graph of an equation representing a relation between 
 the various items for there are no scaled coordinates and 
 no coordinate axes. 
 
 Each of the ten items of the score card is subdivided 
 into sub-topics, though it is not intended that each of 
 these sub-topics shall be scored separately; they are 
 given simply as indicative of what the observer ought to 
 look for, and these items are not intended to preclude 
 the consideration of others not mentioned but pertinent 
 and equally important. 
 
 In order to facilitate the use of the Teachers' Effi- 
 ciency Score Card, and further, in order fully to ac- 
 quaint any who may find occasion to use it in the scoring 
 of teaching, with the import of the various items, the fol- 
 lowing fuller discussion of the ten items is presented: 
 
 1. TECHNIQUE OF CLASSROOM MANAGE- 
 MENT involves the more or less mechanical phases of 
 the entire classroom procedure, including mechanical 
 skill in the selection of, and in the adjustment and use of 
 classroom devices, such as maps, globes, apparatus, and 
 machinery ; skill in securing economy of time and effort 
 in making assignments, in taking the class roll, in pass- 
 ing to and from seats; maintaining good physical con- 
 ditions as to temperature, ventilation, and humidity; 
 
56 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 and good order, a spirit of industry, and freedom from 
 oistT*?! rations 
 
 2. RECITATION TECHNIQUE involves : the means 
 and methods employed in making the real vital contact 
 between the students and the subject matter ; the adapta- 
 tion of the methods and materials to the maturity of 
 the students; skill in the use of illustrative materials; 
 and a proper emphasis upon reviews and drills. 
 
 3. DEFINITENESS OF AIM involves: considera- 
 tion for proper logical and pedagogical presentation of 
 materials ; an emphasis upon essential points ; the subor- 
 dination of irrelevant matter so as to make the central 
 aim of the recitation clear, and its attainment certain. 
 
 4. ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS requires : a reason- 
 able and a definite assignment ; a proper relating of the 
 present lesson to the next and suggestion of methods of 
 attacking and of studying the new lesson. 
 
 5. PRACTICAL AND COMMON SENSE in a class- 
 room is evidenced : by a due relating of theory to practice ; 
 by a due consideration for economic and cost factors 
 wherever these factors are present; by a prevalence of 
 common sense judgments; and by a common sense at- 
 mosphere. 
 
 6. MENTAL DISCIPLINE is evidenced in part by 
 the ability : to realize cause and effect ; to make scientific 
 inferences ; to make proper generalizations, and to form 
 right concepts ; and to think logically. 
 
 7. RESPONSIVENESS OF CLASS is evidence of 
 good instruction, in proportion as responses are effective, 
 adequate, spontaneous and general; and to the degree 
 that there is present a group cooperation and a sense of 
 group responsibility. 
 
 8. CLASS ATTITUDE TOWARD LEARNING is 
 evidenced by the extent to which there is present a respect 
 for the educative process ; a blase, bored, superficial, or 
 interested attitude on the part of students ; and a helpful 
 
Instruction 57 
 
 cooperative and sympathetic relation between teacher and 
 pupils. 
 
 9. BREADTH OF VIEW is evidenced by the use of 
 source and supplementary materials, by freedom from 
 subservience to textbooks and syllabi, and by the consid- 
 eration given to pupils' opinions and contributions. 
 
 10. DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE is evidenced 
 by the presence of good form, good voice, and language ; 
 by appreciation shown for thoroughness of knowledge; 
 by refinement in manner, speech, and thought; and by 
 appreciation of good form rather than knowledge. 
 
 Some of these items are in evidence in practically 
 every classroom recitation, while others are frequently 
 lacking. Some are easy to score, while others are rather 
 intangible. Those relatively easy to score are Items I, II, 
 III, IV and VII, while under the latter category fall 
 Items V, VI, VIII, IX, and X. The importance of these 
 more elusive outcomes will scarcely be questioned but 
 evidence of their presence is sometimes difficult to detect. 
 The suggestion is made in the instructions for scoring 
 that no score be made for any item in case of insufficient 
 evidence. It may frequently happen too, that such items 
 as the ''Assignment of Lesson", which! is relatively easy 
 to score may not be in evidence at all, owing to the fact 
 that the assignment may have been made in advance. In 
 such a case the proper procedure is not to score that 
 item. 
 
 Shortly after the beginning of this study, the faculty 
 of the Department of Civil Engineering of the University 
 of Illinois became interested in the pedagogical phase of 
 engineering teaching to the extent that the writer was 
 invited to make a survey of their teaching. In compliance 
 with this request the writer made systematic visitations 
 to the classes of the department during the months of 
 November and December, 1916. 
 
 This invitation afforded the desired opportunity of 
 
58 Study or Corporation Schools 
 
 making a systematic comparison of the teaching of cor- 
 poration schools with that of a public technical school, 
 and hastened the completion of the Teachers* Efficiency 
 Score Card described above. 
 
 According to Rule 6 for the use of the score card, a 
 thorough understanding was reached with the instructors 
 as to the purpose and the process of the scoring, and each 
 instructor's classes, as far as possible, were visited at 
 least three times. In order not to prejudice later scoring, 
 as soon as a score was made, it was put aside and not re- 
 ferred to again until all the scoring was completed. After 
 three scores had been made for each instructor in the de- 
 partment, an average score was made for each instructor 
 by taking a mean of the three rankings in each of the 
 ten items. 
 
 The averaging of the several scores for an instructor 
 was done by the ordinary arithmetical process, giving the 
 various scores, instead of the letters the arithmetical val- 
 ues : 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 suggested in Eule 7, on the back 
 of the card. In the same manner the average score on 
 any one item for all the instructors in the department 
 was obtained. 
 
 By treating each item in the same manner and by 
 drawing a line through these mean scores on the various 
 items, each instructor's average ''graph" was obtained; 
 and by a similar averaging of all ten scores for the sev- 
 eral instructors, the department average on all the ten 
 items was obtained. 
 
 After all the scoring was done and the average 
 ''graphs" were drawn, a report was submitted to the 
 faculty of the department at their weekly conference and 
 the value of the survey and the scoring was freely dis- 
 cussed. The writer maintained for the individual average 
 scores, and for the department average scores, that they 
 were diagnostic only. He did not hold that they measured 
 on a per cent scale, the exact amount of any item, but 
 
Instruction 59 
 
 lie did maintain that each instructor ^s average score was 
 a fairly accurate diagnosis of that instructor's classroom 
 efficiency. He further maintained that the low point on 
 the department average score — Responsiveness of Class, 
 — ^was the real low point in the instruction in the depart- 
 ment. This conclusion the writer believes agrees substan- 
 tially with the combined judgment of the faculty of the 
 department. 
 
 Thus the writer, whose knowledge of civil engineering 
 is limited to mathematical theory, but who has given a 
 good deal of attention to the technique of teaching and of 
 classroom management, has been able by means of the 
 Teachers' Efficiency Score Card, to diagnose with a fair 
 degree of precision the instruction of the department. 
 The usefulness and reliability of the score card has been 
 further tested by the aid of six graduate students of the 
 University of Illinois. These students cooperated with 
 the writer in scoring, each quite independently, the same 
 recitation. Five separate recitations were scored in dif- 
 ferent departments of the University of Illinois. These 
 scores are tabulated below : 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 1. Items I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X 
 
 Student A. 7957751-7- 
 Student B. 7 9 75733575 
 
 i ~i i i I 
 
 2. Items I II III IV V 
 Student A. 3 3 3 13 
 Student C. 3 7 3 1 - 
 
 2 - 
 
 «. Items I II III IV V 
 
 Student A. 7 9 7-7 
 
 __ Student B. 9 9 7 - 9 
 
 10 - 1 
 
 4. Items I II III IV V 
 Student A. 7 7 5 3 7 
 
 St uden t D. 5 7 5_ 1 5 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 VIII 
 
 IX 
 
 X 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 VIII 
 
 IX 
 
 X 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 2 
 
 9 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 VIII 
 
 IX 
 
 X 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 _ 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 _ 
 
60 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 Items I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X 
 
 Student A. 9975-53397 
 
 Student B. 9975753375 
 
 Student E. 9995975797 
 
 0010111211 
 
 In summarizing these scores ' ' " indicates a perfect 
 agreement between observers on that item; "V indi- 
 cates a displacement (disagreement) of one step on the 
 score card, the steps being 1-3-5-7-9; *'2" indicates a 
 displacement of two steps. ' ' Displacement ' ' may be read 
 as the difference between the highest and the lowest score 
 on any item. 
 
 In cases where the observer made no entry for any 
 item, it has seemed best to take no account of that item 
 rather than to call the blank a score of zero, which would 
 be obviously misleading. (See Rule 4.) 
 
 In the five scores there are therefore, out of a possible 
 fifty, in each of the following cases : 
 
 (a) 17 exact agreement of the observers, 
 
 (b) 38 displacements of one step or less, counting 
 
 '^O's'' 
 
 (c) 7 displacements of two steps, and only 
 
 (d) 1 displacement of more than two steps. 
 
 In the case of '^a", if the number of observers had 
 been taken into account instead of the number of 
 items, the number of exact agreements is shown to be 29, 
 out of a possible 70, which makes an even stronger show- 
 ing, the ratios being 29/70 or 41.4 per cent against 17/50 
 or 29.4 per cent by the former method. 
 
 The agreement of these results of the scoring of the 
 same classroom exercise by different observers confirms 
 the belief that the Teachers' Efficiency Score Card is a 
 valuable aid in focusing attention upon the essential 
 points of good classroom procedure and in scoring that 
 procedure. 
 
 The usefulness of the score card depends largely upon 
 two factors: first, a reasonably accurate knowledge of 
 
Instruction 61 
 
 what is meant by the ten items of the score card ; and sec- 
 ond, a sufficient knowledge of correct classroom procedure 
 to recognize its presence or absence as shown by these 
 items and to judge its quality. 
 
 The judging and scoring of these items was not an easy 
 matter. The writer usually proceeded by checking either 
 with '*-|-'' or '' — " the various sub-topics as they came 
 into evidence to indicate either ''good" or ''bad" on that 
 point ; and frequently by notations in case any topic was 
 conspicuously present or absent, or in case of other points 
 not mentioned in the card but pertinent and im- 
 portant. The purpose of this procedure was to develop 
 a general idea of the extent to which the items were in 
 evidence. The decision as to whether any item should be 
 scored P, F, M, G, or B was determined in the following 
 manner: if an item was in evidence in such a manner 
 that it represented undoubtedly very bad practice, or an 
 evident ignorance of, or disregard for good procedure, 
 that item has been scored either ' ' p " or " F " according 
 to the degree of badness ; if an item was in evidence in 
 such a manner as to show that good practice in that par- 
 ticular was carefully considered or habitual, that item 
 was scored either "E" or "G" according to the degree 
 of excellence ; if the item in question was in evidence in 
 such a manner as would likely to be most commonly ob- 
 served, it was scored "M". 
 
 In pursuing this study of corporation schools the 
 Teachers' Efficiency Score Card has been used to com- 
 pare the efficiency of the instruction observed in these 
 schools with that observed in public secondary schools 
 and technical schools. The scoring of corporation schools 
 and of public and private schools has necessarily not been 
 done with such a degree of intensiveness as was possible 
 in the civil engineering department of the University 
 of Illinois. This is due to the fact that it has seldom 
 been practicable to remain in any one school longer than 
 
62 
 
 Study op Corporation Schools 
 
 a half day, and in but few cases has it been possible to 
 make duplicate scores for individual instructors. There 
 is therefore a greater probability of error in the scores 
 of corporation school teachers than in those described 
 above. Table V shows the scores of 18 instructors in 
 eight different corporation schools.^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Items 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 in 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 vin 
 
 IX 
 
 X 
 
 Teacher 1. 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 2. 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3. 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 4. 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5, 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6. 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7.* 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 8. 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 9. 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 10. 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 11. 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 12. 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 13. 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 14. 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 15. 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 16. 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 17. 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 18. 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 3.8 
 
 5 
 6. 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 5. 
 
 7 
 3.5 
 
 3 
 
 Averages 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 5.9 
 
 5. 
 
 5. 
 
 8.3 
 
 * (average of two 
 
 scores) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Table VI shows 34 scores of 21 different teachers in 
 7 public secondary schools and technical schools. ^ The 
 first 23 scores are those made by 11 instructors in the De- 
 partment of Civil Engineering of the University of Illi- 
 nois, which are discussed above. 
 
 ^Schools of the following companies : Marshall Field and Co., Packard 
 Motor Co., R. R. Donnelly Printing Co., J. L. Hudson Department Store, 
 Ford Motor Co., Western Electric Co., Swift and Co. and Central Stations 
 Institute. 
 
 ^A total of 39 scores were made but 4 of these were made in mixed 
 and secondary classes in the Gary Schools, and one was discarded on ac< 
 count of extraordinary conditions under which it was made. These schools 
 include two departments of the Engineering College of the University of 
 Illinois; two departments of Bradley Institute at Peoria, HI., and the High 
 Schools at Springfield, 111., Detroit, Mich., (Cass Tech)., and the Froebel 
 School at Gary, Ind. 
 

 
 
 
 Instruction 
 
 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 i VI. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Items 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 Ill 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 VIII 
 
 IX 
 
 X 
 
 Teacher 1. 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 . 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 _ 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 2. 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 3. 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 4. 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 5. 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 6. 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 _ 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 7. 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 8. 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 9. 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 10. 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 .5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 _ 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 11. 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 - 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 C. E. Teach 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ers' Av. 
 
 6. 
 
 6. 
 
 6.7 
 
 5.7 
 
 6. ' 
 
 5.+ 
 
 4.6 
 
 5.5 
 
 6.1 
 
 6.- 
 
 Teacher 12. 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 13. 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 ~~ 
 
 14. 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 m. 
 
 15. 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 16. 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 _ 
 
 17. 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 18. 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 .5 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 18. 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 19. 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 20. 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 _ 
 
 21. 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 5 
 
 - 
 
 7 
 
 - 
 
 7 
 
 - 
 
 Average 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Teachers 
 
 6.1 
 
 5.9 
 
 6.6 
 
 5.3 
 Average) 
 
 6. 
 
 4.9 
 
 4.3 
 
 5.6 
 
 6.1 
 
 5.8 
 
 Corporations School Teachers' 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 5.9 
 
 3.8 
 
 6. 
 
 5. 
 
 5. 
 
 5. 
 
 8.5 
 
 8.8 
 
 The ''graphs" of these two sets of averages are shown 
 in Table VII. The average score of the public secondary 
 school and technical school teachers is shown by the solid 
 line, and that of corporation school teachers by the dotted 
 line. 
 
64 
 
 Study op Corporation Schools 
 
 TABLE Vn. 
 TEACHERS' EFFICIENCY SCORE CARD 
 
 Items Scored* (Over) 
 
 TECHNIQUE OP CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 
 1. smoothness in class work for whole period 
 
 2 mechanical skill and skillful use of devices 
 
 3 economy of time and effort 
 
 4 good physical and mental conditions 
 
 5 good order, industry, — avoiding distractions 
 
 II. RECITATION TECHNIQUE 
 
 1 choice of method — ^lecture, laboratory, quiz, 
 genetic, textbook, problem, project, excursion 
 
 2 memory drill and reviews 
 
 3 consideration for maturity of students 
 
 4 use of local and illustrative material 
 
 III. DEFINITENESS OF AIM 
 
 1 logical and pedagogical organization 
 
 2 elimination of irrelevant materials 
 
 3 clarity of aim 
 
 4 attainment of aim 
 
 IV. ASSIGNMENT OF NEXT LESSON 
 
 1 relating the present lesson to the next 
 
 2 suggestions of method of attack and study 
 
 3 amount of assignment 
 
 4 definiteness of assignment 
 
 V. PRACTICAL AND COMMON SENSE 
 
 1 relating theory to practice 
 
 2 consideration of economic and cost factors 
 
 3 prevalence of common sense judgments 
 
 4 evidence of common sense atmosphere 
 
 VI. MENTAL DISCIPLINE 
 
 1 ability to realize cause and effect 
 
 2 ability to make scientific inferences 
 
 3 ability to generalize and conceptualize 
 
 4 ability to think logically 
 
 VII. RESPONSIVENESS OF CLASS 
 
 1 effective and adequate response 
 
 2 spontaneous response 
 
 3 responses from entire class 
 
 4 group cooperation and responsibility 
 
 •p r /n , &. e: 
 
 .^-S- 
 
 IZ 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 YE 
 
 ■ Ji ' 
 
 m 
 
 T^ 
 
 VIII. CLASS ATTITUDE TOWARD LEARNING 
 
 1 respect for the educative process 
 
 2 students blase, bored, superficial, interested 
 
 3 cooperation between teacher and students 
 
 4 sympathetic relations of teacher and students 
 
 M „ , f\ 
 
 / 
 
 IX. BREADTH OF VIEW. 
 
 1 use of source materials 
 
 2 use^ of supplementary materials 
 
 3 subservience to textbook or syllabus 
 
 4 hospitality toward students' contributions 
 
 W 
 
 t 
 
 I J » 
 
 X. DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE 
 
 1 good form, voice and language in classroom 
 
 2 appreciation of thoroughness of knowledge 
 
 3 refinement in manner, speech and thought 
 
 4 appreciation of form vs. mere knowledge 
 
Instruction 65 
 
 In order to determine whether dependence can be 
 placed upon these averages, the probable errors have been 
 computed by the Pearson formula.^ In no case is the 
 probable error more than .33 and in no case less than 
 .20. From a statistical standpoint, therefore, the writer 
 bases no conclusions upon these averages except such as 
 differ by more than .66 or twice the largest probable 
 error. This exception applies to Items I, III, IV, VII, 
 IX, and X. 
 
 •Conclusions 
 
 The evidence of Tables V and VI counting only these 
 items, warrants the conclusion that the teaching in pub- 
 lic secondary schools and technical schools is superior 
 to the teaching in corporation schools in Classroom Man- 
 agement, Definiteness of Aim, Assignment of Lessons, 
 Breadth of View, and Development of Culture ; and that 
 corporation school teaching is superior in Responsive- 
 ness of Class. The averages for the corporation schools 
 are slightly larger, too, in Recitation Technique and in 
 Mental Discipline, though the differences are too small 
 to be statistically significant. 
 
 The conclusions derived from the scoring of the teach- 
 ing observed agrees substantially with the opinion which 
 the writer has formed while visiting these schools, except 
 on two points. The writer believes that the teaching in 
 public secondary schools and technical schools is superior 
 to that in corporation schools in Recitation Technique, 
 and that the Class Attitude Toward Learning in corpora- 
 tion schools is better than that in the other group of 
 schools. 
 
 The first four points of the score card are presumably 
 those in which professional training would function. They 
 
 "Thorndike, E. L. Mental and Social Measurementt, p. 188. 
 
66 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 are the items which are emphasized in the training of 
 teachers. In three of these four items, the teaching in 
 public secondary schools and technical schools shows 
 superiority over that in corporation schools. In this con- 
 dition, the writer finds a further warrant for a compari- 
 son of the methods of teaching in these two groups of 
 schools in the next chapter. 
 
Motivation of Work 67 
 
 Chapter VI. 
 
 Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools as 
 TO Motivation of Work 
 
 In the inanimate world there is no possibility of mo- 
 tion except as the result of some impelling force. In the 
 animate world also, it is impossible to conceive of any 
 motion or activity except as the result of some causal or 
 motive force. In the physical world, force is defined in 
 terms of its effect, — motion, and in the realm of the 
 animate and the intelligent, a motive is defined as that 
 situation which tends to produce activity. In discussing 
 intelligent activity, the terms, motive and incentive, are 
 usually treated as synonymous, or at least, very closely 
 related. The selection and the application of motives in 
 school work has given rise to a comparatively new word 
 in pedagogical parlance, ''motivation." Motivation has 
 to do with the bringing to bear upon a pupil, such mo- 
 tives and incentives as will secure the desired activity, or 
 produce an adequate reaction, and secure a proper atti- 
 tude on the part of the pupil toward the work in hand.^ 
 
 Professor John Dewey says,^ ''An educational aim 
 must be founded upon the intrinsic activities and needs 
 of the individual to be educated". "Education", he 
 says, ' ' is that reorganization of experience which adds 
 to the meaning of experience and which increases the 
 ability to direct the course of subsequent experience." 
 The best experience for any individual depends upon the 
 intrinsic activities and needs of that individual, and the 
 motives which will best produce these intrinsic activities 
 and supply these needs will be the best motives for that 
 individual. 
 
 »Ref. 40, p. 126. 
 'Ref. 40, p. 89. 
 
68 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 Return again to the figures of the physical world. 
 The development, the conservation, and the application 
 of power constitute the chief function of the efficiency 
 engineer. The educational realm presents an analogous 
 situation. The task of the teacher is the selection and 
 right employment of incentives and motives. The needs 
 of the pupil are important factors in determining which 
 motives will be the most efficient in any case. 
 
 Efficiency here is used in its technical sense, as the 
 ratio between motive power and resulting activity. As 
 stated above, that motive will be most powerful, and 
 therefore most effective, which grows out of the felt needs 
 of the pupil. 
 
 Professor Dewey formulates this theory^ into what 
 is called the problem situation. ^'A problem is that 
 situation which arouses thinking and suggests something 
 to do with something new, to relate it properly with 
 former experience." This ''something to do" is an out- 
 come which the pupil feels is worth while. His interest 
 in the problem is this feeling of its worthwhileness, and 
 this feeling of worthwhileness in a situation and its out- 
 come is interest.^ 
 
 Some writers measure the value of any school activity 
 by the degree of interest which the pupil has in that 
 activity. The fallacy here, grows out of the fact that in- 
 terests originate in wants fully as frequently as in needs. 
 Hence many interests do not contribute to the real ends 
 of education. Their value all depends upon whether they 
 originate in mere wants or in real needs. For example : 
 a student may become so interested in athletics or in 
 social pleasures as seriously to interfere with his studies 
 and his real needs ; a man may become so interested in 
 satisfying his uncontrolled intemperate appetite as 
 wholly to neglect his business and his family ; a boy may 
 
 »Ref. 40, pp. 181-182. 
 
 <Ref. 40, p. 147; Ref. 45, 10. 
 
Motivation of Work 69 
 
 become so interested in his play as to be quite oblivious 
 to his duty to perform some useful task. Interest, intense 
 interest, is unquestionably present in all these cases but 
 interest which grows out of wants or perverted needs, — 
 felt needs perhaps — ^but not real needs. 
 
 Mr. H. B. Wilson says,^ ''Why not substitute for rou- 
 tine schoolroom practices, self imposed tasks which the 
 pupil is vitally interested in successfully completing ?' ' 
 
 There are several reasons why this cannot always be 
 done : first, it is not at all certain that there is anything 
 better to substitute ; second, many of the pupils who con- 
 stitute the teacher 's ' ' problem ' ' are not vitally interested 
 in anything that the school can indorse or sanction ; third, 
 many pupils are so transitory in their interests that they 
 seldom, if ever, complete any task unless under compul- 
 sion; fourth, many of the self-imposed tasks are not 
 worthwhile, so far as being contributions to the ultimate 
 efficiency of the pupil ; fifth, the great differences in the 
 interests of pupils and the resulting great variety of 
 "worthwhile self-imposed tasks" would so disorganize 
 classes as to make class teaching practically impossible; 
 and sixth, in order to develop adequate social efficiency, 
 many real needs must be considered by the teacher which 
 do not have in them a felt appeal to the pupil. These real 
 needs must have attention at a time determined by the 
 pupil 's psychological development, and by social require- 
 ments, fully as much as by the pupil's feeling in the 
 matter. 
 
 Habit formation frequently comes under this cate- 
 gory.^ Habits are a valuable part of one's efficiency- 
 equipment, and many habits, in order to be effectively 
 mastered, must be acquired during early childhood. 
 Young children do not appreciate the importance of 
 habits, and older ones seldom place a proper value upon 
 
 "Ref. 45, p. 10. 
 •Ref. 41. 
 
70 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 them until the time for their easiest mastery has past, 
 so that the fixing of proper habits cannot be, to any 
 great extent, self imposed tasks, or tasks in the successful 
 completion of which the pupil is vitally interested. The 
 mastery of the multiplication tables, correct spelling, 
 promptness, regularity in eating, cleanliness of person, 
 and good manners are illustrations of important habits 
 which usually become fixed only through the use of ex- 
 traneous incentives. 
 
 Professor Dewey"^ has set forth the value of interest 
 as a motive to effort in school work. There is no dispo- 
 sition to question the validity of his argument, so far as 
 the value of interest is concerned, but his assumption of 
 the temporal sequence, — that effort is always subsequent 
 to an intrinsic interest in the outcome of the situation, — 
 is at least open to argument. Psychologists'^ treatments 
 of derived or secondary passive attention, point to the 
 conclusion that interest grows out of effort quite as surely 
 as effort out of interest. Examples are not lacking^ to 
 show that effort under stress of compulsion to master a 
 certain lesson or subject results quite frequently in in- 
 tense and lasting interest in that subject. In the mastery 
 of such subjects as telegraphy, typewriting, instrumental 
 music, and foreign languages, in which one of the essen- 
 tial elements is automatization of responses, there always 
 comes a period when novelty no longer appeals, when in- 
 terest lags, and progress stops. This is a critical period 
 and unless continued effort is kept up by compulsion, 
 either from within or without, the desired mastery is 
 never gained and the learning process is a failure. 
 
 The ''problem" situation^^ in which the pupil sees 
 
 ''Interest and Effort in Education. 
 
 "Titchener, E. B. Textbook of Psychology, pp. 268 et seq. Angell, J. 
 R. Psychology, pp. 84 et seq. 
 
 •Bagley, W. C. School Discipline, Chap XIV. Bryan and Harter, 
 Psych. Rev. Vol. IV. 
 
 loWilson, H. B. and G. M. Motivation in School Work, p. 10. Mann, 
 C, R. Teaching of Physics, Part III. Dewey, J. Interest and Effort in Ed- 
 ucation. 
 
Motivation of Work 71 
 
 the realization of some value of vital interest to him, some 
 satisfaction of a real felt need, is doubtless one in which 
 the pupil will make the greatest effort, the greatest gain, 
 and the most efficient mastery of subject matter. The 
 teacher 's task would be comparatively easy if the pupil ^s 
 feeling of the worthwhileness in any situation, — his felt 
 need, — always coincided with his real need. 
 
 This places upon the teacher the responsibility of 
 pointing out or creating and developing wherever possi- 
 ble, the problematic situation. He must organize his 
 work so that the pupil's time shall be employed in his 
 efforts to realize some significant or worthy end. Only 
 by so doing can the activity of the pupil be developed to 
 its highest efficiency. 
 
 From the point of view of the corporation school, mo- 
 tivation is quite as important as in other schools. Motives 
 will vary, according as the various aims of education are 
 considered paramount. The aims of corporation schools 
 are doubtless narrower than the aims of the public sec- 
 ondary school or technical schools, but they are more 
 specific and the corporation school has in addition to the 
 incentives applicable to public school work some other 
 very specific motives. 
 
 In the opinion of the writer, teachers in other types 
 of schools can profit by making use, as far as possible, of 
 the motives employed in corporation schools, and on the 
 other hand, corporation school teachers can develop a 
 broader outlook and a higher efficiency by a theoretical 
 as well as a working knowledge of motivation as it is 
 employed in the best public schools. 
 
 Public secondary school teachers and technical-school 
 teachers have at their command the following motives: 
 promotion, grades and marks, commendation and praise, 
 
72 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 objective standards,* privileges and immunities, penal- 
 ties, the "school situation,'' and the '* problem" situa- 
 tion. Another group of motives not wholly distinct nor 
 separable from these are: ideals, attitudes, and instinc- 
 tive tendencies. 
 
 There are two motive situations mentioned above 
 which merit a brief discussion. There are : the * ' school 
 situation", and the "problem" situation. 
 
 1. The * * school situation" : In America the one pub- 
 lic institution which more than any other is taken for 
 granted, is the public school. From the very beginning of 
 our national life, the atmosphere has been permeated with 
 education. It is then no occasion for wonder that the 
 average American child takes school life and school duties 
 as a matter of course. Nothing is easier or more natural 
 than to do what everybody else is doing, and so it hap- 
 pens that most American children need no extraneous 
 spur, no artificial incentive. Let the average pupil be 
 asked why he works to prepare his lessons well, why he 
 goes to school, and the chances are that he will reply, in 
 substance at least, that "it is the thing to do." He is 
 not conscious of any of the other and more artificial mo- 
 tives which have been named. The school situation is the 
 all sufficient motive ; ideals of duty, of industry, and of 
 right conduct are inherent in the atmosphere of the situ- 
 ation. 
 
 2. The problem situation: The advantages and the 
 disadvantages of the "problem" were discussed above.. 
 While the "problem" situation or problem method does 
 not adequately meet all the requirements for motiva- 
 tion in actual practice it is without doubt the most effi- 
 cient and most natural stimulus, and no teacher can be 
 
 *A summary of the investigations on Teachers' marks and marking 
 systems is found in the Journal of Educational Administration and Super- 
 vision, February '15 by Dr. H. O. Rugg. Summaries of standard tests and 
 scales are found in the same journal October, 1916, and Publication No. 6, 
 1915, of the Division of Reference and Research, Department of Educa- 
 tion, New York City. 
 
Motivation of Work 73 
 
 rightly called successful who does not employ this method 
 in situations where it is applicable. There is always pres- 
 ent, however, the danger of going out of the way to in- 
 troduce into a situation, teacher-made problems which 
 involve only tasks, in the mastery of which the pupils, 
 due to their immaturity, do not realize any worthwhile 
 outcome. 
 
 The motives which have been mentioned above have 
 an application to the work of the corporation school quite 
 as frequently as to the work of the public schools. Cor- 
 poration schools however, have the decided advantage of 
 some motives inherent in the corporation school. These 
 more specific motives which are available for the cor- 
 poration school are: 
 
 1. the relation of employee to employer, 
 
 2. pecuniary interest, 
 
 3. the ''shop situation," 
 
 4. real problems. 
 
 1. The relation of the employee to the employer neces- 
 sarily affects the work of the corporation school. Among 
 these relations are : unquestioned and unhesitating obedi- 
 ence demanded and required of the employee, prompt 
 and regular attendance at work, penalties in the form of 
 fines or dismissal for insubordination, and the rewards of 
 promotion for faithful service. That these relations have 
 much to do with the attitude of students in these schools 
 can scarcely be questioned. 
 
 2. Pecuniary interest: Apprentices and students in 
 corporation schools usually receive wages during the en- 
 tire period of their training. This fact presents a con- 
 dition so different from public secondary school and tech- 
 nical school practices that it affects any other comparisons 
 which may be made between the two kinds of schools. 
 This motive has to do with the means of livelihood, with 
 future competence, and when one can learn a trade, mas- 
 ter a vocation or a profession, and at the same time earn 
 
74 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 a living, he has a motive force which usually obviates the 
 necessity for any other incentive. 
 
 3. The ''shop situation." In the foregoing discus- 
 sion, the ' ' school situation ' ' was shown to be an important 
 factor in the motivation of school activities. What was 
 said of the ''school situation" may be said with equal 
 applicability of the "shop situation." The very name 
 shop is synonymous with work, industry, attention, and 
 respect for authority; and it seems to exclude idleness, 
 shilly-shallying and inefficiency. 
 
 It is difficult to define what is here termed the ' ' shop 
 situation ' ' and the resulting ' ' shop attitude ' ' just as the 
 attitude which grows out of the ' ' school situation ' ' eludes 
 analysis. It is taken for granted by all concerned, em- 
 ployers and employees alike ; and this spirit, to a very 
 great extent, pervades the corporation school as a de- 
 partment of the plant, quite as noticeably as the other 
 departments. This condition relieves the corporation 
 school teacher of the necessity for frequent resort to arti- 
 ficial stimuli to effort. 
 
 In this particular, corporation schools have an envia- 
 ble situation. During the writer's visitation of corpora- 
 tion schools, everywhere the favorable attitude of stu- 
 dents toward the school has been in evidence. In one 
 school in reply to the query, whether the very apparent 
 interest of the students in their work was due to any spe- 
 cial aptitude of the students for the particular courses 
 they were pursuing, there was the significant statement : 
 "It is not a matter of aptitude but of 'attitude'." The 
 truth of this statement was attested by the replies made 
 by several students, that they had not been conscious of 
 any special leaning toward the kind of work that they 
 were doing, but that they had taken the first job which 
 had offered itself. Mr. Hultz, who is in charge of the 
 "junior academy" of the Marshall Field and Company's 
 store in Chicago, also says that success is not a matter of 
 
Motivation of Work 75 
 
 aptitude as much as attitude. "The average American 
 boy has the ability in the proper environment to succeed 
 in any one of a half dozen vocations. ' '* 
 
 If then, aptitude does not account fully for this de- 
 sirable attitude found in corporation schools, its source 
 must be sought in some other direction. In the writer's 
 opinion, this source is inherent in the three motive situ- 
 ations just discussed and in the real problems and proj- 
 ects which make up a large part of the activity of the 
 corporation school. 
 
 4. Real problems and projects: The earlier discus- 
 sions of these topics pointed out their importance as 
 sources of interest. The greater applicability of these 
 motives to the corporation school is due to the fact that 
 much of the general education and practically all of the 
 shop work has a connection with the present and future 
 economic activities of the students. They are mastering 
 the principles and processes of their chosen vocations and 
 they realize that their chances for success and advance- 
 ment are directly proportional to the degree of mastery 
 attained. The shop work is usually done under condi- 
 tions where the shop attitude prevails and where the re- 
 quirements of the work are the rigid commercial stand- 
 ards of excellence of output and economy of time. 
 
 The shop attitude and the real-problem situation, how- 
 ever desirable and however common they maj be, do not 
 seem to have in them the elements of all sufficient motiva- 
 tion. Actual practice indicates that they are sometimes 
 found lacking. In many corporation schools, pecuniary 
 prizes for excellence of school work and bonuses for the 
 satisfactory completion of courses are frequently given. 
 Out of thirty- three schools reporting, ^^ ten offer prizes or 
 bonuses, another report ^^ shows that eighteen out of 
 
 ♦Personal interviews at the R. R. Donelley Company plant, at Swift 
 and ('onipany s plant, and at Marshall Field & Companv's store. 
 "Ref. 42, p. 75. 
 "Ref. 19, p. 145. 
 
76 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 forty-nine give prizes or bonuses, and others^ ^ show that 
 this practice is quite common. 
 
 Conclusion 
 
 In the last two motives discussed, the *^shop situa- 
 tion" and the real problem, the corporation school has 
 an advantage over the public secondary school and over 
 the technical school which accounts for a considerable 
 part of the superiority (where superiority is shown) of 
 the corporation school over the other types of schools. 
 The utility of these two motives suggest that the solution 
 of the problem of vocational education may be found in 
 some form of organization which will make use of the 
 most powerful motivating situations of both groups of 
 schools. 
 
 MRef. 31, chart p. 120. 
 
Curricula and Course of Study 77 
 
 Chapter VII 
 
 Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools as to 
 Curricula and Courses of Study 
 
 The fourth point of view from which to compare the 
 corporation school with public secondary schools and 
 technical schools is in the matter of curricula and courses 
 of study. 
 
 If all that is implied in the aim of the National Asso- 
 ciation of Corporation Schools — '*to increase the effi- 
 ciency of industry ' ' — ^be accepted, there arises the neces- 
 sity of taking into consideration other educational values 
 besides the practical, in judging curricula and courses of 
 study. 
 
 While the practical must dominate, especially in cor- 
 poration schools, there are frequent opportunities to 
 choose between materials which have other educational 
 values in varying degrees. It has been pointed out that 
 knowledge — knowledge of specific facts and specific proc- 
 esses — is the desired outcome in corporation schools. Effi- 
 ciency as measured by increased dividends must be the 
 ultimate end of all business activity, yet this aim need 
 not be unmixed with higher and more humanitarian aims 
 and other educational values. 
 
 Among these other educational values are the follow- 
 
 ing:! 
 
 practical 
 intellectual 
 political and civic 
 
 social 
 
 esthetic 
 
 ethical 
 
 conventional 
 
 religious 
 
 cultural 
 
 These aims are largely self-explanatory and it is not 
 in point here to elaborate upon them. The consideration 
 of these aims contribute to a broader definition of the 
 * ' highest efficiency. ' ' 
 
 ^Davis, 0. O. High School Courses of Study, Chip. HI. 
 
78 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 It is not within the scope of this study to outline cur- 
 ricula and courses^ for any particular type of school. The 
 writer points out some of the evident weaknesses of ex- 
 isting courses, and enumerates a few guiding principles 
 for curriculum planning and building. 
 
 The writer has examined 46 courses and curricula 
 from corporation schools and from public secondary 
 schools and technical schools; and has compared them 
 from three standpoints: first, logical and pedagogical 
 arrangement; second, content; and third, time allotment. 
 In making these comparisons, the writer has kept in mind 
 the aims of corporation schools (Chapter III) which are 
 admittedly much narrower and more specific than those 
 usually sought in public secondary schools or technical 
 schools. 
 
 The curricula shown in successive year-books of dif- 
 ferent corporation schools reveal the fact that some 
 have grown simply by accretion, coral-like, without any 
 organic connection between the old courses and the added 
 materials. In a growing institution it is not easy to avoid 
 this difficulty. Perhaps the only remedy is to reorganize 
 these curricula more frequently, in order that the later 
 courses may be properly articulated with the old ones. 
 
 This lack of proper arrangement of lesson and course 
 topics is a natural outcome of building piece by piece, in- 
 stead of planning all with a view to the interrelation 
 among the several parts. 
 
 An illustration of this point is found in a course in 
 mechanical drawing. In this outline, several early lessons 
 in the course involve working drawings of machine parts, 
 
 ^hese terms are used as defined by a committee of the North Central 
 Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. (Unpublished.) 
 
 Course of Study is the work in one subject or a division of that subject 
 running through one term or semester. 
 
 Curricuhim is a group of courses related to each other, outlined for a 
 particular group of students, and continuing through a number of terms 
 or semesters. 
 
 Program of studies includes all the different courses and curricula of- 
 fered in a school. 
 
Curricula and Course of Study 79 
 
 while such elementary problems as drawing parallels and 
 perpendiculars, are deferred to a much later period in 
 the course. This is perhaps an extreme case but other 
 examples of a similar disregard for pedagogical and log- 
 ical sequence are common. 
 
 One of the serious faults in curricula and courses 
 is lack of a proper time distribution. This point is illus- 
 trated in the work-shop outline for technical graduates, 
 found in one of the circulars examined by the writer. 
 The following classes of work were outlined : 
 
 milling machines lathe 
 
 screw machine gear cutting 
 
 grinders drill press 
 
 tool room machines foundry 
 
 The same amount of time — nine weeks — was assigned 
 to each of these classes of work, without any apparent 
 regard for the varying degrees of difficulty involved in 
 the processes. Any intelligent technical graduate can be 
 taught in a few hours to operate a drill press or a screw 
 machine fully as well as an old operator, but possibly 
 not so fast, and there is no logical reason for keeping 
 a student at such work nine weeks when many of the 
 other processes require so much more time before the 
 student attains a mastery of them. An outline for un- 
 dergraduate courses, secured from the Mechanical Engi- 
 neering Department of the University of Illinois, shows 
 the following distribution of time for these items : 
 
 milling machine 12 weeks foundry 16 weeks 
 
 lathe 12 weeks grinders 6 weeks 
 
 screw machine .... 4 weeks drill press 4 weeks 
 
 If undergraduates can master these processes in the 
 specified time, technical graduates ought to master a new 
 machine for these processes in a relatively short time. 
 This discrepancy is further emphasized by the fact that 
 one well-known "special training" school expects tech- 
 nical graduates to master the operation of the screw ma- 
 chine in four and a half days. In another outline, tool 
 
80 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 designing is given ten weeks of shop practice, while an- 
 other concern in the same business requires the mastery 
 of this process in less than a week. Both these com- 
 panies accept only technical graduates. 
 
 This criticism of time allotment does not apply with 
 such force when students are engaged in real productive 
 work under shop conditions and a somewhat arbitrary 
 time distribution for the various classes of work may be 
 necessary in order to keep all the machines and all the 
 students busy, but it is poor pedagogical practice to keep 
 technical graduates employed in any learning process 
 longer than necessary to master the process. 
 
 Faulty time distribution is also frequently found in 
 the theoretical work. This is one of the chief weaknesses 
 of courses outlined only in loose-leaf lesson sheets. While 
 lesson sheets have some advantages (see next chapter), 
 they are likely to be poorly balanced as to time allot- 
 ments,^ and relatively unimportant topics are often given 
 allotments of time equal to those given to important prin- 
 ciples. 
 
 The examples just cited emphasize the importance 
 of guiding principles in planning curricula and courses. 
 These principles are summarized below : 
 
 1. Each course, each topic in a course, and each 
 shop assignment should be allotted only such a propor- 
 tion of the entire time available as will enable students 
 to attain a reasonable degree of mastery of it. 
 
 2. Time distribution must be made with the entire 
 curriculum in view, and hence must be the result of con- 
 sultation between the instructor and the school adminis- 
 trator. 
 
 3. Time allotments should be made with due regard 
 
 'A valuable discussion of time distribution of interest to educational 
 directors is found in the Fourteenth Tearbooh, Part I, of the National So- 
 ciety for the Scientific Study of Education. Public School Publishing Co., 
 Bloomington, Illinois. 
 
CUREICULA AND COURSE OF STUDY 81 
 
 to the relative educational values of the various lesson or 
 course units. 
 
 4. A proper pedagogical or logical sequence of various 
 lesson and course units must be observed. 
 
 Below are reproduced a number of curricula from 
 both corporation schools and public schools, in order to 
 illustrate some of the faults and some of the strong points 
 in curriculum building. It will be noticed that several of 
 the exhibits are simply outlines of single courses rather 
 than curricula. It is, of course, quite possible to have an 
 admirable curriculum on paper and to have a wide de- 
 parture from it in practice, and the writer does not as- 
 sume in the case of the curricula presented that they are 
 carried out as printed. Some of the curricula are definite 
 as to time allotment for the different topics while others 
 give little or no information on this point. 
 
 CURRICULUM A. 
 
 MECHANICS' SHORT COURSE 
 
 For Automobile Mechanics to be "Packardized." 
 Total time three months 
 
 Pleasure car factory motor room 1 week 
 
 steering 3 days 
 
 bridge and transmission 1 week 
 
 chassis 3 days 
 
 "K. B." 1 \geek 
 
 Truck factory motor 3 days 
 
 steering 3 days 
 
 bridge and transmission 1 week 
 
 chassis 3 days 
 
 truck tuning 1 week 
 
 Electrical department wiring testing circuits .... 3 days 
 
 "K. B." 3 days 
 
 Operating department car inspection 3 days 
 
 truck inspection 3 days 
 
 car driving test 1 week 
 
 truck driving test 1 week 
 
 In this mechanics' short course, the time allotments 
 are definite and the sequence of topics clearly shown, but 
 details arc lacking as to the content of the course units. 
 
82 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 OUBRIOULUM B. 
 
 STUDENTS' TRAINING COURSE IN STOCK-ROOM 
 
 (Western Electric Company, Chicago.) 
 
 1st day Friday, Class C 
 
 2nd day Saturday, Tool Room 
 
 3rd day Monday, C. T. Sub Station Counter 
 
 4th day Tuesday, , Hardware and Line Material 
 
 5th day Wednesday, Power Material 
 
 6th day Thursday, Sub Sets and Inter -phones 
 
 7th day Friday, Inter. Wires and Power Wires 
 
 8th day Saturday, Lamps and Batteries 
 
 9th day Monday, Receiving, Shipping and Cable work 
 
 10th day Tuesday, Shop and Clearing house 
 
 11th day Wednesday, Working with Stockkeeper 
 
 12th day Thursday, putting away stock and working 
 
 13th day Friday, in stock racks 
 
 14th day Saturday, Supply Stocks 
 
 15th day Monday, 
 
 16th day Tuesday, Working with selectors 
 
 17th day Wednesday, to pick material 
 
 18th day Thursday, 4-days on Supply Material 
 
 19th day Friday, 1 day on Telephone Material 
 
 20th day Saturday, 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 By this time the student shall be familiar with all the operations re- 
 quired on an order, from the time it is received from the customer to its 
 shipment. He shall know the various classes of customers to whom we ship, 
 and the kind of material each one uses. He shall study the organization of 
 a branch house, and know the duties of each part. If questions arise which 
 do not seem to be answered satisfactorily by the various division heads, he 
 shall make a note of them and before the end of the term seek an interview 
 with the stores manager, who will be glad to answer any questions. 
 
 The above course is presented as an examp]e of detail 
 in showing the sequence of course units and the allot- 
 ments of time to the various units. 
 
 Few corporation school courses or curricula have been 
 worked out with such detail as the above, and no public 
 secondary school or technical school curricula approach 
 the definiteness of this time allotment. 
 
 CURRICULUM 0. 
 
 ENGINEERING CURRICULUM FOR COLLEGE GRADUATES 
 
 (Western Electric Company, Chicago) 
 
 Total time 49 we^s 
 
 Educational department 4 days 
 
 General acquaintance with the Hawthorne Plant, history and organiza- 
 tion of the company, history and development of the telephone industry, 
 inspection trips through the shops. 
 
CUERICULA AND COURSE OF StUDY 83 
 
 Apparatus assembly department 4 weeks 
 
 Keys, relays, drops, signals ringers, generators, coin collectors, jackB, 
 lamps, tele phones. 
 
 Machine department 2 weeks 
 
 Tapping, drilling, milling, hand-screw machine, automatic screw ma- 
 chine, punch press, metal finishing, tool design and tool maki ng. 
 
 Cable and cord departments 1 week 
 
 Manufacturing of cords, switchboard cable, le ad covered cable. 
 
 Switch board wiring department 6 weeks 
 
 Wiring, testing, inspection, local cable forming, mounting apparatus, 
 study of types of sw itch boards for various service requirements. 
 
 Factory cabling department 2 weeks 
 
 Forming, soldering, testing, inspecting of cable for telephone offices. 
 
 Educational department 1 week 
 
 Laboratory work on switch board circuits and exchange operation. 
 
 Engineering laboratories. New York 6-12- weeks* 
 
 Laboratory practice in physical and electrical measurements and trans- 
 mission study. 
 
 Installation department 16-20 weeks* 
 
 Installation and assembly of telephone switch board, cabling, testing, 
 inspection. 
 
 Engineering drafting, department 0-8 weeks* 
 
 drafting methods, designs, practices. 
 
 * Depending upon permanent work aimed at. 
 
 Curriculum C gives definite information as to se- 
 quence of the larger course units and the time allotted to 
 them. The content of the curriculum is more definitely 
 shown than in many examined. 
 
 The curricula B and C are good examples of the effect 
 of the efficiency engineer upon all departments of an 
 institution. Time allotment is one of the chief items in 
 the duty of the efficiency engineer but the curricula of 
 public secondary schools and technical schools show little 
 evidence of the work of such an official. 
 
 CURRICULUM D. 
 
 CURRICULUM FOR BRIDGE ENGINEERS 
 (American Bridge Company) 
 
 First Year 
 
 first semester : advanced algebra mechanical drawing 
 
 second semester : plane geometry structural drawing 
 
 Second Year 
 
 first semester : solid geometry strength of materials 
 
 second semester : trigonometry elementary mechanics 
 
84 
 
 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 Third Year 
 
 first semester: 
 second semester ; 
 
 analytic geometry- 
 differential calculus 
 
 bridge and building design 
 bridge and building design 
 
 Fourth Year 
 
 first semester: 
 second semester : 
 
 Integral calculus 
 advanced mechanics 
 
 bridge and building design 
 bridge and building design 
 
 The above curriculum does not state the number of 
 hours per week nor the number of weeks for any course, 
 so that time allotments cannot be criticised. The sequence 
 of courses is subject to criticism for the separate teaching 
 of differential and integral calculus. Many good teachers 
 now teach them simultaneously. 
 
 CURRICULUM E. 
 UNION SCHOOL OF SALESMANSHIP CURRICULUM, BOSTON 
 
 Textiles 
 
 Fibres — ^wool, silk, cotton, linen. 
 Manufacture. 
 Commercial geography- 
 Fabrics. 
 
 Econmics 
 
 Relation of capital and wages 
 Relation of expenditure to in- 
 come 
 The spending of money 
 The saving of money 
 
 Color and Design 
 
 Recognition of color tones 
 Color combinations 
 Appropriate use of colors 
 Principles of design in dress and 
 furnishing 
 
 Salesmanship 
 
 Discussion of store experiences 
 and the principles involved 
 
 Demonstration selling and class 
 criticisms 
 
 Lectures on retail selling 
 
 Care of stock 
 
 Approaching a customer 
 
 Individual conferences with sales 
 girls 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Sale slip practice and store sys- 
 tem 
 
 Drill in addition and multipli- 
 cation 
 
 Fractions and percentage 
 
 Cash accounts 
 
 Business forms 
 
 Personal hygiene as related to busi- 
 ness honesty 
 Hygienic dress 
 (Personal appearance 
 Bathing 
 
 Sleep and ventilation 
 Diet 
 The nerves 
 
 The above curriculum given no information as to ar- 
 rangement of courses or time allotments. The content of 
 the courses is not outlined in detail. 
 
 The following curriculum from the University of Illi- 
 nois Register, taken in connection with the descriptions 
 
Curricula and Course of Study 
 
 85 
 
 of the various courses referred to by number, is a typical 
 technical school curriculum outline. It is definite as to 
 the amount of time for each course, as to the content and 
 sequence of the courses. 
 
 CURRICULUM F. 
 
 CURRICULUM IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 
 First Year 
 
 First Semester 
 
 Hours 
 Chem. la or lb — Inorganic Chem- 
 istry 3 or 4 
 
 G. E. D. 1 — ^Elements of Drafting 4 
 
 Math. 2 — Algebra 3 
 
 Math. 4 — Trigonometry 2 
 
 Rhet. 1 — Rhetoric and Themes. . 3 
 
 Engineering lecture 
 
 Phys. Tr. 1 and la — Gymnasium 
 
 and Hygiene 1 
 
 Mil. 2a — Military Drill 1 
 
 Second Semester 
 
 Hours 
 
 Chem. 4 — Qualitative Analysis. . . 4 
 G. E. D. 2 Descriptive Geom- 
 etry 4 
 
 Math. 6 — Analytic Geometry 5 
 
 Rhet. 2 — Rhetoric and Themes ... 3 
 
 Engineering Lecture 
 
 Phys. Tr. 2 — Gymnasium 1 
 
 Mil. 1 — Drill Regulations 1 
 
 Mil. 2d — Military Drill 1 
 
 — Total 
 
 .19 
 
 Total 17 or 18 
 
 Second Year 
 
 Language 4 
 
 Math. 7 — Differential Calculus ... 5 
 M. E. 75 and 77 — Forge and 
 Foundry, or M. E. 79 — Pattern 
 
 Work 3 
 
 Phys. la — Physics Lectures 3 
 
 Phys. 3a — 'Physics Laboratory. . . 2 
 Mil. 2c — Military Drill 1 
 
 Total 18 
 
 Language 4 
 
 Math. 9 — Integral Calculus 3 
 
 M. E. 75 and 77 — Forge and 
 Foundry, or M. E. 79 — Pattern 
 
 Work 3 
 
 Phys. lb — Physics Lectures ... 2 
 Phys. 3b — Physics Laboratory. . . 2 
 T. & A. M. 20 — Analytical Mechan- 
 
 ics. 
 Mil. 2d — ^Military Drill 1 
 
 Total 18 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Chem. 4 — Qualitative Analysis... 4 
 E. E. 25 — Direct Current Appa- 
 ratus 4 
 
 E. E. 75 — Electrical Engineering 
 
 Laboratory 2 
 
 Math. 9a — Integral Calculus 2 
 
 Phys. 4a — Electrical and Magnetic 
 
 Measurement 2 
 
 T. & A. M. 25 — Resistance of Ma- 
 terials 4 
 
 E. E. 26 — Alternating Currents,. 4 
 E. E. 76 — Electrical Engineering 
 
 Laboratory 2 
 
 M. E. 2 — Steam Engineering. ... 3 
 
 Non-technical elective 3 
 
 Phys. 4b — Electrical and Magnetic 
 
 Measurement 2 
 
 T. & A. M. 26 — Analytical Me- 
 chanics and Hydraulics 4 
 
 — Total 18 
 
 To:-"! IS 
 
86 
 
 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 FOUBTH YbAB 
 
 E. E. 35 — Alternating Current 
 
 Apparatus • . . 4 
 
 E. E. 55 — ^Electrical Design 2 
 
 E. E. 85 — ^Electrical Engineering 
 
 Laboratory 2 
 
 E. E. 95 — Seminar 1 
 
 M. E. 11 — Thermodynamics 3 
 
 M. E. 61 — Power Measurement. . 2 
 
 E. E. 99 — Inspection Trip 
 
 Non-technical elective 8 
 
 E. B. 36 — ^Alternating Current 
 
 Apparatus 4 
 
 E. E. 56 — ^Electrical Design.... 4 
 E. E. 86 — ^Electrical Engineering 
 
 Laboratory 2 
 
 E. E. 96 — Seminar 1 
 
 E. E. 98 — ^Thesis or elective 3 
 
 Non-technical elective . 3 
 
 Total 17 
 
 Total 17 
 
 CURRICULUM G. 
 
 CRANE MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO. 
 Scientific Course 
 
 First Year Courses Weeks Hours per Credits 
 
 week 
 
 English 40 4 .8 
 
 Algebra 40 4 .8 
 
 Physiology 20 5 .4 
 
 Physiography 20 5 .4 
 
 Mechanical Drawing .40 4 .8 
 
 Wood- work 40 8 .8 
 
 Freehand Drawing 40 1 .2 
 
 Gymnasium 40 1 .1 
 
 Music 40 1 .1 
 
 Total 4.4 
 
 Second Year English Literature 40 4 .8 
 
 Plane Geometry 40 4 .8 
 
 Zoology or Botany 40 6 .8 
 
 Mechanical Drawing 40 4 .8 
 
 Blacksmithing 20 10 .4 
 
 Foundry and Pattern work 20 10 .4 
 
 Gymnasium 40 1 .1 
 
 Music .40 1 .1 
 
 Tota l 4.2 
 
 Third Year English 40 2 .4 
 
 Solid Geometry 20 4 .4 
 
 Advanced Algebra . -j 20 4 .4 
 
 Physics 40 6 .8 
 
 Modern History 40 4 .8 
 
 Machine Shop Practice 40 6 .6 
 
 Machine or Arch. Drawing 40 4 .8 
 
 Freehand Drawing .40 2 .4 
 
 Gymnasium 40 1 .1 
 
 Music 40 1 .1 
 
 Total 4.8 
 
Curricula and Course of Study 87 
 
 Fourth Year American History 20 4 .4 
 
 Civil Grovernment 20 4 .4 
 
 Trigonometry 20 4 .4 
 
 Engineering 20 4 .4 
 
 Chemistry 40 6 .8 
 
 Machine or Arch. Design 40 4 .8 
 
 English 40 4 .8 
 
 Freehand Drawing 40 4 .8 
 
 Gsonnasium 40 1 .1 
 
 Electric Shop 40 10 1.0 
 
 Total 5.9 
 
 The above is a typical secondary-school curriculum. 
 It gives the time allotments, and the sequence of courses, 
 but no information as to the content of the courses, and 
 no information as to the time allotted to the larger course 
 units. 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 The most obvious conclusion to be drawn from the 
 curricula shown in this chapter, and from others which 
 have been examined, is that a very large proportion of 
 them do not give sufficient information to form the basis 
 of a satisfactory comparison between the two groups of 
 schools. So far as this information may be considered 
 a basis for such a comparison, the writer's opinion is that 
 the curricula and courses of study of public secondary 
 schools and technical schools show a greater considera- 
 tion for pedagogical and logical arrangement and a more 
 thorough organization of the courses into curricula and 
 of course units into courses; and that the courses and 
 curricula of corporation schools show a greater specificity 
 and a closer relation between the materials of instruction 
 and the aims sought. The courses and curricula of public 
 secondary schools and technical schools show a greater 
 breadth and a greater consideration for the other educa- 
 tional aims and values enumerated at the beginning of 
 this chapter. 
 
 As to time allotments no conclusion is warranted as to 
 which type of school shows the better usage. The 
 
88 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 courses and curricula examined indicate that the question 
 of time allotments has been more generally considered 
 in public secondary schools and technical schools than in 
 corporation schools, but in the few cases where corpora- 
 tion school administrators have applied the principles of 
 the efficiency expert, their curricula show a much more 
 careful working out of time allotments than has been 
 found in any public secondary school or technical school 
 curricula. 
 
Textbooks 89 
 
 Chapter VIII 
 
 Comparative Efficiency of Corporation Schools as to 
 Textbooks and Lesson Sheets 
 
 In this chapter a comparison is made between the cor- 
 poration school on the one hand, and the public schools 
 and technical schools on the other hand, in the matter of 
 textbooks and lesson sheets. In the first part of the 
 chapter an attempt is made to determine what standards 
 are available for the criticism of text books and lesson 
 sheets ; in the latter part of the chapter the textbooks and 
 lesson sheets used and offered for use in corporation 
 schools are tested by these standards. A practical 
 difficulty exists as to the definition of a corporation 
 school textbook and an ordinary textbook. For this 
 study, a corporation school textbook is one published os- 
 tensibly for use in corporation schools, though naturally 
 no publisher would refuse to supply his books for use in 
 any kind of school. Ordinary textbooks are also fre- 
 quently used in corporation schools as well as in public 
 schools and technical schools. There is, therefore, no 
 well defined boundary line between the two types of 
 books. 
 
 The writer has been able to secure but a very limited 
 number of treatises on textbook writing. ^ One of these,^ 
 by Mr. J. A. Waddell, is summarized as follows: '*In 
 writing a textbook, the first step is to determine the scope 
 and the limitations of the book, then to determine a tenta- 
 tive, and later a final list of chapters and the specific 
 scope of each chapter. The proper sequence of chapters 
 
 ^Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching, Chap. XVII. Frost, H. Good 
 Engineering Literature. Chicago Book Co. 
 
 ^Waddell, J. A. Technical Textbook Writing, Engineering Education, 
 Nov. and Dec, 1916. 
 
90 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 is of paramount importance, and consideration must be 
 observed for both logical and chronological sequence. 
 * * Mr. Waddell recommends copious reference) to authori- 
 ties as well as a careful selection of quotations from the 
 best technical writers on the subject being treated. Ut- 
 most care must be observed to include the latest knowl- 
 edge and treatment of the most modem procedure. He 
 also believes that textbooks merit finely polished technical 
 English, and that this must be ''first handwritten, then 
 corrected, then typed and then corrected again.'' He 
 states further, ''I have never seen samples of dictated 
 technical work which I would be willing to have at- 
 tributed to my pen In general^ diagrams are 
 
 better than tables, tables better than formulae and for- 
 mulae better than written description .... Consist- 
 ence in spelling, capitalization, punctuation, hypheniza- 
 tion, and use of symbols is a rare but most valuable at- 
 tainment in textbook writing .... Elegance of dic- 
 tion is the most important attribute of any writer, next 
 to that of producing something worthwhile, and perusal 
 is directly proportional to good diction. ' ' 
 
 Mr. Waddell makes much of mechanical perfection of 
 the manuscript, and of the final printed pages, and very 
 properly so, for there is scarcely any fault which preju- 
 dices a reader so much against a book as errors of punctu- 
 ation, spelling, and typesetting, unless it be actual errors 
 in statement of facts, principles, or conclusions. 
 
 ''The last thing to be done in connection with the 
 writing of textbooks is the preparation of the index. The 
 secret of good indexing is a wise selection of key-words 
 for each topic, words which are likely to suggest them- 
 selves to seekers after information. "^ Many an other- 
 wise excellent textbook has its value greatly reduced by 
 lack of a good index. 
 
 •Frost, H. Good Engineering Literature, Chicago Book Co. 
 
Textbooks 91 
 
 Two points of view of a good textbook are shown in 
 the following quotations. The first is from the stand- 
 point of the printer and asks : 
 
 "Does the volume represent the best in typography ? 
 
 "Is the paper and binding suitable and durable? 
 
 "Is the presswork excellent, clear cut and easy to read ? 
 
 "Does the volume as a whole appear as the work of an artist?" 
 
 The second is from the standpoint of the teacher and 
 asks: 
 
 "Is the subject matter within the experience and reach of the intended 
 students ? 
 
 "Is the subject matter arranged with proper sequence? 
 
 "Does each section or chapter appear as a whole, or is it scrappy, con- 
 taining much irrelevant matter?" 
 
 The authorities cited above, and good usage in text- 
 book writing seem to agree upon the following *' prin- 
 ciples" which should control the writing of either text- 
 books or lesson-sheets : 
 
 1. Books must be truthful, at least in so far as to avoid misstatements 
 known to be such by well informed persons. Many books show evidence of 
 having been written by persons having little accurate practical personal 
 knowledge of the subject treated. 
 
 2. Books must be up-to-date. Out-of-date knowledge, out-of-date pro- 
 cesses, out-of-date facts, and out-of-date opinions have no place in progress- 
 ive up-to-date textbooks or lesson sheets. 
 
 3. Correctness, clearness, simplicity, and elegance of style are "fully 
 as important" as accuracy of statement. 
 
 4. Completeness of treatment, so far as the time allotted for the pro- 
 posed course will allow, is essential. 
 
 5. Due regard must be had for a proper logical and pedagogical se- 
 quence of topics and subtopics as well as for chapter headings. 
 
 6. Illustrations or tables, in order to be justified, must give more or 
 better information than could be given in the same space if given to reading 
 matter. 
 
 7. Consistency and mechanical accuracy in matters of spelling, cap- 
 italization, punctuation, use of symbols, and abbreviations must be observed. 
 
 8. Mechanical excellence in matters of composition, type-setting and 
 presswork, and in quality of paper and binding are important. 
 
 9. Textbooks must not be encyclopedic, and must be adapted to the 
 advancement of the students for whom they are intended. 
 
 In pursuing this investigation the writer has exam- 
 ined thirty-one sets of lesson sheets, and over one hun- 
 dred textbooks used or offered for use in corporation 
 schools and public schools. Corporation school admin- 
 istrators have been quite ready to respond to requests for 
 information in regard to books used, and they have been 
 
92 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 liberal in sending copies of their textbooks and lesson 
 sheets. 
 
 It is impossible to state more than approximately the 
 relative number of corporation schools which are using 
 lesson sheets or textbooks, though judging from data col- 
 lected and from personal observation, about half of them 
 use textbooks either wholly or extensively. The follow- 
 ing data are taken from committee reports: 
 
 Number of schools 1914 1915 1916 
 
 a) from which information was secured 35 56 27 
 
 b) using textbooks exclusively 6 5 15 
 
 c) using lesson sheets exclusively 11 15 7 
 
 d) using both textbooks and lesson sheets 18 36 5 
 
 e) "unable" to secure satisfactory textbooks 12 
 
 f) "able" to secure satisfactory textbooks 15 
 
 These data, though meager, show a slight tendency 
 toward a more common use of textbooks and a relative 
 decrease in the exclusive use of lesson sheets. If this is a 
 correct estimate, and if use is any criterion of value it 
 seems impossible to state which is better suited to cor- 
 poration school needs. 
 
 1. Textbooks 
 
 The number of textbooks offered for use in corporation 
 schools is rapidly increasing, as is shown by the extensive 
 lists of such books given in the proceedings of the third 
 annual convention of the National Association of Corpor- 
 ation Schools (pages 520-526) and in the proceedings of 
 the fourth annual convention (pages 160-164, 627-633, 
 and 750-752). 
 
 Without doubt many of the textbooks prepared for 
 public school use are ill adapted to the specific require- 
 ments of the corporation school. The chairman of the 
 Committee on Public Education, of the National Associa- 
 tion of Corporation Schools, reported^ that he had ex- 
 
 *Ref. 31, p. 121; Ref. 33, p. 405: Ref. 19, p. 132; Ref. 42. 
 ''Ref. 27, pp. 239-40. 
 
Textbooks 93 
 
 amined a large number of the mathematical textbooks 
 offered by leading publishers with a view to determining 
 the adaptability of these books to industry and that none 
 had been found suitable. His criticism is typical of those 
 frequently made by corporation school directors. He 
 says, "Even a superficial examination of many of the 
 textbooks in use would show to any group of business 
 men that actual business conditions and requirements 
 have not been considered by the authors. In a textbook 
 used by my own children in the city of Detroit, bills of 
 lumber are written in the reverse order of length, width, 
 and thickness. 
 
 "Problems are given which are supposed to illustrate 
 general principles of arithmetic in which the necessary 
 additions, multiplications, subtractions and divisions are 
 so long and complicated that an expert would hardly be 
 able to go through them without a mistake. 
 
 "There is a widely used set of geographies which 
 leaves about as much of an impression upon a student's 
 mind of definite locations of places as a trip on a fast 
 train would leave. When children get through high 
 school they have almost no notion of place geography. 
 The histories deal largely with the political form of gov- 
 ernment and overlook the human story of life in the early 
 settlements. And thus you could go down the list of 
 textbooks written for teachers by teachers and point out 
 many things which do not fit directly into the child's 
 life, if he should enter the industries with a preparation 
 that we should expect of one who has completed the ele- 
 mentary schools. ' ' 
 
 It is true that many of the public-school textbooks 
 have not been kept up to date, though this criticism seems 
 to the writer to apply fully as much to those who use the 
 textbook as to the publishers. No publisher can justly 
 be blamed for continuing to issue a book as long as there 
 is a market for it. The expense of writing and publishing 
 
94 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 textbooks is very high. Talent of sufficient calibre to 
 write good books usually commands high royalties and 
 the expense of revision of an old edition is sufficient to in- 
 duce a publisher to wait as long as possible before discon- 
 tinuing that edition. A representative of a well-known 
 publisher of high-grade textbooks recently told the writer 
 that his company frequently invests $25,000 in editorial 
 work, plates, binding and in advertising, before a single 
 dollar is received in return for a new book. 
 
 One of the frequent criticisms against ''regular" 
 textbooks, is that they are not adapted to the needs of 
 corporation schools. The most common of these criti- 
 cisms is that the material is too general, or not near 
 enough up-to-date from a scientific standpoint, or that it 
 is too impractical. 
 
 Without doubt each of these charges can be main- 
 tained in individual CEises at least, yet the number of text- 
 books to which these criticisms do not apply is rapidly 
 decreasing. 
 
 The following statement is from Mr. H. E. Cobb, of 
 Lewis Institute, Chicago, himself a textbook writer and 
 book review editor of School Science and Mathematics. 
 
 ''The textbooks in mathematics prepared for sec- 
 ondary schools and colleges can not be used successfully 
 in corporation schools, evening schools, and the like. The 
 essential facts of mathematics, the effective way to use 
 formulas and tables, and the methods of solving prob- 
 lems and checking results must be presented in a way 
 that they can be readily grasped by the practical man 
 who finds that he needs to use mathematics in perform- 
 ing his work. 
 
 "Fortunately, mathematicians of recognized ability 
 who have given instruction in shop mathematics in Uni- 
 versity Extension courses or in mathematics courses in 
 evening schools have felt the need and have prepared 
 excellent textbooks for such work. Textbooks like Pal- 
 
Textbooks 95 
 
 mer's ^'Practical Mathematics^ \ Norris and Smith's 
 *'8hop Arithmetic' \ and Norris and Craigo's "Advanced 
 Shop Mathematics' % not only furnish excellent material 
 for instruction in practical courses, but also indicate 
 clearly the way to make the mathematics textbooks used 
 in secondary schools serve better the interests of most 
 pupils. ' ' 
 
 It is not an easy matter to select the best book for 
 any course, but there can be no reasonable excuse for 
 using a book copyrighted in 1890, yet the writer found 
 this book^ in use in the school maintained by one of the 
 foremost concerns in the country, and that, too, in the 
 subject of arithmetic, in which there are many new books 
 issued every year. If textbooks are approximately on a 
 parity with teachers as educational factors, the selec- 
 tion of textbooks ought to receive approximately as much 
 consideration as the selection of teachers. 
 
 No one can justly deny that textbooks prepared for 
 public and technical school use are frequently open to 
 the criticisms offered above, but it must not be assumed 
 that the textbooks and lesson sheets prepared by corpora- 
 tion school instructors are free from these, and other 
 criticisms. 
 
 The writer has examined twenty-seven textbooks used 
 or offered for use in corporation schools, especially those 
 prepared by corporation school instructors, and has 
 found some of them very faulty, when judged by the 
 criteria stated above, while others fully satisfy the stand- 
 ards which have been proposed. 
 
 Typical of the poorer class of books examined, is a 
 mathematics textbook edited by the director of appren- 
 ticeship work in tool designing in a large automobile man- 
 ufactory, which is represented by the author as a * * com- 
 plete practical manual of shop mathematics." There is 
 scarcely a pedagogical principle accepted by mathematics 
 
 •Dubb's Arithmetical Problems. 
 
96 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 teachers which is not violated in the book, and its me- 
 chanical make-up, both from the standpoint of English 
 composition and that of the compositor is very poor. A 
 single page contains fifty-seven capitalizations not war- 
 ranted by good usage, and on the following page, a single 
 mathematical term is spelled or abbreviated in four dif- 
 ferent ways, none of which has the warrant of good math- 
 ematical usage. The book abounds in mathematical state- 
 ments either faulty in form or wholly incorrect from the 
 standpoint of algebra or geometry. 
 
 Many of the so-called ''practical textbooks" are far 
 superior to the one just described. 
 
 Among this better class of textbooks is the Practical 
 Mathematics series in three parts, by Mr. C. I. Palmer 
 of the Armour Institute. Part I presents the applica- 
 tions of arithmetic in well-selected problems illustrating 
 both mathematical principles and their practical bearing 
 upon real shop experience. The author finds, however, 
 that he must use some ''impractical" problems in order 
 to reinforce certain mathematical principles which are 
 involved in practical problems later, but which are in 
 some of their applications too difficult for beginning stu- 
 dents. His procedure in this regard is really an admis- 
 sion of the fact which has long been recognized by prac- 
 tical teachers that real problems taken from actual jobs 
 seldom constitute the best problem material for the fix- 
 ation of mathematical principles and processes. Part II 
 of this series presents the applications of geometry and 
 many of the problems are real shop problems. The au- 
 thor makes no claim to mathematical rigor in his ex- 
 planation of geometrical principles, but his statements 
 are clear and true so far as they go. Part III of this 
 series is entitled "algebra." This book is open to a crit- 
 icism which applies to most books on ' ' practical ^ ^ mathe- 
 matics. It advances rather too rapidly in difficulty, and 
 does not give enough problems for drill. The treatment 
 
Textbooks 97 
 
 of anti-logarithms (page 127) is faulty from a mathemat- 
 ical standpoint. On the whole this series of books satis- 
 fies the criteria set up for the judgment of textbooks. 
 
 Mr. J. W. L. Hale, supervisor of apprentices of the 
 Pennsylvania Railroad Company, is the author of a series 
 of shop-mathematics textbooks which easily pass all our 
 criteria. ''These books are the outgrowth of five years 
 of work with shop employees", and they are organized 
 with a due regard for, and a full knowledge of, the lim- 
 itations and the requirements of these students. 
 
 Vocational MatJiematics, by Mr. W. H. Dooley, ex- 
 plains in greater detail than most shop-mathematics 
 textbooks, shop terms, materials, and processes. This 
 author does not make the mistake which some make, of 
 taking for granted that a boy knows things simply be- 
 cause he works in a shop. 
 
 Another book examined. Advanced SJiop Mathe- 
 matics, is a compilation of shop-mathematics sheets 
 worked out in the extension department of the Univer- 
 sity of Wisconsin. The explanations of processes and 
 principles are primarily intended for private study and 
 are exceptionally full and clear. 
 
 The Elements of Applied Mathematics, by Mr. H. E. 
 Cobb, of Lewis Institute, presents mathematical prin- 
 ciples without regard to whether th€y come from arith- 
 metic, algebra, geometry, or trigonometry. One good 
 feature of this book is that in many of the problems, the 
 students are required to secure their data by actual 
 measurements which they make in the shops. This book 
 readily passes the test of our criteria. 
 
 Another text, by Norris and Craigo, readily passes 
 most of the criteria, though it is rather loose in several 
 places from the mathematical standpoint. They say 
 (page 17) : "Two minus signs make a plus sign," and 
 on page 25 use the word '' transpose " in a manner hardly 
 acceptable to a mathematician. 
 
^ Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 Mr. J. R. Yoimg reports^ that he has examined a num- 
 ber of mathematics textbooks nsed in corporation schools. 
 He summarizes his examination as follows : * 'In general, 
 the writers of texts for these schools have succeeded re- 
 markably well in securing clear and simple statements of 
 the fundamental principles of arithmetic, and some of 
 the makers of more advanced texts could study their rules 
 and definitions with profit. ^ ' 
 
 The writer agrees in part with this statement, but in 
 his opinion the majority of '* corporation school text- 
 books" are subject to the criticism that they are too brief, 
 increase in difficulty too rapidly, and take too much for 
 granted in the matter of students' preparation and 
 ability. Mr. H. E. Cobb, of Lewis Institute, says:^ '*lt 
 is no doubt true that most books of practical mathematics 
 give so little attention to the explanation of the elemen- 
 tary mathematical processes that it is almost impossible 
 for a man studying by himself to get a clear under- 
 standing of methods and processes. 
 
 The statement is frequently made that the '^ general'' 
 text book is not adapted to the corporation school, and 
 this criticism is, in a measure, true. The dominant char- 
 acteristic of corporation school training is its specificity; 
 that is, its direct application to particular work for which 
 students are preparing, and in so far as this training is 
 for specific processes in specific occupations, the general 
 textbook is a misfit. 
 
 In the foregoing comparisons of corporation school 
 textbooks with the general textbook, the writer has kept 
 in mind the * 'best " general textbook as determined by the 
 criteria set up at the beginning of this chapter. These 
 comparisons warrant the conclusion that corporation 
 school textbooks are on the whole more specific and show 
 a superior adaptation of lesson material to the ends de- 
 
 ''School Science and Mathematics, March, 1917, p. 243. 
 ^School Science and Mathematics, January, 1917, p, 94. 
 
Textbooks 99 
 
 sired; but that they are more commonly subject to the 
 faults of advancing too rapidly in difficulty, and of tak- 
 ing too much for granted on the part of students ; and 
 that they more frequently show careless editing, poor 
 work on the part of the compositor, and careless proof 
 reading, 
 
 2. Lesson Sheets 
 
 Several of the textbooks which have been examined 
 contain in their prefatory pages, the statement that they 
 are a compilation of lesson sheets which have been worked 
 out in the shop school and which have stood the test of 
 several years of service. A number of corporation school 
 instructors have reported that their textbooks are still 
 in the lesson sheet form. The lesson sheet is widely used 
 in corporation schools and some corporation school in- 
 structors^ claim that they are the only suitable lesson 
 material. There is no logical reason why loose-leaf lesson 
 sheets should not be a most satisfactory form of lesson 
 material. 
 
 As in case of textbooks, among the thirty-one sets 
 of lesson sheets examined, both extremes of quality 
 have been found. They are not free from ' ' impractical ' ^ 
 or obsolete material. To illustrate this point, the follow- 
 ing problem is quoted from a set of lesson sheets supposed 
 to be based upon shop experience. ''Four locomotives 
 consume respectively, 390 lbs, 543 lbs, 621 lbs, and 464 
 lbs of coal per hour. How much coal will they all use in 
 an hour? How much will they consume running night 
 and day for a week ? ' ' This is not even a possible ' ' prac- 
 tical '^ problem. The number of such illustrations might 
 be multiplied almost without limit, emphasizing the fact 
 that the making of lesson sheets is not an amateur's job. 
 
 Several lesson sheets which have been examined, 
 which undertake to present the subject of business psy- 
 
 *Ref. 19. p. 200 et seq. 
 
100 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 chology, would not pass muster with any modern psy- 
 chologist. In no field of applied science has there been 
 a greater reversal or abandonment of former theories and 
 practices than in the field of educational psychology. The 
 old faculty theory of mind has been abandoned by prac- 
 tically all modern psychologists, together with the theories 
 of training these ' ' faculties. ' ' In view of this situation, 
 the following construct of the human mind quoted from 
 the lesson sheets on business psychology issued by the 
 Telephone Society of the Mountain States is in point : 
 
 "It may be said that there are eight attributes of mind which follow 
 each other in a certain sequence: attention, interest, concentration, com- 
 prehension, decision, will, reason, memory. All persons think, but all do 
 not think rightly. To think rightly, the mind must be trained, so that the 
 eight attributes will follow each other in proper sequence, thus progressing to- 
 ward the conclusion by successive steps. When a subject first comes to 
 our notice, we give it attention; if it is attractive we become interested; if 
 it seems to be important we concentrate our thoughts upon it until we 
 comprehend its purpose; then we make a decision as to whether or not it 
 is of sufficient importance to warrant further consideration. If it does not 
 seem to be of sufficient importance, we think no more about it, but if we 
 decide that further consideration of it will result in fulfilling our require- 
 ments along certain lines we exert our will constantly to the study of the 
 subject, and thus through a process of reasoning, we store the knowledge 
 in our memory which finally results in the building up of an education." 
 
 Another lesson sheet says: ''We live in habit. Good 
 habits are as easily formed as bad ones . . . . * ' These 
 quotations which are typical of the psychological theory 
 contained in many lesson sheets and textbooks on the 
 psychology of business indicate a lack both of broad schol- 
 arship and care in their preparation. 
 
 Another fault of loose-leaf lesson sheets is the dis- 
 regard they seem to exhibit for logical sequence of course 
 topics. This point is illustrated in a set of lesson sheets 
 on mechanical drawing in which the early lessons are 
 simple working drawings of machine parts, while the 
 fundamental problems of drawing perpendiculars, par- 
 allels and bisectors are found much later in the course. 
 
 Still another serious fault in lesson sheets grows out 
 of the fact that they are easily replaced, and are de- 
 signed for temporary, rather than for permanent use. 
 
Textbooks 101 
 
 This fault is evident in careless editing, poor printing, 
 poor paper and poor proof-reading which frequently in- 
 jures an otherwise good set of lesson sheets. Mr. Young^^ 
 says of the arithmetic used in the Santa Fe Railway Sys- 
 tem's apprenticeship school: ''There is little organiza- 
 tion to the problems that points to any special method of 
 approach, .... and it was printed without considera- 
 tion for the eyes of the apprentice. The print is exceed- 
 ingly small." The writer's examination of this set of 
 lessons confirms the above comment. 
 
 These faults are, of course, not inherent in lesson 
 sheets. The fact that they are used so commonly, and 
 with such satisfactory results to corporation school di- 
 rectors^^ indicates that they merit the tribute paid to 
 them by a well-known publisher of commercial text-books. 
 He says: ''We are indebted to corporation schools, for 
 they are ' road makers ' in the way of textbooks. We have 
 adopted into our texts for public and private schools 
 many of the ideas of the lesson sheets worked out in the 
 laboratories of these schools. ' ' Many lesson sheets show 
 a thorough mastery of the subject treated, great care in 
 the preparation of lesson material, and an admirable 
 adaptation to the purpose or aim of the course in ques- 
 tion. 
 
 Among this class of lesson sheets are those used by 
 the Western Electric Company in mechanical drawing, 
 in practical mathematics, and in business English ; by the 
 International Harvester Company, in shop mathematics 
 and mechanical drawing, and by Swift and Company in 
 practical arithmetic. The lesson sheets prepared by H. G. 
 Petermann for the training of clerks and salesmen for the 
 United Cigar Stores Company are an example of the 
 specificity of the lesson material contained in good lesson 
 sheets. These lesson sheets undertake to equip cigar store 
 
 *"See Reference 7, of this Chapter. 
 "Ref. 19, pp. 200 et aeq. 
 
102 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 salesmen with an accurate knowledge of what to do and 
 what to say in any situation which may arise. Marshall 
 Field and Company's spelling lesson sheets also show a 
 good adaptation of specific materials to specific ends. 
 
 That lesson sheets have some decided advantages over 
 textbooks, will scarcely be questioned, but that they are 
 subject to most of the faults of textbooks and some others 
 besides is equally true. A clear, simple literary style, 
 broad and up-to-date knowledge, accuracy of statement, 
 careful editing, and good printing are requirements that 
 apply to lesson sheets fully as much as to textbooks. 
 
 The chief advantages of loose-leaf lesson sheets are: 
 
 a) they are readily reorganized and revised; 
 
 b) they bring a feeling of novelty with each new lesson; 
 
 c) they bring to the students a suggestion of a nearer approach^ to 
 
 real business; 
 
 d) they are more flexible, permitting the adaptation of a course to 
 
 local conditions, to particular classes, and to individual students. 
 
 The serious faults to which they are subject are : 
 
 a) poor organization, and lack of coherence and unity, 
 
 b) a tendency to faulty sequence of course topics, 
 
 c) lack of broad scholarship, and 
 
 d) careless editing and poor printing. 
 
 A summary of these discussions of textbooks and les- 
 son sheets, in the writer's opinion, warrants the conclu- 
 sion that, on the whole, public secondary schools and 
 technical schools use better organized lesson materials 
 than do corporation schools. 
 
 i2Ref 27, p. 202. 
 
Summary of Conclusions 103 
 
 PART THREE 
 
 •Chapter IX 
 
 Summary of Conclusions — The Cooperative School, a 
 Solution of the problem of vocational Education 
 
 It is now in order to discuss the corporation school 
 from the point of view of the main question of this study : 
 ' ' In what way can the corporation school and the public 
 school be mutually helpful in the solution of the problem 
 of vocational education ? " 
 
 The need for vocational education has been gradually 
 dawning upon the American people for the past three 
 decades, and society is now fully awake to its importance. 
 While the movement is still in its formative state, it has 
 become crystallized in the foundations established by pri- 
 vate agencies, 1 in the legislation of nine^ states and many 
 municipalities.^ The main outstanding feature of the 
 movement, aside from its real purpose, is the lack of 
 agreement as to the best means of providing vocational 
 training. 
 
 Before undertaking to answer the question as to how 
 the corporation school may contribute to the solution of 
 the problem, it is pertinent to summarize some recognized 
 fundamental principles as to the character of education 
 in a democracy.* The course of evolution through which 
 
 ^National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education ; American 
 Federation of Labor, Com. on Industrial Education ; National Education 
 Association. Com. on Vocational Education: Nat'onal Association of Manu- 
 facturers, Com. on Industrial Education, Refs. 24, 28, 28a. 30; Ref. 24, 
 p. 232. 
 
 ^Reports Commissioner of Education, 1914-'15-'16. 
 
 •See Tables HI and Vlll. 
 
 ♦Elliot, C. W. Function of Education in a Democratic State. Mann 
 Horace, The Ground for the Free School System. Ref. 40, pp. 97 et «eq. 
 Ref. 41, Chap. III. 
 
104 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 these principles have come, the bitter conflict, the heroic 
 battles, the temporary defeats, the discouraging reces- 
 sions, and the final triumph, constitute some of the most 
 romantic and heroic pages in the history of the growth 
 of democratic principles. It is not pertinent here to re- 
 cite the story, except to enumerate the results. These 
 fundamental principles of education in America are : 
 
 1. Education in a Democracy Must Be Universal.^ 
 
 This principle means that the door of opportunity 
 must be open to all ; limited only by the ability of society 
 to provide the opportunity, and by the pupil's intellec- 
 tual and physical ability to profit by it. 
 
 2. Education in a Democracy Must Be Free. 
 
 The assumption by society of the financial burden of 
 educating its citizens has come about only after a long 
 and bitter struggle, and while the acknowledgement is 
 almost universal in America, the universal practical ap- 
 plication of this ideal is still unrealized. Yet this realiza- 
 tion is approaching fulfillment, as is evidenced by added 
 educational opportunity and increased appropriations for 
 education every year.^ 
 
 3. Education in a Democracy Must Be Compulsory. 
 
 This principle, long ago accepted in Europe, and 
 nominally accepted in America quite as early, is the latest 
 one to be acknowledged by public sentiment; and even 
 now several states, and many individuals have not 
 reached the point where they are willing to act upon this 
 principle.'^ 
 
 ^Ref. 1. pp. 97-98. 
 
 ^Report Commissioner of Education, 1916. Vol. II, p. 8. 
 
 ^Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education. 
 
Summary of Conclusions 105 
 
 4. Education in a Democracy Must Be Non-Sec- 
 
 tarian. 
 
 This principle means that edncation, in order best to 
 serve democratic ideals, must not be subject to any control 
 more restrictive than the broadest ideals of a democratic 
 state. This principle is inherent in American Democ- 
 racy.^ 
 
 5. Education in a Democracy Must Be a Socializ- 
 
 ing Factor, and Must Contribute to Social 
 Efficiency. 
 
 This principle means that education must ''bring peo- 
 ple and classes into closer and more perceptible connec- 
 tion with one another. It means not only freer inter- 
 action between social groups .... but change in so- 
 cial habit, and continuous readjustment."^ Social effi- 
 ciency, — i. e,., the ability of the individual to act his part 
 as a social unit, supporting himself and contributing to 
 the common good in proportion to his intellectual and 
 physical endowment, and placing a minimum of burden 
 upon society in case of deficiency in these gifts — is soci- 
 ety's chief warrant for the establishment and mainte- 
 nance of schools.^^ 
 
 6. Education in a Democracy Must Be Controlled 
 
 BY the State. 
 
 This principle has been accepted only after control by 
 the family, by the church, and by private or philan- 
 thropic enterprise, has been found wanting, and only 
 after the state has become conscious that its own perman- 
 ence can only be assured by universal education under 
 state control. 11 
 
 ^Ruflfini, Prancpsco, Religious TAberty, trans. l)v Burg and Haynes 
 Ref. 46, pp. 223-5. 
 
 •Ref. 40, pp. 99-100. 
 
 JORef. 41, Chap. III. 
 
 "Ref. 40, pp. 108-115, Ref. 16, p. 874, Ref. 22. p. 775. 
 
106 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 The application of these six principles to vocational 
 education, as well as to general education, is now so 
 nearly universally accepted in the United States that 
 their universal acceptation may be assumed. These six 
 fundamental principles constitute a measuring rod by 
 which may be gauged the efficiency of the service to the 
 community of any individual school, or any system or 
 type of schools. In the following paragraphs, this meas- 
 uring rod is applied to the corporation school. 
 
 The corporation school cannot become universal. It is 
 now reaching less than one half of one per cent of the 
 industrial workers in the United States. ^^ Business rea- 
 sons require the corporation school to select the best and 
 to eliminate the inferior applicants. This selection^ ^ is 
 the one feature which has for the past decade arrayed the 
 American Federation of Labor^^ against any form of 
 privately controlled vocational education. In addition 
 to this selective feature, financial and geographical limi- 
 tations are further reasons why the corporation school 
 cannot become universal, and all are reasons why it can- 
 not become compulsory or free. The question as to its 
 non-sectarian character needs no discussion. 
 
 The corporation school contributes to social effi- 
 ciency;^^ it may also be controlled to a limited degree 
 by the state, as is the case of many such schools in 
 European countries. ^^ These two conditions lead the 
 writer to the conclusion that some form of cooperative 
 organization between the corporation school and the pub- 
 lic school will be the chief factor in the ultimate solu- 
 tion of the problem of vocational education. This point 
 is developed further in the concluding paragraphs of 
 this chapter. 
 
 i2See Chapter III. 
 
 i^See Chapter III: also Ref. 19, pp. 715-716; Ref. 31, p. 126. 
 
 "Refs. 24 and 25. 
 
 I'^See Chapter IV. 
 
 "Ref. 20. 
 
Summary of Conclusions 107 
 
 The discussion of corporation school efficiency in 
 Chapter IV shows that : 
 
 1. They tend to produce an adequate supply of young employees to 
 
 meet the demands of industry. 
 
 2. They supply the demand for men qualified for promotion to higher 
 
 positions. 
 
 3. They improve the character of work and the quality of the products. 
 
 4. They reduce the turn over of labor, or increase the tenure of em- 
 
 ployees. 
 
 5. They tend to reduce waste of materials and the number of accidents 
 
 by improving working conditions and by reducin_g carelessness 
 and ignorance. 
 
 The conclusions of Chapter V were that the teaching 
 in public secondary schools and technical schools is su- 
 perior to the teaching in corporation schools in : 
 
 a) classroom management, 
 
 b) definiteness of aim, 
 
 c) assignment of lessons, 
 
 d) breadth of view, 
 
 e) development of culture, 
 
 f) and recitation technique, 
 
 and that the teaching in corporation schools is supe- 
 rior in : 
 
 g) responsiveness of class, 
 h) mental discipline, and 
 
 1) class attitude toward learning. 
 
 The conclusion of Chapter VI is that the corporation 
 school has what seem to be inherent advantages over 
 public secondary schools and technical schools in such 
 motives and incentives as : 
 
 a) the relation of employer and employee, 
 
 b) pecuniary interest, 
 
 c) the shop situation, and 
 
 d) real problems. 
 
 The conclusion of Chapter VII is that the curricula 
 and courses of public secondary schools and technical 
 schools show, on the whole, a better logical and pedagog- 
 ical organization than those of corporation schools, and 
 that the latter are superior in being more specific and in 
 having a closer relation between the materials employed 
 and the ends sought, and that some show a decided su- 
 periority in time allotments. 
 
108 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 The conclusion of Chapter VIII is that, in the matter 
 of textbooks and lesson sheets, public secondary schools 
 and technical schools are using better organized lesson 
 materials than corporation) schools are using. 
 
 The opening paragraphs of the present chapter stated 
 the six fundamental principles upon which education in a 
 democracy must be based, and the limitations upon the 
 corporation school which prevent it from being consid- 
 ered a satisfactory solution of the problem of universal 
 vocational education. It was pointed out, however, that 
 the corporation school through its contribution to voca- 
 tional efficiency, may be an important factor in that 
 solution. While a complete and satisfactory solution of 
 the problem of vocational education has not been found 
 in any of the phases of vocational education which have 
 been studied, in the writer's opinion the cooperative 
 trade and continuation school is a nearer approach to 
 that solution than is offered by any other plan. 
 
 The reasons upon which this conclusion is based are 
 as follows : 
 
 1. The cooperative trade and continuation school 
 
 meets in actual practice, or can readily be 
 made to meet, all the conditions of the six 
 fundamental principles formulated above. 
 
 2. In the cooperative trade and continuation school, 
 
 it is possible to combine all the points of su- 
 periority of the public secondary schools and 
 technical schools and of corporation schools 
 which have been found in the matter of in- 
 struction, methods, motives, lesson materials, 
 and curricula. 
 
 3. The cooperative trade and continuation school is 
 
 a success in actual practice. 
 
 4. The cooperative trade and continuation school 
 
 has the sanction of many of the educators, 
 business men, labor leaders, legislators and 
 
Summary of Conclusions 109 
 
 social workers who have given most thought 
 to the matter of vocational and industrial edu- 
 cation. 
 
 The experience of several states^''^ and numerous 
 municipalities in the United States in establishing and 
 conducting some form of continuation school or coopera- 
 tive trade school demonstrates the first of these proposi- 
 tions, and the experience of Germany, France and Eng- 
 land in establishing and maintaining such schools is 
 further evidence on this point.^^ 
 
 The second proposition is based upon the evidence of 
 this study presented in Chapters IV to VIII, inclusive, 
 which shows that corporation schools are superior in those 
 phases of organization and administration of instruction 
 in which public schools are confessedly weak, while these 
 are strong where corporation schools are weak. The co- 
 operative trade and continuation school furnishes the 
 essential conditions for emphasizing these strong points 
 and for eliminating or minimizing these weaknesses. 
 
 The third proposition is justified by the information 
 which the writer has collected by personal observation 
 and otherwise. Company officials are unanimous in the 
 statement that among the results of cooperation are the 
 advantages discussed in Chapter IV. Among the coop- 
 erative schools visited was the Cass Technical High School 
 of Detroit, which is working in cooperation with thirty- 
 one companies. These companies report that their em- 
 ployees are from fifty to one hundred per cent better 
 workmen because of the instruction received in the con- 
 tinuation school. So satisfactory is the work that there 
 is at present (February, 1917) a long waiting list of ap- 
 
 "Vocational Education, Reports CommisBioner of Education, 1914- 
 15-16. 
 
 "Refs. 18, 21. 
 
 "Circular: Industrial Part-time Continuation Classes, Cass Techni- 
 cal High School. 
 
110 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 plieants for admission. ^^ This school offers both trade 
 and continuation courses. 
 
 , The writer has also secured information from a large 
 number of other schools, either through school authori- 
 ties or cooperating concerns, and this evidence substan- 
 tiates the statement that the cooperative school is success- 
 ful. The National Cash Register Company of Dayton, 
 Ohio, is working in cooperation with the Dayton High 
 School, and Mr. Adkins, for the Company, pronounces 
 the work a success. ^o 
 
 The cooperative school seems to be a natural out- 
 growth of the corporation school. The R. Hoe Printing 
 Press Company, of New York City, which established the 
 first corporation school in the United States has recently 
 (1915) entered into an agreement whereby the city Board 
 of Education supplies all the teachers for the academic 
 work of the apprenticeship school. ^i The General Elec- 
 tric Company, of Schenectady, New York, which has main- 
 tained a training department for many years has recently 
 entered into a similar agreement with the Board of Edu- 
 cation of Schenectady, 22 a^^j the plan is still (1916) in 
 operation. Many similar cases are reported from Eng- 
 land. ^^ 
 
 The Seventeenth Annual Report of the Superintendent 
 of Schools of New York shows that ten high schools are 
 cooperating with sixty-three firms covering twenty-three 
 occupations. The report also shows that cooperating 
 schools are maintained in twenty-six business houses, in- 
 cluding department stores, hotels, railroad shops, and 
 public service companies. In these schools the companies 
 furnish the schoolrooms and the board of education, the 
 teachers. This report states ten conclusions based upon 
 experience. Two of these are : * ' The industry profits by 
 
 »>Ref. 19, pp. 308-314. 
 
 «Ref. 27. p. 132. 
 
 »Ref. 19, pp. 287-288. 
 
 23Ref. 18, pp. 282, 289, 294, 301, 370. 
 
SUMMAEY OF CONCLUSIONS 
 
 111 
 
 the plan by securing better employees. ' * * * The plan does 
 not necessarily prolong the period of high-school attend- 
 ance for graduation. ' ' 
 
 Table VIII shows a partial list of cooperating schools 
 and companies from whom information has been secured. 
 
 TABLE vni. 
 
 Companies 
 
 Schools 
 
 Brighton Mills 
 
 Burroughs Adding Machine Co. 
 Chicago Telephone Co. 
 Consolidated Gas, Elec. Light and 
 
 Power Co. 
 Simonds Manufacturing Co. 
 
 and nine other companies. 
 United Shoe Machinery Co. 
 Six Companies 
 Thirty-nine printing companies 
 
 Six Department stores 
 
 Sixty-three companies 
 Twenty-six other organizations 
 aside from the above 
 
 Passaic N. J. H. S. 
 
 Cass Technical H. S. Detroit 
 
 Central Y. M. C. A. 
 
 Baltimore Night School 
 
 Fitchburg, Mass. H. S. 
 
 Beverly, Mass. H. S. 
 
 York, Pa. H. S. 
 
 Chicago Typothetae School of 
 
 Printing 
 Union School of Salesmanship, 
 
 Boston 
 New York City High Schools 
 New York Board of Education 
 
 (schools in company buildings). 
 
 If to this list be added the schools for higher training 
 listed in Table III the momentum of the cooperative 
 movement may be appreciated. The reports from these 
 schools and the companies cooperating with them show 
 no disposition to doubt that the cooperative school is a 
 satisfactory and permanent solution of the problem of 
 vocational education. 
 
 The fourth proposition is a matter of the weight of 
 cumulative opinion. While the cooperative plan of voca- 
 tional education does not enjoy unanimous support of 
 those who are interested in the problem, it does have the 
 support of many of the strong men in this field. 
 
 Mr. C. A. Prosser, says^* that the continuation school 
 under state support and control is the most modern and 
 up-to-date means of educating the young worker. 
 
 Dr. David Snedden, until recently Commissioner of 
 Education of Massachusetts, says^^^ that the part-time 
 
 "N. A. C. S. Bulletin, July, 1916. 
 »Ref. 22a, p. 49. 
 
112 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 cooperative school is destined to become a permanent 
 form of vocational education, and that nothing short of 
 legislation compelling town and shop to cooperate, will 
 ever give to us, as it gave to early England and modern 
 Germany, a national system of industrial education. He 
 says further that the belief is rapidly gaining ground, 
 that a large part of vocational education should be ob- 
 tained through actual participation in the pursuit, under 
 commercial conditions, of the occupation itself, but so 
 controlled as to make education rather than earnings the 
 chief objective, and that such participation must be 
 under the direction of the agency responsible for the 
 effective vocational education of the novice. 
 
 The Hon. W. C. Redfield says:^^ ''What is needed is 
 a complete system of vocational education with due rela- 
 tion to industry. ' ' 
 
 The Report of the Committee on Vocational Educa- 
 tion of the National Education Association, composed of 
 twelve prominent educators and representative men in- 
 terested in vocational education states r^^ ''that theoretic- 
 ally vocational education under the cooperative system 
 should ultimately prove most effective, depending upon 
 the effective coordination of the separate agencies, ^^ . . 
 . . and experience has shown that this coordination is 
 perfectly possible. '* 
 
 Dr. Clifford B. Conelley, of the Carnegie Institute 
 of Technology, expresses the opinion that if we take away 
 the direct backing of the corporation and leave the cor- 
 poration school with all its essential details as organized 
 by the company, we have the school best fitted for modern 
 conditions. This would really be the continuation 
 school. 29 
 
 R. S. Cooley, director of continuation schools in Mil- 
 
 ^N. A. C. S. Bulletin, July, 1916. 
 
 2^Bureau of Education, Bulletin 21, 1916. 
 
 "Report Committee on Vocational Education, N. E. A. 1916. 
 
 '^Journal N. E. A. pp. 412 et aeq. 1916. 
 
Summary of Conclusions 113 
 
 waukee, states^^ that ''In one year, the continuation 
 school brought back into school 5,000 young people under 
 sixteen years of age, who had left school to work. 
 
 Dr. George Myers,^^ who has made a special study 
 of vocational education in Germany, concludes that any 
 satisfactory solution of the problem of vocational educa- 
 tion must include some form of cooperative school work, 
 and that the continuation school idea is growing in 
 Prussia. 
 
 Supt. John D. Shoop, of the Chicago schools empha- 
 sizes the fact that vocational education must come 
 through cooperation. ' ' The interplay of interest between 
 the school and the shop, the classroom and the commer- 
 cial world, constitute the most promising and hopeful 
 indication of the final solution of the problem of voca- 
 tional education. "32 
 
 Conclusion 
 
 The argument of this summary of conclusions, of per- 
 sonal opinions, and of committee resolutions, is further 
 strengthened by the facts that, within the past five years 
 seven states have provided by legislation^^ for some form 
 of cooperative or continuation school for industrial and 
 vocational training, and congressional enactment in the 
 Smith-Hughes Bill,^^ has recently provided for federal 
 aid for vocational education. The writer believes that 
 this evidence justifies the conclusion that the cooperative 
 trade and continuation school is the solution of the prob- 
 lem of vocational education. 
 
 •"op cit. 
 
 3»Ref. 20. 
 
 '^Journal, N. E. A. Jan. 1917, p. 112. 
 
 '^Report Commissioner of Education, 1916. (see also next Ref.) 
 
 "Natl. Society for the Promotion of Indus. Educ. Bulletin 25. 
 
114 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 VITA 
 
 Albert James Beatty was born at LaMoille, Illinois, 
 July 20th, 1871, and received his early education on his 
 father 's farm and in the country school. He attended the 
 LaMoille high school but left school to teach, before grad- 
 uation. He graduated from the Northern Illinois Normal 
 School in 1893 with the degree B. S., from Knox College 
 in 1900 with the degree A. B., and from the University 
 of Illinois in 1915 with the degree A. M. 
 
 He was principal of schools at Wyanet, Illinois, from 
 1894 to 1902 ; principal of the Ottawa, Kansas, high school 
 from 1902 to 1904 ; superintendent of schools at Wamego, 
 Kansas, from 1904 to 1906; instructor in mathematics 
 and geography at the Marion Normal College, Marion, 
 Indiana, from 1906 to 1907 ; superintendent of schools at 
 Farmington, Illinois, from 1907 to 1911 ; superintendent 
 of schools and principal of the township high school at 
 Geneseo, Illinois, from 1911 to 1914 ; and graduate stu- 
 dent in education at the University of Illinois from 1914 
 to 1917. 
 
 At the Geneseo Township High School he organized 
 the first ''Winter Semester Curriculum for farmers' 
 sons, ' ' offered by an Illinois high school. He also assisted 
 in the organization of the Henry County Interscholastie 
 and Athletic Association, and was president of this asso- 
 ciation in 1913 to 1914. 
 
 During the year 1915 he assisted the Special Training 
 Schools Committee of the National Association of Cor- 
 poration Schools to study this type of schools, and during 
 the year 1916-1917, he has been a regular member of the 
 committee. During both years he has contributed largely 
 to the reports of this conunittee. 
 
Bibliography 115 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The following abbreviations are used; 
 
 N. E. A. National Education Association 
 
 N. S. P. I. E. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Edu- 
 cation. 
 N. A. C. S. National Association of Corporation Schools. 
 
 1. Scott, Jonathan French, Historical Essays on Apprenticeship and 
 
 Vocational Education, Ann Arbor, Mich. 
 
 2. U. S. Bureau of Labor, vol. 25, 1910. 
 
 2a. Unwin, George, The Gilds and Companies of London, 1908. ( 
 
 3. Dunlop, O. J. and Denham, R. D. English Apprenticeship and i 
 
 Child Labor, T. Fisher Unwin, London, 1912. 
 
 4. Kramer, Stella, English Craft Gilds and their Government, Co- 
 
 lumbia University Press, New York, 1905. 
 
 5. Lambert Jos. M., Two Thousand Years of Gild Life, Hull, Eng- 
 
 land. 
 
 6. "Wright, Carroll D. The Apprenticeship System in Relation to In- 
 
 dustrial Education, U. S. Bureau of Education, bul. 6, 1908. 
 
 7. Seath, John, Education for Industrial Purposes, Toronto, Canada, 
 
 1911. 
 
 8. Trade Gilds of Europe, U. S. Consular report, 1885. 
 
 8a. National Association of Manufacturers, bul. 34, New York. 
 
 9. Bible, I. Kings V. 15, 1. Samuel II. 18. 
 
 10. Thucydides, I. 24. 
 
 11. Plutarch, Numa, 17. 
 
 12. Dilts Roman Society in the Last Century of the Empire, bk. II, 
 
 13. Webster, C. W. History of Commerce. 
 
 14. Graves, F. (P. Great Educators of Three Centuries. 
 
 15. Tawney R. *H. The Agrarian Public of the Sixteenth Century, 
 
 London. 
 
 16. U. S. Commissioner of Labor, 17th annual report, 1902. 
 
 16a. Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and Commerce, Cam- 
 bridge, Eng. 
 
 17. U. S. Dept. of Labor, bul. 33, 1915. 
 
 17a. Hutchins and Harrison, History of Factory Legislation, West- 
 minster. 
 
 18. Sadler, M. E. Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere. 
 
 19. N. A. 0. S. report third annual convention, 1915. New York. 
 
 20. U. S. Bureau of Education, bul. 33, 1915. 
 
 21. N. E. A. Proceedings, 1915. 
 
 22. N. E. A. Proceedings, 1910. 
 
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 23a. N. S. P. I. E. bul. 20. 
 
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 26. U. S. Consular report. Continuation schools in Europe. 
 
 27. N. A. C. S. report fourth annual convention, 1916. 
 
 28. N. S. P. I. E. bul. 2, biblography on industrial education. 
 
 28a. University of the State of New York, biblography on industrial 
 education. 
 
*»*c-. 
 
 116 Study of Corporation Schools 
 
 29. National Society for the Scientific Study of Education, Year 
 
 book, pt. I, 1912. 
 
 30. U. S. Bureau of Education, bul. 22, 1913. Biblography on In- 
 
 dustrial education. 
 
 31. N. A. C. S. report first annual convention, 1913. 
 
 32. Metcalf, H. 0. The N. A. C. S. Times Analyst, June, 1913. The 
 
 corporation school movement, Printers' Ink, June 5th, 1913. 
 Henderschott, F. 0. The N. A. 0. S. in proceedings American 
 Institute of Electric Engineers, June, 1913. 
 
 33. N. A. C. S. second annual report, 1914. 
 
 34. National Safety Council, proceedings fourth annual convention. 
 
 35. National Association of Manufacturers, bul. 22. 
 
 35a. National Association of Manufacturers, Industrial Education in 
 (Pennsylvania and "Wisconsin. 
 
 36. The Ford Guide, Ford Motor Co. 
 
 37. English School circular, Ford Motor Co. 
 
 38. Cassiers' Magazine, vol. 23, p. 199. 
 
 39. Davis C. 0. High School Courses of Study. 
 
 40. Dewey, J. Democracy and Education. 
 
 41. Bagley, W. C. The Educative Process, Chap. III. 
 
 42. Advance report codification committee N. A. C. S. 1916. 
 
 43. U. S. Bureau of Education, bul. 37, 1916. 
 
 44. N. S. P. I. E. bul. 11. 
 
 45. Wilson H. B. and G. W. Motivation in School Work. 
 
 46. Russell, J. E. German Higher Schools. 
 
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