/ 
 
The Early Teaching of History 
 
 in the 
 
 Secondary Schools of New York 
 and Massachusetts 
 
 WILLIAM F. RUSSELL, Ph.D. 
 
 Associate Professor of Secondary Education, George Peabody College for Teachers, 
 
 Nashville, Tennessee 
 
 / 
 
 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements 
 for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty of Philosophy, 
 
 Columbia University 
 
 Reprinted from "The History Teacher's Magazine," 
 Vol. V, pp. 203-208, 311-318 Vol. VI, pp. 14-19, 44-52, 122-125 
 
 \ 
 
 / Philadelphia 
 
 McKlNLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 1915 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
Copyiig 
 
 .H. .9.4. 19.5, ..McKin,eyPubUsU.n, company 
 
 it 
 
 rffs 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 V 
 
 \ 
 
Tiilbllcg ®{! C®isift(ii5ift§ 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction 5 
 
 Chapter I. The Entkance of History Into the Curriculum of the Secondary School 6 
 
 A. Conditions at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century 6 
 
 B. How History Entered the Curriculum of tlie Massachusetts Secondary School 7 
 
 C. How History Entered the Cin'riculum of the New York Secondary Schools . . 8 
 
 D. Scattered References to History in the Ciu'ricula of the Secondary Schools of 
 
 the United States 10 
 
 E. Summary of Historical Text-books Published Before 18(i0 11 
 
 F. History in the College Entrance Requirements 12 
 
 G. History in the Earij- Normal Schools 12 
 
 H. Conclusion 12 
 
 Chapter II. Why History Came Into the Curriculum of the Secondary Schools . . 13 
 
 A. Moral Training 13 
 
 B. Provision for the Leisure Period 14 
 
 C. Religious Training 14 
 
 D. Patriotism 15 
 
 E. To Overcome International Prejudice 16 
 
 F. Training for Citizenship lU 
 
 G. Discipline 17 
 
 H. Conclusion 18 
 
 Chapter HI. Early Methods in the Teaching of History in the Secondary Schools 19 
 
 A. General Methods in Use 19 
 
 1. Lecture Method 19 
 
 2. The Text-book Methods 20 
 
 a. Rote Work 20 
 
 b. Modified Forms of Rote Work 21 
 
 c. No Rote Work 22 
 
 d. The Catechetical Method 23 
 
 B. Teaching Devices and Objective Aids 24 
 
 1. Teaching Devices 24 
 
 a. Review Questions 24 
 
 b. Topical Outlines 25 
 
 c. Reference Reading 26 
 
 d. Notebook Work 26 
 
 2. Objective Aids 28 
 
 a. Map Work 26 
 
 b. Blackboard XA'ork 26 
 
 c. Oiarts 27 
 
 C. The Progress of History Methods as Shown in Six Editions of C. A. Good- 
 
 rich's '■ History of the United States " 27 
 
 D. Exceptional Cases of Early Methods Judged in the Light of Modern Standards 28 
 
 1. Provision for Motive on the Part of the Pupils 29 
 
 2. Consideration of Values on the Part of the Pupils 29 
 
 3. Attention to Organization on the Part of the Pupils 30 
 
 4. Provision for Initiative on the Part of the Pupils 31 
 
 E. Conclusion 31 
 
 Appendix. List of Early Text-books Published Before 1860 32 
 
 X 
 
©(QiniKGitn® 
 
 ' S a differentiated subject in the secondary schools of the 
 United States, history has been believed to be of compara- 
 tively recent origin ; and its present popularity has been 
 attributed to the last twenty-five years. "The recognition 
 of the value of history for high school pupils," says Chase, "has come 
 practically within the last quarter century. Before 1892, history had 
 not been generally adopted as a high school study, though general 
 history, American history, ancient history and occasionally English 
 history were all variously included in some high school courses of study 
 and in many college entrance requirements." ' Bourne is substantially 
 of the same opinion. "Earlier than 1880," he says, "American History 
 was taught in the seventh and eighth grades of the grammar schools, 
 and in the high schools and academies there was a little English or 
 general history for pupils whose life was to end with the secondary 
 schools, and some Greek and Roman history for those who were 
 preparing for college. Occasionally, there was a programme that 
 showed a more intelligent conception of the subject, but they were so 
 rare as to be without significance. Frequently there was less rather 
 than more time given to the subject."" Such belief is justified, when 
 applied to the United States as a whole. 
 
 There are certain sections of the country, however, where history 
 was early introduced as a separate subject, and where it rapidly 
 assumed an important place in the curriculum. The early rise of 
 history in the curricula of the secondary schools of New York and 
 Massachusetts is not " without significance." On the contrary, there 
 was developed in this countiy before the Civil War a great mass of 
 tradition, the perpetuation of which forms an important element in the 
 history teaching of to-day. 
 
 The following small study is offered, therefore, as an historical 
 approach to the problems of teaching history in the high school. It 
 forms only a portion of a larger study which is under way. 
 
 The author is indebted to Dr. Julius Sachs, Dr. Henry Johnson, 
 Dr. John Angus MacVannel, Dr. Henry Suzzallo, Dr. William H. 
 Kilpatrick, and Dr. Paul Monroe for reading the manuscript and 
 making suggestions. 
 
 'Johnston, Sigh School Education, p. 291. 
 ^Bourne, The Teaching of History and Civics, p. 59. 
 
CHAPTER I 
 
 
 A. The Conditions at the Beginning of the Nine- 
 teenth Century. 
 In the thirteenth and twenty-sixth volumes of his 
 " Journal," Henry Barnard published a series of let- 
 ters from individuals who had received their educa- 
 tion during the later years of the eighteenth and the 
 early years of the nineteenth centuries, the purpose 
 of which was to reveal the educational situation of 
 the day. Almost no history is mentioned. " When I 
 was young," said Noah Webster, " the books used 
 were chiefly or wholly Dilworth's Spelling Books, 
 the Psalter, Testament and Bible. No geography 
 was studied before the publication of Dr. Morse's 
 small books on that subject about the year 1786 or 
 1787. No history was read so far as my knowledge 
 extends, for there was no abridged history of the 
 United States. Except the books above mentioned, 
 no book for reading was used until the publication 
 of the third part of my institute in 1785. In some of 
 the early editions of that book, I instituted short 
 notices of the geography and history of the United 
 States, and these led to more enlarged descriptions 
 of the country. In 1788, at the request of Dr. 
 Morse, I wrote an account of the transactions of the 
 United States after the Revolution, which account 
 fills nearly twenty pages in the first volume of liis 
 octavo editions." ' 
 
 Henry K. Oliver spoke of the same period as 
 follows : 
 
 "There were no schools systematically graded; there 
 were no blackboards; there were no globes or other ordi- 
 nary school apparatus in the schools I attended. I never 
 saw a full sized map, nor illustrative picture of any sort 
 suspended against the school walls. . . . The gerund grind- 
 ing method of which I have spoken, was pursued also at 
 Phillips Academy at Andover and at the Boston Latin 
 School, both of which I attended between 1811 and 1814 
 when I entered college. From my Latin grammar I pro- 
 ceeded to the Colloquies of Corderius, a book now forgot- 
 ten, though not by me. Thence I went to Virgil, Cicero 
 and Sallust; translating, scanning, parsing, with unmiti- 
 gated drill, but with no more knowledge imparted of 
 Roman history, Roman life or Eoiiisn manners, than was 
 imparted to me of the manners and customs and language 
 of the Clioctaws." - 
 
 Dr. Town found no history in Belchertown, Massa- 
 chusetts ; " Joshua Ewing reported nothing but Latin 
 and Greek at Phillips Exeter;* Dr. DarHngton was 
 taught no history in southeastern Pennsylvania." No 
 mention is made of history in Watson's "Annals of 
 Philadelphia and Pennsylvania." " William B. Fowle 
 was not taught history in Boston.'' 
 
 1 "American Journal of Education," Vol XXVI, pp. 195-6. 
 
 2 Ibid. Vol. XXVI, p. 217. 
 
 3 Ibid, Vol. XIII, pp. 737-8. 
 i Ibid, Vol. XITI, p. 740. 
 slliid. Vol. XIII, pp. 741 3. 
 
 — In his educational survey of 1806, Noah Webster 
 found " science with laboratory work," geography, 
 higher mathematics, modern languages, and even 
 " needlework, drawing, and embroidery," but of his- 
 tory he makes no mention." 
 
 It is not just to assume, however, that no history 
 was taught. When Lewis Cass left Exeter in 1799, 
 it was said that he had made very valuable progress 
 in the study of " Rhetoric, History, Natural and 
 Moral Philosophy, Logic, Astronomy, and Natural 
 Law." " The Episcopal Academy, of Philadelphia, 
 is said to have included history in its curriculum in 
 1796.'" 
 
 History, where taught, was generally included 
 within the Latin or geography or reading. The cur- 
 riculum of the Boston Latin School for October 15, 
 1789, shows that King's " History of the Heathen 
 Gods " was included in a course on the " Making of 
 Latin." A considerable amount of historical 
 material must have accompanied work in the classics, 
 and under the guidance of an inspiring master excel- 
 lent results may have been obtained. All, however, 
 must have depended upon the teacher's enthusiasm 
 and his versatility. With the geographies, as shown 
 above by Mr. Webster, a deal of historical material 
 was often included. Seven per cent, of all the texts 
 published between 1800 and I860, collected and 
 accessible, at present, have geographical titles as 
 well. John Davis, an itinerant English school- 
 master, speaks of his experience in teaching 
 geography in Virginia in the following way: 
 
 " The most important knowledge to an American, after 
 that of himself, is the geography of the country. I, there- 
 fore, put in the hands of my boys a proper book, and ini- 
 tiated them by attentive reading of the discoveries of the 
 Genoese. I was even so minute as to impress upon their 
 minds the man who first descried land on board the ship 
 of Columbus. That man was Roderic Triana, and on my 
 exercising the memory of a boy by asking him the name, 
 he very gravely made answer, Roderic Random." n 
 
 Historical material was often included in the read- 
 ers, occasionally used in the secondary schools. Note 
 the following extract from the table of contents of 
 an early popular book of this sort: 
 
 On Profane Swearing 101 
 
 The Triumph of Virtue 102 
 
 Female Industry 104 
 
 The Lap-Dog .'. 105 
 
 Extract from Mr. Dawes' Oration 107 
 
 e Ibid, Vol. Xni, pp. 743-5. 
 
 7 " Massachusetts Common School Journal," Vol. XII, pp. 
 311-2. 
 
 * " American Joiu-nal of Education," Vol. XXVI, pp. 
 200-4. 
 
 8, 10 E. E. Brown : " The Making of Our Middle Schools," 
 p. 249. 
 
 ""American Journal of Education," Vol. XIII, p. 749. 
 
 6 
 
General Washington's Resignation 108 
 
 Speech of a Scythian Ambassador 109 
 
 The Revenge of a Great Soul 110 
 
 Cudjoe, the Faithful African 112 
 
 The African Chief 113 
 
 Mercury and a Modern Fine Lady 115 
 
 Speech of Publius S'cipio 117 
 
 Speech of Hannibal 119 
 
 Speech of Mr. Walpole 129 
 
 Speech of Mr. Pitt 131 
 
 History of Pocahontas 148 
 
 General Wolfe's Address to Hia Ai-my.... 21412 
 
 A list of historical texts, comprising the collection 
 made by Henry Barnard, with certain additions, is 
 given in the Appendix. This libt (see page 32), 
 furnishing an indication of text-book publication, 
 gives evidence of the growing popularity of history. 
 
 From this list we find published between 1799 
 and 181-1), seventeen history texts which eventually 
 ran into at least eighty-five editions. There were 
 three texts in United States history, eight in general 
 history, four in ancient history, two in English his- 
 tory and one in ecclesiastical history. This, as a 
 minimum number, indicates a beginning of text-book 
 activity. 
 
 To summarize, in the early years of the nineteenth 
 century such history as was taught was usually in- 
 cluded with the classics, geography, or reading, par- 
 ticularly with the declamation work. Where it was 
 found as a dififerentiated subject, it was as a rule 
 either a course in " Roman Antiquities " or a very 
 general sort of " General History," beginning with 
 Adam and Eve.^' 
 
 12 Caleb Bingham: "The American Preceptor; being a 
 new Selection of Lessons for Reading and Speaking de- 
 signed for the use of schools." Boston, 1807. 32d edition. 
 
 13 Note the table of contents, part one, of Caleb Bing- 
 ham: "A Historical Grammar or a Chronological Abridge- 
 ment of Universal History," to which is added an Abridged 
 Chronology of the most remarkable inventions relative to 
 the Arts and Sciences, etc. Designed principally for the 
 use of Schools and Academies. Boston, 1808. 
 
 Contents. 
 General Principles of History. 
 Part I. 
 First Period. 
 From the Creation of the World to the Deluge, 1650 
 Years. Second Period. 
 
 From the Deluge to the Calling of Abraham, 366 Years. 
 
 Third Period. 
 From the Calling of Abraham to the Law Given by Moses, 
 431 Years, Fourth Period. 
 
 From the Law Given by Moses to the Taking of Troy, 
 347 Years. jpgffj^ Period. 
 
 From the Taking of Troy to the Building of the Temple 
 by Solomon, 192 Years, 
 
 Sixtli Period. 
 From the Building of the Temple of Jerusalem to the 
 Foundation of Rome, 239 Years. 
 
 Seventh Period. 
 From the Foimdation of Rome Till the Beginning of the 
 Reign of Cyrus, 192 Years. 
 
 Eighth Period. 
 From Cyrus, First King of the Persians, to the Birth of 
 Jesus Christ, 560 Years. 
 
 B. How History Entered the Curricula of the 
 Massachusetts Secondary Schools. 
 
 The Boston Latin School introduced history as a 
 differentiated subject in ISll." While Gould was 
 headmaster, Valpy's " Chronology of Ancient and 
 English History " was used in the second year.^' 
 The course of study of the advanced class of the 
 classical department of the Phillips Academy at 
 Exeter included in 1818 "elements of ancient his- 
 tory." " Modern History with special reference to 
 the United States," together with ancient history, 
 were at the same time added to the English course. 
 The English Classical High School, founded in Bos- 
 ton in 1821, provided "Ancient and Modern History 
 and Chronology " in the second year, and " History, 
 particularly that of the United States," in the third 
 year. Goodrich's " History of the United States " 
 and Tytler's " Elements of General History " were 
 the books used. Pittsfield Academy adopted history 
 in 1822. Leicester Academy used Whelpley's " Com- 
 pend of History " in 1821. The Boston Latin School 
 taught " History and Chronology, Constitution of the 
 United States and Massachusetts" in 1826; and in 
 the same year, the Girls' High School put " History 
 of the United States " in the first year, " General 
 History " and " History of England " in the second, 
 and " History of Greece and Rome " in the third. ^'' 
 
 Of all the texts and editions of texts published 
 during this period, 1814-1827 (see appendix), over 
 one-fourth (fourteen texts and thirty-three editions) 
 came from Massachusetts. 
 
 The famous law of 1827 gave history an important 
 place in the high schools. It provided that: 
 
 "... every city, town or district, containing over five 
 hundred families, or householders, shall be provided with 
 such teacher or teachers for such term of time as shall be 
 equivalent to twenty-four months, for one school In each 
 year, and shall also be provided with a master of good 
 morals, competent to instruct, in addition to the branches 
 of learning aforesaid (i.e., orthography, reading and writ- 
 ing, English grammar, geography, artithmetic and good 
 behavior), the history of the United States, bookkeeping by 
 single entry, geometry, surveying, and algebra, . . . and 
 in every city, town, or district containing four thousand 
 inhabitants, such master shall be competent in addition 
 to all the aforegoing branches, to instruct the Latin and 
 Greek languages, history, rhetoric and logic," i' 
 
 The most important provisions of this law were 
 not in force from 1840 to 1848 and from 1850 to 
 1857. It nevertheless has great significance for our 
 purposes. It shows that history had demonstrated its 
 importance by 1827. It was the basis of reports as 
 to studies pursued in the high schools during subse- 
 quent years. Three such high schools were estab- 
 lished by 1820, eighteen by 1840, forty-seven by 
 1850, and one hundred and two by 1860. 
 
 No complete high school returns are available, but 
 the School Returns of Massachusetts from 1837 to 
 
 1* E. E. Brown : " The Making of Our Middle Schools,"^ 
 277. 
 
 15 Ibid, p. 232. 
 
 18 A. J. Inglis: "The Rise of the High School in Massa- 
 chusetts," pp. 138 and 301. 
 
 " Quoted from A. J, Inglis, op. eit., p, 28, From " Laws 
 of Massachusetts," January Session, 1827. Chapter CXLIIT, 
 Sections 1, 19, 21. 
 
1841 show the courses offered in all the schools of the 
 State which returned reports. This gives an indica- 
 tion of the status of history. 
 
 Table I 
 Towns Claiming to Offer Subjects, 1837-18^1 " 
 
 1834 1837 1838-9 1839-40 1840-1 
 
 Towns Reporting ... 261 294 298 301 304 
 
 U. S. History 64 209 177 178 167 
 
 Other History 29 94 78 93 62 
 
 Algebra 3 84 69 93 104 
 
 Latin 3 4 11 21 16 
 
 Natural Pliilosophy . 24 66 150 170 181 
 
 The fluctuations in the statistics from year to year 
 correspond with the changes in the statutes. His- 
 tory compared favorably with the other subjects of 
 the time. 
 
 By 1861 history held an important place in the 
 curriculum. Of sixty-three high schools reporting at 
 that date, fifty taught " General History," thirty-nine 
 " History of the United States," twenty-three "An- 
 cient History," sixteen " Modern History," thirteen 
 " English History," four " Mediaeval History," two 
 " French History," one " History of Massachusetts," 
 and one " History of Connecticut." All of these 
 schools taught algebra and Latin. 
 
 Not only was history included in the curriculum 
 by many high schools, but pupils elected it freely. 
 
 In 1842, Horace Mnnn made a survey of the pupils 
 enrolled in the various courses. He reported as 
 follows: 
 
 " During the last year I have obtained returns from 
 almost every Public School in the State, respecting the 
 number of scholars wlio are engaged in studies above the 
 elementary or statutory course prescribed for the lowest 
 grade of ovu' schools. The result is as follows: lo 
 
 Scholars studying History of the United States.... 10,177 
 
 Scholars studying General History 2,571 
 
 Scholars studying Algebra 2,333 
 
 Scholars studying Bookkeeping 1,472 
 
 Scholars studj'ing Latin 858 
 
 Scholars studying Rhetoric 601 
 
 Scholars studj'ing Geometry 463 
 
 Scholars studying Human Physiology 416 
 
 Scholars studying Logic 330 
 
 Scholars studying Surveying 249 
 
 Scholars studying Greek 183 
 
 Such data describing the condition in the State as 
 a whole, are especially significant when it is consid- 
 ered that the law of 1827 was not in effect at the 
 time. 
 
 Of 247 pupils in tlic high school at Northampton 
 in 1837, 89 elected history, with 56 in astronomy and 
 45 in Latin as the next most popular subject. Simi- 
 larly in Haverhill, in 1842, of 72 students, 26 took 
 history, 17 Latin aud 14 algebra. Of the 213 stu- 
 dents attending the high school in Worcester in 1846, 
 96 took Latin, 70 history and 38 algebra. Lowell, 
 in 1847, showed of 185 students, 87 in Latin classes, 
 70 in bookkeeping, and 50 in history. In the high 
 school at Newburyport, in the same year, 126 out of 
 207 pupils studied history, with 72 in natural 
 
 IS A, J. Inglis, op. cit., p. 75. 
 
 i» Massachusetts : " Sixth Annual Report of the Board of 
 Education," 1843, p. 55. 
 
 philosophy and 49 in algebra. The following table 
 is an expression of these data in percentages: 
 Table II ""> 
 
 Percentages of Total Enrollment in Classes in 
 History 
 
 Northampton, 1837 32.5% 
 
 Haverhill, 1842-3 35.1% 
 
 Worcester, 1846 32.9% 
 
 Lowell, 1847 27.0% 
 
 Newburyport, 1847 60.9% 
 
 These are, to be sure, but scattered instances. No 
 complete figures are available. In estimating the 
 relative popularity of certain high school subjects in 
 1850 and 1860, Dr. Inglis studied certain groups of 
 schools, the statistics for which are available. Inas- 
 much as the total enrollment is often omitted, he has 
 taken algebra as a base, and compared with it the 
 relative attendance upon other subjects. The fol- 
 lowing table is an excerpt from his results: 
 Table III" 
 
 Ware (1880-1) Roxbury (1850) Plymouth (1850) Lynn (1860) 
 Marblehead (1850) LoweU(1851) 
 
 Springfield (1860) Haverhill (1860) Randolph (1860) Lynn (1860) 
 Danvera (1860) Millbury (1860) Plymouth (1861) 
 
 Subject: 1850 1860 
 
 Algebra 100 100 
 
 History 141 200 
 
 Natural Philosophy 194 81 
 
 Latin 139 167 
 
 In Springfield High School the enrollment in his- 
 tory classes for the years 1855 to 1861 comprised 
 71.4 per cent, of the entire student body. 
 
 History, therefore, entered the curriculum of the 
 secondary schools of Massachusetts early in the 
 nineteenth century. Through legislative enactment 
 it gained a firm hold, and by the time of the Civil War 
 had become a portion of the " core " of the curri- 
 culum. 
 
 C. Hozc History Entered the Curriculum of the 
 Secondary Schools of New York."^ 
 
 On May 2, 1791, Erasmus Hall Academy received 
 as a portion of its share of books from the Regents 
 of the University of New York, the following his- 
 torical works : "^ 
 
 Roberts' "America," 3 vols. 
 
 Roberts' " Charles V," 4 vols. 
 
 Hume's " England," 8 vols. 
 
 Ramsay's "American War," 2 vols. 
 
 Rollins' "Ancient History," 10 vols. 
 
 Voltaire's " Universal History," 4 vols. 
 
 " History of New York." 
 
 Gordon's "American War." 
 
 =0 A. J. Inglis, op. cit., p. 88. 
 
 21 A. J. Inglis, op. cit, pp. 89-90. 
 
 22 The materials for this investigation are gathered 
 largely from the " Reports of the Regents of the University 
 to the Senate of the State of New York." Prior to 1802 
 these appear in the Journals of the Assembly. From 1802 
 to 1818 they are included in the Journals of the Senate. 
 From 1819 to 1824 adequate reports are missing. Follow- 
 ing the year 1825 separate publications were made, which 
 are easily available. 
 
 23 Willis Boughton: "Erasmus Hall," Teachers' College, 
 1902, pp. 26-7. It will be noted that frequently in early 
 references to texts that inaccuracies exist in spelling. For 
 instance, Roberts' " CJharles V," probably refers to Robert- 
 son's " Charles V." 
 
With such books in the school library, some work 
 in history must have been pursued. Yet no mention 
 is made of differentiated work in the reports. For 
 instance, in 1802 the report for Erasmus Hall is as 
 follows : 
 
 "... the whole number of pupila is eighty-eight, of 
 whom fifty-four are lads and young gentlemen, and thirty- 
 four are girls. Of the former, thirty-four are engaged in 
 the study of languages, the practical branches of mathe- 
 matics, geography and English grammar, the rest are 
 employed in studies of an inferior and preparatory 
 nature." 23* 
 
 The second early indication of historical study in 
 the New York Academies comes from Dr. Thomas 
 Hun, who incidentally remarked that he had used 
 Adams' " Roman Antiquities " when he attended 
 Albany Academy in 1818."* Yet for the same year 
 the complete report as to studies pursued was : 
 
 Total Number of Students 2,381 
 
 Reading and Writing 821 
 
 Knglish Grammar and Geography 823 
 
 Mathematics 264 
 
 Latin and Greek 503 
 
 Logic and Belles Lettres 114 
 
 Moral Philosophy 21 ' 
 
 Natural Philosophy 22 
 
 Modern Foreign Languages 19 25 
 
 Since indications of historical work are in evidence, 
 and since no direct mention is made in the early re- 
 ports, the history taught was probably included 
 within the reading, geography, or the classic lan- 
 guages. 
 
 In 1825, eleven out of the thirty-three academies 
 reported work in " history." Following that date 
 the number of schools to adopt the new subject con- 
 stantly increased, differentiations within the field 
 itself were gradually introduced, and, although there 
 was no State law to compel adoption, the development 
 was simultaneous with that of Massachusetts. 
 
 The progress of thirty-five years is shown in the 
 following table: 
 
 Table IV -" 
 
 four hundred and seventy-three courses were offered 
 in 1860, practically five for every two schools. 
 
 The progress of differentiation of courses, and in 
 introduction of new types of history, indicated above, 
 is further analyzed in Table V. 
 
 Table V 
 
 Variety of History Courses Offered in New York 
 
 Academies, 1825-1860 
 
 Number 
 
 of Types * o 
 
 f History Taught, 
 
 1S25-1860 
 
 
 
 Schools 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Teaching 
 
 
 Types per 
 
 Date 
 
 Schools 
 
 History 
 
 Types 
 
 School 
 
 1825 . 
 
 33 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 0.33 
 
 1826 . 
 
 33 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 0.48 
 
 1827 . 
 
 43 
 
 37 
 
 51 
 
 1.18 
 
 1830 . 
 
 56 
 
 48 
 
 86 
 
 1.54 
 
 1832 . 
 
 62 
 
 48 
 
 87 
 
 1.40 
 
 1834 . 
 
 63 
 
 62 
 
 151 
 
 2.40 
 
 1847 . 
 
 155 
 
 141 
 
 287 
 
 1.80 
 
 1860 . 
 
 192 
 
 178 
 
 473 
 
 2.46 
 
 The number of academies increased 600 per cent. 
 in thirty-five years. Eleven schools offered work in 
 history in 1825, one hundred and seventy-eight in 
 1860. Eleven separate courses of history were given 
 in 1825, an average of one in every three schools; 
 
 23a New York : " Report of the Regents of the University 
 to the Senate of New York," State Senate Journal, Session 
 25, 1802, pp. 112-14. 
 
 2* D. Mm-ray : " History of Education in New Jersey," p. 
 54. 
 
 25 New York: op. cit, Session 41, 1818, p. 320. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >• 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 -1^ 
 
 —4 
 
 [O 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 aS 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 =■2 
 
 ■s 
 a 
 •< 
 
 G> 
 
 a 
 
 03 
 
 g<1 
 
 s5 
 
 s£ 
 
 3«j 
 
 ■A 
 
 4SS5 
 
 S a 
 
 .2W 
 
 S 
 
 Q 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 M 
 
 u 
 
 w 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 W 
 
 o 
 
 1825 .. 
 
 . . 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1826 .. 
 
 .. 14 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1827 .. 
 
 .. 36 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1830 .. 
 
 .. 44 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1832 .. 
 
 .. 38 
 
 34 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1834 .. 
 
 .. 63 
 
 45 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1847 .. 
 
 . . 122 
 
 98 
 
 18 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 1860 .. 
 
 . . 121 
 
 164 
 
 73 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 History first entered the curriculum of the New 
 York academies at an unknown date, probably before 
 
 1825, although not so reported. In the first reports 
 it is merely called "history." In 1826, work in 
 " Constitution of New York and of the United 
 States " was instituted in Utica Academy. In 1827, 
 "United States History " and " Roman Antiquities " 
 were reported. In 1832, "Chronology" was added. 
 In 183-i, "Biblical Antiquities," "History of New 
 York " and " Greek Antiquities " were included. 
 " English History " and " Ecclesiastical History " 
 were taught by 1847. 
 
 New schools were constantly being founded, which 
 at first were poor in resources, with narrow curricula 
 and few students. These institutions, of compara- 
 tively small importance, have undue weight in the 
 treatment above. The tables, as given, show gross 
 totals, but they do not indicate the actual influence 
 on the pupils. A small school without history, coun- 
 terbalances a large school with history. 
 
 The statistics in regard to the exact enrollment of 
 the history classes are not available. The reports 
 give only the courses offered, and the total attend- 
 ance at each school. To approximate the situation, 
 we must use these data as best we may. 
 
 It is possible to isolate those schools which offered 
 no history at a given date, determine their enroll- 
 ment, and arrive at the number of pupils who at- 
 tended schools where no history was taught. 
 Through similar calculation the number of pupils 
 who attended schools where history was offered can 
 be secured. Such an analysis, expressed in per- 
 centages, is given in Table VI. 
 
 28 For pwposes of simplification of data the 39th, 40th, 
 41st, 44th, 46th, 48th, 61st and 74th Annual Reports of the 
 Regents were selected. These deal with the years 1825, 
 
 1826, 1827, 1830, 1832, 1834, 1847 and 1860. 
 
 * Type in this connection means a type of history taught. 
 For instance, a school teaching general, American and 
 English history would be counted as giving three types. 
 " Subdivision " or " branch " would do nearly as well. There 
 seems to be no word expressing this idea. 
 
Table VI 
 
 Percentages of Pupils Attending Schools Where 
 History Was Taught 
 
 History History 
 
 Taught Not Taught 
 
 1825 38.80% 61.20% 
 
 1826 48.00% 52.00% 
 
 1827 91.75% 8.25% 
 
 1830 88.30% 11.70% 
 
 1832 86.03% 13.37% 
 
 1834 99.40% 0.60% 
 
 1847 94.30% 5.70% 
 
 1850 95.00% 5.00% 
 
 Thirty-eight and eight-tenths per cent, of all the 
 academy students in regular attendance in New York 
 State in 1825 attended schools in which history was 
 taught. In 1860 95.0 per cent, attended such schools. 
 Consequently, in 1825, 61 per cent, of all secondary 
 school pupils could not have taken history in school. 
 By 1860 only 5 per cent, could be so classed. 
 
 A further analysis is possible. Treating the 
 material in a similar way, the number of pupils may 
 be determined, who attended schools where " general 
 history " or " United States History " in any special 
 branch was given. Such an analysis appears in 
 Table VII, and gives an indication of the importance 
 of the various types of history taught. 
 
 Table VII 
 
 Percentages of Pupils Attending Schools Where 
 Various Branches of History Were Taught 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 of Pupils 
 
 
 
 Approximate Number 
 
 About 12% 
 
 or 
 
 140 
 
 pupils out 
 
 of 
 
 1,172. 
 
 (Average No.) 
 
 About 16% 
 
 or 
 
 839 
 
 pupils out 
 
 of 
 
 2,120. 
 
 (No. for 6 months) 
 
 About 30% 
 
 or- 
 
 388 
 
 pupils out 
 
 of 
 
 1,292. 
 
 (No. for 6 months) 
 
 About 29% 
 
 or 
 
 614 
 
 pupils out 
 
 of 
 
 2,118. 
 
 (No. for 4 months) 
 
 About 28% 
 
 or 
 
 768 
 
 pupils out 
 
 of 
 
 2,742. 
 
 (No. for 4 months) 
 
 About 33% 
 
 or 
 
 1,214 
 
 pupils out 
 
 of 
 
 3,079. 
 
 (No. for 4 months) 
 
 About 32% 
 
 or 
 
 4,430 
 
 pupils out 
 
 of 
 
 13.863. 
 
 (No. for 4 months) 
 
 About 32% 
 
 or 
 
 7,221 
 
 pupils out 
 
 of 
 
 22,567. 
 
 (No. for 4 montlis.) 
 
 Table VIII 
 Approximate Number of Pupils Studying History, 
 1825-1860, Supposing that New York Pupils 
 Elected History as Freely as in Massachusetts, 
 
 18S7-1847 
 
 Date 
 1825. 
 1826. 
 1827. 
 1830. 
 1832. 
 1834. 
 1847. 
 1860. 
 
 These statistics are only suggestive. They are 
 cited, in the absence of the exact data, as indicative 
 of the conditions of the times. 
 
 In the 48th, 61st and 7iih Reports of the Regents 
 of the University to the Senate of New York State, 
 are included lists of the various text-books in use in 
 the several schools. Such a list gives another ap- 
 proach to the determination of the progress in the 
 introduction of history. A brief summary of the 
 reports is given in Table IX. 
 
 Table IX 
 
 Number of Texts Used in Schools in New York in 
 Various Branches, 1SS4, 184? and 1860 
 
 General Subject Used in 1834 1847 1860 
 
 Constitution, Government, Law ... 14 30 45 
 
 General History 65 169 163 
 
 United States History 58 101 177 
 
 English History ' 12 • 
 
 History of New York 1 
 
 Roman Antiquities 14 18 75 
 
 Greek Antiquities 11 65 
 
 Ecclesiastical History 4 * 
 
 
 
 
 & a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ B 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Oi 
 
 -a 
 
 
 
 <)> 
 
 
 
 
 <D 
 
 <0 
 
 3b 
 
 X o 
 
 'a 
 
 .sg 
 
 3§ 
 
 .1-2 
 
 "rt 
 
 '3 
 
 
 •2 
 
 V- 
 
 r-i* 
 
 c 
 
 '3 
 
 
 
 « fl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 .t^M 
 
 'a< 
 
 ss 
 
 3 
 
 < 
 
 t; 
 
 ■S!5 
 
 %^ 
 
 S<! 
 
 152 
 
 345 
 
 525 
 
 1825 
 
 el!* 
 
 3<j<; 
 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 62^ 
 
 48^ 
 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 8r. 
 
 5G< 
 
 35f, 
 
 6< 
 
 8.2* 
 
 1830 
 
 12^ 
 
 83iJ 
 
 Cl!< 
 
 16;-. 
 
 17* 
 
 1832 
 
 13* 
 
 ee-s 
 
 67!* 
 
 11^ 
 
 27* 
 
 1834 
 
 .eji 
 
 99;t 
 
 7l!« 
 
 36* 
 
 41* 
 
 1847 
 
 7,7i4 
 
 85;* 
 
 70i« 
 
 14JS 
 
 26* 
 
 1860 
 
 5.0/. 
 
 71f, 
 
 .SS'i 
 
 35* 
 
 24* 
 
 2* 
 6* 
 
 6* 
 
 3* 
 
 13* 
 
 30* 
 
 Table VI and Table VII reveal more closely the 
 actual situation of the time. The growing im- 
 portance of United States History as compared with 
 general history, hidden on the earlier tables, is now 
 clearly revealed. 
 
 It is impossible to determine the exact proportion 
 of these pupils who actually attended history classes. 
 The data are not available. In Massachusetts, at the 
 same time. Dr. Inglis found that of 951 pupils in five 
 high schools, 361 actually elected history. This is 
 37.9 per cent. Were we to assume a similar election 
 by one-third of the pupils in the New York Acad- 
 emies, the result would be represented as in Table 
 VIII. 
 
 The prevalence of the text-book method and added 
 confirmation of work in history are brought to light 
 in this table. In 62 schools teaching history in 1834<, 
 152 text-books were used, an average of 2.5 texts per 
 school. In 1847, in I'll schools teaching history, 345 
 selections of texts were made, an average of 2.4 
 different texts per school. In I860, 178 schools se- 
 lected 525 texts, or an average of 2.9 per school. 
 
 This study of the early progress of history in the 
 New York schools of secondary grade is a summary 
 of the available statistics upon the subject. It deals, 
 not with a few scattered schools, but with a great 
 state as a whole. 
 
 In thirty-five years, history had advanced from an 
 insignificant place, as an unimportant concomitant 
 of geography and Latin, to an independent place in 
 the curriculum in many schools. 
 
 D. Scattered References to History in the Curricu- 
 lum of Secondary Schools of the United States. 
 
 The School Commission of Vermont recommended 
 Goodrich, Hale, Wlielpley and other United States 
 history texts for schools in the year 1828."' Warren 
 
 •Not specifically reported in 1860, but probably taught. 
 
 27 C. A. Jacquith, " The Development of History Teaching 
 in the United States up to the Civil War," p. 22. Univer- 
 sity of Chicago. 
 
 10 
 
Academy, in Rhode Island, taught history in ISS*.^' 
 Superintendent Pierce, of Michigan, reported in 
 1836, as follows:-" 
 
 " It is important that the rising generation be well in- 
 structed in the history of their own country; those who are 
 to be our future guardians of our free government should 
 be made acquainted with the toil and suffering which it 
 cost to establish the liberties which they enjoy. In per- 
 petuating the example which our country offers to the 
 world, that man is capable of self-government, it is vitally 
 important that means should be afforded in the common 
 schools, in acquiring a sound knowledge of the principles 
 and acts of the revolution, of the cause and consequence of 
 independence. A history, every instance of which tends 
 to inspire a reverence for the institutions of our country, 
 ought to be familiar ' as household words ' to those on 
 whose intelligence and patriotism the future hopes of the 
 republic are based." (Hon. A. C. Flagg.) 
 
 In Pennsylvania, the conditions in the acadeniies 
 were rarely subjects of report. In the Fourth An- 
 nual Report of the Superintendent of Common 
 Schools, the curriculum of each of twenty academies 
 is given. Three make incomplete reports, sixteen 
 give no history, and Erie Academy alone reports his- 
 tory as a subject taught. This indicates that only 
 60 out of 1,188 secondary school pupils of Pennsyl- 
 vania attended schools where history was given as a 
 portion of the regular work in 1837.^" The super- 
 intendent also reports various texts as in use in the 
 schools. The small number and the crude spelling 
 indicate the unfamiliarity of such works to the people 
 of the time. 
 
 Table X 
 
 Number of Texts Used in Such Pennsylvania Dis- 
 tricts as Reported in 1837 
 
 Number 
 Texts Reported 
 
 Cobb's Spellers 319 
 
 English Readers 291 
 
 Pike's Arithmetic 133 
 
 Grimshaw's United States 32 
 
 ^Hale's 30 
 
 Goodrich's 14 
 
 Welby 8 
 
 America 2 
 
 Greece 1 
 
 Rome 1 
 
 Frost's 1 
 
 Parley's United States 1 
 
 Hume's History of England 1 
 
 Rollin's Ancient 1 
 
 The Central High School in Philadelphia opened 
 with "history" in its course in 1838.^^ Lancaster, 
 Pennsylvania, High School taught history in the 
 same year.^^ " Mrs. Roger A. Pryor studied Gold- 
 smith's Greece in a Southern Female Seminary in 
 1840." '- Smithfield Seminary taught history in 
 1845.'^ History began to be taught in Indiana be- 
 fore ISSO.^"^ The University Grammar School in 
 Providence gave history in 1851.'^ Hartford High 
 
 28 C. A. Jacquith, op. cit, p. 13. 
 
 20 Michigan, " Report of the Superintendent of Public 
 Instruction," 1837, pp. 16-17. 
 
 so Pennsylvania, "Fourth Annual Report of the Super- 
 intendent of Common Schools," pp. 71-8. 
 
 31 C. A. Jacquith, op. eit., p. 14. 
 
 32 C. A. Jacquith, op. cit., p. 13. 
 
 School had a four years' history course in 1853, " so 
 it probably entered the curriculum a number of years 
 before." ^^ General history was studied in Defiance, 
 Ohio, in 1853,^^ and when the Chicago High School 
 was opened in 1856, Weber's " Universal History " 
 was used.^^ 
 
 It seems highly probable that the interest in his- 
 tory came more slowly in the States other than 
 Massachusetts and New York. These instances give 
 just a little clue to the fragmentary condition of the 
 teaching of the subject. 
 
 E. Summary of Historical Text-books Published 
 Before 1860. 
 
 The text-book, from the earliest days of history 
 teaching in our secondary schools, has been the chief 
 source of material for work in the class-room. Were 
 there available a complete list of all text-books pub- 
 lished, with an accurate account of the number and 
 date of subsequent editions, there would be at hand 
 a reliable guide to the progress and popularity of the 
 subj ect. 
 
 The closest approximation to such a compilation 
 is the list given in Barnard's Journal, Volumes XIII, 
 XIV and XV. This list contains all the text-books 
 which Henry Barnard could account for published 
 prior to 1860. It is arranged alphabetically accord- 
 ing to the authors, and contains books of all subjects. 
 With this as a basis, C. A. Jacquith at the Univer- 
 sity of Chicago compiled a list of historical texts. 
 Another list was compiled by the author, working in- 
 dependently. The two lists were then compared, cor- 
 rected and certain additions made, where new texts or 
 new editions of old texts were found. 
 
 This list is given complete in the appendix, a sum- 
 mary of which is found in Table XI. 
 
 Table XI. 
 
 Summary of Texts Published or Used in the United 
 States Before 1860 
 
 The table reads as follows: Before 1801 there were 
 published two texts in United States history, which 
 eventualljr ran into three editions; five texts in Gen- 
 eral History, which eventually ran into nineteen edi- 
 tions, etc., etc. 
 
 Date U. S. General Ancient Engliah Misc. Total 
 
 
 OQ 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 so 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 • 
 
 'v. 
 
 5 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 -2 
 
 ^ 
 
 M 
 
 .2 
 
 S 
 W 
 
 .2 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 H 
 
 W 
 
 H 
 
 W 
 
 H 
 
 a 
 
 EH 
 
 Cd 
 
 5 19 1 1 1 1 9 24 
 
 7 21 2 3 11 30 
 
 3 13 30 6 41 
 
 48 
 
 2.5 122 
 
 Before 1801 
 1801 - 1810 
 1811 - 1820 
 
 1821 - 1830 20 111 18 42 13 29 2 2 5 6 58 190 
 1831 - 1840 19 59 15 69 3 3 2 2 2 2 41 136 
 1841-1850 23 45 20 31 16 42 4 5 9 11 72 134 
 1851 - 1860 24 26 23 38 19 33 12 14 II 14 89 126 
 
 Not dated 14 14 13 13 18 18 5 5 5 5 65 65 
 
 Total 
 
 107 267 114 263 78 170 28 76 
 
 360 816 
 
 In the original list each text is placed according to 
 the time of its publication, and under the same date, 
 the number of editions to which it subsequently ran. 
 The 815 editions of 360 texts shown above, there- 
 fore, represent only a fraction of the actual text- 
 
 book activity of the day. 
 
 11 
 
F. History in the College Entrance Requirements. 
 
 The college entrance requirements are a good indi- 
 cation of the contents of the curriculum of the second- 
 ary school. At the time of the adoption of the re- 
 quirement in a given subject, either there is sufficient 
 demand upon the part of the schools to compel its 
 inclusion, or there is a sufficiently high valuation 
 placed upon the subject by the college, to force the 
 secondary school to take it up. The first case indi- 
 cates popularity of the subject, the second points 
 to its immediate inclusion in the high school curri- 
 culum. In either case, the college entrance require- 
 ment reveals the curriculum of the high school. 
 
 In 1847 both Harvard and Michigan added his- 
 tory to their entrance requirements.^^ Harvard re- 
 quired the reading of Worcester's " Elements of His- 
 tory." Michigan wished " Grecian History to the 
 Time of Alexander the Great and Roman to the Time 
 of the Empire." ^^ Cornell added " History " in 
 1868, and Michigan " History of the United States " 
 in 1870, "due, doubtless," says Dr. Broome, "to 
 tlie feeling of patriotism at the close of the Civil 
 War." ^^ In 1869-70 the requirements at six repre- 
 sentative colleges were: Yale, Princeton and Colum- 
 bia, no history at all;^" Harvard, Smith's "Smaller 
 History of Greece " or Sewell's " History of 
 Greece;" Cornell, Roman History (the first half of 
 Smith's " Smaller History ") and Greek History (the 
 first ten chapters of Smith's " Smaller History ") ; ^' 
 and- Michigan, which required "An outline of Roman 
 History from the foundation of the city to the bat- 
 tle of Actium, of Grecian History from the begin- 
 ning of the Persian War to the death of Alexander, 
 and the History of the United States to the close of 
 the Revolutionary War." ^^ 
 
 Before the Civil War some slight recognition of 
 history had been made by the colleges. It came, 
 however, only after progress had been made in 
 Massachusetts and New York. 
 
 G. History in the Early Normal Schools. 
 
 The content of the curricula of the early normal 
 schools is only an indirect indication of conditions in 
 the high schools. The teachers were trained largely 
 for elementary work. The high school was not 
 directly influenced. History, however, was gener- 
 ally recognized as a necessary portion of the future 
 teacher's equipment. This points to a growing recog- 
 nition of its value. In 1834, the legislature of the 
 State of New York provided for classes for the 
 training of teachers in certain of the academies of 
 the State. History was considered of such im- 
 portance as to be i-equired as one of the twelve 
 studies.^''' " The history of the United States is so 
 essential," says the Report of the Regents, " that it 
 
 33 E. E. Bro\vii, op. cit., p. 232. 
 
 3*E. C. Broome: "A Historical and Critical Discussion of 
 College Entrance Reciuirements," p. 45. 
 
 36 Ibid, p. 45. 
 3«Ibid, pp. 49-50. 
 
 37 Ibid, p. 51. 
 3»Ibid, p. 51. 
 
 may justly be treated as a distinct branch of 
 study." *" The following books were recommended 
 for these classes : 
 
 Texts: 
 
 Irving's Columbus (abridged). 
 Goodrich's U. S. History (abridged). 
 Whelpley's General History. 
 Tytler's General History. 
 Worcester's General History. 
 
 Reference Books : 
 
 Irving's Life of Columbus. 
 8vo. Marshall's Washington. 
 Morse's America. 
 Bev. Botta's America. 
 Spark's American History. 
 
 In Massachusetts, in 1838, the first public normal 
 school was founded, and in the curriculum as reported 
 by Horace Mann, secretary of the Board of Educa- 
 tion, we find, " Constitution and History of Massa- 
 chusetts and of the United States " as one of the 
 twelve studies.*^ New York followed in 1844 with 
 a normal school in which provision was made for 
 " History and Reading alternately." '^ History was 
 one of seven departmental subjects in the normal 
 school which Philadelphia founded in 1848. " Re- 
 view of Geography and History of the United States, 
 and instruction in the History of America, with con- 
 temporaneous History of England " seemed to be 
 the plan of work of the department. ^^ Connecticut, 
 in 1849;" Michigan, in 1849;" Boston, in 1852;*' 
 Pennsylvania, in 1857; " Illinois, in 1858; " Wiscon- 
 sin, in 1867;" and Rhode Island, in 1871," all in- 
 clude work in history as a necessary portion of the 
 training of the teacher. Maryland Normal School, 
 alone, founded in 1865, seems to have given no place 
 to it." 
 
 H. Conclusion. 
 
 By the time of the Civil War, history had gained 
 an important place in the curriculum of the secondary 
 schools of New York and Massachusetts, the leading 
 States of the Union in educational matters. Some 
 form of history was taught in almost every secondary 
 school of each State. In Massachusetts we know 
 that pupils elected it freely. With small beginnings 
 during the early years of the century, rapid develop- 
 ment followed the " era of good feeling," and in the 
 thirty-five years following, history gained practically 
 its present standing, in the high schools and 
 academies. 
 
 The progress was not entirely confined to New 
 York and Ma'isachusetts. The evidence of the text- 
 books, of the normal schools, and of the college 
 entrance requirements, together with the scattered 
 instances given, indicate that slow progress was 
 being made everywhere. Certainly history had 
 heronic onfllcirntly common in curricula to indicate 
 that the following chapters are not a mere compila- 
 tion of exceptional cases. 
 
 39 United States, "Report of the Bureau of Education," 
 1888, I, pp. 226-9. 
 
 40 New York, op. cit., 1835, p. 95. 
 
 •" United States, op. cit., 1888. I. pp. 284-202. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 The original cause or set of causes which paved 
 the way for the entrance of history into the curricula 
 of our secondary schools cannot but be of value in 
 the consideration of modern aims ; and inasmuch as 
 teachers are slavish in their imitation of the past and 
 zealous in their transfer to new generations of the 
 ways and customs of their predecessors, it is impor- 
 tant to determine why history was once taught in 
 order to judge of our progress in present times. Ac- 
 cordingly there are presented here the results of a 
 study of early aims ; a study incomplete in its scope, 
 but accurate as far as the data examined prove. 
 
 The early advocates of the teaching of history 
 based their arguments upon a variety of grounds, and 
 great diversity existed almost at the start. There 
 was no serial development of aims, nor was there a 
 particular end at one period with progressive addi- 
 tions in following years. All the values which are 
 here considered were anticipated practically at the 
 beginning. An evolutionary treatment of the reasons 
 for the introduction of history into the curriculum 
 is therefore impossible. 
 
 In general, history came into the curriculum for 
 the purpose of moral training, to provide for the 
 leisure period, to give religious training, to inspire 
 patriotism, to obviate international prejudices, to 
 train for citizenship, and to provide discipline of the 
 mind. These classifications are made in an arbitrary 
 way, despite duplication and overlapping, for the 
 purpose of securing clarity and organization. 
 
 A. Moral Training. 
 
 There are numerous advocates of history who base 
 their arguments upon hopes of the moral training to 
 result. In his " Plan for an English School," 1743, 
 Benjamin Franklin said: ' 
 
 ■' For their further improvement and a little to vary 
 their studies, let them now begin to read history, after 
 having got by heart a short table of the principle epochag 
 in chronology. ♦ * * in remarking upon history, the 
 master will have fine opportunities for instilling instruction 
 of various kinds, and improving the morals as well as the 
 understanding of the youth." 2 
 
 Alexander F. Tytler expressed a similar purpose: 
 
 "The superior efficacy of example to precept is univer- 
 sally acknowledged. All laws of morality and rules of con- 
 duct are verified by experience and are constantly sub- 
 
 1 The sources of information are ( 1 ) , statements of men 
 prominent at the time; (2) reminiscences of men who were 
 trained at the time; (3) reports of principals; and (4) in- 
 troductions and " suggestions to teachers " in early text- 
 books. 
 
 2 J. Sparks, " Works of Benjamin Franklin," vol, II, pp. 
 128-9. 
 
 mitted to its test and examination. History, whicli adds 
 to our own experience an immense treasure of the experi- 
 ence of others, furnishes innumerable proofs, by which we 
 may verify all the precepts of morality and prudence." ^ 
 
 Morse and Parish recommended their "Compen- 
 dious History of New England " in 1809, because 
 
 ■' History has always been a persuasive method of in- 
 structing mankind. * * * she displays the felicity of 
 goodness, and the miseries of vice, imfolds the time when 
 many prophecies have been fulfilled and produces confidence 
 in those which remain. Examples of individuals great and 
 good, of communities distinguished for integrity and suc- 
 cess, powerfully persuade to an imitation of their vir- 
 tues." ■• 
 
 C. A. Goodrich, in the most popular of all early 
 history texts, suggested that 
 
 " History sets before us striking instances of virtue, en- 
 terprise, courage, generosity, patriotism, and, by a natural 
 principle of emulation, incites us to copy such noble exam- 
 ples. History also presents us with pictures of the vicious 
 ultimately overtaken by misery and shame, and thus sol- 
 emnly warns us against vice." ■> 
 
 Following each chapter in his text, Goodrich in- 
 dulges in a series of reflections, calculated to lead the 
 pupil to a consummation of the aim desired. Follow- 
 ing Columbus, for instance, he says: 
 
 " 'Wliile we admire the lofty character of Columbus and 
 look with wonder at the consequences which have resulted 
 from his discovery, let us emulate his decision, energy, and 
 perseverance. Many are the occasions in the present world 
 on which it will be important to summon these to our aid; 
 and by their means many useful objects may be accom- 
 plished, which, without them, would be unattained." « 
 
 Peter Parley (S. G. Goodrich) expressed the same 
 feeling: 
 
 " After posses.sing a knowledge of religion and the duties 
 we owe to God and our neighbor, history is the most im- 
 portant of all studies. It relates to us what has been done 
 by mankind, and thus teaches us what we may do. It ac- 
 quaints us with the true character of our race, and enables 
 us to know ourselves better. It apprizes us of the exist- 
 ence of evil and the way to shun it; it acquaints us with 
 the existence of good, and shows us how to attain it." 7 
 
 This may suffice to show that importance was early 
 attached to history as an agent of moral training. 
 It must, indeed, have been a powerful argument for 
 a people with puritanic ideals. 
 
 s A. F. Tvtlcr, " Elements of General History," New 
 York, 1819. 
 
 ■» Morse and Parish, " A Compendious History of New 
 England," ISOO, pp. 13-4. 
 
 5 C. A. Goodrich, " History of the United States." 1828, 
 p. 6. 
 
 6 C. A. Goodrich. " History of the United States." 1824, 
 p. 10. 
 
 1- Peter Parley, "First Book of History." N. Y.. 1831. 
 
 13 
 
B. Provision for the Leisure Period 
 
 Supplementary to the moral training aim was the 
 argument that history would provide for the leisure 
 period. The novels and light literature of the day 
 were not deemed proper for the youth, and through 
 a process of substitution, therefore, anything which 
 would adequately and safely occupy the period be- 
 tween work and sleep would make for moral good. 
 Accordingly the following arguments had weight: 
 
 '■ It is highly important that the study of History and 
 Chronology should be generally introduced into our com- 
 mon schools, that young persons of both sexes may be in- 
 structed in their outlines. This is desirable not so much 
 for the sake of the knowledge thus to be acquired as for 
 the benefit which it may afford for further improvement, 
 by enabling the pupil to pursue the study with satisfaction 
 and advantage, after the season of attending school is past; 
 by cherishing a taste for a more profitable course of read- 
 ing than is now generally pursued; a coiu'se which will 
 tend more to strengthen the mind and improve the charac- 
 ter, embracing less of fiction and more of fact, fewer novels 
 and more history." * 
 
 Tytler, in 
 1801, said: 
 
 his " General History," published in 
 
 " The value of any science is to be estimated according 
 to its tendency to promote improvement, either in private 
 virtue, or in those qualities which render man extensively 
 useful in society. Some objects of pursuit have a second- 
 ary utility; in furnishing rational amusement, which reliev- 
 ing the mind at intervals from the fatigue of serious occu- 
 pation, invigorates and prepares it for fresh exertion. It 
 is the perfection of any science, to imite these advantages, 
 to promote the advancement of the public and private 
 virtue, and to supply such a degree of amusement as to 
 supersede the necessity of recurring to frivolous pursuits 
 for the sake of relaxation. Under this description falls the 
 science of history." » 
 
 When we consider the ideas of the time and the 
 conservative views of the schoolman, such an argu- 
 ment must have helped call attention to the worth of 
 the new subject. It is not mentioned frequently, 
 however, and in all probability was not important. 
 
 It is interesting to note that provision for the 
 period of leisure was early considered as one of the 
 duties of the school, and that the admission of a new 
 subject was urged upon such grounds. The school 
 cannot attribute, therefore, its present lack of pro- 
 vision in this direction, to lack of suggestion from the 
 past. 
 
 C. Religious Training 
 
 When the Bible was used as a reader, when religion 
 was a powerful element in the school, a subject sup- 
 posed to be efficient for religious training was wel- 
 come in the curriculum of the time. Such was the 
 condition in many parts of the United States during 
 the first third of the nineteenth century. Text-books 
 employed the religious argument as a plea for their 
 adoption, teachers rested their estimate of the value 
 
 8 J. E. Worcester, "An Epitome of Historj'." Cambridge, 
 Mass.. 1826, 
 
 » A. F. Tytler, " Elements of General History," New York, 
 1819, p. sii. 
 
 of the subject upon this ground, and there is a text- 
 book at hand which was written in supposedly bib- 
 lical language. Note, for instance, the story of 
 Columbus in its new dress: 
 
 " 3. Moreover the name of the country was called after 
 the name of a great man, who was born in a place called 
 Genoa; being in Italia on the sea coast. 
 
 " 4. His name was Christopher, surnamed Columbus. 
 
 " 5. As the righteous man struggleth against wickedness, 
 so did he against ignorance and stupidity. 
 
 ■' 6. Nevertheless it came to pass that in the foui'teen 
 hundred and ninety second year of the Christian era, that 
 he crossed the waters of the mighty deep, a thing that had 
 never been known among the sons of men. 
 
 "7. And the place where he landed was an island in the 
 sea, nigh unto the continent of Columbia, called Salvador, 
 which being interpreted, signifieth a place of safety. 
 
 " 8. And the place was inhabited by wild savages, and 
 they were naked," etc., etc.if 
 
 The author makes explanation as follows: 
 
 " The author having adopted for the model of his style 
 the phraseology of the best books, remarkable for its sim- 
 plicity and strength, the young pupil will acquire with the 
 knowledge of reading, a love for the manner in which the 
 gieat truths of Divine Revelation are conveyed to his un- 
 derstanding, and this will be an inducement to him to study 
 the Holj' Scriptures." n 
 
 Mr. Hunt did not recognize the religious value in 
 history, itself. The selection is given to illustrate 
 the fact that an appeal to the religious side was in- 
 fluential in securing the adoption of a text. 
 
 Other books, however, claim great religious value 
 for the subject matter of history itself. Butler said 
 in 1818: 
 
 " The first part is calculated to lead the youthful mind 
 to a correct knowledge of the basis on which the Jewish 
 and Christian churches rest; and by the illustration of gen- 
 eral prophecy, also to lead the youthful mind to a correct 
 knowledge of the providence and government of God." 12 
 
 The following quotation from the book illustrates 
 the manner in which this aim was carried into prac- 
 tice: 
 
 " Could thirteen independent sovereignties, in a time of 
 peace, agree to make such mutual sacrifice of interest, as 
 to unite in a general government? 
 
 " A. They did, and delegated to that government powers 
 of coercion, sufficient to regulate their foreign and domestic 
 affairs, with a dignity and respectability suitable to a great 
 nation. 
 
 " Q. ^Vhat may we learn from an event of such magni- 
 tude, so novel, so unprecedented ? 
 
 " A. That the God of our fathers who planted this vine 
 in the wilderness is able to protect it. and will protect it, 
 so long as we continue faithful to ourselves and to our 
 God. 
 
 ID G. J. Hunt, ' The Historical Reader " containing the 
 Late War between the United States and Great Britain 
 from .June, 1812, to February, 1815, in the Scriptural Style, ■ 
 p. 73. 
 
 n Ihid. p. iii. 
 
 1= Butler. "A Catechetical Compend of General History, 
 Sacred and Profane ; from the Ci-eation of the World to the 
 Year 1817 of the Qiristian Era," Hartford, 1818. Preface. 
 
 14 
 
" Q. Have there been any other efforts to destroy this 
 little church in the wilderness? 
 
 " A. The luxuries of the old world, with all their alluring 
 train of vices and corruption, have made steady and rapid 
 inroads. French philosophy and infidelity, with all their 
 alluring and ensnaring wiles, have spread through the land 
 for half a century past, like a pestilence that walketh in 
 darkness, and wasteth at noon-day. 
 
 " Q. Have they shaken the pillars of the Reformation? 
 
 "A. No; the God of our fathers has risen in the majesty 
 of his power; put the demon under his feet, and swept 
 away with his hail, all his refuges of lies; and the church 
 is rising again to put on her beautiful garments. 
 
 " Q. Did the Reformation extend into South America? 
 
 "A. No; South America was settled by Spain and Por- 
 tugal about one century before North America, and about a 
 quarter of a century before the Reformation begun, by 
 Martin Luther. 
 
 " Q. Was the papal religion planted there ? 
 
 "A. Yes; with all its ignorance and superstition; and it 
 continues there to this day, with all its degrading effects on 
 that southern world. 
 
 " Q. What is the comparative difference of character be- 
 tween North and South America? 
 
 " A. Greater than language can express. 
 
 " Q. To what may this be imputed ? 
 
 " A. Entirely to the difference in character between the 
 Papal and Protestant religions. 
 
 " Q. Are their soil and climate equal to North America? 
 
 " A. Yes, far superior : and their mines are the richest in 
 the world. 
 
 " Q. Will this contrast teach us rightly to estimate our 
 privileges ? 
 
 " A. It ought to make >is the most grateful and contented 
 people in the world; since God has blest us with the means 
 of being the most happy." i-' 
 
 Goodrich, in 1822, said: 
 
 " History displays the dealings of God with mankind. 
 It calls upon us often to regard with awe his darker judg- 
 ments and again it awakens the liveliest emotions of grati- 
 tude for his kind and benignant dispensations. It culti- 
 vates a sense of dependence upon him; strengthens our con- 
 fidence in his benevolence, and impresses us with a convic- 
 tion of his justice." i* 
 
 In his reflections the influence of this aim can be 
 constantly seen. When considering Columbus, he 
 says: 
 
 " Another consideration of still deeper interest is sug- 
 gested by the story of Columbus. In his first voyage he 
 contemplated chiefly the discovery of the passage to India. 
 We, who live to mark the wonderful events which have 
 flowed from his discovery, within the short space of three 
 centuries, cannot but advert with awe to HIM, who at- 
 taches to the action of a single individual, a train of con- 
 sequences so stupendous and unexpected. How lightly so- 
 ever, then, we may think of our conduct, let us remember 
 that the invisible hand of Providence may be connecting 
 with oiu- smallest actions the most stupendous results, to 
 ourselves and others." !'• 
 
 In reflecting upon the American Revolution, he 
 says: 
 
 i3/6i(f, pp. 114-6. 
 
 i< C. A. Goodrich, op. cit, p. 6. 
 
 1" 0. A. Goodrich, op. cit, p. 20. 
 
 "What a lesson may tyranny gather from this! And 
 how thankful should tee be, that a just Providence is above, 
 who regards the affairs of men — who turns aside the 
 trampling heel of oppression and causes the blood wrung 
 out by tyranny to cry from the ground, and to call forth 
 the spirit of liberty." i" 
 
 The final paragraph in the book is as follows: 
 
 " Let but the spirit, the practical wisdom, the religious 
 integrity of the first planters of our soil, prevail among 
 rulers and subjects — let God be acknowledged, by giving 
 that place to his word and institutions which they claim — 
 and all these blessings are ours. We shall enjoy peace 
 with nations abroad, and tranquility at home. « » ♦ 
 Happy is that people that is in such a case, yea, happy is 
 that people whose God is the Lord." i^ 
 
 Hildreth, in 1830, said: 
 
 " An important object of the work will be to impress the 
 minds of the young with the distinguishing goodness of 
 Divine Providence in giving them birth and dwelling in 
 this country, and thus to lead them to consider and adopt 
 a course of conduct most obviously con'iected with their 
 own happiness and with the general welfare." is 
 
 This aim for the teaching of history was of im- 
 portance, especially in more religious communities. 
 It did not persist, however, and its popularity grad- 
 ually diminished. 
 
 Its greatest value lay in the introduction of " bib- 
 lical antiquities," which became in time broader and 
 more inclusive, forming finally an entering wedge for 
 history. 
 
 D. Patriotism 
 
 In 1799, Hannah Adams wrote: 
 
 •• Enough, however, she trusts is said to impress the 
 minds of young persons with veneration for those eminent 
 men, to whom their posterity are so highly indebted." lo 
 
 Morse and Parish, in 1809, said: 
 
 '• Every person should possess some knowledge of the 
 history of his own country. It seems necessary to the 
 existence of a true and enlightened patriotism." 20 
 
 Superintendent Pierce, of Michigan, reported in 
 1836: 
 
 " A history, every incident of which has a tendency to 
 inspire a reverence for the institutions of our country 
 ought to be ' familiar as household words ' to those on 
 whose intelligence and patriotism the future hopes of the 
 republic are based." 21 
 
 In the argument for United States history in the 
 first teacher training classes founded in New York 
 in 183.5, the precursor of the first normal school, 
 Gideon Hawley, spoke as follows: 
 
 " In the character of the men who stood foremost in the 
 contest for independence, the measures of provocation by 
 
 16 Ibid, p. 146. 
 
 17 Ibid, p. 305. 
 
 IS Hosea Hildreth, "A View of the United States," Bos- 
 ton, 18.30, p. iv. 
 
 19 Hannah Adams. "An Abridgement of the History of 
 New England." Dedham, 1799. 
 
 20 Morse and Parish, "A Compendious History of New 
 England," Newburyport, 1809. Preface. 
 
 21 Michigan, " Report of Supt. of Public Instruction," 
 1837, pp. 16-17. 
 
 15 
 
which they were roused to resistance, the trials through 
 which they passed, the reverses which they sustained, the 
 triumphs which they achieved, and the great political prin- 
 ciples which were vindicated by them, there are lessons of 
 instruction not inferior in value to any which can be drawn 
 from the history of any age or people; and if the mind of 
 every youth can be made familiar with them, and his feel- 
 ings imbued with the moral they contain, no better secur- 
 ity can be provided against the degeneracy of that uncon- 
 querable spirit, in which the foundations of ovu' freedom 
 were laid." -- 
 
 This argument for the teaching of liistory is con- 
 stantly brought forward. Man after man, book after 
 book, find in it one of the great values consequent 
 upon tlie new subject. 
 
 One furtlier ilhistration is cited to show the occa- 
 sional degeneration of this aim. In the history pub- 
 lished by A. S. Barnes in 1871, is found a " flowery " 
 sample of a type to be avoided: 
 
 " Finally this work is offered to the American youth in 
 the confident belief that as they study the wonderful his- 
 tory of their native land, they M'ill learn to prize their 
 birthright more highly, and treasure it more carefully. 
 Their patriotism m\ist be kindled, when they come to see 
 how slowly, yet how gloriously, the tree of liberty has 
 gi'own, what storms have wrenched its boughs, what sweat 
 of toil and blood have moistened its roots, what eager eyes 
 have watched every outspringing bud, what brave hearts 
 have defended it, loving it even unto death. A heritage 
 thus sanctified by the heroism and devotion of the fathers 
 can but elicit the choicest care and tenderest love of the 
 sons." -^ 
 
 The unfortunate feature of this type of purpose 
 has been the kind of history that it has developed. 
 It has put emphasis upon battles and sieges, upon 
 the good side of heroes and the bad side of mankind. 
 Rarely was there a conception of true patriotism, dis- 
 associated from emotionalism. 
 
 One notable exception to the narrow treatment of 
 patriotism has come to light. It seems worthy of a 
 separate heading. 
 
 E. To Oxwrcome rnternational Prejudice 
 
 It is rather surprising that before 1840 we should 
 see an advocate of history as a means of overcoming 
 international prejudices, and of furthering the cause 
 of international peace. This aim, as a sure g^uide to 
 the proper sort of patriotism, powerful to-day, was 
 still in its infancy in 1838, when William Dunlap 
 brought out his " History of New York for Schools." 
 He says : 
 
 " It is not our part to forget but to fijr</irc. And while 
 we remember the injuries inflicted and attempted by the 
 government of Great Britain, let us bear in mind the many, 
 maiiii blessings, we owe to England and Englishmen. The 
 first press that came to the colonies was sent from Eng- 
 land. * • • the first printer that came hither was an 
 Englishman; the sentiments of republicanism we now feel 
 are from England; ♦ * * we owe to her literature, 
 law, religion, » * * not to her government, but to her 
 poets, philosophers, statesmen, and divines. To enumerate 
 
 22 New York, " Report of the Regents of the University 
 to the Senate," 18.3.5, p. 95. 
 
 =3 Anon, " History of the United States," A. S. Barnes, 
 1871. 
 
 the good derived from England would require pages; but 1 
 must mention one that is beyond all price — language. Our 
 language is that of Shakespeare and Milton; while those 
 who are not familiarized to the idiom of these gieat men 
 from infancy, are blind to their beauties, to us they are 
 as ' household words ' ever in our mouths and in our 
 hearts." -* 
 
 F. Training for Citizenship 
 
 In a new country where a new governmental ex- 
 periment was being worked out, it was not strange 
 that the aim of training for citizenship should early 
 have been brought to the fore. Where there is but 
 little direct participation on the part of the people 
 in governmental affairs, little training is needed for 
 the masses; but where each man " may be called upon 
 to discharge important duties," to use the word of 
 C. A. Goodrich (written in 1822), " either by his vote 
 or by the administration of office, it is the business 
 of all to be more or less acquainted with the science 
 of politics. Nothing can better instruct us in this 
 than the study of history." This new duty of a 
 republic was early appreciated, and was undoubtedly 
 an aid in the introduction of a subject calculated to 
 further this end. It is not strange, therefore, that 
 the rise of history in importance became especially 
 noticeable in New York and Massachusetts from 
 1825 to 1830. This was just the period when Jack- 
 sonian Democracy was coming to its own, and when 
 the suffrage was being extended to all the people. 
 
 Tytler, in Edinburgh, makes a plea for history on 
 the basis of a better understanding of the government 
 by " a man of liberal birth." He says: 
 
 " In this country it is the indispensable duty of every 
 man of liberal birth to be aeijuainted in a certain degree 
 with the science of Politics; and History is the school of 
 Politics. It opens to us the springs of human affairs; the 
 causes of the rise, grandeur, revolutions and falls of em- 
 pires. It points out the reciprocal influence of government 
 and national manners; it dissipates the prejudices, noiu-- 
 ishes the love of our country, and directs to the best means 
 of improvement; it illustrates equally the blessings of 
 political union, and the miseries of faction; the danger on 
 the one hand of uncontrolled liberty; and on the other the 
 debasing influence of despotic power." "^ 
 
 Morse and Parish, dealing with the comparatively 
 local situation in New England, show that the his- 
 tory of New England impresses the future citizen 
 with the need for law and order. They say: 
 
 " There is much truth in the remark of a Eufo])ean 
 writer (Mather) : 'Were not the cold climate of New Eng- 
 land supplied with good laws and diaeipUnc, the barren- 
 ness of that country would never have brought people to it, 
 nor have advanced it in consideration and formidableness 
 above other English plantations, exceeding it much in fer- 
 tility and other inviting qualities.' " 28 
 
 Goodrich, cited above, showed the need for the ap- 
 plication of Tytler's idea, not only to men of " liberal 
 birth," but to each man. Langdon Cheves, in a let- 
 ter quoted in Grimshaw's " History of the United 
 States," says: 
 
 24 William Dunlap, "A History of New York for Schools," 
 New York, 1838. Preface. 
 2"' A. F. Tytler, op. cit, p. xii. 
 20 Morse and Parish, op. cit, p. 14. 
 
 16 
 
" Woll written history is the best political instructor and 
 under a new government in which it is the blessing of the 
 country that the people should govern, its pages should be 
 constantly in the hands of our , youth and open to the 
 humblest citizen in our widespread territories." -'' 
 
 It is in this period, the twenties and thirties, that 
 the youth of the country are often referred to as the 
 " future guardians and depositories of the liberty of 
 our country." ^' Apparently education with this 
 purpose took upon itself a new dignity. There was a 
 rapid response, in localities at least, to the growing 
 needs of democracy. 
 
 Elizabeth Peabody, in her " Chronological History 
 of the United States," said, in 1856: 
 
 " For the first time in the Recorded history, there is a 
 nation whose government directly depends upon the mass 
 of the people, every individual of whom becomes a creator 
 of its events, in precise ratio with his personal energy; 
 and even those who have no energy, cannot avoid having 
 an influence, by hanging as a dead weight upon the wheels 
 of progi-ess. 
 
 " There is nothing, therefore, which can be studied of 
 more immediate and practical value to Americans, than his- 
 tory, showing as it does the origin and consequences of 
 national action, and instructing everyone what to do and 
 what to leave undone, in his own inevitable action, as citi- 
 zen, legislator, executive officer or voter, one of which neces- 
 sarily every American miist be. Because God wills that no 
 good should come to human society, except thru the action 
 of men and women, whom He is alwaj's read}' to inspire 
 with love and wisdom. He gives to everyone besides reason 
 and affection, the memory of past experiences in history; 
 and to Americans, at least, the opportunity of making new 
 experiments in the light of truth." -» 
 
 " It is better, in my opinion," said the Principal of 
 Duchess County Academy in 1844, " for a lad to 
 know something about the laws and institutions of his 
 own State than about the stars, which will do as they 
 like for us ; but by knowing the laws we can better 
 control others and ourselves." ^^ 
 
 It is obvious that this aim of the teaching of his- 
 tory was of great importance, and with the gradual 
 growth of the idea of education as the function of the 
 State, must have gone a growth in the recognition of 
 history and politics as subjects of value. 
 
 G. Discipline 
 
 When faculty psychology was the order of the day, 
 and when people believed that the thorough mastery 
 of one field would transfer widely, the discipline of 
 mind was the chief end of education. If the invet- 
 erate pursuit of one subject would train for all situ- 
 ations of life, what economy would there be in the 
 formation of the all too small number of specific 
 habits which the school could form? 
 
 The early advocate of history appreciated this 
 
 27 Grimshaw, " History of the United States," Philadel- 
 phia, 1824. Introduction. 
 
 2s See New York, " Report of the Regents," 1835, p. 63. 
 Michigan, " Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
 tion." 1837, p. 10. 
 
 29 C. A. Goodrich, op. cit. p. 3. 
 
 30 New York, op. cit, 1844, p. 137. 
 
 point, and without relinquishing his other arguments, 
 he added this to his already long list. 
 
 Goodrich set up the fact that " history strengthens 
 and disciplines the mind " as an " aim of inferior 
 importance, yet not to be disregarded." ^^ For him 
 it was a discipline because it dealt with " virtue, en- 
 terprise and courage." For Worcester it was a dis- 
 cipline, because it " affords a melancholy view of hu- 
 man nature, governed by the baser passions; and is 
 to a lamentable degree little else than a register of 
 human crime and calamity, of war and suffering." '- 
 This would appear to be an early form of G. Stanley 
 Hall's doctrine of Katharsis. Worcester continues: 
 
 "A use of history is to improve the understanding and 
 strengthen the judgment. * * • It adds to our expe- 
 rience an immense treasure of the past, and thereby en- 
 ables us to enter upon the business of life with the advan- 
 tage of being, in a manner, acquainted with it." 
 
 " I am anxious," said the Principal of Duchess 
 County Academy in 1844, " to have as many as possi- 
 ble in the study of history, both on account of the 
 nature of the knowledge, which they obtain from it, 
 and also on account of the nature of the mental train- 
 ing derivable from it." '''• History was taught to 
 train the " faculties " of judgment and memory. 
 Washington Academy reported in 1844 as follows: 
 
 " The mind is composed of different faculties or powers; 
 and among the most important of these are the memory 
 and the reasoning faculties. The course of study pursued 
 is designed to call into exercise and cultivate both these 
 powers, as nearly as may be in equal degree." si 
 
 Plattsburg Academy expressed the same aim in 
 1838: 
 
 " In our course of instruction, a thorough discipline of 
 the mind is what we chiefly hope to effect, and » * * 
 we believe that this can only be secured by severe study 
 and close thinking * * ' "as 
 
 Not only was history calculated to train the mem- 
 ory and the reason. It was said to form habits of 
 attention and precision,'" to make for better pronun- 
 ciation,'' and to furnish food for conversation and 
 reflection.'''* 
 
 The advantage of the disciplinary aim, then as 
 now, lay in its extreme elasticity. History, good or 
 bad, long or short, difficult or simple, useful or use- 
 less, would improve the faculties and help to fill " the 
 reservoir from which we derive and from which we 
 draw those streams of learning which we may apply 
 on any future or contingent emergency." 
 
 31 C. A. Goodrich, op. cit. p. ;3. 
 
 32 Worcester, "Elements of History," 1820. 
 
 33 New York, op. cit. 1844, p. 137. 
 
 34 New York, op. cit, 1839, p. 116. 
 33 New York, op. cit, 1838. p. 02. 
 
 36 •' We e.xpect to form those habits of attention and 
 precision which lay the foundation for the exercise of sound 
 judgment in the ordinary and extraordinary affairs of life." 
 New York, op. cit. 1837, p. 97. 
 
 3' " Recitations in geogi-aphy and history ♦ ♦ « fur- 
 nish the teachers with opportunities of correction and criti- 
 cism in pronunciation, which are of course always im- 
 proved." Farmers Hall Academy, New York, op. cit, 1835, 
 p. 54. 
 
 18 C. A. Goodrich, op. cit, p. 3. 
 
 17 
 
H. Conclusion the United States, whatever may have been the orig- 
 
 H- . • J -1. 1 ■ ii -1 e 1.x. inal order of development abroad. All were present 
 
 istorv arained its place in the curriculum of the , , ,. ,' ... , ' , 
 
 J " 1 1 c .1 IT t J ci i £ • I when history nrst began to gain its important place 
 
 secondary schools of the United States for a variety ,.,,, • . , °, . '^wr.,, ,, ^ ,.^ . 
 
 c " Ti. J 1 I • 1 . ■ as a dinerentiated subiect. VVith the exception of 
 
 ot reasons. It was supposed to train morals, to pro- , ,. . . ,, i nii i 
 
 .J fi. 11 f J- ii 1 ■ J the religious aim. all are present to-dav. 1 he only 
 
 vide prontable ways oi spending the leisure period, ^ i 
 
 to inspire patriotism, to train for citizenship, and to ''^'''"g^' "^ importance from early times is the gradual 
 leave the pui)il with a well-trained mind. With the decline of the religious aim, the growing differentia- 
 belief in formal discipline, there was no inconsistency t'O" of tli^ other purposes, and the growth of the 
 in aiming for all at once, so wide was the transfer modern conception of history as a guide to social in- 
 which was believed to ensue. terpretation, following the influence of Herbert Spen- 
 There was no serial development of these aims in cer and the teachings of the theory of evolution. 
 
 18 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 
 The task of estimating the character of present- 
 day classroom instruction is a difficult one at best. 
 When the problem becomes one of tracing the evolu- 
 tion of method, of judging the teaching of genera- 
 tions ago, this difficulty is greatly increased. The in- 
 formation must come from source material, from those 
 fragments of the writings and records of the past 
 which happen to have been preserved.' This means, 
 of necessity, that the material is not complete; that 
 the whole story cannot be told, and that the results 
 of this investigation can be considered only as indi- 
 cative of the true conditions of the time. 
 
 " When the institution was commencing its exist- 
 ence," said the principal of Albany Female Academy 
 in 1838, "two methods of instruction divided the 
 schools. In the colleges, lectures were given, ex- 
 planations made and books provided, that the stu- 
 dent might extend his researches upon his subject be- 
 yond the author studied. This we think a plan for 
 beginning a study, which being right will never be 
 improved. The other method, which was pursued in 
 elementary schools, was to make the scholar say his 
 lessons, no matter whether he understood them or not. 
 This we hold to be a miserable method to begin to 
 teach a subject." * This division of methods, in gen- 
 eral, has persisted to the present day. The teaching 
 in the institutions of higher learning has always been 
 principally through lectures ; the text-book has re- 
 mained the chief source of material for the secondary 
 school. 
 
 Method makes progress slowly. Teachers, con- 
 servative at best, are slow to adopt innovations. In- 
 dividuals may experiment successfully, but results in 
 general practice are attained only after a long period 
 of time. In consequence general development is diffi- 
 cult to trace. It is proposed first to consider the 
 general methods in use during the first four decades 
 of the nineteenth century ; second, to note the various 
 teaching devices and aids to classroom instruction as 
 they were introduced, and third, to attempt to trace 
 the effect upon classroom procedure through their in- 
 corporation in the text-books. Finally, a general 
 consideration of exceptional teaching in early days 
 will be tested in the light of modern standards. 
 
 1 The data are ( 1 ) the remarks of men who were trained 
 at the time ; ( 2 ) the introductions, prefaces and " remarks 
 to teachers" in early text-books; and (3) a rather remark- 
 able collection of reports from academy principals, collected 
 by Gideon Hawley, and published in the reports of the New 
 York Regents in the years 1835-1847. 
 
 - New York, " Report of the Regents of the University to 
 the Senate," 1838, p. 88. 
 
 A. General Methods in Use. 
 
 1. The Lecture Method. 
 
 Occasional academies and high schools resorted to 
 the lecture method. Yates County Academy reported 
 in 1837: 
 
 ■' The general mode of instruction is by familiar lectures 
 in the higher classes, sometimes required to be given by the 
 more advanced scholars." s 
 
 Oneida Institute, in 1839, advocated the lecture 
 method in the following way : 
 
 " The last year I pursued a different course. I prepared 
 lectures upon the several subjects belonging to mental 
 science, and delivered them to the students of my class- 
 room. The time allotted to this subject was, one day, con- 
 sumed by the lecture; on the next day a recitation was had 
 upon the subject and the matter of the lecture. In this 
 way we proceeded, till with a good degree of thoroughness 
 and success, we disposed of the topics commonly attended 
 to in this department of study. In the same way instruc- 
 tion was given in . . . political economy and the science of 
 government. 
 
 "As an instructor, I suppose my business is mainly to im- 
 part au impulse, and to afford guidance. Adherence to the 
 text-book seems to me to be prejudicial to the object I am 
 bound to promote in both respects. An instructor is sup- 
 posed to be more or less acquainted with what he imder- 
 takes to teach; to have put himself in possession of what 
 he offers to impart. Will he not be likely to feel a livelier 
 interest in his work and to impress himself more deeply 
 and permanently on his pupils, if he is permitted and en- 
 couraged to express his own thoughts in his own way, than 
 if he is required or expected to repeat the sayings of 
 another? Besides, if he is much given to observation and 
 reflection, he may often find occasion to differ from any of 
 our various text-books. If he should agree with them in 
 the main principles and leading doctrines which they main- 
 tain, he may prefer other methods and illustrations. . . . 
 The text-book can hardly fail to be in the way of an In- 
 structor who is at all given to thinking. . . . He will now 
 find it necessary to spend time in removing rubbish, and 
 now in filling up a chasm; and amid criticisms and correc- 
 tions and supplements, the student all raw and unpracticed 
 will lose himself." * 
 
 Interspersed in the various reports are occasional 
 references to lectures. One reads of " familiar lec- 
 tures," " of familiar illustrations on the part of the 
 teacher." These terms, in all probability, were a 
 portion of the pedagogical language of the day. In 
 certain of the reports, where lists of the texts used in 
 various classes are given, one finds that Roman or 
 Greek or Biblical " antiquities " were taught by lec- 
 
 3 New York, op. cit, 1837, p. 100. 
 <New York, op. cit., 1839, pp. 119-20. 
 
 19 
 
tures. The teaching of history without the use of a 
 text-book, one of the earliest methods in use, never 
 gained a firm foothold in the secondary schools of 
 the United States ; and while it has persisted even to 
 the present time, it has been of comparatively little 
 significance. 
 
 2. The Text-Book Methods. 
 
 Nearly all subjects in the secondary schools were 
 commonly presented with the aid of a text-book. This 
 ■was particularly true of history. Before the year 
 1860 three hundred and sixty texts, running into at 
 least eight hundred and fifteen editions,^ were pub- 
 lished in history alone. The number of text-books, 
 reported in use in the New York academies, show the 
 popularity of this method there. 
 
 So important is this type, and so wide are the rami- 
 fications within its limits, that its various phases must 
 be taken up separately, if we are to treat it ade- 
 quately. 
 
 (a) Rote Work. 
 
 A common method of teaching history was to pro- 
 vide a pupil with a text-book, to be learned and re- 
 cited word for word. The recitation, then, in a lit- 
 eral sense, was a period provided for the " recitation " 
 of the pages learned. The arguments found in the 
 reports and the suggestions gathered from the text- 
 books bear witness to the popularity of this method. 
 On the other hand, the excuses offered for it and 
 modifications reported, as well as the statewide dis- 
 cussion and opposition, show quite as clearly the 
 prevalence of instruction of this sort. 
 
 Early texts are zealous in their recommendation of 
 rote work. Such suggestions as " the pupil should 
 first commit to memory the political divisions;" 
 " that the three first pages should be well committed 
 to memory " " are common. C. A. Goodrich, in his 
 " History of the United States," published in 1822, 
 said: 
 
 " 1. The general division should be first very thoroughly 
 committed to memory. 
 
 " 2. That portion of the work which is in large type em- 
 braces the leading subjects of history, and should be com- 
 mitted to memory by the pupil. That part which is in 
 smaller type should be carefully perused. 
 
 " 3. It is recommended to the teachers not to make a 
 severe examination of the pupil until a second or third 
 time going through the book. This should be more par- 
 ticularly observed in regard to young and backward 
 pupils." ' 
 
 When it is considered that 150,000 copies of this 
 book are said to have been sold before 1834, and 
 500,000 before 1870," the recommendation is more 
 significant. It may be mentioned that the " smaller 
 type to be perused " makes up only a small portion 
 of the book. 
 
 Rote work, particularly with reference to more im- 
 portant sections, was not without its earliest advo- 
 
 6 See later paper. 
 
 8J. L. Blake, "Text-Book in Geography and Chronology 
 with Historical Sketches," 1814. 
 
 7 C. A. Goodrich, " History of the United States," 1824, 
 p. 3. 
 
 8 C. A. Jacquith, op. cit., p. 22. 
 
 cates among the teachers themselves. The principal 
 of De Ruyter Institute reports in 1838: 
 
 " To this course (rote work) we rigidly intend to adhere, 
 as it is thought that there is great danger of obtaining 
 only a superficial knowledge of studies, by permitting stu- 
 dents in their answer to give, as it is termed, the substance 
 of the author." o 
 
 Plattsburg Academy in 1840 says: 
 
 " We require to be committed to memorj' exactly in the 
 language of the text-book. We think that by that course 
 we not only seciu'e as good or better understanding of the 
 principles required to be learned, as is obtained by leaving 
 pupils to express the idea in their own language, but we 
 also secure a habit of precision and aecurac)' of language, 
 which the other system tends rather to destroy." lo 
 
 Kinderhook Academy in 1841 said: 
 
 " If the author has not expressed the idea in the best (^ 
 language, he is deficient and ought not to be used; and if 
 his own expression is good, let the pupil commit it as it 
 stands, rather than take up that which is inferior." n 
 
 Auburn Academy in 1839 took the following .stand: 
 
 '■ With regard to the question to what extent the 
 processes of education may usefully be addressed to the 
 mere power of memory, the trustees abstain from entering 
 into that extended course of remark concerning it, without 
 which it would be impossible to do justice to the subject. 
 The great purposes of education are to store the mind 
 (which in this sense is but another name for memory) with 
 useful knowledge; and in the process of doing so to give 
 increased energy, activity and precision to the mental 
 faculties. 
 
 "Any system of instruction which is not directed to each 
 of these ends is radically erroneous. . . . 
 
 " There is in this age of the world an abundant store of 
 useful knowledge, in the acquisition of which to give ample 
 exercise to all the faculties; and what is worth acquiring 
 is worth remembering. Any mode of instruction, therefore, 
 which does not systematically and studiously aim at the 
 accomplishment of this as one of its primary ends, must be 
 defective." 12 
 
 Johnstown Academy made the following statement 
 m 1837: 
 
 " Yet in all instances, the memory as well as the under- 
 standing, must be cultivated. It is the depository of knowl- 
 edge, the reservoir from which we derive, and from which 
 we draw those streams of learning which we may apply 
 on any future or contingent emergency. Without a proper 
 cultivation of this useful faculty no impression would be 
 lasting, all knowledge would become evanescent, and every 
 effort to render learning practically useful would necessarily 
 prove abortive." 13 
 
 Whitesboro Academy reports in 1840 as follows: 
 
 " It is a frequent complaint with individuals that they 
 Soon forget all that they have learned at school. Young 
 men, too, in leaving our colleges to teach, frequently find 
 that they know nothing of the subjects in which they 
 thought themselves well versed. They have not a clear idea 
 of first principles. It has been our aim to give clear and 
 
 » New York, op. cit., 1838, p. 94. 
 "New Y'ork, op. r!t., 1840, p. 94. 
 
 11 New York, op. cit., 1841, p. 92. 
 
 12 New York, op. cit., 1839, p. 126. 
 
 13 New York, op. cit., 1837, p. 90. 
 
 20 
 
distinct ideas, and implant them so firmly in the memory, 
 that time cannot eradicate them. The means used to ac- 
 complish this, has been constant repetition." " 
 
 Similar expressions of tendencies favoring rote 
 work are found in the reports of Hartwick Semi- 
 nary/^ Washington Academy,'" Rochester High 
 School," Kinderhook Academy," Whitesboro Acad- 
 emy,'" and Genessee Wesleyan.-" 
 
 (fc) Modified Forms of Rote Work. 
 
 The radical views just cited were not held by all 
 teachers of the time. More liberal methods were ad- 
 vocated by many. The transition is gradual, and 
 many and varied are the excuses and explanations 
 offered to account for the change. 
 
 Some teachers hold to the old method, while pre- 
 senting an explanation to their critics. For illustra- 
 tion, the Onondaga Academy said, in 1838: 
 
 " If I had a student so unfortunately constituted as to be 
 incapable of thinking and reasoning upon a subject, I en- 
 join upon him to commit his rules to memory, content to 
 make him an apt machine, if I cannot make him a skilful 
 accoimtant, for with such an explanation it soon becomes 
 like everything else that they may learn, a matter of 
 rote." 21 
 
 The principal of Tray Female Seminary replied as 
 follows : 
 
 " There are certain subjects of study, which must, of 
 course, be learned memoriter. . . . But in such subjects as 
 history, . . . etc., the method of requiring a few sentences 
 to be repeated by rote, ia wholly absurd. . . . The teacher's 
 first business is to make his pupils understand the sub- 
 ject, etc. . . . When the author's own clue to the subject 
 is once fairly obtained, fluency of speech will follow, and 
 the pupil of taste will rarely fail of committing to memory 
 the finest passages of the finest writers, and we consider 
 that taste and style are both improved in the exercise. 
 Such a pupil may be said by the ignorant to recite memo- 
 riter; but the better informed perceive by the eye, intona- 
 tion and the emphasis, that tlie words used stand in the 
 mind of the speaker as signs of ideas, which he has by 
 study, made his own." 22 
 
 Another tendency is to emphasize both understand- 
 ing and memory, but in a reverse order. Plattsburg 
 Academy said in 1837, for instance, that the pupil 
 must show that " not only has he learned exactly his 
 lessons, but that he also understands them." ^^ Cam- 
 bridge Washington Academy reports, " Many stu- 
 dents have committed to memory the Constitution of 
 the United States, and had it familiarly explained to 
 them." " 
 
 A compromise often made is illustrated by the fol- 
 lowing excerpt from the report of the Delaware 
 Academy in 1838: 
 
 "All definitions and rules are required to be given in the 
 precise language of the author; in most other parts of the 
 branches of study the student is allowed to clothe the au- 
 thor's meaning in his own words." -^ 
 
 This is the most common form of belief in regard to 
 rote work which was held by the school men during 
 this period, if frequency of mention in the reports is 
 an indication. Among the schools showing this same 
 tendency were Gouveneur High School,^" Westfield 
 Academy,^' Johnstown Academy,"'* Poughkeepsie 
 Female Academy,^" and Amenia Seminary.^" 
 
 A scheme calculated to preserve the advantages of 
 memoriter work, with the avoidance of many of its 
 dangers, was attempted in many academies. Jeffer- 
 son Academy reported in 1836 that: 
 
 "Originating and writing out questions . . . (without 
 reference to any questions of the author) three or four on 
 a lesson, with a memoriter answer is required. The pupils 
 are admonished that a comparative estimate of scholarship 
 will be made by a comparative estimate of the importance 
 of the questions brought forward." 3i 
 
 Thoughtful attention to the content of the subject 
 and careful endeavor in estimating the relative im- 
 portance of its various parts were here combined with 
 the earnest effort in learning the exact answer, which 
 was so much to be desired. A phase of this same idea 
 was held at Jefferson Academy,"- Amenia Seminary,^' 
 Newburgh Academy,^* Ridgebury Academy,^^ 
 Monroe Academy,^* and many others. At Amenia 
 Seminary in 1839, it was said: 
 
 " We insist upon familiarity with the subject, and our 
 questions are frequently so directed that the answer can- 
 not be given in the language of the author. But while we 
 object strongly to that course of instruction which permits 
 the student to recite page after page of the author's words, 
 without a proper understanding of his ideas, we think the 
 opposite extreme should be avoided with care. For though 
 it may have a tendency to cultivate habits of thought, it 
 would in more instances lead to luibits of superficial read- 
 ing, and in the end to habits of superficial investigating." 3T 
 
 Albany Female Academy presented in 1839, the 
 following plan of combining rote work, with adequate 
 understanding of the principles involved: 
 
 " We concur with the secretary in the opinion that many 
 subjects at first addressed to the understanding in such a 
 manner as to elicit thought, to teach it to make nice dis- 
 criminations, and to take general, comprehensive and con- 
 nected views should then be committed to memory, that the 
 mind may always have them at command, and be able to 
 comraimicate them. 
 
 " Our mode of instruction is directed to these two ob- 
 jects. The pupil is first required to exercise her own power 
 
 "New 
 15 New 
 18 New 
 "New 
 
 18 New 
 
 19 New 
 
 20 New 
 
 21 New 
 
 22 New 
 
 23 New 
 
 24 New 
 
 York, op. 
 York, op. 
 York, op. 
 York, op. 
 York, op. 
 York, op. 
 York, op. 
 York, op. 
 York, op. 
 York, op. 
 York, op. 
 
 cit., 1840, p. 99. 
 at., 1839, p. 119. 
 at., 1839, p. 116. 
 at., 1836, p. 73. 
 at., 1844, p. 141. 
 at., 1840, p. 99. 
 at., 1840, p. 100. 
 at., 1837, p. 100. 
 at., 1838, p. 90. 
 at, 1837, p. 88. 
 at., 1838, p. 92. 
 
 25 New 
 
 26 New 
 
 27 New 
 23 New 
 
 29 New 
 
 30 New 
 
 31 New 
 
 32 New 
 
 33 New 
 
 34 New 
 
 35 New 
 88 New 
 37 New 
 
 York, 
 York, 
 York, 
 York, 
 York, 
 York, 
 York, 
 York 
 York 
 York 
 York 
 York 
 York 
 
 op. at, 1839, p. 109. 
 op. at., 1839. p. 115. 
 op. at., 1840, p. 105. 
 op. at., 1836, p. 90. 
 op. at., 1838, p. 84. 
 op. at., 1839, p. 103. 
 op. at., 1836, p. 58. 
 Report, 1835, pp. 58-9. 
 Report, 1837, p. 78. 
 Report, 1839, p. 107. 
 Report, 1840, p. 89. 
 Report, 1836, p. 72. 
 Report, 1839, p. 103. 
 
 21 
 
of investigation on any subject. She is examined on it in 
 the daily recitation by the teacher, who then explains and 
 illustrates it in a familiar lecture, in such a manner as 
 will be interesting, fix the attention, and awaken the 
 curiosity. (The teachers, of course, must examine the best 
 works on the subjects they teach, and we provide books for 
 this pu]-pose. ) At the next recitation the pupil is required 
 either in answer to questions or by way of analysis, as the 
 subject may be, to give a connected view of the leading 
 ideas of the author in her own language. After thus ac- 
 quiring a knowledge of the subject, she is required to write 
 an analysis of the most prominent and useful ideas con- 
 tained in the text-book, making her own selections and em- 
 ploying her own language, or that of her author, as is most 
 convenient. She has thus become perfectly familiar with 
 the subject, and the remaining duty of committing to 
 memory, and explaining in a clear and correct manner, be- 
 comes an easy task, while it secures to her the attainment 
 she has made." 38 
 
 (c) No Rote Work. 
 
 Contemporaneous with, and a possible cause of, 
 these modifications of the memoriter method, was a 
 vigorous opposition to the rote type of teaching. So 
 important, indeed, did the controversy become, that 
 Gideon Hawley, the secretary of the Regents of the 
 University of New York, sent out a questionnaire, 
 calling for the several opinions of the New York 
 academies upon this question. This was repeated for 
 a number of years. 
 
 Albany Academy replied as follows in 1835: 
 " It has ever been a leading object in this institution, as 
 soon as the age of the pupil will allow, to persuade him 
 to commit the substance of his lessons rather than the 
 actual words." -■» 
 
 Alfred Academy said: 
 
 " The common practice of students to commit to memory 
 the language of the book merely without searching deeply 
 into the instructions designed to be conveyed, has been 
 carefully guarded against, and they have been required to 
 commit ideas, rather than words or sounds, and to give an 
 accurate analysis of every portion of each lesson in their 
 own language." ^o 
 
 Livingston County High School answered in 1840: 
 " Recitations ' by rote ' or memoriter recitations are never 
 received as satisfactory." ■" 
 
 "An author's answer to a question verbatim 
 is rarely heard," *^ comes from Lowville Academy in 
 1836. " There is less memoriter work in this insti- 
 tution than perhaps in most others," *^ is the truly 
 pedagogical answer of Black River Literary and Re- 
 ligious Institute in 1840. Similar expressions come 
 from Lowville Academy,*' Canandaigua Academy,'^ 
 Schenectady Academy,'" Essex County Academy,*' 
 Rensellaer Owego Institute,'^ and many others. 
 
 38 New 
 
 39 New 
 
 40 New 
 
 41 New 
 
 42 New 
 
 43 New 
 
 44 New 
 
 45 New 
 
 46 New 
 
 47 New 
 49 New 
 
 York, op. cit., 
 York, 01). cit.. 
 York Report, 
 York Report, 
 York Report, 
 York Report, 
 York, op. cit. 
 York, op. cit 
 York, op. cit 
 York, op. 'cit. 
 York, op. cit. 
 
 1839, pp. 113-4. 
 
 1835, p. 57. 
 1844, p. 151. 
 
 1840, p. 101. 
 
 1836, p. 04. 
 1840, p. 98. 
 , 1830, p. 64. 
 
 ., 1S.39, p. 127. 
 ., 1837, p. 87. 
 .. 1841, p. 95. 
 
 1837, p. 95. 
 
 Upon occasions, facult}' psychology worked to the 
 disadvantage of memoriter teaching. When educa- 
 tion was believed to consist in the proper training of 
 the various mental faculties, the emphasis upon mem- 
 ory alone would put an undue tax upon a single 
 faculty to the neglect of the rest. An illustration 
 of this argument is found for Genessee Wesleyan 
 Academy for 1838. 
 
 " Rules and definitions, being expressed with conciseness 
 in text-books, are committed verbatim. But in regard to 
 principles a different method is preferred for obvious rea- 
 sons. First, to commit an author's language is an undue 
 tax upon the memory to the neglect of the other faculties 
 of the mind. Science is designed to strengthen and regulate 
 the mind, as a whole. Second, a memorizer may recite 
 fluently while he knows little or nothing intrinsically of 
 the subject submitted to his investigation. The scholar 
 should always be able to state in his own language, the 
 principles he embraces as true, otherwise the slightest 
 failure in memory will involve him in embarrassment. 
 Words may be easily forgotten, but facts engraven on the 
 memory have a more permanent duration. Store the mind 
 with truths and principles, and language will not be want- 
 ing in which to clothe them." *9 
 
 Rochester Collegiate Institute reported as follows 
 in 1849: 
 
 " But in the teaching of history, . . . etc., what demand 
 ought to be made upon the memory of the pupil ? Shall the 
 pupil be required to commit the whole lesson to memory? 
 By practice students can be brought to recite pages memori- 
 ter at a time; but will they long retain the knowledge thus 
 acquired? All experience, except in a few very uncommon 
 cases, replies in the negative. 
 
 " A far better method than this is, so to study the lesson 
 that the pupil may be able to give the facts, thoughts, 
 speculations, in his own language, and in the language 
 which is far removed from that of the author, provided it 
 is only correct and precise. This involves what is called 
 an analysis of the text-book. But analysis is ever a profit- 
 able method of study. By practice it becomes easier than 
 mere learning memoriter, and will abide longer in the mem- 
 ory. True, the demand on the teacher is greater, for he 
 must himself know the author, in order to be able to hear 
 an analysis of the lesson and know its correctness or the 
 contrary." 6" 
 
 Gouveneur High School reports upon the success 
 following the abandonment of rote work. They say: 
 
 " We have witnessed with increasing satisfaction the suc- 
 cess of our attempts to charge the minds of the pupils 
 with ideas rather than burden their memories with words. 
 The practice of memorizing the words of a text-book, and 
 reciting them verbatim, can scarcely fail to divert the at- 
 tention of the student from the fact that they are intending 
 to communicate, and result in disgust and discourage- 
 ment." 51 
 
 To conclude, rote work had its champions for the 
 first half of the nineteenth century. Teachers were 
 not afraid to argue openly in favor of it. The 
 method was not in disrepute. A well defined opposi- 
 tion, however, was beginning to grow up, which re- 
 sulted in frequent modifications of, and, in localities, 
 the abandonment of memoriter metliods. 
 
 It is interesting, then, to note the optimistic state- 
 
 49 New York, op. cit., 1838, p. 98. 
 60 New York, op. '.I., 1849, p. 165. 
 51 New York, op. cit., 1840, pp.93-4. 
 
ment of C. E. Bush, made in Berard's " History of 
 the United States," in 1878, that: 
 
 " The days of assigning lessons by the page and of listen- 
 ing to memoriter recitations (text-book in hand to insure 
 a verbatim repetition of the author's language), are fast 
 passing away. The methods of the time demand that the 
 teachers shall actually teach, and that the recitations shall 
 be tests of the pupils' real grasp on the subject under con- 
 sideration." 62 
 
 (d) The Catechetical Method. 
 
 In a sense, every recitation is a case of question 
 and answer. Even a memoriter exercise necessi- 
 tates this. But in the sense here used, the catecheti- 
 cal method differentiates itself in that it puts its em- 
 phasis upon the text not so much as a matter of 
 phrasing, as upon the proper development of the 
 thought brought out. There is every gradation of 
 this method from rote work in a mechanical fashion, 
 to questions dealing with real problems to be solved, 
 and active solutions to the same. 
 
 Many of the early texts were built upon such a 
 plan as to facilitate the easy use of the question and 
 answer method. A popular form was that of a series 
 of questions and answers. Among the text-books 
 showing such organization are: 
 
 Bingham, " A Historical Grammar." 
 
 Goodrich, " Stories of the History of Connecticut." 
 
 Dunlap, "A History of New York." 
 
 Derry, "A History of the United States." 
 
 Butler, "A Catechetical Compend of General History, 
 etc." 
 
 For purposes of illustration, the contents of page 
 171 of Bingham are given: 
 
 "Q. Did the Emperor Leopold live late in this century? 
 
 " A. He died in one thousand seven hundred and five, 
 at the age of sixty-five. 
 
 " Q. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 " A. His son Joseph, who died in the year one thousand 
 seven hxmdred and eleven, at the age of thirty-three. 
 
 " Q. To whom did the empire afterwards devolve ? 
 
 " A. To his brother, Charles VI, Archduke of Austria, 
 and competitor with Philip V for the crown of Spain. He 
 was the last Emperor of the house of Austria. 
 
 " Q. How long did he reign? 
 
 " A. To the year one thousand seven hundred and forty. 
 He died at the age of fifty-five, and left his hereditary 
 estates to the Archduchess Maria Theresa, his daughter by 
 Elizabeth Christiana, of the house of Wolfenbuttle. 
 
 " Q. On whom was the imperial dignity then conferred? 
 
 " A. On the Elector of Bavaria, who took the name of 
 Charles VH. He died in one thousand seven hundred and 
 forty-five, after an unquiet and unfortunate reign. 
 
 " Q. Who succeeded him ? " ^3 
 
 Frequently there were books written in dramatic 
 form, with a patriarch or precocious youth as the 
 fount of wisdom, while children of varying ages pro- 
 vided the situation for the intended response. A 
 child, the junior of the others, is often included, for 
 the purpose of asking easy or obvious questions, either 
 for the guidance or the amusement of the student. 
 The opening questions of Dunlap 's "History of "N^rr 
 York" are quoted as an -Illustration: 
 
 02 C. E. Bush, " Berard's History of the United States." 
 53 Bingham, op. cit., p. 171. 
 
 " Chapteb I. 
 
 ■'The interlocutors are three boys: John, aged 14; 
 William, aged 12; Philip, aged 10; one girl, Mary, aged 8; 
 and their uncle, aged 71. 
 
 " William. Now, that Uncle Philip has gone away, will 
 you not tell us the history of New York during the war? 
 You know he only told us how the quarrels began between 
 America and England, and the most curious things happened 
 after that. Now, do you tell us. Uncle; you are older than 
 Uncle Philip, and ought to know more. 
 
 "Uncle. That does not follow, my boy; Uncle Philip 
 knows by reading. A man can know but little who does 
 not read; he has read more than I have. 
 
 " Maet. But you have seen all the people he told us 
 about. 
 
 " Uncle. Oh, no, child. Do you suppose that I saw 
 Henry Hudson ? 
 
 "John. Hush, Mary. You should remember dates; 
 Uncle Thomas told us he is 71 years old; and, of course, he 
 can only remember what passed fifty or sixty years ago. 
 
 " Philip. Uncle might remember many things that Uncle 
 Philip could only know from hearsay, or reading them. 
 
 " Mary. I am 8 years last June, and I remember a long, 
 long time. 
 
 " Philip. Now, sir, you will oblige us all very much if 
 you will go on with the stories of old times. Y'ou have read 
 all the books as well as Uncle Philip, and know some things 
 of your own besides. 
 
 " Uncle. Well, children, I will do as you wish ; but I 
 must first examine in respect to what you have been told. 
 Do you think that you remember the first part of the his- 
 tory of New York sufficiently to understand the second? 
 
 "Mary. Oh, yes, sir; I remember all about Indians 
 
 " John. Hush, Mary." b* 
 
 This method was popular in the New York acad- 
 emies. At Albany in 1837 was used: 
 
 " What has been styled the interrogative system, and 
 principally introduced into notice by Mr. Wood, of Edin- 
 burgh." 55 
 
 In Schenectady in the same year was reported that 
 " It is required of pupils at their recitations to give the 
 ideas of their author in their own language — prompt an- 
 swers to questions, the test of their understandings." 56 
 
 In Gaines Academy at the same time 
 
 " The teachers made it their constant aim by familiar 
 illustrations and by alternate questions and answers, to 
 secure the voluntary exercise of the mind, by thus render- 
 ing the recitations pleasing as well as instructive." 57 
 
 At Poughkeepsie Female Academy in 1836: 
 
 " Analyses are drawn out by the pupils themselves, after 
 having gone over them once in the way of question and 
 answer. . . . Instruction is likewise accompanied with such 
 verbal explanations and remarks on all various studies as 
 the teacher may deem necessary." 5S 
 
 Jefferson Academy in 1835 reports in a rather com- 
 plete way one way of prosecution of this method: 
 
 " To a class of a dozen pupils is given a lesson. . . . 
 They are iwst required to read the chapter cursorily, mark- 
 
 ^' 54 Wm. Dunlap, "A Histdry-^fNevir York for Schools," pp. 
 9-10. 
 
 55 New Y'ork. op. cit., 1S37, p. S2. 
 66 New York, op. cit.. 1837, p. 87. 
 5TNew York, op. cit., 1837, p. 102. 
 58 New York, op. cit., 1837, p. 102. 
 
 23 
 
ing, however, any passage that strikes the mind very for- 
 cibly, with a pencil. They are next required without any 
 concert to write out five (more or less) of the most im- 
 portant questions they can originate by a critical review 
 and study of the chapter, and to deliver these questions 
 to the teacher, at the recitation seat, giving him answers 
 from memory; those answers being the sentiments (not 
 necessarily the words of the author) or the results of their 
 own observations or readings. It is, I imagine, readily 
 seen, that a high ambition is hereby produced between 
 several members of the class to bring forward a better 
 selection of questions, each than any of the rest, as well as 
 necessarily a stimulated exercise of the judgment, and a 
 critical examination of other parts of the lesson than those 
 brought forward. This, of course, does not preclude the 
 teacher from bringing up at the recitation any important 
 topic, unduly neglected by any or all of the class." 59 
 
 B. Teaching Devices and Objective Aids. 
 
 1. Teaching Devices. 
 
 Special means of facilitating work were discovered 
 and introduced in the early years of the teaching of 
 history in this country. Many of the most success- 
 ful devices practiced to-day were used during the 
 first part of the nineteenth centurj'. 
 
 (a) Review Questions. 
 
 Utica Academy reported in 1835 as follows: 
 
 " From the above imperfect outlines the Regents will ap- 
 preciate the motives of the trustees, believing, as they do, 
 that the primary principle of a sound and useful education 
 is the unfolding of the faculties of the mind and the forma- 
 tion of habits — in insisting upon teacher's requiring of the 
 pupils the most rigid exactness in their studies — compelling 
 them to examine and re-e.xaminc, to review again and again 
 their lessons, till they become perfectly familiar." no 
 
 Faculty psychology and formal discipline required 
 severe work on tlie part of the pupil. Thoroughness 
 and care were demanded. As a consequence, fre- 
 quent examinations and reviews became the order of 
 the day. Schenectady Academy reports in 1836 
 that: 
 
 " The classes in . . . history . . . are taken through the 
 book, reviewing the same several times in one term, which 
 course renders them capable of passing a good examination 
 at the close of the term in every part of the work 
 studied." oi 
 
 Delaware Literary Institute said in 1844: 
 
 " In history, the important events, as well as dates, are 
 required to be thoroughly understood and explained. An 
 examination of the lesson recited the day before is included 
 in every recitation; then a weekly examination of all the 
 preceding week is recited." 02 
 
 Fulton Academy in 184'1 reported as follows: 
 " All students have dailj^ reviewed the lessons of the pre- 
 ceding day. All students have been reviewed weekly in the 
 lessons of the previous week." cs 
 
 ^« New York, op. cit., 1835. p. 59. 
 GO New York, Oji. cit., 1835, pp. 63-4. 
 »i New York, op. oil., 1830, p. 59. 
 02 New York. op. cit.. 1844, p. 138. 
 "•■iNew York, op. cit., 1844, p. 149. 
 
 When the subject was new, and teachers poorly 
 trained, when rigid and laborious reviewing was the 
 order of the day, sets of questions and topics 
 especially designed for review were in demand. 
 Union Hall reported upon the subj ect as follows : 
 
 " Question books are generallj^ used in this institution, 
 when good ones can be obtained. They are supposed to 
 economize time, and direct the student's attention to the 
 more essential portions of his lesson. Nothing but an en- 
 lightened experience can render the labor of forming extem- 
 pore questions from text-books thorough and siiccessful. 
 That the student may not run over the responses to his 
 questions by rote, it is intended that he shall be aqaln 
 questioned on the answers he may give. The subject- 
 matter of the recitation shoidd be broken up into analogies; 
 so that while the qiiestions lead the student to learn his 
 lesson in detail, the teacher may enable him to conceive of 
 it as a whole." o* 
 
 The text-books w-ere quick to see the advantage of 
 this. Among the books, including questions for re- 
 view, are: 
 
 Adams, "An Abridgement of the History of New Eng- 
 land," 1799. 
 Blake, "A Text-book in Geogi'aphy and Chronology," 1814. 
 Citizen of Mass.. " History of the'Uuited States,"" 1821. 
 Goodrich, " History of the United States," 1822. 
 Worcester, "An Epitome of History," 1828. 
 Hildreth, "A View of the United States," 1831. 
 Webster, -'History of the United States," 1835. 
 
 For illustration, the following questions upon the 
 voyages of Columbus are cited : 
 
 ( 1 ) Relate the circumstances of Cohunbus' voyage. «5 
 
 (2) What remarkable discoveries were made generally 
 
 about this time, and in this reign, and by whom? 
 What were their effects on Europe? 
 When was North America discovered, and by 
 
 whom ? «<! 
 
 (3) What two conquests occurred in America? 
 Birthplace of Columbus? 
 
 To whom <lid he appeal for aid ? 
 
 By whom patronized ? 
 
 Describe his first voyage? 
 
 And his second — and third. 
 
 What gave the name of America? 6t 
 
 (4) What is the extent of this period and for what is it 
 distinguished? 
 
 Section 1. Who made the early discoveries on the con- 
 tinent of America? Who took the lead? Who was 
 Christopher Columbus? Under whose patronage did he 
 sail? In what year? What place did he first discover? 
 Relate the most remarkable circumstances of his voyage. 
 Give an account of Americus Vespucius. 
 
 2. Wliat were the first discoveries made under English 
 patronage? When? By whom? 
 
 3. What is said of the early discoveries of the French 
 in America? 
 
 4. AVliat is said of Sir Walter Raleigh's expedition to 
 America in 1584? Whence had Virginia its name? 
 
 5. When and by whom was Ca))e Cod discovered? 
 
 64 New York, op. cit., 1836, p. 54. 
 <15 Citizen of Massachusetts, op. cit., p. 251. 
 68 Butler, op. cit., p. 201. 
 
 6' Anon, " Questions Adapted to the Study of Tytler's 
 Elements." p. 125. 
 
 24 
 
Notes. 
 
 6. Wliat was the state of the country on the arrival of 
 the first settlers ? 
 
 7. By whom was the coiintrj' inhabited? What was their 
 number ? Physical character ? General character ? What 
 can j'on say of their literature, arts and manufactures, 
 agi-iculture, skill in medicine, employments, amusements, 
 dress, habitations, domestic utensils, food, money, society, 
 war, government, religious notions, marriage, treatment of 
 females, rites of burial, origin? os 
 
 Such questions were generally placed at the ends 
 of chapter.s, or as appendices in the back of the book. 
 Occasionally questions were inserted as footnotes. 
 Question books, adapted to popular texts, were pub- 
 lished, eighteen such books being included in the list 
 in the appendix. 
 
 (6) Topical Outlines. 
 
 Outlines and " chronological tables " were in- 
 cluded in many of the first text-books printed in this 
 country. As a rule, these were not " topical out- 
 lines " at all in any modern sense of the term. They 
 were merely lists of events with dates, arranged in 
 chronological order. Examples of this are: 
 
 (1) From Emma Willard, 
 States," p. 311. 
 
 History of the United 
 
 Catalogue of Prominent Men who Died During the 
 Period Extending from 1789 to 1803. 
 
 1789. Ethan Allen, a brigadier-general in the American 
 
 army. 
 John Ledyabd, an enterprising traveler. 
 John Morgan, M.D., F.R.S., a learned physician. 
 
 1790. Joseph Bellamy, D.D., a learned divine, author of a 
 
 treatise entitled, " True Religion Delineated." 
 James Bowdoin, LL.D., a distinguislied philosopher 
 
 and statesman, and first president of the American 
 
 Academy of Arts and Sciences. 
 David Brearly, distinguished as a lawyer and a 
 
 statesman. 
 Benjamin Franklin, LL.D., F.R.S., a celebrated 
 
 philosopher and statesman. 
 William Livingston, author of a poem called 
 
 " Philosophical Solitude," and miscellaneous pieces 
 
 in prose and verse. 
 Israel Putnam, a major-general in the American 
 
 army. 
 
 (2) From Emma Willard, op. cit., p. xsxiv. 
 
 1789. April 30. Washington inaugurated first President of 
 
 the United States. 
 The President visits New England. 
 North Carolina accedes to the Constitution. 
 
 1790. Mr. Hamilton's system of funding the national debt 
 
 adopted. 
 Rhode Island accedes to the Constitution. 
 Aug. 7. Treaty with the Creek Indians. 
 Sept. 30. General Harner defeated by the Indians. 
 Tennessee erected into a Territory. 
 
 1791. Duties laid on spirits distilled within the United 
 
 States. 
 A national bank is established. 
 Vermont admitted to the Union. 
 Nov. 4. General St. Clair defeated by the Indians. 
 
 (3) From Tucker, " Sacred and Profane History 
 Epitomized," p. 337. 
 
 1775. The American War commences. Action at Bunker's 
 Hill, June 7. 
 The Spaniards land near Algiers and are defeated, 
 July 8. 
 1770. The Congi'ess declares the United States of America 
 independent of the crown and parliament of Great 
 Britain. -1th July. 
 The Americans receive a dj'eadful defeat at Long 
 Island, August 27. 
 
 1777. Philadelphia taken by the British, October 3. 
 General Burgoync and his army surrender to the 
 
 Americans. 
 
 1778. Philadelphia evacuated by the British, June 18. 
 
 1779. A most extraordinary eruption of Vesuvius, 
 
 August 8. 
 The siege of Gibraltar begun bjr the Spaniards, 
 July 8. 
 
 1780. January 14, 6 A.M., the thermometer suspended in 
 
 the open air at Glasgow stood at 46 below 0. 
 The Spanish fleet defeated by Admiral Rodney, Jan- 
 uary 16. 
 Charleston surrendered to the British, May 12. 
 A dreadful insurrection in London, and riots in many 
 
 other places of the kingdom. 
 A great number of British ships taken by the com- 
 bined fleets of France and Spain. 
 Lord Cornwallis defeats the Americans at Camden. 
 A dreadful hiu'ricane in the Leeward Islands, Octo- 
 ber 9. 
 An extraordinary storm of wind in England. 
 War declared against the Dutch, December 20. 
 
 1781. A terrible engagement between the Dutch and 
 
 British fleets near the Dogger Bank, August 5. 
 Lord Cornwallis and his army surrender to the united 
 forces of France and America, October 18. 
 
 1782. Minorca surrendered to the Spaniards, February 4. 
 The French fleet under De Grasse defeated and 
 
 almost destroyed by Admiral Rodney, April 12. 
 The Spanish floating batteries before Gibraltar en- 
 tirely destroj'ed, April 12. 
 
 1783. Preliminaries of a general peace signed. America 
 
 declared independent, January 20. 
 
 A dreadful earthquake attended by many extra- 
 ordinary circiunstances in Italy and Sicily. 
 
 The sun obsciu'ed by a kind of a fog during the whole 
 summer. 
 
 A volcanic eruption in Iceland surpassing anything 
 recorded in history. The lava spouted up in three 
 places to the height of three miles perpendicular, 
 and continued thus for two months; during which 
 time it covered a tract of 3,600 square miles of 
 ground, in some places more than 100 feet deep. 
 
 Ontario Female Seminary reported in 1849 as 
 follows : 
 
 " Nor is it customary in this seminary to conduct the 
 recitation in mental studies, by questions and answers. 
 Having the topics given her, the pupil is required to unfold 
 these unaided." 69 
 
 With this as a foundation, the topical outline in 
 the broader sense was gradually built up. The 
 process was very slow, however. In Newburgh 
 Academy, in 1839, the following method was reported: 
 
 " History is taught perhaps in our own way. A set of 
 topics is made out by the principal for a single lesson, and 
 
 68 Goodrich, op. cit., p. 1 (of questions). 
 
 80 New York, op. cit., 1849, p. 164. 
 
 25 
 
an outline map of the geography embraced in the subject 
 is drawn. These are copied by the pupils, maps and all. 
 The principal then goes over the topics with familiar re- 
 marks and explanations, pointing, when necessary, to the 
 outline maps and endeavoring to bring the subject vividly 
 before his youthful auditors. The marked attention, and 
 sometimes the starting tear and heaving bosom testify to 
 his success. The pupils then study the topics from their 
 books and then recite." "" 
 
 Few references are found to show a much wider 
 use. In fact, as late as 1871, William Swinton at- 
 tributed the chief advance made by his " School His- 
 tory of the United States " to its " method of topical 
 reviews." The scheme was to study and learn the 
 lessons, and finally to cover the larger units. The 
 covering of the smaller units in their relation to the 
 larger, with the help of a topical outline, is compara- 
 tively modern. Germs of it, however, did exist at an 
 early date. 
 
 (c) Reference Reading. 
 
 Occasional illustrations are found of the use of col- 
 lateral reading as an aid either to the lecture or the 
 test book method. The employment of reference 
 reading, however, was so slight as to be of practically 
 no importance. Delaware Literary Institute re- 
 ported in 1844: " Reference is made to many books 
 not strictly considered as text-books." "^ 
 
 Alfred Academy in the same year said: 
 
 " Though time would scarcely permit to pursue a more 
 extended course of history than the one mentioned in the 
 report, yet the students have been encoui-aged to read 
 others; and familiar lectures, bringing to view the most im- 
 portant and interesting events in history, whether ancient 
 or modern, have been frequently given." i- 
 
 (d) Note Book Work. 
 
 One illustration has been found of the early use 
 of the note book. Black River Literary and Re- 
 ligious Institute in 1844 makes mention of such work. 
 The principal says: 
 
 '■ The practice of taking notes from oral dictation with 
 all practicable rapidity, prepares the students, in after life, 
 to adopt the same course in the hearing of lectures, 
 speeches, or sermons. In connection with the preparing of 
 the practical exercises, it prepares him to commit rapidly 
 and correctly to paper his own thouglits." Js 
 
 2. Objective Aids. 
 (a) Map Work. 
 
 Seven per cent, of all the books included in the list 
 (see Appendix), published between 1800 and 1860, 
 included geography in the title as well. There was 
 close connection between geography and history. It 
 is thus natural that the use of maps and geographical 
 material should early have become common in the 
 teaching of history in the secondary schools. Thus, 
 for instance, Morse and Parish, in "A Compendious 
 History of New England, 1809, " included a good 
 
 70 New York, op. cif., 1839, p. 107. 
 ■1 New York, op. cit., 1844, p. 1.39. 
 
 72 New York, op. cit., 1844, p. 1.51. 
 
 73 New York, op. cit., 1844, p. 146. 
 
 map of New England. Other early histories, such as 
 Hildreth, etc., also included maps. Butler's "A 
 Catechetical Compend of General History, " pub- 
 lished in 1818, instructs teachers as follows: 
 
 ■■ It may be taught either by reading it classically, or by 
 studying it upon small school maps, such as Cumraings and 
 Hilliards or Wilietts or Adams, in the manner of studying 
 geogi-aphy, etc., etc." ''■<■ 
 
 Emma Willard. in her " History of the Republic 
 of America," says: 
 
 " This work is designed for pupils who are already in a 
 measure acquainted with geogiaphy, particularly with the 
 use of maps. My own pupils who will be put to study it, will 
 be able to draw without a model, but merely from recol- 
 lection, maps of the principal countries of the world, par- 
 ticularly of the United States." 's 
 
 The New York academies made a considerable use 
 of maps. For instance, Newburgh Academy reported 
 in 1839: 
 
 "A set of topics is set out by the principal for a single 
 lesson, and an outline map of the geogi-aphy embraced in 
 the subject is drawn. These are copied by the pupils, maps 
 and all. The principal then goes over the topics with 
 familiar remarks and explanations, pointing, when neces- 
 sary, to the outline maps, and endeavoring to bring the 
 subject vividly before his youthful auditors. ... As an 
 example of the maps, the first one upon the history of the 
 United States is an outline of the western coast of Europe, 
 the Straits of Gibraltar, the Atlantic Ocean, and the East- 
 ern Coast of America. The second is a map of the coast 
 of the United States, with here and there a settlement, 
 the rest an unbroken wilderness. The third is a map of 
 the colonics, etc." '•'' 
 
 Alfred Academy, in 1844, reported as follows: 
 
 " In studying history, geogiaphy is a subject of refer- 
 ence, so far as is necessary to recall to mind a complete 
 knowledge of the countries and places mentioned in the 
 history. Drawing maps both on the blackboard and on 
 paper has been made a frequent exercise." 77 
 
 Henry K. Oliver (mentioned above) saw no maps 
 or objective material in the schools during the last 
 decades of the eighteenth century. Progress was 
 made in the next forty years, and map work, of a 
 crude sort, became quite general. No specific refer- 
 ence to early wall maps has been found. 
 
 (6) Blackboard Work. 
 
 The blackboard was often used in the New York 
 academies, but it was still sufficiently new by 1845 to 
 be an object of comment. 
 
 Amenia Seminary reported in 1837: ". . . . very 
 extensive use has been made of the blackboard in 
 almost all recitations. " "* 
 
 Lowville Academy in 1837 said: "The teachers 
 avail themselves of blackboards and apparatus in 
 communicating instruction. " '® 
 
 7* Butler, op. cit., preface. 
 
 75 E. Willard, " History of the Republic of America," p. 5. 
 
 76 New York, op. cit., 18.30, p. 107. 
 
 77 New York, op. cit., 1844, p. 151. 
 
 78 New York, op. cit., 1837, p. 78. 
 70 New York, op. cit., 1837, p. 03. 
 
 26 
 
Utica Academy generalizes as follows: 
 
 " For the purpose of discriminating and comprehending, 
 everything must, if possible, be presented to the eye. 
 Every subject which admits this mode of illustration is sub- 
 jected to exercise on the blaclcboard." ■?» 
 
 Similar expressions of confidence are found among 
 others in Kinderhook Academy,"^ Genesee Wesleyan 
 Academy/- Auburn Academy/^ Delaware Academy,** 
 Troy Female Seminary/^ Syracuse Academy/^ Lan- 
 sinberg,''" Delaware Literary Institute/- Gouveneur 
 Wesleyan,'*^ Clinton Seminary/" and Stillwater 
 Academy."^ 
 
 (c) Charts. 
 
 Rather extensive tabulation of historical data was 
 not uncommon in the early days of history teaching 
 in this country. Maps, we have seen, were also often 
 used. Blackboards were at hand upon which to 
 work. It is not unnatural, therefore, that a pic- 
 torial representation of historical phenomena should 
 have been used as an aid in the teaching of the sub- 
 ject. \Vorcester's " Elements of History," published 
 in 1818, includes an elaborate chart, extending from 
 800 B. C. to 1818 A. D., decorated in many colors, 
 " to facilitate history study." Its value lay in the 
 possibilities of cross section and longitudinal study, 
 for perspective. 
 
 This form of objective aid has been popular from 
 that day to this. Elaborate, indeed, have been some 
 of the charts in use. Elizabeth Peabody, in her 
 " Chronological History of the United States (New 
 York, 1856), shows this tendency in the extreme. 
 The chart is very elaborate. Each century is rep- 
 resented as a large square, sub-divided into 100 
 smaller squares, with heavy lines marking off the 
 quarter centuries. That the pupil may center his at- 
 tention upon matters of importance, small blocks are 
 entered in the year squares, corresponding to the 
 occurrence of such an event. These blocks vary as 
 to color and position, according to country and type 
 of event. For instance: 
 
 The positions of the squares are determined as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Brick red 
 
 
 
 
 
 = Spain 
 
 Blue 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ France 
 
 Purple 
 
 
 
 
 
 = England 
 
 Bluish green 
 
 
 
 
 = Sweden 
 
 Yellowish 
 
 green 
 
 
 
 = Holland 
 
 Orange 
 
 
 
 
 
 = America 
 
 80 New York, op. 
 
 cit. 
 
 1838, 
 
 P- 
 
 97. 
 
 
 61 New York, op. 
 
 cit., 
 
 183S, 
 
 P- 
 
 85. 
 
 
 82 New York, op. 
 
 cit, 
 
 1838, 
 
 P- 
 
 98. 
 
 
 83 New York, op. 
 
 cit., 
 
 1838, 
 
 P- 
 
 99. 
 
 
 s*New York, op. 
 
 at. 
 
 1839, 
 
 P- 
 
 108. 
 
 
 S5 New York, op. 
 
 cit, 
 
 1839, 
 
 P- 
 
 114. 
 
 
 86 New York, op. 
 
 cit, 
 
 1839, 
 
 P- 
 
 129. 
 
 
 8' New York, op. 
 
 cit. 
 
 1840, 
 
 P- 
 
 191. 
 
 
 83 New York, op. 
 
 cit., 
 
 1841, 
 
 P- 
 
 90. 
 
 
 89 New York, op. 
 
 cit., 
 
 1844, 
 
 P- 
 
 143. 
 
 
 90 New Y'ork, op. 
 
 at. 
 
 1844, 
 
 P- 
 
 149. 
 
 
 »i New Y'ork, op. 
 
 at.. 
 
 1846, 
 
 P- 
 
 146. 
 
 
 Battles— Sieges 
 Beginning.* of War 
 
 Conquests 
 Annexation — Unions 
 
 Losses 
 and Disasters 
 
 Falls of State 
 
 Foundations of States 
 and Revolutions 
 
 Treaties 
 and Sundries 
 
 Births 
 
 Deeds 
 
 Deaths of Remark- 
 able Individuals 
 
 The instructions which tell the story are: 
 " When colors slant into each other, the nations concur 
 in events. When several disconnected events happen in one 
 square they are painted parallelograms. Epochal events 
 fill the whole square to the neglect of sub-divisions. 
 
 " You will become acquainted with this symbolization 
 by learning how each event is represented; and as you 
 learn all about the events, in the chapters that describe 
 their relation in the narrative, you will find that the pic- 
 tiu'e will become fixed in your memory. It is easier to re- 
 member the relative locality of the representation than to 
 remember the figures of the dates; while if you understand 
 the plan, any locality can be tm-ned into the figiu-es, by a 
 moment's thought, whenever you need them. All dates are 
 not represented; but if you have the dates here represented 
 perfectly by heart, events are so connected in the narra- 
 tive of history that you can easily place any one, by the 
 exercise of your imaginative memory, in its locality, and 
 see its general chronological relation." (10-11.) 
 
 Such a device would in all probability defeat its 
 own ends. It is merely cited as an illustration of a 
 tendency, powerful in its influence. 
 
 C. The Progress of History Methods as Shoxun in 
 Six Editions of C. A. Goodrich's "History 
 of the United States." 
 
 It has been shown that in early times the methods 
 were simple and crude, that modifications were sug- 
 gested to rote work, tliat catechetical methods were in- 
 troduced, that teaching devices and objective aids 
 were discovered. The exact effect of such innova- 
 tions upon class-room procedure has not been deter- 
 mined. There are not sufficient data at hand. 
 
 There is, however, a means at our disposal, by 
 which in a small way may be secured a consecutive 
 view of the progress in methods as carried out in 
 practice. We may study the changes made in vari- 
 ous editions of the same book, realizing that since 
 class-room methods follow the text, we are more 
 closely approximating a knowledge of actual prac- 
 tice. C. A. Goodrich's " History of the United 
 States " was the most popular history text-book of its 
 day. Its total sales are estimated at over .500.000 
 copies in fifty years. If, then, the growth and im- 
 provement in methods and suggestions be closely 
 watched in the following six editions, we shall be able 
 to see the growth from 1822 to 1867. The editions 
 at hand are: 
 
 (1) Goodrich, C. A. 
 Hartford, 1824. 
 
 "History of the United States.' 
 
 (2) Goodrich, C. A. "A History of the United States 
 of America on a Plan Adapted to the Capacities of Youths 
 
and Designed to Aid the Memory by Systematic Arrange- 
 ment and Interesting Associations." 35th edition. Bos- 
 ton, 1852. 
 
 (3) Goodrich, C. A. "A History of the United States 
 of America from the Discovery of the Continent by Christo- 
 pher Columbus to the Present Time." Hartford, 1833. 
 
 (4) Goodrich, C. A. (Same as 2.) 55th edition. Clare- 
 mont, N. H.. 1834. 
 
 (5) Goodiich. C. A. (Same as 2.) New edition. Bos- 
 ton, 1852. 
 
 {e>) Goodrich, C. A. "History of the United States of 
 America for the Use of Schools, Revised and Brought Down 
 to the Present Time by William H. Seavey. Boston. 1807. 
 
 The first edition (1824) is an enlargement of the 
 first edition, intended, in all probability, for use in 
 the home. There are consequently no directions to 
 teacher and pupil. Important points are printed in 
 heavy-faced type. There are occasional illustra- 
 tions. 
 
 The second edition (1829) was intended for school 
 use. Its suggestions to teachers have already been 
 mentioned. Memoriter vrork was demanded. The 
 book was to be " learned " over and over again. The 
 innovation in the edition is a set of " review ques- 
 tions " placed in the back of the book, with the more 
 important questions put in italics. The pupil was 
 not, therefore, called upon to use his own judgment. 
 
 Our third edition (1833) improves upon the first in 
 a small way. Several illustrations are added and a 
 " chronological list " is placed in the appendix. 
 This includes all the officers of the first six adminis- 
 trations. 
 
 The fourth edition (1831), being of the same 
 period, makes no advance. There are a few illustra- 
 tions, and the review questions are omitted. 
 
 The fifth edition, eighteen years later (1852), 
 shows many improvements. There are seventy-five 
 pages of review questions in the back of the book, 
 indicating a rapidlv growing popularity in this par- 
 ticular. The facts are still, however, to be " firmly 
 riveted in the memory." There is an index of topics, 
 for the guidance of teacher and pupil. Six maps are 
 included. The Declaration of Independence and the 
 Constitution of the United States are placed in the 
 appendix. Between 183-i and 1853 a great improve- 
 ment is evident. 
 
 The sixth edition, coming in 1867, represents the 
 text book maker's view of the development of history 
 teaching to that date. Large and small type are used 
 as guides to study. The review questions are placed 
 as foot notes on each page. A list of important events, 
 chronologically arranged, follows each chapter. The 
 list of administrative officers, found in number three, 
 is continued to the time of Lincoln. The Constitution 
 and the Declaration of Independence are in the ap- 
 pendix. There is also a table of the states of the 
 union, and a pronouncing index. Maps are numer- 
 ous throughout the book. 
 
 The most important new feature is a chapter in the 
 appendix written by A. P. Stone, entitled " Hints on 
 the Method of Teaching History." He advises di- 
 versity in the assignment, the use of collateral read- 
 ings and topical outlines. He warns against the too 
 frequent use of printed questions. He advises the 
 pupil to read over the lesson one or more times to 
 grasp the general scope of it. 
 
 "After which the difl'erent portions should be learned so 
 thoroughly that he can give a full or concerted account of 
 it, as a whole or by topic, with but few questions or hints 
 from the teacher." 
 
 He advises reference to maps and to biographies. 
 The teacher's questions should make the pupil think. 
 Review should only come when needed, and should 
 be for the purpose of grouping and generalization. 
 
 So far had methods progressed bv the time of the 
 Civil War. 
 
 (D.) Exceptional Cases of Early Methods Judged 
 in the Light of Modern Standards. 
 
 The secondary school is the institution designed 
 for the training of our leaders. The curriculum fol- 
 lowed and the methods used should be vmder the 
 domination of such an aim. Perhaps the most im- 
 portant quality which marks off the leader from the 
 led, is the ability to do one's own thinking, to 
 approach a new situation from one's own point of 
 view, to analyze and solve without delay, the problem 
 which is always confronting one. The achievement of 
 correct habits of thought, as the work of the second- 
 ary school, was appreciated, as we have seen in the 
 previous chapter, from the first. It was a natural 
 expression in terms of formal discipline and faculty 
 psychology. There were, however, individuals who 
 appreciated from a common sense point of view the 
 real significance of the problem. This is a good 
 statement of the case: 
 
 " Now no one will deny the superiority of correct mental 
 habits, to a bare accuuuilation of isolated facts. In what- 
 ever pursuit the pupil may engage in after life, he will 
 never fail to meet with the requisite number of subjects to 
 demand the constant action of his intellectual powers. He 
 will find in his daily avocations and daily walks, facts in- 
 nimierable; facts in his individual history; in the history 
 of nations; in the action of government and laws; in the 
 phenomena of nature; in the matters of business; facts, in 
 short, at every step, of the origin and nature of which 
 books furnish no exi)lanation, but which he must constantly 
 analyze, solve and demonstrate for himself. . . . The great 
 object to be acquired is correct habits of thought. Every- 
 thing should be directed to the accomplishment of this gi-eat 
 end." 03 
 
 Riga Academy in 1850 reported as follows: 
 " To teach how to thinj; is or should be the principal 
 object of the whole course of discipline of the school room. 
 Every mind is full of thoughts, and he who has these under 
 perfect control, so that they will go and come at his bid- 
 ding, is the educated man. Practice will accomplish this, 
 and practice should be the practice of the school." s-i 
 
 The pursuit of such an aim for the faculty psy- 
 chologist meant severe application and zealous pre- 
 paration upon almost any subject matter and in 
 almost any way, so long as it remained difficult. 
 According to the modern logic, based upon the new 
 psychology, training for correct habits of thought 
 rests upon an entirely new basis. Thinking comes in 
 answer to a problem, a felt want. The thinker must 
 feel the value of the solution, or he will not bother 
 himself about it. Organization of material for solu- 
 tion is needed, and the individual must have the right 
 to approach the situation in his own way. As a con- 
 
 93 New York, op. cit., 1841, p. 105. 
 o»New York. op. cit., 1850, p. 198. 
 
 28 
 
sequence, from this point of view these elements must 
 be provided for in the class room, if the instruction 
 is actually to train for correct habits of thought. 
 
 Faculty psychology and formal discipline were no 
 barriers to some of the teachers in the early days. 
 Common sense and intuition helped individuals to pro- 
 vide better teaching; and even when judged by 
 modern day standards, some of the instruction in his- 
 tory would stand the test. 
 
 It will be interesting to note, therefore, the extent 
 to which a few individuals appreciated in early days 
 the standards laid down by modern psychology, logic, 
 and sociology. 
 
 Provision for Motive on the Part of the Pupils. 
 
 Motive was provided for the pupil, but often of a 
 negative sort. The scholar did his work, and the 
 birch rod spurred him on. He was compelled to do 
 his task, whether or not. Utica Academy reported in 
 1835: 
 
 '■ Habitual idleness must never be tolerated by the teach- 
 ers of oiu- academy. The students must be taught that 
 industry is a duty. The incorrigibly idle are separated 
 from the regular classes, and degraded into classes by them- 
 selves and subjected to punishment at the discretion of the 
 teachers. Their situation here soon becomes so uncomfort- 
 able that they are usually removed by parents to places 
 more congenial to their habits." "^ 
 
 " The government of the students is rigid, but not severe. 
 One general rule is suiiicient to guide the students at all 
 times, and on all occasions, viz. : ' Every scholar must do 
 his duty.' Wlien other means fail to produce obedience, 
 corpora) punishments are inflicted at the discretion of the 
 teachers; generally, however, with information to the 
 parents of the character and circiunstances that call for 
 severity." »o 
 
 Other types of fear and reward were used. Troy 
 Female Seminary represented a type: 
 
 "The method to accomplish this result (not easily at- 
 tained) is, we consider, the fixing in the mind of the pupil 
 at the commencement of a term, a certain expectation of 
 a public and thorough examination at the close. . . " ^^ 
 
 Utica Academy was one of a group to offer another 
 type of motive. 
 
 "As a reward for particular excellence in studies or in 
 deportment, bj' complying with specific regulations or di- 
 rections, any student is entitled once a week to a letter of 
 recommendation, recommending him to his parent or friend 
 for such reward as he shall think proper to bestow." 9' 
 
 Occasionally, however, a far-seeing man intuitively 
 realized the need of proper provision for motive. The 
 principal of Livingston County High School, an 
 educational progressive of his day, spoke as follows : 
 
 " The pupil is always pleased with ascertaining for him- 
 self everything submitted to his investigation. Who has 
 not witnessed the joy gleaming on the countenance of the 
 child when success has crowned its own unaided efforts? 
 And this natural principle, the only true and proper basis 
 of school discipline, is commonly stifled in our early youth. 
 We then resort to the ferule; and to the worst of all in- 
 fluences, emulation; to supply the deficiency, to remedy 
 
 05 New York, op. cit., 1835, p. 62. 
 
 96 New York, op. cit., 18.35, p. 62. 
 
 87 New York, op. cit., 1838. p. 88. 
 
 »8New York, op. cit., 1836, p. 66. 
 
 29 
 
 the evil, we ourselves have created. True, the scholar often 
 requires guidance, but never to be led blindfolded. He 
 ' looks for a guide, not a governor.' Is the pupil encour- 
 aged to walk boldly forward, or is he driven into the dark- 
 ness before him. to stumble at every obstacle which 
 another's hand has not removed, or to be frightened at 
 phantoms." so 
 
 Constructively he continues, " nature has implanted 
 in man the spirit of curiosity. . . . There is a pleasure 
 in mental activity. The pupil should not be ' told the 
 solution of the problem.' He should ' trace out the 
 causes and effects of every phenomenon for himself.' " 
 This plan was substantiated in practice and the re- 
 sults are reported thus : 
 
 " The common system has been aptly termed ' the rail- 
 road system of knowledge, a rapid passage to the journey's 
 end, but nothing seen by the way.' ' Often he has wit- 
 nessed the highest mental gratification exhibited by the 
 pupil, when the latter has of himself obtained the correct 
 solution of a question in history or science. And to that 
 youthful mind, it necessarily partook of all the pleasures 
 of an important discovery, a discovery, too, which never 
 will be forgotten.' " «9 
 
 This belief that thought comes in answer to a 
 problem, a problem appreciated by the pupil, while 
 rare in practice among schoolmen, was not entirely 
 unheard of. That it was consciously held is improb- 
 able. That the principle (quoted above) was verging 
 on modern theory, however, cannot be far from true. 
 
 Consideration of Values on the Part of the Pupils. 
 
 In no one place was there a complete appreciation 
 of the importance of the pupil weighing the worth of 
 the subject matter for himself, as a phase of good 
 mental work. There was, however, a gradually grow- 
 ing feeling on the part of educators that all subjects 
 were not of equal worth, that the mental training 
 receivable varied with different studies, and that 
 practical utility was a consideration well worthy of 
 note. Concomitant with the growth of this feeling, 
 was the gradual and never complete transference of 
 this idea to the pupil himself. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin in his famous " chapeau bras " 
 passage, argued for the need of practical utility in 
 subject matter. Gideon Hawley, Secretary of the 
 New York Board of Regents, in the passage quoted 
 above, had tlie same opinion. The principal of 
 Kinderhook Academy in 1841 said: 
 
 " We are fully persuaded that too small a portion of time 
 has been given to subjects of practical utility; for instance, 
 many teachers expend much time on ' Heathen Mythology ' 
 and very little on the ' Constitution of the United States.' 
 Too much time is often given to ancient history, compared 
 with that allotted to the history of our own times." loo 
 
 The principal of Dutchess Comity Academy in 
 1844 wrote: 
 
 '■ It is better, in my opinion, for a lad to know some- 
 thing about the laws and constitution of his own State than 
 about the stars, which will do as they like for us; but by 
 knowing the laws we can better control others and our- 
 selves." 101 
 
 99 New York, op. cit., 1841, pp. 105-6. 
 
 100 New York, op. cit., 1841, p. 81. 
 
 101 New York, op. cit., 1844, p. 137. 
 
The question of relative value was a puzzle to the 
 progressive schoolmen of the day. As an illustration, 
 see the remarks of the principal of Livuigston County 
 High School in 1840: 
 
 " Tlie distinction between the most and least practical 
 subjects of study is one which is not clearly understood. 
 Without pretending to any superior discrimination upon 
 this point, it is confidently believed that the great mistake 
 generally made upon this subject, results from looking to 
 what MAY BE, rather than to what is, of daily application. 
 The parent directs the teacher to confine his child to the 
 most practical studies. Is the pupil taught intellectual 
 philosophy, political economy, rhetoric and kindred sub- 
 jects? The parent complains of a disregard on the teach- 
 er's part of the request originally made. It is said that 
 the child should have been drilled in mathematics. The 
 advantages resulting from the latter studies are by no 
 means unappreciated; but is the Icnowledge derived from 
 them of such frequent, constant application, as that ob- 
 tained from the former class of studies? The great prin- 
 ciples of mental philosophy, political economy, and ethics. 
 are of never ceasing application. Their practical utility 
 may be ascertained by listening for only a few minutes to 
 the conversation of intelligent men, upon any question of 
 importance to the community. These studies which have 
 been generally regarded as merely speculative or theoreti- 
 cal, which in truth are far more practical than those judged 
 to be such by most men." lo- 
 
 Horace Mann was alive to the same problem. After 
 making the survey of secondary education in Mas- 
 sachusetts in 1813 (quoted above), he says; 
 
 ■' Can any satisfactory gi-ound be assigned why algebra — 
 a branch which not one man in a thousand ever had the 
 occasion to use in the business of life — should be studied 
 by more than twenty-three hundred pupils, and book-keep- 
 ing, wiiich every man, even the day laborer, should under- 
 stand, should be attended to by only a little more than 
 half that number? Among farmers and road-makers, why 
 should geometry take precedence of surveying, and among 
 seekers after intellectual and moral truth, why should 
 rhetoric have double the followers of logic? "'"s 
 
 ^ It is evident that among occasional educators the 
 problem of relative worth was beginning to have 
 weight. The problem, when considered, however, 
 pertained only to the administrator, the maker of the 
 curriculum. The further step, that the pupil should 
 see the worth was almost never taken. 
 
 Whitesboro Academy in 1836 said: 
 
 " We aim at seciuing an interest in study by inspiring 
 the pupil with a sense of the value and importance ot 
 knowledge." i<n 
 
 These are probably only words, words that sound 
 meaningful to the modern ear, but which denote but 
 little for the past. 
 
 Stillwater Academy reported in 1810 as follows: 
 
 " We are strenuously particular in requiring the lohii and 
 the wherefore of everything that comes within the scope 
 of the reasoning powers; not merely that the scholar should 
 see or think he sees the why or the wherefore, but be able 
 to ten it." 105 
 
 102 New York, op. eit., 1840, pp. 101-2. 
 
 103 Massachusetts, "Annual Report of the Board of Educa- 
 tion," 1843, p. 56. 
 
 104 New York, up. eit., 18,37, p. 97. 
 
 105 New York, np. rit., 1840, p. !)4. 
 
 Kinderhook Academy in 1839 said: 
 
 '■ It is oui' aim to direct our pupils to those subjects which 
 are of the gi-eatest practical utility, and to lay the founda- 
 tion broad and deej) for a solid education. With this idea 
 we have devoted a portion of each week to some subject 
 connected with the general principles of government, or to 
 a consideration of the constitution of the United States, or 
 the structure of our own state government." lo^ 
 
 Black River Literary and Religious Institute re- 
 l^orted as follows in 1841: 
 
 •■ The prominent events aflecting the welfare of nations 
 and the cause of philanthropy, are presented once a week, 
 so that in their secluded situation we can give our students 
 a glance at things of moment in the wide world about them. 
 We are not much enamoured with the old system of di-y 
 application to scholastic test-books, altogether unenlivened 
 bj' the mention of incidents or interests in real life, domes- 
 tie, social or national. One object is to train our pupils for 
 the gi'eat business of life by incorporating moral, religious 
 and economic culture with scientific and literary; and we 
 believe that in attending to the former we aid the student 
 to make greater proficiency in the latter. We show him 
 the uses of knowledge; and the responsibilities that are 
 about to encircle him in his progi-essive march of improve- 
 ment and glowing capabilities of action." i07 
 
 Tiie principal of Livingston County High School 
 approached more nearly than anyone else the modern 
 point of view. He said: 
 
 " The scholar is a reasoning being; and nothing but sat- 
 isfactory proofs in science or art ought to satisfy him. His 
 duty in life is that of a leadee, not a blind follower. He 
 is to be one of the buusrs of his country, not the dupe of 
 other men's arts. How has he qualified himself for his 
 vocation when his whole youth has been spent in leajjninq 
 TO BE LED? Authority and testimony have their appro- 
 priate sphere of action. They are not, however, to usiu-p 
 universal dominion. That young man who leaves the 
 school-room with a well-fixed habit of examining for him- 
 self, of never acting but from a piu'e conviction of the jus- 
 tice and truth of his course, is the only one that can be 
 called eOiicuted. Ko matter, comparatively, if his store of 
 facts be limited, he has within himself a power above all 
 naked facts — a power to look through the form of things, 
 into the principles which underlie and give value to 
 thera."ios 
 
 Since almost no results have persisted, provision 
 for pupil motive could not have influenced the teach- 
 ing profession to any great degree. 
 
 Atte7ifio7i to Organization on the Part of the Pupils. 
 The attention to organization, common at the time, 
 has been shown under " review questions " treated 
 above. The evil of poor organization was often real- 
 ized. As an illustration see the report of Union Hall 
 Academy in 1836 saying that the pupil might be 
 
 a master of a great and undigested mass of facts, and 
 yet he may not be able to avail himself of these facts from 
 an ignorance of their relation and dependency." ii"> 
 
 Whitesboro Academy said in 1837: 
 
 " Sound judgment depends upon attention to all relations, 
 the more minute as well as the more obvious, and a proper 
 estimate of those relations." no 
 
 106 New York, op. cit., 1839, p. 109. 
 10- New York, op. eit., 1841, p. 98. 
 lOsNew York, op. eit., 1841, pp. 106-7. 
 ion New York, op. cit., 1836, p. 54. 
 no New York, op. eit., 1837, p. 97. 
 
 30 
 
Considerable effort was made in many places to 
 secure organization through the centering of the 
 pupils' attention upon relative importance of feature 
 of a topic. For instance, many pupils were required 
 to hand in " the most important questions which they 
 can originate by a critical review and study of the 
 chapter. " Jefferson Academy in using the same 
 method (quoted above) said that " a comparative 
 estimate of scholarship will be made by a compara- 
 tive estimate of the importance of the questions 
 brought forward." 
 
 The importance of organization as a means for the 
 training of memory and for exhibition purposes upon 
 examination was realized and to an extent carried 
 out in school practice. Organization as a factor in 
 good mental work was not realized, and its values 
 came as a by-product, if at all. 
 
 Provision for Initiative on the Part of the Pupils. 
 
 According to the newer logic, provision for the 
 pupil to speak his own mind, to think his own 
 thoughts, to put forward his own little opinion for 
 the consideration of his fellows, is a necessary part 
 of good mental work. If, therefore, the school is to 
 train leaders, individuals who are to think for them- 
 selves, some place must be given to this sort of initi- 
 ative. 
 
 Undoubtedly it was at this place that the schools 
 of eighty years ago were at their weakest. The 
 teacher was master, the pupil the slave. Amenia 
 Seminary reports with pride upon the following pro- 
 vision : 
 
 " The classes have usually spent at least one hour each 
 day in the recitation room with their teacher. Most of the 
 students have not had less than three daily recitations. 
 While in the recitation room they have been desired to 
 state freely, either diuing the time of recitation or imme- 
 diately after, any difficulties or new ideas which have been 
 suggested in connection with the subject under considera- 
 tion. In some cases very animated debates upon doubtful 
 points have been allowed." m 
 
 The principal of Livingston County High School 
 saw the situation as follows : 
 
 "He (the pupil) sits listlessly by, waiting to receive 
 passively whatever is prepared by his teacher, fearful often 
 to express in language the little discoveries burning in him 
 for utterance. Day after day he goes through a dry and 
 uninteresting repetition of what his author has written, 
 whilst, it may be. not one principle is understood, or whilst 
 he is even convinced of the falsity of the doctrines taught. 
 Still he must be driven forward on his desert route, and 
 
 recreant, indeed, must he be to his own nature, if no lit- 
 tle driving be not requisite. If it be the object of our 
 school system to make machines instead of scholars, the 
 true coiu-se has been adopted. The pupil has been taught 
 to be acted upon — never to act; to be the object moved — 
 never the mover. And when his ' education is completed ' 
 he goes into the world, fitted to become the credulous dupe 
 of any artful schemer. He has never learned the great 
 duty of self-reliance." "2 
 
 Constructively, this educator makes a plea for 
 initiative in the schools. He says: 
 
 " It will be asked, would you encourage the pupil to dis- 
 sent from the author studied? Yes; most assuredly, 
 whenever the author is wrong. He should never blindly 
 adopt the views of either author or instructor. If neither 
 of them can give a satisfactory reason for his views, he 
 ought not to be believed. If his statement is not accredited, 
 the fault is his own, not the scholar's. He is not fit for his 
 avocation ; let him go learn before he thinks of teaching. 
 The scholar is a reasoning being; and nothing but satis- 
 factory proofs in science or art ought to satisfy him." ii3 
 
 Initiative did exist at times. 
 
 E. Conclusion. 
 
 A student of methods in current use in the teaching 
 of history in our secondary schools can recognize in 
 the procedure of the period before the Civil War 
 many similarities to present day practice. The text 
 book was the chief source of information ; memoriza- 
 tion, especially of the " more important facts and 
 dates " was required, although opposition was arising; 
 catechetical methods were being introduced. Maps, 
 blackboards and charts were in general use; and 
 review questions were popular. Topical outlines were 
 in their infancy. Almost no illustration of the source 
 method was found. 
 
 Certain exceptional cases of good teaching were 
 found. Individuals had apjjroached the modern point 
 of view, despite the faculty psychology and formal 
 discipline. It seems probable that as long as there 
 was no social tradition behind historical study, and as 
 long as pupils paid tuition according to the courses 
 taken, practical utility was emphasized. 
 
 The material deals almost exclusively with New 
 York State. History had achieved equal popularity 
 in Massachusetts, and was beginning to be adopted 
 in other states of the union. Teachers learn by 
 imitation. The principal and the superintendent 
 adopt innovations as a rule only after success has 
 elsewhere been achieved. The experience of the 
 teachers in the secondary schools of New York, there- 
 fore, must have had profound influence upon the 
 teaching of history in the other states of the union. 
 
 Ill New York Report, 1837, p. 78. 
 
 112 New York Report, 1841, p. 106. 
 "3 New York Report, 1841, p. lOG. 
 
 31 
 
Efefi(0)irkiifl T©s^B@®te FQnlbEfeIlfl(idl h®im® ISSl 
 
 1704 Hearne, Thoa. Universal History. Oxford. 
 
 1738 Anon. History of Our Lord and Saviour, Jesus 
 Christ, explained in a Catechetical Way. Boston. 
 
 1746 Kennett, B. Roman Antiquities. London. Balti- 
 more. 
 
 1755 Evans, Lewis. Geographical Historical Essays. 
 Phila. 
 
 1772 Salmon, Thos. New Geographical and Historical 
 Grammar. London. 12th ed. 
 
 1782 Guthrie. New Geographical, Historical and Com- 
 mercial Reader. London. 7th ed. 15th, 1795. 
 Tytler, A. Outlines of Universal History. Edin. 
 
 1787 Anon. Introduction to the History of America. 
 Phila. 
 
 1796 Winchester. A Plain Political Catechism. Green- 
 field. 
 
 1799 Adams, Hannah. An Abridgement of the History of 
 New England. Dedham. 2d ed. Boston. 1807. 
 
 180.3 Millot. Elements of History. 
 
 1805 Cooper, Rev. Mr. History of N. Am. Lansingburg, 
 N. Y. 1818. 2d ed. 
 
 1806 Webster. Noah. Elements of Useful Knowledge. I. 
 Hartford. 3d. New London, 1807. II. New Haven. 
 1802-4e-8. in. New Haven. 1806-1812. 
 
 Whelpley, Saml. Compend of History. 2 vols. Morris- 
 town.' 3d. N. Y., 1814; 5th, 1821; 8th, 1825. 
 Tucker, Benj. Sacred and Profane History Epitomized. 
 
 1807 Johnson, W. R. History of Greece in Easy Verse. 
 London. 
 
 1808 Cooper, Rev. Mr. History of Greece and Rome. 
 Plymouth. 2d. ISlS. 
 
 Bingham, Caleb. A Historical Grammar. Boston. 2d 
 ed. 
 
 1809 Morse and Parish. A Compendious History of New 
 England. Boston. 2d ed. Newburyport, 1820. Same, 
 with abstract. 3d ed. Charlestown, 1820. 
 
 1811 Goldsmith. Abridged History of England. Alexan- 
 dria. 
 Anon. Sketches of Universal History. Phila. 
 
 1813 Goldsmith. History of England (Pennock's Edition). 
 London. 15th ed., 1S3H: 45th ed.. 1840. 
 
 Goldsmith. Grecian History. Phila. 6th ed. 8th ed., 
 
 1810. 
 Mayo, Robt. View of Ancient Geogiapliy and History. 
 
 Phila. 
 
 1814 Blake, J. E. Text Book in Geography and Chronol- 
 ogy. Providence. 
 
 1816 Valpy, R. A Poetical Chronology of Ancient and 
 English History. London. 6th ed. 1813. Boston. 
 
 1817 Butler, Fredk. A Catechetical Compend of General 
 History. Hartford. 2d ed., 1818; 3d ed., Pittsburg, 
 1818; 4th, 1819. 
 
 Worcester, J. E. Universal Gazetteer, Ancient and Mod- 
 \ ern. 2 vols. Andover. Boston. 1823. 
 \ Snowdon, R. History of the United States of America. 
 Phila. 
 Abernathy, A. Pocket Chronological Directory. Hart- 
 ford. 
 Goldsmith. Roman History (abridged). 2d ed. Poiigh- 
 keepsie. 1818. 3d ed., 1820, N. Y.; 25th ed., 1846. 
 
 1818 Goldsmith. Abridged History of England. Balti- 
 more. 2d ed. 
 
 Butler, Fredk. Sketches of Universal History. Hart- 
 ford. 2d ed. 1821. 
 
 Trimmer, Mary. Concise History of New England. 2 
 vols. Boston. 
 
 Tytler, A. F. Elements of General History. N. Y. 
 Concord 37. 
 
 Tytler, A. F. Elements of General History (ed. T. Rob- 
 bins). Hartford. 2d ed., N. Y., 1819; Hartford, 1823. 
 
 Tytler, A. F. History — Ancient and Modern. (R. Rob- 
 bins.) Hartford. 2d ed., N. Y., 1819. 
 
 1S19 Augustill (tr.). Summary of Universal History. 
 
 Phila. 
 Davies, Benj. Robinson's Easy Grammar of History. 
 
 Phila. 4th ed. 
 Adams, Alex. Roman Antiquities. N, Y. 2d ed., 1826. 
 Morrill, Thos. Studies in History. Phila. 
 Morrill, Thos. Studies of Rome. Phila, 
 Hunt, G. J. The Historical Reader. N. Y. 
 
 1820 Goldsmith. Abridged Roman History. Cooperstown. 
 1843-49-50. Key to same, 1853. Buffalo. 
 
 1821 Emerson, Jos. Whateley's Gbmpend of History. 
 Boston. 5th. 8th, 1825. 
 
 Bossuet. Universal History. Tr. by Elphinstone. N. Y. 
 Mlielpley, Saml. Lectures on Ancient History. 8th ed. 
 
 1825. 
 Citizen of Mass. History of U. S. A. Keene, N. H. 2d 
 
 ed. 1823. 
 
 1822 Goodrich, C. A. History of the United States. Hart- 
 ford. Hartford, 2d ed., 1823; 3d, 1823; 14th, 1826; 
 New York, 2d ed., 1825; Concord, 1828; Keene, 1829; 
 Boston, 0th ed., 1825; 35th ed., 1833; Phila., 1843; 
 Bellows Falls, 10th ed., 1826; Lexington, Ky., 4th ed., 
 1825; enlarged edition, 1844; revised edition, 1852. 
 
 Grimshaw, Wm. Key to Questions of the History of the 
 United States. Phila. 
 
 1823 Tytler, A. F. Elements of General History (ed. 1. 
 Hill). Concord. 1823-25-28-31. 
 
 1824 Grimshaw, Wm. History of the United States. 
 Phila. 1824-26-53-60. 
 
 Hallworth, Thos. Efficacious Method in History and 
 
 Clironology. N. Y. 
 Hallworth, Thos. Efficacious Method in General Ancient 
 
 History. N. Y. 
 Hallworth, Thos. Efficacious Method in Sacred History. 
 
 N. Y. 
 Hallworth, Thos. Efficacious Method in History of the 
 
 U. S. N. Y. 
 Hume. History of England (abrg. by Robinson). N. Y. 
 Williams, Saml. History of the American Revolution. 
 
 New Haven. 
 Blake, J. L. The Historical Reader. Concord. 2d ed. 
 
 Stonington, 1826-27. 
 
 1825 Allen, Jos. Easy Lessons in Geography and History. 
 Boston. 
 
 Blair, David. Outlines of Chronology. Boston. 1826- 
 
 1828. 4th ed., 1838. 
 Blair, David. Elements of Geography and History. 
 
 Wethersficld. 
 Butler, Fiedk. Sketches of Geography and History. 
 
 Wethersfleld. 
 Potter, John. Grecian Antiquities. N. Y. 
 
 32 
 
\ 
 
 J 
 
 S Anon. History of tbe U. S. to 1815, with Questions. 
 N. Y. 
 
 1826 Grimshaw, Wm. Goldsmith's Roman History. Phila. 
 1828. Boston. 
 
 Grimshaw, Wm. Questions to Goldsmith's History of 
 
 Greece. N. Y., 1856 and 1868. Phila., 1836. 
 Grimshaw, Wm. Questions on the Elements of History 
 
 — Ancient and Modern. 
 Worcester, J. E. Gazetteer of the U. S. 
 Worcester, J. E. Elements of History — Ancient and 
 
 Modern. Boston. 1826-20-28-35-4.3. New edition, 
 
 1850-53-54-58. Questions to do. Boston. 1826-28. 
 Blair, David. Outlines of History of Ancient Greece. 
 
 Boston. Hartford. 
 Hale, Salma. History of the United States, N. Y., 
 
 1826-27-30-49; Keene, 1829-30-31-35; Cooperstown, 
 
 1839-43; Buffalo, 1853. 
 
 \ Eaton, Rebecca. Abridgement of Milner's Church His- 
 tory. Charlestown. 
 Stansburg, J. Elementary Catechism on the Constitution 
 
 of the U. S. 
 Anon. Historical Atlas. 
 
 Goldsmith. History of Greece. Another edition. 1857. 
 Questions to same. Phila. 4 editions. Key to Ques- 
 tions to same. 
 
 1827 Anon. Catechism of Universal History. N. Y. 
 Blair, David. Outlines of Ancient History. Boston. 
 Hall, S. R. Child's Assistant to Geography and History 
 
 of Vermont. Montpelier. 2d ed. 1831. 
 Smith. Modern History. N. Y. 
 Smith. Ancient History. N. Y. 
 Smith. Chronology. N. Y. 
 Worcester, J. E. Epitome of History. Cambridge. 
 
 1828 Eastman, F. C. A History of Vermont for Schools. 
 Brattleboro. 
 
 Eastman, F. C. A History of the State of New York. 
 Blair, David. Outlines of the History of Ancient Rome. 
 
 Boston. 
 Blair, David. Outlines of the History of England. Bos- 
 
 Aton. 
 \ Jones, Isaac. Constitutions of Massachusetts and the 
 . United States for Schools. Boston. 
 J Willard, Emma. History of the United States. N. Y. 
 
 , 2d. 1843. Phila., also' 1854. 
 V Goodrich, C. A. Outline of Bible History. Boston. 
 
 1829 Emerson, .Jos. Questions and Supplement to Good- 
 rich. Boston. 
 
 Grimshaw, Wm. History and Life of Napoleon. Phila. 
 j Also 1854. 
 
 N Barker, John W. Interesting Events in tlie History of 
 I the United States. New Haven. 
 
 SI 1830 Grimshaw, Wm. Questions on the History of the 
 ] United States. Phila. 
 Hildretb, Hosca. A View of the United States. Boston. 
 
 2d ed. 1831. 
 Thayer, Mrs. C. M. First Lessons in the History of the 
 
 United States. N. Y. 4th ed. 
 Moritz, C. P. Myths of Greece and Rome. N. Y. 
 Goodrich, C. A. Outlines of Ecclesiastical History. 
 Hartford. 
 \1831 Frost, John. Outlines of Universal History. Boston 
 \ and Phila. 
 
 4 Parley, Peter. First Book on History, Revised 39-44. 
 4th ed. 1849. 
 J .<'WilIard, Emma. School History of the United States. 
 \ N. Y., 1831-47-.50; Phila., 44. 
 ■>* Davenport, Bishop. History of the United States. 
 Phila., 1844 and 1848. 
 1832 Peter. Parley. Tales About Ancient Rome. Boston. 
 Peter. Parley. Second Book of History. N. Y. 55th ed. 
 
 1844. 
 Peabody. First Steps to the Study of History. Boston. 
 
 
 Bobbins, Royal. Outlines of Ancient and Modern His- 
 tory. Hartford. 1833-51. 
 A Webster, Noah. History of the United States. New 
 \ Haven. 33-35, 
 
 ■ 1 1833 Parley, Peter. Third Book of History. At least 16 
 
 editions. 
 Parley, Peter. Tales About Ancient and Modern Greece. 
 
 Boston. 
 Putnam, Geo. P. Chronology. N. Y. 
 Sullivan, Wm. History Class Book. Pt. 1. Boston. 
 .1834 Peabody, Eliz. Key to History. Pt. III. Boston. 
 
 Bobbins, Eliza. English History for Schools. Boston. 
 \ Robbins. Royal. The World Displayed in its History and 
 Geogiaphy. N. Y. 
 Sigourney, L. H. Evening Readings in History. Spring- 
 field. 
 ' Story, Joseph. Constitutional Class Book. Boston. 
 \ \Miitson, J. M. History of New Hampshire. 
 A Goodrich, C. A. Child's History of the United States. 
 1835 Worcester, Jos. Elements of History — Ancient and 
 ^ Modern. Boston. 1847. 
 
 >i Anon. Historical Catechism on U. S. History. Utica. 
 18th ed. 
 J 1836 Frost, John. History of the United States for 
 ' Schools and Academies. Boston. 
 
 / Hall and Baker. School History of the United States. 
 / Boston, 36-43; Andover, 39. 
 
 vf-Olney, Jesse. History of the United States. New Haven. 
 4th ed. 14th ed., 1853. 
 Anon. Outlines of Sacred History. Phila. 
 I Mouls, J. and P. Histoire de Charles XII. N. Y. 
 *-' Wilson, S. F. History of the American Revolution. 
 Baltimore. 
 
 ■ 1837 Frost, John. History of the United States for Com- 
 
 mon Schools. Phila. 
 Parley, Peter. Book of the United States. Boston. 
 Parley, Peter. Common School History. Boston. 
 Parley, Peter. Universal History on the Basis of Geog- 
 raphy. N. Y. 
 Russeli, John. History of the United States. Phila., 
 37-44-54. 
 1838 Marshall, John. Life of Washington for Schools. 
 Phila. 
 Smith. J. T. Compendious View of Ancient History. 
 
 Boston. 
 Goldsmith. Pennock's Edition. History of England. 
 
 Phila. 1850. 
 Goodrich, C. A. Questions on the Enlarged Edition of 
 the History of the United States. Boston. 
 .1839 Parley, Peter. Revised First Book of History. Bos- 
 ton. 
 1840 Simms, W. G. History of South Carolina. New 
 Havon. 
 j Simms, W. G. Questions to same. 
 ^ 1841 Bancroft, Geo. History of the Colonization of the 
 
 United States. Boston. 1845. New York. 1847. 
 ilS42 Parley, Peter. Young American (Book of Govern- 
 ment and Law). N. Y. 
 Hazlitt (tr.). Guizot's History of Civilization. N. Y. 
 Holgate, J. B. Atlas of American History. 
 1813 Hart, J. S. ^^Tiite's Elements of Universal History. 
 Phila. 2d. 47. 
 Marsh, John. Epitome of General History. 7th ed. 
 
 N. Y. 
 Michelet. Elements of Modern History. N. Y. 
 Sherman, Henry. Governmental History of the United 
 States. N. Y. 
 ,, Willard, Emma. Abridged History of America. 2d. 
 1845. 
 Goodrich, C. A. Child's History of the United States. 
 Phila. 
 
 33 
 
1844 Barker, J. W. EleuKiits of General History. New 
 Haven. 2d. 4th ed., 1840. 
 
 Wedgewood, Wm. B. Revised Statutes of New York for 
 
 Schools. 12th ed. N. Y. 
 Wedgewood, Wm. B. Revised Statutes of N. Hampshire 
 
 for Schools. Concord. 
 Wedgewood, \Vm. B. Revised Statutes of Vermont for 
 
 Schools. Brattleboro. 
 Wedgewood, Wm. B. Revised Statutes of Massachusetts 
 
 for Schools. Boston. 
 1 C. A. Goodrich. Questions to Enlarged History of the 
 
 United States. 184fi. 
 Russell. History of the United States. Phila. 
 
 1845 Arnold. Thos. Manual of Greek and Roman Antiqui- 
 ties. X. Y. 
 
 Hart, .J. S. Exposition of the Constitution of the United 
 
 States. 2d. 50. 
 Haskell, D. Chronological View of the World. N. Y. 
 Lyman, A. S. Questions on the Chart of Universal His- 
 tory. Phila. 
 Tavlor. W. C. Students' Manual of Ancient History. 
 
 N. Y. 
 Tavlor, W. C. Students' Manual of Modern History. 
 
 N. Y. 
 Willson, M. Accompaniment to Complete Chart of 
 
 American History. N. Y. 
 Tyson, J. W. Atlas of Ancient and Modern History. 
 
 'Phila. 1847. 
 «. Anon. Outlines of History of England. Phila. 
 ' \ Goodrich, S. G. Pictorial History of the United States. 
 
 Ed. by W. Alcott. Phila. 
 
 1846 Parley, Peter. History of Africa. 
 Parley, Peter. Ancient History. 
 
 Parley, Peter. Pictorial History of England. 
 
 Parley, Peter. Pictorial History of P>ance. Revised 
 
 1859. 
 Parley, Peter. Pictorial History of Greece. Revised 
 
 1859. 
 Parley, Peter. History of South America. N, Y. 
 Goldsmith. Grecian History. Pinnock's Edition abridged. 
 
 25th ed. Phila. 
 
 1847 Parley. Modern History. N. Y. 
 
 \ Hogarth. Outlines of Roman History. Phila. 
 I Hogarth. Outlines of History of England. Phila. 
 \' McCartney. Origin and Progress of the United States. 
 Phila. 
 Michelet. History of the Roman Republic. N. Y. 
 \ White. Elements of Universal History. Phila. 
 J Willson, M. History of the United States. 47-53-58. 
 Goldsmith. Key to Questions on Hi.'^tory of Greece. 
 
 (Anon.) Phila. 
 Anon. Outlines of American History. Phila. 
 Bonchier. Outlines of Grecian History. Phila. 
 Taylor. Revision of Pinnock's Edition of Goldsmith's 
 
 Grecian Hist. Phila. 
 Strickland. Tales and Stories from History. Phila. 
 
 1848 Fiske, N. W. Classical Antiquities. Phila. 
 Parley. History of Europe. N. Y- 
 
 Parley. History of Asia. N. Y. 
 
 Parley. Pictorial History of Rome. Revised. 1858. 
 
 Phila. 
 Guernsey. History of the United States. 5th ed. N. Y. 
 Strauss. Stream of Time. N. Y. 
 Slarkham, Mrs. School History of England. X. Y. 2d 
 
 ed. 1855. 
 Mangnall. Historical and Miscellaneous Questions. N. Y. 
 Boyssen. Manual of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 
 
 Edited by Thos. Arnold. N. Y. 
 . 1849 Parley. Comprehensive Geography and History. 
 Mackay, J. Roman Antiquities. New Haven. 
 Putz. Manual of IModern Geogi-aphy and History. 
 Sewell, E. Child's First History of Rome. 
 
 1850 Parley. History of North America. N. Y. 
 Greene, J. W. Manual of Geography and History of the 
 
 Middle Ages. N. Y. 
 Grimshaw, Wm. History of South America. Phila. 
 Putz. Handbook of Medieval Geography and History. 
 Putz. Manual of Modern Geography and History. 
 Rivers, W. Catechism of the History of South Carolina. 
 Taylor. Manual of Ancient and Modern History. N. Y. 
 Ungewitter. Europe, Past and Present. N. Y. 
 Wirt, Wm. Life of Patrick Henry. Arranged for 
 
 Schools. N. Y. 
 Greene. Historical Studies. N. Y. 
 ■ Parley. Pictorial History of America. Hartford. 
 Taylor. Pinnock's History of France. Boston. 2d ed. 
 
 1850, 
 Parley. Primer of History. N. Y. 
 
 1851 Anthon. Manual of Roman Antiquities. N. Y. 
 
 1852 Guernsey, E. History of New York. N. Y. 
 Anderson, J. J. Davenport's History of the United 
 
 States. Phila. 
 Bondiier. Outlines of Grecian History. 13th ed. Phila 
 Brewer, Dr. Guide to English History. N. Y. 1858. 
 Salkeld, Jos. Classical Antiquities. 2d ed. 1859. 
 , Scott, D. B. Manual of the History of the United States, 
 
 N. Y. 
 Willson, Jlarcius. American History (school ed. ). N. Y 
 
 2d. lS5fi. 
 Willson. Marcius. Comprehensive Chart of Americai 
 
 History. N. Y". 
 Willson, Marcius. Outlines of General History. N. Y 
 
 2d. 1859, ISGO, 
 Anon. First, Second, Third Book of History Combinec 
 
 with Geog. Boston. 
 Townsend. H. History of England in Verse. 2d ed 
 
 Phila. 
 Worcester. Historical Atlas. Cambridge. 
 Peter, Chas. Historical and Chronological Tables. N. Y 
 1S53 Fisher, S. Gazetteer of the United States. N. Y. 
 Gleig, G. R. School History of England. London. 
 Hart, J. S. Epitome of Greek and Roman Mythology 
 
 Phila. 
 Moffatt, J. C. Clark's History of England. N. Y. 
 Sewell, E. M. Child's First History of Greece. N. Y. 
 Smith, Wm. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities 
 Weber, Geo. Outlines of Universal History. Boston 
 
 14th ed. 1860. 
 Grimshaw, A. H. Revision of Grimshaw's History of th( 
 
 United States. Phila. 1860. 
 Key to Questions in Same. Phila. 
 1854 Coleman, Lyman. Historical Text-book and Atlas o: 
 
 Biblical Geography. Phila. 2d ed. 1860. 
 Anthon. Chas. Manual of Greek Antiquities. N. Y. 
 Brown, R. W. History of Greek Classical Literature 
 
 Phila. 
 ■ Brown. R. W. History of Roman Classical Literature 
 'j Phila. 
 N Lord, .John. History of the United States. Phila. 
 
 Putnam. G. Cyclopedia of History and Chronology 
 
 N. Y. 
 Russell, John. History of England. Phila. 
 Russell. John. History of France. Phila. 
 Russell, John. History of Greece and Rome. Phila. 
 . Shea, L G. First Book of History. 
 Turner, Dawson. Analysis of English and French His 
 
 tory. London. 3d ed. 
 ,_ Willard, Emma. Last Leaves of American History 
 
 N. Y. 
 Willard, Emma. Temple of Time. N. Y. 
 Willard, Emma. Historical Guide and Map of Time 
 
 N. Y. 
 Kveppon. A. L. Historico-Geographical Atlas of Middh 
 
 Ages. X. Y. 
 
 34 
 
Par)y, Peter. Introduction to Parley's Pictorial History 
 
 01 the World. Piila. 
 Griisliaw, Wm. Key to Questions on History of Ens- 
 .ind. Phila ^ 
 
 ■ illard, Emma. The American Chronographers. N V 
 A illard. Lmma. The Ancient Chronographers. N V ' 
 ^ViUard, Emma. The English Chronographers. N y" 
 ' Edgar, J. G. History for Boys. NY -< 
 
 . Berard, A. B. School History of the United Sta^ ' ' 
 Phila. ,■ 
 
 Robinson, John. History of England, abgd. fronyUe 
 
 !^^!L^;,?- ^len^entary History of the Un.h states 
 Smith, Wm. History of Greece. Boston. "^ ^*^* , 
 
 Lardner, j °',jysus. 
 MarkhaJJirs. Hi 
 
 < 
 
 """""'■ "°°T*„.'i.tri,"'s°2:'' »^p««"- "■ '■ 
 
 DePaisson. 
 Phila. 
 1856 Bonn 
 
 — i,ji.innev, 
 
 of Histoir 
 
 '' des Etats-Unis. 
 
 John. Ch..- 
 
 "s Histi 
 
 'Py of Rome. N. Y. 
 
 the United 
 
 ^ 
 
 . , M. Our GoVrnmeut. PMla. 
 ^ Peabody, Eliz. Chronobgical History of 
 States. N. Y. ! 
 
 Forbes, E. A. Easy Le»ons on Scripture History. N. Y. 
 Anon. First Lessons ft' History of the United States. 
 
 Boston. 
 
 Eliot, Saml. Manual of U. S. History. Boston. 
 Grimshaw, W. Questions on the History of France. 
 
 Phila. 
 Parley. Peter. Pictorial History of the World. 
 Dale-Henry. Translation of Thucydides-Peloponnesian 
 War. N. Y. 
 1857 Edwards, Amelia B. Outlines of English Hiatory. 
 Boston. 
 Grimshaw, Wm. Historj of England. Phila. 
 Grimshaw. Wm. History of France. Phila. 
 Cecil, G. E. Dates, BattJ" and Events in Modern His- 
 tory. , 
 y Bonner, John. Cliild'= ^isiory of Greece. 2 vols. N. Y. 
 •i Bonner, John. Chi Icist 
 
 2 V. V. 1. 
 ^ Quackenboss, G. P. Illi..sjfiyH& l^st^vy of ibfi Vsite^ 
 States. N. Y. 
 Giessler. Text Book of Cliurch History. New York. 
 Tracy, J. L. American History Reader. Phila. 
 \ Sewell. E. M. Child's First History of Rome. N. Y. 
 ■i Lossing, B. J. Primary History of the United States. 
 N. Y. 
 Smith. Wm. The Student's Gibbon. 1859. 
 
 1858 Kneightly, Thos. Universal History. Phila. 
 
 1859 Fisher. R. S. General Geography and History of the 
 World. N. Y. 
 
 K'-L'irausch. History of Germany. N. Y. 
 
 iCistorv of the United States. 
 
 A History of \'up 
 History of France. 
 Parke*.. G. Outlines of General History. 
 Peaby, Eliz. Universal History. New Yori 
 Srli, L. L. Questions to Taylor's Ancient a 
 . /History. ( 
 
 ^ amith, Wm. The Students Hume. N. Y. ^\ 
 1860 Parley, Peter. Child's Pictorial History of 
 United States. Phila. 
 Green, G. W. Smith "s History of Greece. 
 Cotton, J. H. Historical Atlas (by F. W. Hunt). 
 Palmer, Geo. History of England. Hartford. 
 Sclimitz, Leonard. Manual of Ancient Histc-v ^ 
 Smith, H. B. History of the Church. N. Y. 
 1 Story, Joseph. Familiar Exposition of the C 
 of the United States. N. Y. 
 Abbot, Jacob. Narrative of General Course o< 
 
 N. Y. 
 Debusson (tr. ). Petite Histoire Universelle. Pnilcv. 
 No Date. Arnold, Thos. History of Rome. 
 
 Baker, Geo. Livy's History of Rome. 
 . Berard, A. B. School History of England. N. Y. 
 ^■.Blake, J. L. History of the American Revolution. 
 Bloss. Ancient History. Rochester. 
 I Bonner, Jolin. Child's History of France. 
 ■ Booth. Pictorial History of the United States. 
 Brownell, H. H. People's Book of Ancient and Modern 
 History, 
 i Hannah, S. H. Bible History. 
 Herbert, H. W. Goldsmith's History of Rome. 
 Alison. History of Europe. 
 Chapin. Complete Reference Gazetteer of the United 
 
 Scr.*-es. N. Y. 
 Fellows. Youth's Manual of the Constitution of t 
 
 United States. Hartford. 
 Ferguson. Abr dged History of the Roman Republic. 
 Frost. John. Goldsmith's Pictorial History of England. 
 Frost. John. History o^ Anci^;nt anj -Mnripm Rome. 
 [Frost. Jj-.iir- '^'-Tts-; of Ancient and Modern o^eggg 
 •) F.rist, John. Robertson's Discovery of America. 
 
 Frost, John. Robertson's Charles IV. with Questions. 
 .Gillies. John. History of Greece. 
 
 ■\ Hunt, G. S. Practical Class Book of the History of the 
 , World. 
 
 -I Himter. J. H. Analytical History for Schools. 
 Hyde, A. English History Simplified. 
 Kneightley. Thos. Outlines of History. N. V. 
 Kneightley, Thos. Outlines of Greece. N. Y'. 
 Kneightley. Thos. Outlines of Rome. N. Y. 
 Kneightley, Thos. Outlines of Roman Empire. N. Y. 
 Kerney. Compendium of History. 
 
 ^ 
 
 VITA 
 
 William Fletcher Russell. Born May 18. 1890, Delhi. New York. A B.. Cornell 
 University 1910- Ph.D.. Columbia University. 1914: Teacher of History and 
 Economics. College High School. Greely. Colo.. 1910- 19 II .Associate Professor 
 of History and Sociology, State Teachers College of Colorado. 191 I -1912; 
 Assistant in Philosophy of Education. Teachers' College. Columbia University. 
 1913-1914; Associate Professor of Secondary Education. 1914- 19! b, and t^ro- 
 fessor of Secondary Education. 191 5-. George Peabody College for Teachers, 
 Nashville. Tennessee; New York State Scholar. Cornell. 1907-1910; Graduate 
 Scholar. 1913. and Honorary Fellow, 1913-1914, Teachers College. 
 
 .35 
 
5-9 Hd 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
 018 461 618 A 
 
 HoUinger Corp.