Oass _ mmmmmmmftm wmmmmmmmmmmmmmm I Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/scenessl Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1847, By ROBERT SEARS, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the Southern District of New York, ^ afl s^si STEREOTYPED BY REDFIELD & SAVAGE, 13 Chambers Street, N. Y. PREFACE. So great has been the influence of cheap novels upon the morals and welfare of our community, and so extensively have they been circulated, that within the last year, men of sense, and men of family, those who have wives, and' those whose chil- dren are just coming forward on the stage of action, have risen up in their might, and boldly presented themselves against the further wholesale diflTusion of books, which having no useful end or aim, and conveying no teachings of wisdom, or les- sons of practical utility, serve but to pass away an idle hour ; and, in many cases, to destroy a disposition for works of a more valuable character. We have attempted, in an humble and unobtrusive way to assist in this noble work. We have endeavored to call the attention of the American people to the diffusion of truly valuable knowledge — knowledge which can be made available in every rank and station of life. To this end have our efforts been directed. Nor is this all ; still further to assist in this glorious undertaking, our books have been made attractive by pictorial embellishments, designed by the first artists, and from authentic pictures. These embellishments also serve another purpose, to humanize the mind, to render it alive to the charms of nature, and to inspire among the people a taste for the fine arts. In this enterprise our efforts have been nobly sustained by the people, and all in- terested in diffusing principles of sound education. Our Pictorial Works have found their way into every village. They have been offered as premiums for excel- lence in mental attainments ; and have been introduced into the libraries of sabbath and district schools. Men of genius and talent, those holding the highest official stations in the country — men who direct the masses — who have placed their mark on the present age, and who will be ever remembered as among the gifted of the nineteenth century — have cheered us onward with their approbation. Sustained by the influence and patronage of those whose good opinion is ever to be appreci- ated, we shall go on laboring earnestly and zealously in the great cause, uninflu- enced by those whose envy may detract from the merits of our books. Only a few months since we issued the " Pictorial Description of Great Britain and Ireland.'''' The present, although a separate and distinct book, may be regarded as another of the same series. It treats of a part of the European continent, which is deeply interesting, and over which the classics of Tacitus, Horace, Cicero, and Virgil, have thrown a charm, which does not exist in the more northerly parts of Europe. We commend our new work to those who have smiled so kindly on our previous enterprises, assuring them that the present work is equal in value to its predecessors. R. S. New York, May 1, 1847. THE PARK OF BRUSSELS. SEE FRONTISPIECE. We have selected for our frontispiece a fine drawing of the beautiful park of the city of Brussels, with a view of the Representatives' Hall. The Park, as a whole, forms a very extensive and magnificent range of pleasure-grounds, adorned by rows of lofty trees, and containing several large and beauti ul lawns, ornamented with statues and fountains. Around this have been placed the most splendid edifices of the city, including the palaces, public offices, and finest private residences ; and one of the most beautiful of these, the Hall of the Representatives, has been selected as the central point of our engraving. It needs no new recapitulation of historical facts, to throw an interest around the city of Brussels. The plains of Brabant, with the dark forest of Soignies — supposed to be a remnant of that of Ardennes, immortal in Shakspere's " As you like it" — and the little villages of Quatre-Bras, St. Jean, La Belle Alliance, and Waterloo, which surround it on the south and southwest, within a few leagues, have been, since the memorable eighteenth of June, 1815, indissolubly associated with one of the greatest political and poetical crises of modern times. Brussels still rings with its " sound of revelry by night," and amid all changes holds its place as one of the gayest and most elegant cities of the old world. It now stands as the capital of a new kingdom, built up in the very heart of Europe, amid the jarring jealousies of the other powerful and time-beaten empires. The state of Belgium, for four centuries subjected to other powers, has achieved its independence, claimed its individual nationality, and founded a constitutional monarchy, under which religious liberty, the freedom of the press, liberty of instruction, personal lib- •erty, and the right of petition, are guarantied to the citizen. Without entering upon any of the speculations which this, her position, or the onward steps of the principle of freedom which have led to it, open, we are happy to have been able to furnish the present view of one of those beautiful spots in her principal city, which time and revolutions have spared to enrich the blessings which the progress of civilization has given to her people. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. FRANCE. — Paris — General Remarks — Notre Dame — St. Germain des Pres — St. Gene- vieve — St. Gervais — St. Sulpice — St. Etienne du Mont — Pantheon — Madeleine — Ceme- teries of Paris — Pere la Chaise — Tuilleries — Chamber of Deputies — Public Libraries — School of Medicine — Louvre — Galleries of Pictures — Teniers — Van Ostade — Jordaens — Gallery of Sculpture — Boy extracting a Thorn — Theatres — Academic Royale — Odeon — Italian Opera — Triumphal Monuments — Porte St. Denis — Arc de I'Etoile — La Morgue , 12 to 48. CHAPTER n. FRANCE. — Paris — Waterworks — Fountains — Place du Chatelet — Fountain of Ele- phant — Palaces — Palais Royal — Town Hall — Mint — Bourse — Markets — Butter, Egg, and Cheese Market — Poultry Market — Marche des Innocens — Fruit Market — Flower Mar- ket—Wine Market— Grain Market— Wood Yard 48 to 77. CHAPTER m. FRANCE.— Paris— Baths— Boulevards— Bridges— Pont Neuf— Pont Notre Dame— Obe- lisks — ^Luxor — Municipal Government 77 to 86. CHAPTER IV. FRANCE. — Normandy — Climate — People — Productions — Woodcutters — Forests — Rou- mare — Bretonne — Rouvray — Pont de I'Arche — Andelys — Costumes of Normandy — Pol- let — Dieppe — Abbey of la Trappe — Castle of Arques — Battle of King Henry and Leaguers 86 to 106. CHAPTER V. FRANCE.— Rotten— Its Cathedral— Abbey of St. Omer— Church of St. Maclou— Palace of Justice — Maid of Orleans — Rheims — Place Royale — Cathedral Church of St. Remi. — Amiens— Its Cathedral. — Chartres — Its Cathedral, — Laon — Its Cathedral. — Beau- vais — Its Cathedral.—^ Dieppe — Baths — Manufactures — Commerce — Fisheries. — Poic- TiERS — Battle of Poictiers. — Boulogne — Its Museum — Antiquities. — St. Omer. — Tours — Plesis les Tours. — La Rochelle. — Rouen. — La Havre 106 to 148. CHAPTER VI. PORTUGAL — Its History— Mines — Population.— Oporto. — Lisbon— Its Churches— Con- vents— The Prapa— Streets— Castle of St. George— The Earthquake of 1755. . . 149 to 172. 6 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN CHAPTER VII. PORTUGAL. — Elvas — Its Streets — Hospital — Cathedral — Fortifications — Aqueduct. — Praga — Its Battle. — Cintka. — The Douro. — St. Uses. — Evora — Its Temple — Castel- lum— Monastery, 173 to 189. CHAPTER VIII. PORTUGAL— Forests— The Cork— The Olive— Bull-Chase— Smuggling 189 to 198. CHAPTER IX. SPAIN — Its People — Farmers — Muleteers — Manners — Productions. — Madrid — Its Popu- lation — Palace — Churches — Promenades — Theatres — Police. — Badajos — Bridge — Gate. — Barcelona — Its Gate— The Rambla — Belem Church — Fortifications — Churches — Ca- thedral — Bishop's Palace. — Corunna — Its Battle. — Villa Vellid — Its Castle. — Alcan- tara , 199 to 223. CHAPTER X. SPAIN. — Granada — The Alhamhra — Its Courts and Fountains — Baths. — Sakagossa — The Inquisition 224 to 240. CHAPTER XI. ITALY — Its Divisions — Boundaries — Literature. — Genoa — Its Arsenal — Cathedral — Churches — Palaces — Hotels — Hospitals — Harbor — People. — Pisa — Its Tower — Duomo — Baptistery — Churches — Palaces — Distinguished Men — Galileo. — Leghorn — Its Church- es — Monuments. — Florence — Palaces — Libraries — Churches — Cabinets — Works of Art — Pictures — Sculptures — Antiquities — Amusements — Horseraces — Pallone — Its Envi- rons — Careggi de' Medici — Protoline — Fiesole — Vallombrosa — Manners of the Floren- tines 240 to 275. CHAPTER XII. ITALY. — Rome — Colosseum — ^Pantheon — St. Peter's. — Aqueducts — Porticoes — Temples — Palaces — Trajan's Column — Forum — Monte Cavallo — Arch of Constantine — Cloaca Max- ima — Temple of Vesta — Palace of Caesars — Villa Spada — Circus Maximus— ^Baths of Titus — Laocoon — Chiesa di St. Martine in Monte — St. Pietro in Vinculi — The Capitol — Senatorial Palace — Museum — Hall of the Gladiator — Cupid and Psyche — Vatican — Its Frescoes — Stanse di Raffaello — Wall of Constantine — Gallery of Inscriptions — The Library — Hemycircle of the Belvidere — The Square Porch — The Portico of the Court — The Hall of Busts— The Cabinet— The Museum of Gregory XVI.— The Gallery— The Egyptian Museum — Architecture 276 to 335. CHAPTER XIII. ITALY. — Rome — Church of St. John — Lateran Church — St. Maria Maggiore — Mamertine Prison — Fountains — Of Paul V. — Of Prince of Palestine — Roman Carnival — II Giuoco alia Ruzzica — Morra — Roman Swing — Roman Puppets — Punch 336 to 357. CHAPTER XIV. ITALY. — Environs of Rome — Church of St. Cecilia in Trastevere — St. Prisca — St. Sabina — St. Alessio — Baths of Caracalla — Tomb of Scipios — Gate of St. Sebastiano — Catacombs — Circus of Caracalla — Tomb of Cecilia Metella — Basilic of San Paolo. — Tivoli — Tem- ple of Sibyl — Albano — Pontine Marshes — Vendemmia. — Antium. — Terracina. — Ca- pita 358 to 373. CONTENTS. 7 CHAPTER XV. ITALY.— Naples— Its Position— Strada Toledo— Churches— Castel Nuo¥0— Castel St. El- mo — Abbey of St. Martino — Villa Reale — Royal Palace — Campo Santo — Theatres — Nea- politan Letter -Writer — The Canta-Storia — Rinaldo — The Mole — The Vehicles of Naples —The- Corricolo— The Flower-Pot- Calesso , 374 to 394. CHAPTER XVI. ITALY. — Environs of Naples — Tomb of Virgil — Grotto of Posilippo — Pozzuoli. — Hercu- LANEUM — Forum. — Pompeii — Its Destruction — Street of Tombs — Villa of Diomedes — Semicircular Seats — Herculaneum Gate — Post-house — Custom-house — Bake-house — Wine and Oil Shop— House of Sallust — of Pansa — Forum Civile — Temple of Hercules — of Isis — of Esculapius — Theatre — Curia — Sculptor's Shop — Amphitheatre — House of the Faun— City Walls— Mount Vesuvius... 395 to 423. CHAPTER XVII. ITALY. — Pjestum — Its Walls — Gates — Temple of Neptune — of Ceres — Theatre — Amphi- theatre. — Benevento — Arch of Trajan. — Bologna — Leaning Towers — Picture Galleries. — Venice— St. Mark's — Bridge of Sighs. — Milan— Cathedral — Palaces 423 to 435. CHAPTER XVIII. SICILY — General Description. — Palermo — Streets — Gates — Cathedral — Churches — Mar- ma — St. Rosalia — Stromboli. — Monreale. — Syracuse. — Messina. — Catania — Mt.Etna. — Marmarenii — Salt Springs of Sicily. — Segesta — Its Temple. — Agrigentum — Its Tem- ple. — Selinunte — Its Ruins , 436 to 456. CHAPTER XIX. MALTA.— Valetta— St. John's Cathedral— Siege of Malta— Maltese Ladies— Soil-Pro- ductions 457 to 472. CHAPTER XX. TYROL — Its features — Inhabitants — Valley of the Non. — Innspruck — Tomb of Maximil- ian I. — Andrew Hofer — His Monument — Battle of the Tyrol — Valley of Meran — Valley of Suiza — Castel Val — Dwelliiigs of the Tyrolese — Agriculture of Tyrol. . . .473 to 495. CHAPTER XXI. SWITZERLAND— History— Independence declared— Description of the Cantons— Geo- graphical Features of the Country — Population of the Cantons.— Geneva— William Tell— Bridge at Friburgh — Hunting Chamois — Godfrey Mind 496 to 521 . CHAPTER XXII. BELGIUM— History.— Brussels— Hotel de Ville— Church of St. Gudule— M. Vander Maelen — Waterloo — Its Battle— Antwerp— Its Cathedral— Furnes 522 to 535. CHAPTER XXHI. HOLLAND.— Amsterdam— Its Commerce— Streets— Stadthouse— Exchange— Church of St. Nicholas— Leyden— Its University 535 to 544. EMBELLISHMENTS. FRANCE. PAGE. Principal Front of the Cathedral of Notre Dame ■ • 19 Church of St. Gervais 21 Church of St. Sulpice. , 22 Church of St. Ettienne Du Mont 23 The Pantheon ." 24 Church of La Madeleine 27 Pere la Chaise 29 Chamber of Deputies 31 The Knife-Grinder— by Teniers 35 The Smoker— by Ostade 37 " The King Drinks" — from Jordaens ... 39 Boy extracting a Thorn 41 Theatre de POdeon, Paris 43 Arc de Triomphe de I'Etoile 45 Fountain in the Place du Chatelet 49 Design for the Fountain of the Elephant 51 The Bourse 55 Market for Butter, Eggs, and Cheese . . 57 Marche a la Volaille 65 Marche des Innocens . . , 67 Marche aux Fruits 69 Hall aux Vins 71 Hall aux Bles et Farines 74 Wood-Yard and Raft on the Seine, Fau- bourg St. Antoine 76 Pont Notre Dame y:'." "^^ Hieroglyphics on the uppermost Division of the Obelisk of Luxor 81 Obelisk of Luxor S3 Farmer of Normandy 87 Forest of Brotonne, Normandy 91 Harvest in Normandy 93 Norman Fruit-Woman 96 Norman Peasant 97 The Porter of a Convent of La Trappe, in Normandy 99 A Monk of La Trappe, at his Devotions 100 Castle of Arques, Normandy — Gateway Towers 103 Castle of Arques — Ruins of the Keep. . 105 West Front of the Cathedral of Rouen. 107 North Side of the Church of St. Maclou 109 Statue of the Maid of Orleans, at Rouen 111 Jeanne d'Arc, before her Accusers 113 West Front of the Cathedral at Rheims 115 Virgin and Child, Cathedral of Amiens 118 PAOK. West Front of the Cathedral of Amiens 119 Porch of Chartres Cathedral 121 West Front of Leon Cathedral 123 South Front of the Cathedral of Beauvais 125 Harbor of Dieppe 127 Fleet of Oyster-Boats, Dieppe Harbor. . 129 Poictiers 131 Medal struck by Napoleon, to commem- orate the Invasion of England 135 Medal of Catherine de Medicis — struck to commemorate the Massacre of St. Bartholomew 135 Ancient Boulogne Flagon 136 Old Drinking-Cup 136 Ancient Sling 137 Brain-Cap 137 The Trebuchet 138 Entrance to St. Omer, from Calais 141 Present State of Plessis les Tours 143 La Rochelle 145 Havre 147 PORTUGAL. Oporto 153 Belem Castle 155 Convent of St. Vicenti di Fora 157 Praga do Commercio, Lisbon 159 Beggar Boy — by Murillo 161 Ruins of St. Paul's, Lisbon 167 Interior of the Opera-House, Lisbon. . . 169 Praca (Square), Elvas 173 Market-Place, Elvas 175' Citizen of Braga 178 Moorish Aqueduct, Elvas 179 St. Joao da Foz 181 Valley of Setubal 183 Temple of Diana, at Evora 185 Roman Aqueduct and Castellum, at Ev- ora 187 Cork-Forest at Moira 191 Gathering Olives 193 Wild-Bull Hunting 195 Contrabandistas 197 SPAIN. Spanish Muleteers 201 Madrid 205 10 EMBELLISHMENTS. PAGE. Royal Palace of Madrid 206 Castle of Badajos 209 Palace of Barcelona 211 Church of Santa Maria del Mar 213 Plan of the Battle of Corunna 216 Village of Villa Vellid, in Old Castile. . 219 Bridge and Town of Alcantara 222 Hall of Justice, Alhambra 225 Fountain of Lions, Alhambra 229 Saragossa 233 Costume of Prisoners of the Inquisition 238 Procession of the Inquisition 240 ITALY. Portraits of Italian Authors 243 Rostrum of an ancient Galley 244 Genoa 245 Leaning Tower of Pisa 249 Portrait of Galileo 252 Palazzo Vecchio, Florence , . 255 Statue of Niobe, Florence 257 Florence Cathedral 26 1 Baptistery of Florence Cathedral 265 Interior of Chiesa di Santa Croce 267 Corso dei Barberi 270 Madonna del Seggiola 274 Colosseum of Rome 277 Interior of the Colossexim 279 The Pantheon 281 St. Peter's, from the East, above the Bridge of St. Angelo, at Rome 283 Bird's-Eye View of St. Peter's 285 Central Nave of St. Peter's 287 Bas-Reliefs on Trajan's Column 292 Trajan's Column, at Rome 293 The Forum, at Rome 297 Piazza del Popolo, from the Pincian Hill 301 Piazza of Monte Cavailo 304 Arch of Constantine 305 Cloaca Maxima, Temple of Vesta, and Temple of Fortune 306 Ruins of the Palace of the Csesars 309 Group of the Laocoon 31i The Camtol - 314 The Dying Gladiator 317 Cupid and Psyche 319 The Loggia of Raphael in the Vatican . . 321 The School of Athens, by Raphael — from a Fresco in the Vatican 323 Poesy of Raphael — from a Fresco in the Vatican 225 Head of Nero — from a Bust in the Vat- ican. 328 The Apollo Belvidere 329 Head of Antoninus — from a Bust in the Vatican 331 Egyptian Columns 335 The Mamertine Prison 338 Fontana Paolina 340 Fountain of the Prince of Palestine — by Bernini 341 Roman Horserace — Horses preparing to start 343 II Giuoco alia Ruzzica 345 The Game of the Morra 347 The Canofieno 349 Cassetta de Burattini 352 Tomb of Clement XIL, in St. Peter's, at Rome 356 Pyramid of Caius Cestius 358 The Catacombs 359 Tomb of Cecilia Metella 360 Temple of the Sibyl 363 Horsemen Driving Wild Cattle in the Maremma 366 Driving Wild Cattle on Foot 367 Wine-Making 369 The Return from the Vintage 371 Naples 375 Chart of Naples 377 Castello Nuovo, and Castle of Sant' Elmo, Naples 379 Rolls of Papyrus from Herculaneum. . . 383 Italian Letter-Writer 385 Neapolitan Peasants 386 Sailors on the Molo, at Naples, hearing the History of Rinaldo 389 The Neapolitan Calesso 393 Bacchante taming a Centaur 394 Virgil's Tomb 396 The Grotto of Posilippo 397 Masques from Herculaneum 400 Mount Vesuvius 401 View of the Street of Tombs, Pompeii. . 403 Mosaic at Pompeii ' 404 Female Artist copying Bacchus 405 Baker's Shop and Mill, Pompeii 407 Grotesque Representation of a Portrait Painter's Studio 408 Ruins of the Temple of Isis, Pompeii. . 410 Candelabra found at Pompeii 411 Implements of Building found at Pom- peii 412 Large Theatre at Pompeii 413 Tragic Scenes — from a Painting found at Pompeii 414 House of the Faun, and its Mosaic Floors 417 Mount Vesuvius 419 Restored View of Pompeii 422 Interior of the Temple of Neptune .... 424 Temple of Neptune, at Paestum 425 Arch of Trajan, at Benevento 427 Leaning Towers of Bologna 429 Distant View of Venice from the Sea. . 430 Fishermen of Chioggia, preparing to de- part for the deep-sea Fishery 431 St. Mark's Cathedral 432 Cathedra] of Milan 434 Coach of Milan in the 16th century.. . 435 City of Palermo, in Sicily 437 Interior of the Grotto of St. Rosalia. . . 439 Festival of St. Rosalia 441 Volcano of Stromboli 442 Cloister of Monreale 443 Greek Theatre, Syracuse 445 Volcano of Mount Etna 447 Salt-Springs in Sicily 450 Temple of Segesta 451 Temple of Concord, Agrigentum 453 Ruins of Selinuntum (now called Seli- nunte) 455 EMBELLISHMENTS. 11 MALTA. PAGE. Malta 459 Valetta, looking into the Harbor from Fort Ricasoli 461 Grand-Master, of the Order of Malta.. 464 Grand-Marshal, of the Order of Malta . . 464 Maltese Lady, wearing the " Faldetta," and attended by her Servant 466 Sailors and Maltese Calesso 471 TYROL. Tyrolese Mountaineer 473 Innspruck, Capital of the Tyrol 475 Monument to Andrew Hofer, in the Cathedral-Church of the Holy Cross, at Innspruck 478 Tyrolese Peasant 480 Valley of Meran — Vine-Trellis over the Road — Tyrolese Peasants 483 Waterfall of GoUing 485 View of Castel-Val . 487 Alpine Peasants returning Home 489 Interior of a TjTolean Peasant's House 491 Valley of Non 493 Child saved by a Dog 494 SWITZERLAND. PAGE. An Old Man and Girl of the Canton of Soleure 505 William Tell's Chapel, at Kussnacht. .. 509 Friburg Suspension Bridge 511 Sections of the Suspension Bridge at Friburg 513 Chamois-Hunters 517 Children at Play — from a Drawing by Godfrey Mind 519 Amusements of Children — from a Draw- ing by Godfrey Mind 520, 521 BELGIUM. Hotel de Ville of Brussels 523 Church of St. Gudule, Brussels ... 525 Ruins of the Chateau of Hougoumont. . 529 West Front of Antwerp Cathedral 531 Furnes 533 Coronation of Louis le Gros 534 HOLLAND. Stadthouse of Amsterdam 542 University of Leyden 593 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN CONTINENTAL EUEOPE. CHAPTER I.— FRANCE. Among the countries comprising Continental Europe, France stands foremost in the arts of life and civilization, in the tribute paid to genius and talent ; and in her devotion to literature and learning, although not blessed with a republican form of government — and although there is less democracy in her political institutions than in Great Britain — still the cosmopolite is more independent than in any other coun- try, and more free to do and to speak. In alluding briefly to the physical and statistical characteristics of this fine coun- try, we shall mention its boundaries: Belgium, Switzerland, and Piedmont, on the east ; the Mediterranean, with Spain, on the south ; and the sea on the west and north. It lies between the forty-third and fifty-first degrees of north latitude, and is particularly fortunate in its frontier, having strong natural barriers in the Pyrenees, the Alps, the ridge of Jura, and the Vosges ; it is open only on the side of Belgium. Its length from east to west (from Alsace to Britany), is 650 miles ; its breadth from north to south about 560 ; its superficial extent is computed at 131,000,000 of Eng- lish acres. France, generally*speaking, presents a level but not undiversified surface ; the only mountains that deserve the name are found in the district of Auvergne. They are connected with those of Dauphine, Provence, and Languedoc. The general declination is toward the ocean and the Mediterranean ; the coasts rise gently from the sea, and in few places exhibit cliffs or dangerous surfs. The finest parts of France lie along the course of the Seine to Paris ; thence by the great road to Mou- lins and Auvergne, thence to Viviers on the Rhone, and thence along the course of that river to Aix. The provinces of Bretagne, Maine, and Angouleme have, in gen- eral, the appearance of deserts. Some parts of Touraine are rich and pleasing ; but most of it is deficient in beauty. Picardy is uninteresting. Poitou is by no means pleasant ; and its extensive marshes resemble the Norfolk and Lincolnshire fens. Champagne is scarcely more interesting, in general, than Poitcfu. Lorraine, Franche-Comte, and Burgundy, even where well-wooded, are gloomy and destitute of cheerfulness. The same character applies to Berry and La Marche ; though the chestnut-tree makes its first appearance here, and it is not easy to conceive how much the luxuriant verdure of this tree increases the beauty of the landscape. Mr. Young says that the Limousin possesses more natural beauty than any other prov- ince of France ; hill and dale, woods, lakes, streams, and scattered farms, are min- gled everywhere through its whole extent, in a thousand delicious pictures. The 14 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Vivarraise along the Rhone, and the adjoining parts of Dauphine, are most roman- tic ; while, on the other hand, Sologne is so far from being beautiful, that its name has, in some measure, become proverbial for its melancholy appearance. The pic- turesque beauty of the hilly parts of France is heightened by the rich and luxuriant verdure of the chestnut- trees, particularly in the Limousin, the Vivarraise, and Au- vergne. Provence is rather gloomy than otherv^ise, the verdure being injured by the hue of the olive-tree ; and the scenery of the plains of Burgundy is insipid. The soil, as well as climate, of France, varies in different provinces, but is in general productive. The northeast is the richest and best cultivated district of the kingdom, and there are admirable corn-districts along the Seine, the Somme, the Rhine, and the Moselle. The chalk and calcareous hills of Champagne and Bur- gundy produce the finest vines. The soil of the basin of the Garonne is warmer but less productive than that of the northern districts. According to Young, there are seven different kinds of soil in France, viz. : 1, rich loam ; 2, heath ; 3, moun- tain ; 4, chalk ; 5, gravel ; 6, stone ; 7, sand, granite, gravel, &c. From a mode of calculation, of which he gives the particulars, Mr. Young estimates the quantity of acres of each kind of soil, as follows : Rich loam, 28,385,675 acres ; heath, 25,513,213 do. ; mountain, 28,707,037 do. ; chalk, 16,584,889 do. ; gravel, 3,827,282 do.; stone, 20,412,171 do.; sand, granite, gravel, stone, &c., 8,292,444: total, 131,722,711. The climate of a country so extensive as France must necessarily be various ; yet this diversity may be regarded on the whole as perhaps more favorable to the sustenance and comfort of human life than the climate of any other region in Eu- rope. In the northern districts the climate is hotter and more moist in the sum- mer than in the southwest part of England. In the department of Finisterre an almost perpetual mist obscures the sky. It rains almost incessantly at Brest and Morlaix ; and the inhabitants are said to be so accustomed to dampness and wet, that dry seasons prove prejudicial to their health. The heat in summer is always moderate here; and the cold less intense, by six or seven degrees, than in Paris. The humidity of the climate of Normandy is fully proved by the beautiful verdure of its rich pastures ; yet, even at a distance from the coast, the rains in the north of France are extremely heavy, and of much longer duration than in England. In winter they experience heavier snows, and more severe frosts, than the natives of southern England ; and whenever there is a long and sharp frost in the north of Europe, it is felt much more severely in Paris than in London. The central division of France possesses the best climate. In Touraine and the Limousin no snow falls, sometimes for the space of many years, and frost seldom occurs. There are nei- ther the fogs and mists of Bretagne, nor the excessive humidity of Normandy, nor the burning sun of the southern provinces. The air is pure, light, and elastic, and the spring a continuance of such weather as is enjoyed in England about the mid- dle of May. The harvest commences about the latter end of June, but is some- times so late as the middle of July. The great heats are from the middle of July to the middle of August. Still, however, the climate of the central provinces has its disadvantages. All the country south of the Loire is subject to violent storms of hail and rain, the former occasionally beating down and destroying all the corn and vintage on which it may fall. These hailstorms are so frequent and ruinous, that it is calculated, on an average, that one tenth of the whole produce in the south of France is damaged by them. Thunder-storms are also frequent and vio- lent in the south of France. The cataracts which then rush down the mountains carry ruin and desolation along with them, burying those meadows which, a few- hours before, were covered with beautiful verdure, under heaps of stones, or masses of liquid mud, and cutting the sides of the mountains into deep ravines, where for- merly the smallest track of a rivulet was not to be discovered. In most parts of France frosts are experienced so late in spring, and so early in autumn, as greatly to injure vegetation. The high country of Auvergne is blf ak and cold ; and all the districts of the Vosges mountains are affected by the snow upon them, which some- times falls so late as the end of June. In the southern provinces, the greatest heats seldom occur till the 15th of July, nor after the 15th of September. Harvest generally begins on the 24th of June, and ends the 15th of July. The middle of the vintage is about the end of Septem- ber. During the continuance of the hot weather, scarcely any one who can avoid it thinks of quitting his house during the middle of the day. During the end of CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 15 autumn and the beginning of winter violent rains frequently fall ; but, in the inter- vals between the rains, October and November may be regarded as the pleasaivtest months in the year. In December, January, and February, the weather is generally fine ; but after February the wind called the bise or mistral is very frequent. It is a strong north or northeast wind, generally accompanied with a clear sky, and not unfrequently with snow. It is sometimes so violent on the mountains as to blow a man off his horse. It seldom lasts longer than three days at a time ; but when felt it seems to pierce through the whole system. About Avignon the winters are ren- dered by it most distressingly cold ; and the olive-trees sometimes perish to their very roots. Some parts of the coast of Provence, as about Toulon and Hieres, are still milder than the neighborhood of Marseilles and Aix ; but the northern and more mountainous parts of this province often experience very severe weather in winter. The vast swarms of flies and musquitoes in the summer months must be ranked among the chief inconveniences of the southern provinces. The climate of France naturally divides itself into four zones, according to the vegetable produce which each affords. The most northern zone considerably re- sembles England, in vegetation and climate. The second differs from the preceding cbiefly in exhibiting here and there a few vineyards. Fields of maize begin to make their appearance in the third ; and the fourth is distinguished from all the former by the intermixture of olives and mulberries with corn, vines, and maize. Coucy, ten miles north of Soissons ; Clermont, in the Beauvaissis ; Beaumont, in Maine; and Herbignac, in Britany, mark the dividing line between vines and no vines. The separating line between maize and no maize is first seen on the western side of the kingdom, in going from Angoumois and entering Poitou, at Verac near Ruffec ; and is met with in crossing Lorraine, between Nancy and Luneville. These lines are not parallel to the degrees of latitude ; but proceed in an oblique line from south- west to northeast, parallel to each other. The line which is formed by the vines is nearly unbroken ; but that formed by the maize, in the central part of France, proceeds no further north than the south of the Limousin. The line of olives is also pretty nearly in the same oblique direction from northeast to south- west. It passes through Carcassone, near the Spanish frontier, and Montelimart, upon the Rhone, south of Lyons. Hence Mr. Young concludes that the eastern parts of France indicate by their productions two and a half degrees latitude of more heat than the western — a generalization somewhat erroneous. The surface of France rises gradually toward the east, and has consequently a lower mean temperature on the eastern side than on the western ; and the heat is more unequally distributed in the seasons, the winter being more vigorous, the summer more ardent. Hence the eastern provinces are better fitted for the culture of such plants as, being annual like maize, or losing their leaves like the vine, totally escape the severity of winter. The western side of France, on the other hand, is better suited to the growth of such plants as are injured by cold : as the kermes-oak, the cork-tree, and the fig-tree. We shall now proceed to despribe some of the most remarkable cities of France ; and first, Paris. Paris is the metropolis of France, and one of the largest and richest cities of Eu- rope. It is situated in a valley, on both banks of the Seine. The river crosses it from east to west, dividing it into two nearly equal parts ; it then divides itself into two branches, which again unite, after forming three considerable islands. The com- munication between the banks of the river and the islands is effected by a great number of bridges, many of which are remarkable for the beauty of their construc- tion, and join the quays, which are intended rather for ornament than for business. The environs do not exhibit much variety. Instead of gardens, parks, and country- seats, Paris, on several sides, presents large tracts of unenclosed cornfields. The stream of life in the great streets, crowd of wagons, carriages, and horsemen, is not so great as in the neighborhood of London. Most of the streets, however, are wide, airy, watered by numerous fountains, and full of magnificent hotels and shops. The finest approach to Paris is by St. Germain, a broad, straight street, lined with lofty buildings, leading from Neuilly to the city, where the view is terminated by the Arc de I'Etcile, which stands on an elevation ; from this to the charming Champ Elysees extends a walk about a mile and a half in length, planted with fine elms, and lined on both sides with handsome houses and beautiful gardens. The next objects are the Tuilleries, with its gardens and statues ; the Seine, with its bridges and quays ; and the Place Vendome, with its triumphal column. The circuit of the city, as 16 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN marked by a wall raised in 1787, to prevent smuggling-, is fourteen miles, its greatest breadth three miles, its greatest length above five. The original soil on which Paris is built, is a marly gypsum, and a great portion of the southern part of the city is built over the immense quarries which form the catacombs. Previous, however, to entering into a lengthened detail of the public edifices and institutions which grace this distinguished city, we must proceed to give a brief description of its foundation and gradual increase from an inconsiderable village to its present rank and political importance among the cities of civilized Europe. Paris evidently owes its foundation to the means of defence afforded in early ages by the insular position of the spots how called the Cite and Isle of St. Louis. It was small but strong, when, under the name of Lutetia, it offered a temporary resistance to a Roman detachment sent against it by Caesar. The Romans, after they had taken the city, made important improvements in the fortifications, erected an aque- duct, and the public building called Thermae, from its warm baths. But it remained in comparative obscurity until the reign of Julian, who erected a splendid palace during his stay in the town. Its advantageous situation soon made it a place of great trade. In 486 the Franks conquered it, and made it the capital of their king- dom. It was considerably improved by Charlemagne, who instituted the schools, from which, at a later period, sprung the university. After Hugh Capet, count of Paris, the first king of the third race, ascended the throne in 987, Paris remained the residence of the kings until Louis XIV., whom the Fronde had driven from the capital in 1649, made Versailles the royal residence. Hugh Capet resided in the Palais de Justice. The place increased, and was divided into four quarters. Under Louis le Gros, not more than above twelve francs of taxes were collected monthly at the northern gate, in the neighborhood of the present street St. Martin. In 1165, Bishop Maurice de Sully nearly completed the cathedral of Notre Dame, as it is still to be seen; and in the same century the Templars built their palace on the square, where at present is the Market du Temple. In 1190, Philip Augustus, who had caused Paris to be paved, ordered a third enlargement, and divided the city into eight quarters or divisions. Until that period it had but three gates ; then it re- ceived fifteen. In the thirteenth century St. Louis founded the hospital of the QuinzeVingts for the blind, and a number of convents. After the abolition of the order of Templars, in 1312, Philip the Fair, in 1314, caused the grand-master. Mo- lay, and several knights, to be burned in the Place Dauphine, so called, at least, be- fore the revolution of 1830. Under Philip of Valois, Paris contained 150,000 inhab- itants ; but the black death, so called, which ravaged Europe about the middle o£ the fourteenth century, destroyed more than half the inhabitants. About this time, the Hotel de Ville, on the Place de G-reve, was commenced ; and in 1367, the fourth enlargement of Paris took place under Charles V. Until that time, Paris had only two bridges, one toward the north, Le Pont au Change ; the other toward the south, Le Peiit Pont. In 1378, the third, Le Pont St. Michael, opposite the present street Laharpe, was built. The fourth bridge, called Pont Notre Dame, was erected soon after. In 1418, Paris was visited by famine and pestilence, by which 100,000 per- sons perished in three months. In 1420, Paris was taken by the English, who retained it for some years, but.they were finally expelled by Charles VII., and shortly after, the city suffered so severely from plague and famine, that it was almost depopulated. In the succeeding reign, Paris was greatly improved and extended. The foundation of the royal college was laid by Francis I., who also erected a magnificent palace on the site of the old tow- ers of the Louvre. Streets were formed in different parts of the city, and several splendid churches were erected in this reign. The Grecian orders of architecture were now, for the first time, introduced into the edifices of Paris, and the interior of the public buildings were adorned with sculpture, and the paintings of the Italian school. Under Louis XIV. was effected the great improvement of levelling the Boulevards or great circular mound, filling up the moat, and planting the whole with beautiful rows of trees. Versailles, however, was still the chief care of the Bourbons ; and Paris received only slow and partial embellishments, until the revo- lution, when Napoleon, zealous to make the French nation the ruling power of Eu- rope, and Paris the capital of the world, collected together the finest portions of both modern and ancient art, partly as trophies of his own victorious arms, and partly from a desire to render the capital of France as distinguished for the magnificence of its arts and architecture, as it was for its science and learning. He freed the CONTINENTAL EUROPE,— FRANCE. 17 bridges and banks of the Seine from the embarrassment and deformity of the old houses, by which they were still crowded, built magnificent quays and wharfs, and erected several bridges, which are remarkable for their beauty. He also provided public fountains, which were abundantly supplied with water. The people, not merely of Paris, but of the whole kingdom, are indebted to him for those spacious markets, so admirably arranged for the sale of every kind of produce, for public stores, which surprise by their vastness, and astonish by their architectural grandeur. He erected several abattoirs beyond the city walls, and thus relieved the inhabitants of Paris from the inconvenient and dangerous presence of herds of cattle, and the revolting spectacle of blood. He cleared the Place du Carousel, between the Louvre and the Tuilleries, of its obstructions, and adorned it with a triumphal arch ; and completed the Louvre, filled its gallery with sculptures and paintings, and built a second gallery from the adjacent angle, so as to complete the square of the vast area of the Carousel, and the junction of the Louvre with the Tuilleries. Many of the public improvements which were commenced by Bonaparte, but left unfinished, have since been carried on; many were completed after the restoration -of the Bourbon family to the throne of France, and during the reign of Louis Philippe. , A history of Paris is, to a considerable degree, a history of France, so much has this city, during the last centuries, concentrated in itself all the vital action of France. This has had several good and many evil consequences; and true liberty, the life- blood which should animate all parts of the body politic, can not be domesticated in France until the departments and provincial towns have resumed their proper im- portance. The preponderance of Paris over all France, not only in a political sense, but in literature, arts, customs, &c., is immense, and was most strikingly manifested during the revolution of the last century. On the 31st of March, 1814, the taking of Paris concluded the campaign of the allies against Napoleon. The congress of Chatillon had been broken up. Thirty thousand men, under Marmont, Mprtier, and Compans, with 150 cannons, occupied the fortified heights before Paris, in a semicircle, from Charenton and Nogenton the Marne to Neuilly on the Seine. By degrees, 120,000 men were brought against them. With the break of day on the^ 30th, the battle began. After an obstinate struggle, the allies succeeded in taking' the heights of Belleville ; the village Lavil- lette was taken by assault, while other troops advanced through Neuilly on the Marne, and Nogent sur Marne toward Vincemies, where the bridge of Charenton was taken by assault, and w-here 150 e eves of the veterinary school of Alfort died a heroic death. Bliicher, at the same tim'e, drew near, passing through St. Denis, and Montmartre was taken by assault at three o'clock in the afternoon. Marmont, in the meantime, had proposed an armistice to General Schwartzenberg, which was concluded at three o'clock. At six o'clock, Counts Nesselrode, Orloff, and Paar went to Paris, where the conditions of surrende'r were concluded on the 31st, at two o'clock in the morning. The corps of Marmont and Mortier were to leave Paris at seven o'clock, and hostilities were not to begin before nine o'clock. The city was recommended to the mercy of the allies. The victory of Paris cost the latter 9,000 men ; the French lost 4,000 besides the prisoners, and more than one hundred can- nons. The troops of the allies were kept under strict discipline. The French made loud complaints of outrages, and though it is impossible that so large an army should take possession of a hostile city without some cases of violence, the behavior of the armies must be allowed to have been very strictly regulated, particularly if compared with that of the French armies in Vienna, Berlin, and other great cities, where cru- elty was added to injury. The French even went so far as to complain bitterly of the allies for taking the works of art which Napoleon had carried from their countries. When Napoleon returned to Paris in 1815, and lost the battle of Waterloo, Da- voust received the command of about 60,000 men for the defence of Paris. It was difl&cult to attack the city, as formerly, from the north and east, because the heights and villages were fortified, and well supplied with artillery. The British, therefore, remained before these lines, and the Prussians passed over the Seine to attack Paris from Versailles. The city is weakest on this side, and might also be forced to sur- render by cutting off all the supplies of provisions which come from Normandy. On June 30, 1815, therefore, the first and' third Prussian corps marched to St. Ger- main ; the fourth remained in its former position until the arrival of the English ; and on July 2, the third corps marched though Versailles to Plessis Piquet, the first 2 18 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN through Vaucresson to Sevres and Meudon ; the fourth, which was to act as a re- serve, was placed at Versailles. The enemy had been driven back at Sevres and Plessis Piquet, as far as Vaugirard and Montrouge, and had occupied Issy. A coun- cil of war, held at Paris, almost unanimously determined that Paris was untenable ; but in order to make a last attempt, Vandamme advanced on the morning of the 3d, with 10,000 men, and attacked Issy. He was repulsed after several hours' fight- ing, and the surrender of Paris was resolved on. The capitulation Avas concluded at St. Cloud on the same day. The French army was to leave Paris within three days, and cross the Loire within eight days ; Montmartre was to be surrendered July 5, and all the barriers on the 6th. July 7, the Prussian army entered the barrier of the military school, and part of the English army that of St. Denis. Louis XVIII. arrived the next day. The next great political event of which the city of Paris became the theatre, was the revolution of 1830, which ended in the dethronement of Charles X. and the ele- vation of Louis Philippe I. to the throne of France. During that short and memo- rable revolution, the greatest part of the street lamps were broken ; 4055 barricades thrown up with great rapidity, consisting of the pavement torn up for the purpose, of coaches and other vehicles, trees, &c. : 3,125,000 paving-stones were dislodged, and the paving the streets again cost 250,000 francs. We shall speak of this hereafter. "We may, in the first instance, enumerate the principal ecclesiastical edifices. The cathedral of Notre Dame occupies the southeast corner of the small island in the Seine, called the Isle de la Cite, or the Isle du Palais, and is consequently almost in the centre of Paris. It is a Gotliic building, venerable for its antiquity^ and also, in its architectural character not destitute either of grandeur or beauty, although it can not be ranked, upon the whole, among the happiest specimens of the style to which it belongs. The site of the church of Notre Dame appears to have been devoted to sacred purposes from very early times. In making some excava- tions under the choir, in March, 1711, there were found, at the depth of fifteen feet below the surface, nine stones, bearing inscriptions and figures in bas-relief, which seemed to have originally formed an altar, dedicated conjointly to Esus, or Eus (the Celtic god of battle and slaughter), to Jupiter, Vulcan, Castor, and Pollux. From the circumstance of ashes and incense being still found in the hole where the fire had been placed, it was inferred that the altar had stood on the same spot Avhere its ruins were discovered. It is probable, however, that it stood in the open air ; for ithere is no reason to believe that any pagan tem.ple was ever erected within the bounds of this islet. These sacred edifices among the ancient Gauls were, for the most part, placed outside the towns ; and this seems clearly to have been the case with those at Paris. The first Christian church which Paris possessed was erected on or close to the site of the present cathedral. Its date is assigned to about the year 375, in the reign of Valentinian I. This church was dedicated to St. Stephen, and it was for a long time the only one in the city. About the year 522, Childebert I., the son of Clovis, erected another close beside it, which he dedicated to the Vir- gin. The present cathedral may be considered as uniting these two churches, cov- ering as it does nearly the whole Space which they formerly occupied. It was begun to be built, according to some accounts, about the year ]010, in the reign of Robert II., surnamed the Devout, the son and successor of Hugh Capet; while others refer it to the time of Robert's great-great-grandson, Louis VII. or the Young, in the year 1160. It is most probable, however, that it was not really commenced till after the accession of Louis's celebrated son and successor, Philip II., usually called Philip Augustus, who occupied the throne from 1180 to 1223. The work was carried on witli the extreme deliberation common in those times, in the case of structures which were intended for the utmost possible duration ; and it was not quite finished till the close of the reign of Philip VI., or about the middle of the fourteenth century. The principal front of the cathedral of Notre Dame is the west. It consists of three portals, surmounted by a pillared gallery, over which again are a great central and two side windows, from which the principal light for the body of the church is derived. Over the windows is another gallery, supported by columns, from the extremities of which rise two towers, 204 feet in height, but more remarkable for &' ^'dity than elegance. The architecture of this front is altogether of a very florid description, and presents many grotesque ornaments. Originally, a flight of thirteen CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. Principal Front of the Cathedral of Notre Dame. 20 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN • steps used to lead up to the doors ; hut such has been the accumulation of the sur rounding soil, that it is now considerably higher than the floor of the church. The gallery immediately over the doors used formerly to contain twenty-eight statues of the kings of France, from Childebert to Philip Augustus, inclusive, but these were pulled down and destroyed in the early fury of the Revolution. The cathedral, in- deed, sustained many other injuries beside this in the confusion of those times. Of its most ancient and curious ornaments, the greater number were carried away ; nor have all the efforts that have since been made, both by Bonaparte and the Bourbons, eifected its restoration to its former splendor. The walls of the cathedral of Notre Dame are remarkably thick. The dimensions of the interior are, 414 feet in length by 144 in widtli. The roof is 102 feet high. The columns from which the arches spring, by which the roof and galleries are sus- tained, amount in all to nearly three hundred, and each is formed of a single block of SI one. The nave is flanked by a double aisle, and forty-five chapels ; but the effect of this quadruple range of columns is diminished by the mixture of the clustered Gothic with the massive and clumsy corrupted Roman. A double arcade surmounts the nave. The circular windows of the fapade and transepts being the only ones of col- ored glass, the quantity of light generally admitted into the building is out of keep- ing M'ith its massive character. The exterior of the choir is ornamented with a cu- iious series of ancient bas-reliefs, representing scripture histories, by Jean Rovy and his nephew, Jean le Boutelier, who completed them in 1351. The high altar and interior of the choir were repaired and ornamented for Bonaparte's coronation ; but as these improvements were made without any leference to the general stjde of the building, they are but li+tle in unison with its architectural character. The stalls are handsomely carved in wood ; above them are eight large scripture pieces, by Halle, Jouvenet, Philippe de Champagne, La Fosse, Louis Boulougne, and Antoine Coypel. On each side of the altar are colossal statues of Louis XIH. and XIV., in white marble, by Couston and Coyzevox. In a chapel to the left of the choir, near the bottom of the church, is a monument to the memory of Cardinal de Belloy. The whole is of white marble, and of co- lossal proportions. The cardinal, seated in an arm-chair placed on his tomb, is rep- resented as bestowing alms on a poor woman, supported by a young female, whose countenance expresses gratitude and respect. In the prelate's hand is an open Bible, with an inscription. On the same side appears St. Denis, standing on a cloud, with a scroll in his left hand, bearing the names of the bishops of Paris, his successors, and precursors of the cardinal, to whom he is pointing with his right hand. Among the Monumens Francais, there is a mausoleum belonging to Notre Dame, of a much higher character than the one we have been describing. It is that of Henri Claude, Comte d'Harcourt, marshal of France, who died in 1709. At the foot of his open- ing coffin, his wife bends forward in an attitude eager and supplicatory ; the marshal is raising himself feebly, and looking toward her with a countenance of living . death. His grave-clothes have partly fallen off, and discover his emaciated body ; a shrouded skeleton at the head of the coffin is immediately recognised as the grisly king of terrors, who stretches out a minute-glass, as if to limit the period of resus- citation, and again claim his victim. The design was suggested by a dream of Madame d'Harcourt, the night after her husband's death. The abbey-church of St. Germain-des-Pres is remarkable for its antiquity. It was founded by Childebert, in 558, in honor of St. Vincent's shirt, which this mon- arch is said to have brought as a trophy from Saragossa, together with a large cross from Toledo. It was known at this period by the name of St. Germain-le-Dore, from the gilding employed on its roof. Childebert was himself buried in it, as well as St. Germain ; and part of the western tower is believed by antiquaries to belong to the original edifice. The principal part of the building had, however, been three times burned by the Normans, when Abbot Morard began to restore it in 990, and completed it, nearly as ii. now stands, in 1014. Considerable repairs were made in 1646, when the roof was, for the first time, vaulted with stone, the windows en- larged, the columns ornamented with capitals, and other changes made, which did not, however, extend to any essential alteration in the character of the edifice. Its appearance is gloomy and mean. The arches are round, except in the semi-circular arcade, at the eastern end, where they are pointed, in consequence of the contracted space between the pillars; and this is one among a number of instances where the CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 21 Church of St. Gervais. 22 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN pointed arch was used fi-om accident and necessity, before it generally became an object of taste. The abbey-church of St. Genevieve is reckoned among the most ancient edifices of France, part of the existing building being referred to the age of Clevis, by whom it was founded under the name of St. Peter and St. Paul, though the greater part of it was rebuilt in 1177. It is a mean structure, without transepts ; the col umns of the nave are Lombard, and of unequal size; the windows lancet-shaped, It contained the sepulchre of Clovis, whose figure was placed on his tombstone, with his diadem and sceptre, and the marks of consular dignity conferred on him, according to general belief by the Emperor Anastasius. St. Germain I'Auxerrois is a Gothic edifice of the eleventh century ; but has no particular merit, except that it contains the tombs of the Count de Caylus, the Chancellor Olivier, Malherbe the poet, Madame Dacier, as well as of several art- ists, and several other celebrated characters. St. Gervais presents a curious specimen of the treatment to which Gothic edifices were subjected on the revival, as it was called, of the arts. This church was re- built in 1212, and repaired in 1581. Its style is Gothic, with a considerable degree of elegance; but instead of entering it by a corresponding facade, the visiter is sur- prised to see a towering pile of porches, rising story above story, to the height of above 150 feet : the lower columns are Doric, the central Ionic ; and four of the Corinthian order, supporting a circular pediment, terminate this ingenjous mask, which was put upon the old building in 1619. The churches of St. Eustache and St. Elienne-du-Mont exhibit the degeneracy of Gothic architecture, when it was supposed to be improved by a mixture of Grecian ornament. The former was built in 1532, the latter was not finished until 1616. The sanctuary of St. Eustache is ornamented by five scriptural pieces, by Charles Vanloo, and a virgin, in white marble, by Pigalle. The church of St. Etienne-du-Mont, though clumsy in its general style of archi- tecture, is remarkable for the boldness of the screen, which separates, in the form of an arch, the nave from the choir. The two spiral stone staircases at either end of it look as if suspended in the air, notwithstanding their fretted massiveness. In the cloisters of this church is some beautifully painted glass, by Pinargrier. Many of the countenances, particularly those on board the ship of the gospel, have the air of portraits. The church of St. Sulpice is a most elaborate effort of bad taste. The portico is composed of a facade flanked by two towers; the former is consequently not a pro- jection, but a recess, of two stories, of which the lower entablature rests upon four Doric, and the upper upon the same number of Ionic columns. The towers are to- Church of St. Suloice. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 23 24 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN tally dissimilar in design from the body of the edifice, and even from each other. They consist of two stories, the lower of which is a square, presenting on each of its sides four Corinthian columns, supporting a triangular pediment : the upper is a circular tower, surrounded by nine Corinthian columns, and terminated by a balus- trade. The extreme length of the interior is estimated at 336 feet. The height above the choir is ninety-nine feet ; the width of the latter is forty-two. The man- ner in which the light has been made to fall upon a statue of the virgin at the eastern extremity of the building has been much admired. A general view of the exterior of the building is given in the foregoing engraving. The church of St. Roch is rich in decoration ; but the most curious part of it is the chapel of Calvary, at the bottom of the building, which is fitted up to represent a dark cavern, with the incidents of the crucifixion. Groups of figures, rocks, and trees, are arranged as Ave sometimes see hermits' grottoes in tea-gardens. In one part of this chapel is a marble figure of Christ on the Cross. The splendid edifice, or rather dome, of the Invalids, may be considered as the chef-d'cEuvre of church-building in the age of Louis XIV., and though certainly a magnificent edifice, is strongly characterized by the architectural defects of thai time. The facade, ISO feet in width, and ninety-six high, is composed of two sto- ries, ornamented with Doric and Corinthian columns, and surmounted by a triangu- lar pediment. The dome is also divided into two stories, round the lower of which there is a series of columns, arranged in the form of little porticoes, to support the heavy buttresses of the second story, Avliich is crowned with a balustrade. The first defect observable in this exterior is the clumsiness of the double stories ; the second is the blankness arising from the want of a portico. The projecting but- tresses of the upper story of the dome take greatly from boldness and simplicity, which are the chief grace of such elevations. The whole is, besides, much too high and massive for the body of the edifice, which seems less to support than to be crushed beneath it. The Pantheon. The Pantheon is, perhaps, the happiest effort of French architecture. It is built in the form of a Greek cross, 340 feet long and 250 wide. The porch of the prin- cipal entrance is composed of a triple range of fluted Corinthian columns, fifty- eight feet high, and five and a half in diameter, supporting a triangular pediment ; the front of this porch is 120 feet long. The dome is composed of two stories, the lower of which is surrounded by thirty Corinthian columns, supporting a gallery and balustrade ; the upper story is plain, and surmounted by a cupola, which is six- ty-two feet eight inches in diameter; it is lighted by a small circular lantern, the height of which from the interior pavement is 282 feet. The first impression pro- duced by viewing this edifice, is of the superiority it derives from its portico of a CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 25 single story, projecting with an impressive depth of shade, and magnificence of col- umns ; while the transepts behind it give a breadth and solidity to the whole edifice, which preserve its proportions with the superstructure. The dome is light and graceful, but it can scarcely be said to approach sublimity ; against which, nothing in architecture seems more to militate than minute gradations and divisions, of which there are four in this dome : namely, the lower story with its gallery, the upper story, the cupola, and the lantern, which itself has a bad effect, from being very like a miniature temple. Viewing the Pantheon angularly, there is a plainness in the sides and transepts, when contrasted with the magnificent portico, which gives the body of the edifice %n appearance of unfinished poverty. The basso-relievoes of the pediment are poliucal allegories. The foregoing cut represents the principal front of the edifice. The interior of the Pantheon is eminently graceful in its efiect, notwithstanding the four massive buttresses, which have been substituted in the place of columns for the support of the dome. The style of decoration is rich ; the pillars are Corin- 1^hian, and the vaulted roof finished with basso-relievoes. The vaults and galleries beneath the Pantheon were, some years back, arranged as places of sepultuye. Each vault was fitted up to contain several rows of stone coffins, or sarcophagi, in which many dignitaries of the empire were installed. The most splendid of the modern erections in Paris, however, is decidedly the Madeleine church. The erection of this church, like that of many other of the pub- lic buildings in Paris, has been affected by the vicissitudes which public events have from time to time occasioned in France, during the last fifty years. The popu- lation of the village of Ville I'Eveque, now annexed to Paris, having, toward the middle of the last century, increased to such an extent as to require additional church accommodation, the construction of a new parochial church was commenced by direction of Louis XV. The first stone Avas laid on the 3d of April, 1764. In 1777 the architect died, and the revolution of 1789 led to the suspension of the works. It was not likely that they should be resumed under the rule of Robespierre, and sev- eral years elapsed before the country was in a condition, either morally or financially, to enable the government to pay much attention to the erection of ecclesiastical edi- fices. After a delay of eighteen years, the Emperor Napoleon, under whom the military rather than the ecclesiastical power, was predominant, proposed to convert the building into a Temple of Glory, dedicated to his armies. The present structure was in consequence commenced in 1808. Again the works were suspended on ac- count of political events, and from 1813, when the allies invaded France, up to 1816, no progress was made toward the completion of the building. In 1816 the clergy exercised greater influence than any other class in the state. A large portion of the nation was sick of the incense which had been perpetually offered to the mil- itary, and Louis XVIII. directed that the building should be completed as a church, and that it should contain monuments to the memory of Louis XVI. and his queen, Marie Antoinette, their young son Louis XVII., and Madame Elizabeth. This in- tention is not likely to be carried into effect, but the edifice is on the point of com- pletion, and will be used as a church. The Pantheon is already dedicated to the celebrated men whom France has produced, and that building is the depository of their remains. Napoleon, however, reversed the decree of the national assembly, and religious worship was, in consequence, again conducted within its walls. Under the restoration, the remains of Voltaire and Rousseau, which had been deposited in the building when it was intended to serve as the burial place of remarkable men, were removed to an obscure vault. Since the revolution of 1830, the Pantheon has again reverted to the purposes for which it was decreed by the national assembly. The form of the Madeleine is a parallelogram, surmounted by a portico formed of columns of the Corinthian order, which rest upon an elevated basement, and are surmounted by an entablature. Each front is supported by eight columns, and an em- blematic design, on a large scale, fills the angles of the pediment. The height of the basement is seven feet and a half, and of the columns, seventy-two feet. Eight Corinthian columns, fifty-four feet in height, divide the nave from the aisles. The architecture of La Madeleine forms a highly-striking contrast to that of Notre Dame. Each edifice represents an epoch, and the architecture of the middle ages is less in character with the present times, and the existing national spirit, than the fine specimen of an earlier style of architecture which the Madeleine presents. The position of the Madeleine is extremely well calculated to give effect to its 26 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN magnificent and well-proportioned dimensions. In proceeding from the Boulevard des Italiens it catches the eye, and as the numerous Corinthian columns on which it rests, come successively into view, it can not fail to excite admiration, even in those who are ignorant of the rules of architectural elegance and beauty. Seen from the middle of the Place Louis XVI., though it enters into competition with other com- manding objects, it produces a fine effect. From the latter position are seen the Chamber of Deputies and the Bridge of Louis XVI., adorned with fine marble stat- ues ; and opposite to these objects is the Madeleine. la a northern direction, at the end of the vista formed by the avenue of the Champs Elysees, is the Arc de Tri- omphe ; and opposite to that fine monument is the palace of the Tuilleries and its pleasant gardens. Paris has five cemeteries: Pere-Ia-Chaise, Montmartre, Vaugirard, St. Catherine, and Ml. Parnasse. All these are ornamented, but the first more than any other, and, doubtless, gave an impetus to the Mount Auburn, Greenwood, and Laurel Hill, of America. The site of Pere-la-Chaise is a commanding eminence, called Mont-Louis, to the north of the city, being aprolongationof the heights of Montmartre. It covers a con- siderable extent of ground, the surface of which is irregular and undulating, and sha- ded in places with clumps of trees, very much in the manner of an English pleasure- ground. Winding gravel-walks divide it into plots of graves and tombstones; each of these is the cherished property of a family, and each stone gleams over a bed of flowers, surrounded by a light hedge, or trellis-work. " At the period of my visit," says a modern traveller, " the soil was literally glowing, and the air per- fumed, with these numberless patches of flowers. Pots, containing rare and deli- cate plants, were set round many of the tombs ; garlands and votive oflferings were suspended on others, by the hands of parental sorrow, filial aflTection, or youthful companionship. It may be that in many cases this was but the afi'ectation of feel- ing — a parade of sentiment — got up to look like sorrow. Our baser nature is but too apt to believe this; yet of all aflfectations, that surely is the most pardonable, which comes upon us in the guise of a mourner, watering flowers round the tomb. It is difficult, moreover, to imitate feelings of so sacred a character, without becom- ing, in a certain degree, susceptible of their influence ; it is difficult to plant a rose- bush on the grave of a parent, child, friend, or mistress, and see its blossoms ex- pand in a returning summer-sun, without directing a thought toward that mortal wreck upon which no sun shall shine again. It is difficult to have thoughts occa- sionally so bestowed, without somewhat disdaining our everyday selfishness, and feeling convinced to what a pitiful end we urge the toilsome march of vanity and passion. Thou art sleepless, O avarice ! careworn, and hast no man's blessing ; yet it were well done if thy ingots could redeem one friend from this ' cold obstruc- tion !' As it is, what profits it to have made life a torment ?" In the early ages of the French monarchy, it was distinguished by the name of " Bishop's Field" (Champ de VEveque), and doubtless belonged to the Bishop of Paris. It subse- quently passed through several hands, and was at length purchased, for about §35,000, by the prefect of the department of the Seine, to be converted into a cem- etery. It then consisted of forty-two acres. M. Brongiart was the person appoint- ed to adapt this spot to its new destination ; and in drawing his plan he took care to preserve whatever could be rendered subservient to the use or embellishment of the new establishment. To render access easy to diff'erent points, winding paths were formed, a wide paved road was opened to the spot where the mansion of Pere-la-Chaise formerly stood, and cypresses and willows were intermingled with the shrubs and the fruit-trees. The cemetery, thus prepared, was consecrated early in 1804, and on the 21st of May in the same j^ear the first corpse was interred. The advantageous situation of this spot, upon the slope of a hill, surrounded by luxuriant valleys and rising grounds, with the fine and picturesque view it com- mands, occasioned such a demand for its graves, that it has been enlarged, until it now comprehends an extent of nearly one hundred acres. Properly, the cemetery of Pere-la-Chaise is the burial-place of only the inhabitants of the fifth, sixth, sev- enth, eighth, and ninth wards of the city ; but when a perpetual right in the ground for a grave is purchased, remains may be brought from any part of the city, or even of the kingdom. This privilege has been so extensively used, that the burial-ground, which, by its regular destination, would have been principally occupied by the sober citizens of Paris, now contains the names of most of the illustrious dead of modem CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 27 28 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN France. Hence no Parisian cemetery can be compared to this for the number and beauty of its monuments. Some of them, of large dimensions and elegant archi- tecture, are in the form of temples, sepulchral chapels, funeral vaults, pyramids, and obelisks ; while others present piers, columns, altars, urns, and tombs, variously; formed and ornamented. Many are surrounded by enclosures of wood or iron, within which are planted flowers and shrubs, and near some of them benches are placed for the accommodation of the friends of the deceased and other visiters. A subterranean canal, which formerly conveyed water to Mont-Louis House, still ex- ists, and furnishes a sufficient supply to keep the plants and herbage in perpetual verdure. Some families pay an annual sum to the gardener for cultivating the shrubs and flowers which have been planted upon the graves of their departed friends. It is impossible in this article to give even the most brief description of the nu- merous interesting monuments which Pere-la-Chaise exhibits. That of Abelard and Heloisa attracts the most attention, from its dimensions and beauty. Among the names commemorated by monuments are those of Laplace, Cuvier, Denon, Vol- ney, and Monge ; Fourcroy, the chymist ; Bocage and MentcUe, the geographers ; Langles, the orientalist ; Moliere ; La Fontaine, the fabulist ; St. Pierre, author of " Paul and Virginia ;" Talma, the actor ; Haiiy, who taught the blind to read by means of characters in wood; Sicard the distinguished instructor of the deaf and dumb ; Parmentier, to whom France is chiefly indebted for the general cultivation of the potato. Among military names may be mentioned those of Ney, Massena, Davoust, Caulincourt, Lauriston, Foy, Labedoyere. Among political names, Tal- lien, who for a time swayed the destinies of republican France, and -Manuel, the parliamentary orator. And, among women, Madame Dufresnoy, the " Tenth Muse;" Madame Cottin, authoress of the "Exiles of Siberia;" the beautiful and accomplished daughter of Cuvier ; Madame Blanchard, who perished in 1819 by her balloon taking fire ; and Mademoiselle Raucourt, the actress, to whose inter- ment in consecrated ground the clergy ofi"ered so much opposition as nearly to occa- sion a popular tumult. It was stated in 1830, that upward of 100,000 bodies had been interred in the cemetery of Pere-la-Chaise. Of this number, the friends and families of 15,000 had erected monuments over their remains, of which 1,500 were rendered objects of more than ordinary attention by some striking peculiarity — by their neatness or magnificence, or from the interest connected with the names they commemorate. The cemetery is entirely surrounded by walls. The gate of the proper cemetery is in the centre of a semi-circular recess, decorated on each side with piers and fu- neral ornaments. On the gate is a Latin inscription from the book of Job, xix. 25 ; on the right is another, from John, x. 25 ; and on the left, one from the Apocrypha, Wisdom, iii. 5. The chapel of the cemetery, for funeral ceremonies, is plain and neat, and receives light by a window in the centre of the roof; it is fifty-six feet in length by twenty-eight in breadth, and its elevation is about fifty-six feet. It is sur- motmted by a white cross, arid stands at the extremity of the two principal alleys leading from the gate. In the cemetery there are three kinds of graves. First, the fosses communes, or " common trenches," four feet and a half deep, in which the poor are gratuitously interred in coffins placed close to each other, without any intervening space, but not upon each other. These trenches are reopened every five years, that time being considered sufficient for the decomposition of bodies in this clayey soil ; but the ground of each grave may be purchased for a term of six years, or for ever, by fam- ilies, at the time the trenches are about to be reopened, unless it should happen to be in the line of any contemplated road. It is not to be concealed that these im- mense common graves are very unpleasant features in the Parisian cemeteries. Their existence was forbidden by the law of 1804, which prescribed the depth and distance of the separate graves in which all bodies were to be interred. We can- not learn whether they continue by connivance, or whether the law has been re- pealed. They have, however, in their present form, probably resulted from the wish of the proprietors to perform, with the least possible expense, that condition for the gratuitous interment of the poor, in consideration of which they were allowed to receive the payments of the wealthy. The second class of graves are the separate temporary ones, which, upon the payment of ten dollars, are held for six years, but then revert to the establishment, CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 29 30 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN even though monuments should have been erected over them. If, however, indi- viduals wish to prolong their lease of the spot, they may do so by paying at the rate of ten dollars for every five years ; but if the payments are not duly made, the graves are reopened, and the monuments restored to those by whom they were erected. It is optional, also, to purchase a perpetual right in the graves which were at first bought for only a limited period ; in that case a discount is allowed of one of the sums of ten dollars each previously paid for its temporary possession. The third sort of graves are those in which the perpetual right is purchased in the first instance, when vaults may be sunk and monuments erected at pleasure. Not less than six feet six inches is granted for an adult, nor less than half that Ex- tent for a child under seven years of age. But families are at liberty to purchase as much more as they please ; and hemce many families do possess large spots of ground in the cemetery. The price is tvvrenty-five dollars for a square metre (of about thirty-nine and one quarter inches), and three dollars for the deed and regis- tration'of the sale. When a person desires to purchase ground, he applies to the keeper of the cemetery, who accompanies him to select such an unoccupied spot as he may please. When a family wishes to construct a vault or tomb for the recep- tion of the dead, the corpse is meanwhile deposited in a temporary grave, for the use of which, upon its removal, the sum of twenty-five francs is paid ; but this re- moval can not take place without the special permission of the prefect of police, and in the presence of a commissary of police, who draws up minutes of the trans- action. The palace of the Tuilleries form;^ one of the principal edifices of Paris. It was so called because a tilekiln formerly stood on the site where it is erected. At that time, this part of Paris Avas not comprised within the walls ; nothing was to be seen in the vicinity of the tilekiln but a few coppices and scattered habitations. The construction of this palace was begun in May, 1564. Henry IV. enlarged the original building, and, in 1600, began the grand gallery which joins it to the Louvre. Louis XIII. made some alterations in the palace ; and, in 1664, Louis XIV. direct- ed it to be finished, by making the additions and embellishments which have brought it nearly to its present state. These deviations from the first plan have de- stroyed the proportions required by the strict rules of art ; nevertheless, the archi- tecture, though variously blended, presents, at first sight, an ensemble which is mag- nificent and striking. The whole front of the palace consists of five pavilions, con- nected by four piles of building, standing on the same line, and extending for the space of more than one thousand feet. The first order of the three middle piles is Ionic, with encircled columns ; the two adjoining pavilions are also ornamented with Ionic columns, but fluted and embellished with foliage, from the third of their height to the summit. The second order of these two pavilions is Corinthian. The two piles of building which come next, as well as the two pavilions of the wings, are of the Composite order, with fluted pillars. In the council-chamber of the Tuilleries is a globe, and also a curious clock, that shows the time of day in every part of the northern hemisphere. In another room is a clock, with emblematical devices, representing Time present and Time past, in the way that Young describes him, concealing his wings as he advances, and dis- playing them as he flies aAvay, so as to keep his body out of sight. The gardens of the Tuilleries are always open to the public, and form the principal promenade of this part of the town. A grove of horse-chestnut trees furnishes a fine shade ; and a military band performs in the morning from eleven till twelve. Among the deco-. rations of the gardens are many fine statues, bronzes, and casts. The statues of Hippomenes and Atalanta, and a wild boar, are among the best. In the summer, one walk, which runs the Avhole length of the garden, is decorated with a range of large orange-trees, in cases, on each side of it. The palace in which the chamber of deputies holds its sittings was formerly the residence of the princes of the house of Conde, who had adorned its elegant pavil- ions, its spacious galleries, its gardens, and its theatre, with every splendor that lux- ury could devise, or wealth command. It consequently early fell a prey to the de- vastating fury of the revolutionists ; it was then plundered of all its costly furniture, and remained unoccupied till the year 1798, when the " council of five hundred" took possession of it, and held Avithin its princely walls their republican assemblies. It had been adapted for many purposes previous to its present destination. The building was originally commenced in 1722, by Louis Franpoise, duchess dowager CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 31 32 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN of Bourbon, and received various additions till its completion in its present form, in 1807, when the splendid Grecian peristyle was erected, from the designs of an ar- chitect of the name of Poyet. It is nearly one hundred feet in breadth, composed of twelve Corinthian columns, of elegant proportions, surmounted by a pediment, the tympanum of which is orna- mented with statues. The entrance is by twenty-nine steps, at the foot of which, upon a pedestal, eighteen feet high, are colossal statues of Justice and Prudence; there are also, in front of the building, sitting figures of Sully, L'Hopital, D'Agues- seau, and Colbert. This facade cost 1,759,000 francs ($350,000). The interior of the hall of assembly is semicircular, the chair of the president, and the desks of the secretaries, occupying the base of the semicircle. In front of the desk of the pres- ident is the tribune, ornamented with a basso-relievo, representing History and Fame. By this arrangement the orator necessarily turns his back upon the president. There are also some good statues, among others those of Lycurgus, Solon, Demosthenes, Brutus, Cato, and Cicero. Different galleries are set apart for the accommodation of the public, the foreign ambassadors, and the peers, and a separate space is re- served for the convenience of those connected with the public press. The numer- ous apartments and galleries of this very magnificent palace are all fitted up Avith great splendor, and commodiously arranged. There are numerous public libraries, some of them containing immense collec- tions of books and manuscripts. These are open to the public and to men of letters, almost the whole year, and present inexhaustible sources of instruction. Most of them have a large saloon, well warmed in winter, for the accommodation of visiters. The king's library, the foundation of which goes as far back as the reign of Charles v., contains nearly 600,000 printed volumes, and 80,000 manuscripts. It is open every day, from ten to two ; the vacation commences on the first of September, and closes on the fifteenth of October. The city library is open every day from twelve to four, except on festivals, and the days of the sittings of the medical and agricul- tural societies. It contains 42,000 volumes, among Avhich are many modern works. The vacation is from the first of September to the fifteenth of October. The old library of St. Genevieve, remarkable for the beauty of its architecture and decora- tions, as well as for the choice of books it contains, reckons about 112,000 volumes, and 3,000 manuscripts. It is open every day, from ten to two, and its vacation con- tinues from the first of September to the twelfth of November. The magazine library, at the Institute, is open every day, except from the fifteenth of August to the fifteenth of October, and on Thursdays and Sundays. It contains 93,000 volumes, and 4,000 manuscripts. The library of the Institutes is not public, but admission is easily procured on the recommendation of a member. It contains about 70,000 volumes. The library of the royal garden, in the museum of natural history, pre- sents a rich and varied collection of works relative to the natural sciences, herbaria, designs of plants and flowers, and paintings of animals. The library of the raedi- ';al school contains about 30,000 volumes, including all the best treatises on medicine and chymistry. It is open on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, from eleven to ' two, and its vacation is from the fifteenth of August to the first of November. The school of medicine is one of the finest establishments in Paris. Its amphi- theatre, capable of holding at least 12,000 persons, is adorned with busts of Pey- ronie and Martiniere, the founders of the school. In a long gallery are seen skele- tons of both sexes, and all ages. There are also many skeletons of animals, for the study of comparative anatomy. Opposite to this gallery are specimens of all sorts of diseases of the bones, and deformities in their conformation ; a number of injected preparations exhibit the systems of the vessels, the blood, the arteries, the veins, and the lymphatic organs. In another room are wax figures, illustrative of the ner- vous, vascular, sanguineous, and lymphatic systems. There are also representations in wax of a great number of pathological cases. Two figures, in particular, surpass everything of this kind that has ever been executed ; they exhibit the whole of the lymphatic system, external and internal. These masterpieces, as well as several others, were executed by the celebrated Lavoisier, of Rouen. A third room contains all the natural substances which the three kingdoms of nature furnish to the materia medica ; and a fifth is devoted to demonstration of the lectures on medical physics. The great museum of the Louvre is the finest collection of works of art in Eu- rope, and notwithstanding the losses it has experienced, it contains many master- pieces of all the schools. It consists of three principal divisions, the first containing CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 33 the statues, the second the pictures, and the third the designs. The museum of an- tiques is on the ground-floor, that of the drawings on the first floor, and the paintings occupy the saloon and the grand gallery that unites the Louvre to the Tuilleries. The first three divisions of this gallery are devoted to the productions of the French school ; the second three to the G-erman, Flemish, and Dutch schools, and the last three to the Italian. Among the works of many other artists, crowds are seen, every Sunday, before those of Teniers. The name of David Teniers is common to two painters, father and son, the subjects and styles of whose pictures are very similar. The younger Teniers, however, is much more distinguished than the elder. David Teniers the younger was born at Antwerp, in 1610, and was brought up under the professional instructions of his father. Some biographers state that he lei't the study of his father for that of Adrian Brauwer, and that he even received lessons from Rubens. The elder Teniers was certainly a pupil of Rubens, and there is no improbability that the younger may have received instructions from him ; but there is no proof that he did. The belief that he received instruction, not only from Rubens, but Elsheimer and other masters, is reasonably conjectured to have arisen from the wonderful fidelity and success with which, during the earlier portion of his professional life, he employed himself in imitating the works of most of the painters of his time. He also amused himself by making compositions in the styles of differ- ent celebrated painters, as Titian, Tintoretto, the Bassans, Rubens, fee, in which he imitated the touch of these great men with such ability, that the imitations, which are known by the name of pasticcios, deceived the best judges of his own time, and since have frequently been mistaken for originals, and sold as such. They must, therefore, have had great merit. However, all the skill which Teniers exhibited in this line procured him no better name than the Proteus, or else the ape, of painting; although he had certainly acquired considerable reputation in his native town before the period commenced in which his original powers were manifested. The latter period is said to have been determined in the following remarkable in- cident, which we find related in the " Biographie Universelle." Teniers was one day in an alehouse of the village of Oyssel, and when he was preparing to depart, found he had no money to pay the reckoning. He then bethought himself of paint- ing some little piece, and selling it to raise the necessary funds. In ordinary circum- stances, he would probably have thought of copying a picture ; but, as there was none to copy, he called to him a blind man who was playing on a flute, and made him the subject of a picture, which he sold for three ducats to an English traveller, who was stopping at the cabaret to change horses. A note appended, in the work we have mentioned, to this statement, informs us, that the purchaser was a nobleman, who a long time preserved the picture, which the connoisseurs regarded as a mas- terpiece of Teniers ; but it was at last stolen, and never again heard of until 1804, when it was discovered, with several other compositions of the same artist, by Col- onel Dickson, in Persia. After this, some other circumstances directed the attention of Teniers to more ori- ginal undertakings than those by which he had previously been known, and which would never have established his fame on its present basis ; and he appears seldom, unless in the way of amusement or indulgence, to have again exercised his old pow- ers as a copyist. He became a constant and faithful observer of nature ; the example of his father probably influenced him in choosing for his subjects village festivals, fairs, and merry-makings. His paintings on these subjects place before us not only the grotesque costumes of the villagers of his country, but represent, with much na- ture and great justness of expression, the play of their features, their manners, their passions, and their individual characters. That he might the more conveniently mingle with the scenes he chose to represent, he established himself in the village of Perk, between Antwerp and Mechlin ; and there he studied the undisguised impulses of natural character among fhe lower classes of the people, and has left many pleas- ing and beautiful memorials of occurrences, in themselves uninteresting, or even re- pulsive, but rendered engaging by the delightful mode in which they are represented. The landscapes of Teniers are not, in general, well chosen ; but they possess, in an eminent degree, the merit of local truth, and the talent is astonishing with which he has exhibited the ever-varying effects of atmosphere. In this high quality he is scarcely surpassed even by Claude Lorraine himself; and it often makes complete amends for the flatness and insipidity of his scenery. In the interior of apartments the cottage, the cabaret, the guard-room, or the chymist's laboratory, the clearness 3 34 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN and precision of Teniers is not less admirable than in his exteriors. He surpassed Ostade and many other painters, in the knowledge of perspective of his art. The touch of Teniers's pencil was lively, light, and ethereal ; and the tone of his color- ing is rich and natural. By continual practice upon the same system, he acquired an unexampled promptness in execution. This enabled him to paint a vast number of pictures. It was not unusual for him to execute a picture in a single day, and he used himself jocosely to observe, that it would require a gallery six miles in length, to contain all the pictures he had painted. He was in the habit of assisting the landscape-painters of the day by putting figures into their pictures; hence there are many such works which owe an increased value to this circumstance. The works of Teniers are numerous in the collections of England, Holland, and Germany, and still bear very high prices. Sir Joshua Reynolds used to regret that this artist had not employed on nobler subjects than he had generally chosen, the elegance and pre- cision of his pencil. But this observation does not seem well-founded. It is ques- tionable whether he would have attained more than mediocrity in that rank where this elegance and precision could not always be a substitute for an innate taste for fine forms, and grandeur of style. The fine picture, our engraving of which is taken from the " Musee Francais,'' possesses the usual characteristics of Teniers's st5-le, and is, therefore, remarkable for its soft and harmonious coloring. The general tone is slightly golden ; the sky, the earth, the houses in the side view, and even the trees, partake more or less of this tint. The principal figure, illuminated by a tranquil light, is placed upon a clear depth ; and the writer of the illustrative article in the work we have mentioned, dwells with much interest on the openness and serenity the counte- nance expresses, and conjectures, rather unnecessarily, we imagine, that it is the portrait of a warrior who had disguised himself in this manner lor the purpose of examining the enemy's country, and collecting the information necessary for a plan of attack. The life of Teniers, so far as known, presents fcAV events that claim our notice. In private, the mildness of his manners and the regularity of his conduct seem to have endeared him to all who were personally acquainted with him. He soon ob- tained the favorable notice of the Archduke Leopold, who appointed him his prin- cipal painter, and made him one of the gentlemen of his chamber. That eccentric woman, Christina, queen of Sweden, made him a present of her portrait, with a chain of gold ; and the prince Don John of Austria became his pupil. After an in- dustrious, and apparently comfortable life of eighty-four years, Teniers died at Brus- sels in the year 1694. Adrian Van Ostade is another of the artists whose works attract general notice in the Louvre. He was a distinguished painter of the Flemish school, was born at Lubeck, in the year 1610, and studied under Francis Hale, in company with Brau- wer, with whom he contracted a close intimacy. The reputation which the works of Teniers then enjoyed, led him to be ambitious £)f imitating the manner of that artist. But he was deterred from the execution of this project by the advice of Brauwer, another Flemish painter, who convinced him that he could never attain a high place in his art if he devoted himself to the servile imitation of another, how- ever eminent. Van Ostade followed this advice, as well as the bent of his own mind; for while the subjects of which he made choice were of the same class with those of Teniers, he treated them in a manner altogether his own. Characteristic traits, some of which strike us at the first glance, distinguish Ostade and Teniers. These two masters are equally admirable for the transparency and harmony of their works, but the coloring of Teniers is clear, gay, and silvery, and his touch firm, light, and bold, while the pencil of Ostade, always rich and soft, is sometimes wanting in firmness. If we consider design and composition, Teniers places in opposition, and unites with skill, numerous groups ; bold and able in giving all the effects of light, he de- velops extensive scenes in the open air, and gives them the spirit and life of nature, without any of his shadows being ever extravagant, and without even suffering the art of his combinations to be apparent. His figures are always correctly drawn, their attitudes easy, and even graceful. Ostade, on the contrary, collects his figures into places feebly lighted ; generally in the interior of houses, where a partial ^leam only breaks through the masses of foliage which shade the window. He does not always observe the laws of perspective with rigorous accuracy; and the CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 35 36 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN drawing of his figures is often incorrect. But he charms principally by the spirit with which he animates his group-, by a general softness of composition, and by his mysterious and striking effects of light. But a difference, still more important, distinguishes the works of these two mas- ters. Teniers, while he imitates nature, preserves her grace. If he represents rus- tic festivals, we recognise in the sports of the peasants, in their joy, in their anger, The diversity of their characters. Every condition and every age has its peculiar manners. Ostade attaches himself constantly to the representation of humorous scenes. Confining the circle of his models, he contents himself Avith choosing from the figure and the actions of peasants, whatever nature offers of grotesque and of low. He varies his subjects with skill, as well as the expression of his faces ; but he never deviates from the burlesque style which he has chosen. Teniers paints the manners of the Dutch peasantry, as they were marked by occasional grossness, but with a general character of hearty jollity, and of mirth proceeding from content. Ostade, a satirist, deforms his personages to render them more droll and ridiculous. The director of Ostade's taste, Brauwer, painted in alehouses the companions of his debauchery; Ostade, on the contrary, as well as Teniers, was remarkable for the decency and the gravity of his manners. The coarse natures and the gross enjoyments which Ostade delighted to paint, are represented with such truth and excellence, that the most refined taste regards his works with satisfaction. He surprises the judgment into such implicit admira- tion by the truth of character and energy of effect displayed, that the ground which his choice of subjects often affords for censure is forgotten. It is true that his pic- tures are not always of a low character ; but Van Ostade did not often attempt any other, nor excel when he did. It did not occur to the Dutch painters to do what Wilkie has so admirably done — to invest the representations of common life with dignity and grace, by associating them with scenes which, though familiar, affect the heart; — " Some natural sorrow, loss, or pain. Which has been, and may be again." The works of Ostade are too highly-labored to be very numerous, and hence they are now only to be bought at very high prices. His peerdliar talent was so much appreciated by the artists of his own time, that many of the most eminent were in the habit of soliciting him to put the figures into their landscapes, by which their value was greatly increased. He had already acquired considerable reputation, when the approach of the French troops in 1662 induced him to withdraw from Haarlem, where he had gone to complete his studies. He had sold all his works, and intended to return to Lubeck ; but, on his arrival at Amsterdam, an amateur, called Constantine Senneport, so forcibly represented to him the advantages which an artist possessed in a great city, that he was induced to settle at Amsterdam, and remained there until his death, in 1685. This picture, from the Musee Francais, of which our engraving is a copy, is par- ticularly remarkable for extreme finish. The whole bears the greenish and violet tint which was familiar to Ostade ; the coloring is rather monotonous, and the touch wants vigor, but the effect of the light is managed with great skill, and the head of the principal figure is full of spirit and character. Another celebrated picture in the Louvre, is that by Jordaens, " The King Drinks." It was originally in the possession of a merchant at Antwerp ; but in the year 1783 it was purchased for Louis XVI. The height of the picture is four feet nine inches, and its breadth six feet two inches. The spirit of the painting will be better understood by the following account of the custom to which it refers, the materials of which are chiefly derived from Brand's " Popular Antiquities (Ellis's edition), Strutt's "Sports and Pastimes," Brady's " Clavis Calendaria," and the lel- ter-press illustration of the engraving in the " "Musee Franpais." The election of a mock-monarch to preside over the sports and pastimes of particular seasons is a very old practice, which was formerly common on the continent, and of which there are still some existing traces. Hence we read of the kings of Christmas, of the cockneys, and of the bean, of the May-queen, the lords and abbots of misrule, corresponding to the abbot of unreason in Scotland — not to speak of the kings, popes, and bishops of fools, on the Continent. Selden, in his " Table Talk," is of opinion that these whimsical assumptions of dignity are derived from the ancient CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 37 38 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Saturnalia, or feasts of Saturn, when the masters waited upon their servants, who were honored with mock titles, and permitted to assume the state and deportment of their lords. It is indeed remarkable that the twelfth day nearly coincides in the time of the year with the Saturnalia ; and Fosbrooke even finds that the king of the Saturnalia was elected, like the king of the twelfth night, by a bean. These fooleries were so exceedingly popular, that they continued to be practised long after the establishment of Christianity, in defiance of the threatenings and remonstrances of the clergy, who at last yielded to the stream of popular prejudice, and permitted the continuance of the practice; but so altered the primitive object of the institu- tion, that the orgies which had marked the festival of a heathen deity became changed to Christian commemorations. Of these various monarchs, who much resembled each other in their powers and functions, the one represented in our engraving seems to be the " king of the bean," whose reign commenced upon the vigil of the Epiphany, or upon the day (twelfth day) itself. We are informed by Bourne that " it was a common Christmas gambol in both our universities, and continued [at the commencement of the last century] to be usual in other places to give the name of king or queen to that person whose extraordinary good luck it was to hit upon that part of a divided cake which was honored above the others by having a bean in it." Strutt, however, is disposed to doubt that in early times (for the title is by no means of recent date) the election of the monarch depended entirely upon decision of fortune. The words of an old Romish calendar seem to countenance a contrary opinion. They are to the follow- ing effect, as cited by Mr. Brand in a note to the above passage of Bourne : " On the 5th of January, the vigil of the Epiphany, the kings of the bean are created ; and on the 6th the feast of the kings shall be held, and also of the queen, and let the banqueting be continued for many days." As all the various customs of different countries on this day concur in the com- mon object of commemorating the visit of the three wise men, or kings, to the birthplace of Christ, a king is in some way or other always a conspicuous personage in the entertainments which take place. In France, previously to the revolution, this mode of celebrating twelfth day prevailed as well at court as among the people in general. At the former, one of the nobles was chosen king, and at the enter- tainment which followed, the twelfth-day monarch was a,ttended by the king and the courtiers. It does not seem that this custom was revived at the restoration of the Bourbons, but instead of it the roj^al family washed the feet of some poor peo- ple, and bestowed alms upon them. Among the people, the person who obtained the slice of cake was king, and reigned throughout the evening. The first act of the new monarch was to dub some one of the company the fool of the evening, whose business it was to "keep the table in a roar" by his verbal and practical jokes. No one drank until the king set the example, for which every one was on the watch, and when he placed the cup to his lips, the place was in an uproar with huzzas, laughter, and shouts of " The king drinks !" It was doubtless this form of the institution, Avhich prevailed equally in France, Belgium, and Germany, that Jordaens had particularly in view. Time has somewhat altered the form of the institution everywhere. In France, the more respectable families are content with giving some of the cake to the domestics; and, in general, there is no election of a sovereign, but the mistress of the house presides. It seems to have been customary to expect the kmg to bear the expenses cf the entertainment. Sir Thomas Urquhart, of Cromarty, in a curious political tract, pub- lished soon after the battle of Worcester, in 1651, says, " Verily, I think they make use of kings as the French on the Epiphany day use their roy de la fehve, or king of the bean ; whom, after they have honored with drinking of his health and shout- ing aloud, " Le roy boit ! le roy boit !" they make pay for all the reckoning, not leaving him, sometimes, one penny, rather than that the exorbitancy of their de- bosh should not be satisfied to the full." So also Misson in his " Travels in Eng- land," informs us in a note, that " on twelfth day they divide the cake, alias choose king and queen, and the king treats the rest of the company." Brand, in his " Popular Antiquities," quotes, in one of his notes, a passage from the work of Aubanus, entitled " Mores, Leges, et Ritus omnium Gentium," 1620, which seems to give a good general account of the mode of election. He says that each family made a cake of flour, honey, ginger, and pepper ; the maker, in the kneading, thrust in, at random, a small coin. When it was baked, it was divided CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 39 40 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN into as many parts as there were persons in the family ; it was di.jtributed, and each had his share. Portions of it were also assigned to Christ, the virgm, and the three magi, which were given away in alms. Whoever finds the piece of coin in his share is saluted by all as king: and being placed on a seat or throne, is thrice lifted aloft with joyful acclamations. He holds a piece of chalk in his right hand, and each time he is lifted up makes a cross on the ceiling. These crosses were thought to prevent many evils, and are much revered. Brand says he did not know that the custom was, when he wrote, practised anywhere in the north of England, though still very prevalent in the south, where, after tea, a cake is produced, and two bowls, containing the fortunate chances for the different sexes. The host fills up the tickets, and the whole company, except the king and queen, are to be minis- ters of state, maids of honor, and ladies of the bed-chamber. Often the host and hostess, more by design, perhaps, than accident, become king and queen. Accord- ding to twelfth-day law, each party is to support his character until midnight. In the picture before us we seem to recognise the mistress of the family in the richly-attired young woman seated at the middle of the table ; the young female near her is supposed to be a servant, and all the other persons represented are probably of the same rank in life, with the exception of the child. The heads of the two young females, the figure of the king, on which the light falls from behind, that of the old man by his side, and that of the young man who fills the cup, are all ad- mirable in their way. The young man at the bottom of the table is evidently rais- ing the shout, " The king drinks !" Jacob Jordaens was a distinguished painter of the Flemish school, born at Ant- werp, in the year 1594. He was the pupil of Adam Van Oort, whose daughter he married at a very early period of life ; but he is considered to have been much in- debted to the instructions of Rubens, though it does not appear that he was ever regularly admitted to the school of that great painter, Avhose principles were more fully worked out by him than by any of the pupils, except Vandyke. Paibens is said to have been jealous of him ; but this is always said of the elder of any two contemporary painters. However, it is certain that Jordaens ranked very high in his profession. He was in constant employment throughout his long life ; and his great industry, joined to the facility and expedition with which he worked, enabled him to produce a vast number of pictures, and to acquire considerable wealth. His compositions are very tasteful and eff'ective ; his style is brilliant and harmo- lious, and his designs are eminently characterized by accuracy and truth. He was particularly skilful in giving relief and rotundity to his figures ; and from the char- acter of their execution, he is presumed to have studied his subjects by candlelight. His principal defect is said by some to be occasional grossness of subject and form, and a preference of images of low and common life ; but the extent to which this can be considered at all as a defect admits of a dispute. He was never in Italy, but he is said to have omitted no opportunity of studying the productions of the Venitian school, particularly the works of Titian, for which he had a strong prefer- 'ence. It is stated, indeed, that Jordaens never left his native city, where he died, in 1678, at the age of 84 years. In the apartment devoted to sculpture, one of the most interesting is the bronze statue of the " Boy Extracting a Thorn." It is one of the best preserved among the monuments of Grecian art which have descended to our own times. It stood, many ages since, in the Roman capitol, and has been the subject of many tales, not only without foundation, but which the noble and simple style of the figure prove to be erroneously dated. The common people believe it to represent a young shepherd, who, during the intestine wars of the middle ages, was sent to observe the enemy, and into whose foot a thorn had entered, on his return to Ptome to relate what he had seen. But the incontestable antiquity of this fine work would rather incline one to believe that it represents a young victor in the races of the Stadium, who ap- parently had, in running, met with an accident, but, notwithstanding this disadvan- tage, had won the prize. The custom of perpetuating, by the position and action of athletic statues, some one of the circumstances attending the victory in such races, was early established in Greece. The absolute nakedness of the figure shows that this is an athletic statue. Its form, although somewhat slender, unites much elegance with the most exact adherance to nature ; it is at once felt that living na- ture must have aff"orded the model. The posture of this young man, who is stoop- ing, and appears to give all his attention to the extraction of the thorn from his left CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 41 42 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN foot, which is placed upon his knee, possesses so much of simplicity and grace, as to excite the untiring admiration of the spectator. The writer in the " Musee Fran9ais," from which this -description, as well as the engraving, is taken, thinks that the statue must have been executed during the sixty years which elapsed be- tween the period when the athletic statues began to be made in characteristic atti- tudes, and the time of Lysippus, when a style more soft and ideal marked the final limits of the art. It is probable, however, that he is mistaken in the era thus as- signed. This statue, which formerly stood in the palace of the capitol at Rome, was ceded to France by the treaty of Tolentino. It is two feet five inches in height, and the casting is clean and fine. Some defects appear to have been remedied by pieces at- tached with much art ; and some holes, occasioned by time, were filled up with great care m the sixteenth century. The bronze rock on which the figure is seated is entirely ancient, and of the same material with the statue. The eyes are hol- low, and were, doubtless, filled up anciently with some other material, probably silver. The Greek school very rarely neglected this practice in works of bronze. An exhibition of the pictures and sculptures of French living artists takes place every two years, in the gallery of the Louvre. The royal museum of the Luxem- bourg contains several rooms devoted to the exhibition of the principal pictures of living artists, when these pictures become the property of the government. It is open on the same days as the Louvre. The museum of natural history consists of a botanical garden, with hothouses and greenhouses, of several galleries, in which the productions of the three kingdoms are methodically arranged, a menagerie of living animals, a library of natural his- tory, a cabinet of comparative anatomy, and an amphitheatre, with laboratories, for courses of lectures. The principal theatres are supported by the government ; among them are the grand opera, or Academic Royale de Musique. The richest decorations, an enchant- ing ballet, splendid costumes, beautiful scenery, and a powerful orchestra of two hundred musicians, are all here united to bewilder the senses. The French heroic opera with ballets, the opera seria, and some pantomimic ballets, are represented here. The serious French vocalism can never be agreeable to an ear accustomed to Italian and German music, especially when it is carried to excess, as is often done in this theatre ; but the rhythmical recitative, and the chorusses, are more pleasing. On this stage, the operas of Gluck and Sacchini are, as it were, at home ; and no- where else in Europe have they been represented in such perfection. The dances which accompany the grand operas, and the grand pantomimic ballets which follow the opera, excel everything of the kind, except the grand Italian opera in London. On no other stage on the continent is the ballet, as a whole, so complete as in the Paris grand opera. The beautiful opera-house in the rue Richelieu was closed after the assassination of the duke of Berry, in 1820, and finally taken down. The pres- ent opera-house in the Chaussee d'Antin was opened in 1821 ; it accommodates two thousand persons. The Theatre Francais (properly called Premier Theatre Fran^ais), in the rue Richelieu, is connected with the Palais Royal. It was first opened in the Hotel Bourgogne, in the year 1518. In 1650, Moliere became an actor there. In 1689, it was removed to the rue Fosses St. Germain ; in 1770, to the Tuilleries ; in 1782, to the Odeon ; and in 1799, when this was burnt, to the present edifice, built by Louis. The gallery is supported by twenty-six Doric columns, which form a com- plete semicircle around the pit ; and between these columns are the boxes. The theatre was erected in 1787-'89, and in 1822 the interior was wholly new-modelled, under the direction of Percier and Fontaine. The repertory of this stage consists solely of acknowledged masterpieces of French classic literature, ancient and mod- ern, both tragedy and genteel comedy. It is very seldom that a young actor ven- tures to attempt both these branches, and hence the actors are generally attached to one or the other, exclusively. The immortal chef-d^ceuvres of Corneille, Racine, Voltaire, Crebillon, and Moliere, are here performed. Genteel comedy seems here, to be in its native home. Truth, and nature, and elevated simplicity, conspire to make the performances attractive and interesting. The scenery is of the best kind. L'Odeon, or Second Theatre Francais, in the suburb St. Germain, near the Lux- embourg, was built in 1791, under the superintendence of Peyre and Wailly. It was then called the Theatre Franpais, as the first company to which that name had been CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 43 given, performed in it. In 1799, it was burnt, but was rebuilt and occupied by a sec- ond company, set up to rival the first French theatre ; it was then called Theatre de I'Odeon. In 1818, it was again burnt, but Avas re-opened in 1819. The same pieces are performed as in the Premier Theatre Franpais, and the two stages are engaged in a constant competition. The older repertory of the classic French dramatists is open to both theatres. A view of this edifice is given in the annexed sketch. Theatre de I'Odeon, Paris. The Italian opera attracts the first society in the fashionable world of Paris. The interior is convenient and beautiful, and the orchestra is considered perfect of the kind. The Italian opera is patronised by the government, as a school of vocal music, and the managers are careful to maintain a complete and skilful company. Next to these principal theatres ccnae the three smaller popular theatres, frequented principally by the lower classes — the Theatre du Vaudeville ; the Gymnase Drama- tique, and the Theatre des Varietes, both in the Boulevards. These theatres display to perfection the exhaustless gayety of the French people, their wit, and disposition to make themselves merry at the most trifling occurrence. The small pieces performed in these theatres contain no deep-laid plot, and are not accompanied by any magnificent decorations. They are written merely for wit, and seem designed to increase the natural aptness of the nation to laugh at everything. The lash of satire, indeed, is always heard, but applied for amusement, and not to gratify malice. The songs which animate the performances are of a popular cast, and are heard in every street. Nothing appears in the higher theatres Avhich is not parodied here, and the house is frequently entertained with the tricks of harlequin. The Gymnase was long the most popular of these three theatres, and its income exceeded that of the first Theatre Francais. The Vaudeville is at present on the decline. The Theatre de la Porte St. 'Martin, the Theatre de la Gaiete, and the Ambigu Comique, in the Boulevards, represent chiefly the melodrama, pantomime, and ballet. The two latter are designed principally for the lower ranks. In 1821, the Panorama Dramatique was opened. No pieces are represented here in which there are more than two performers. In 1817, the Circque Olympique was opened by Franconi, where equestrian feats are performed. The Soirees de M. Comte, likewise denomi- nated the Theatre de Magie, represents the conjuration of spirits, philosophical ex- periments, feats of ventriloquism, &c. The Porte St. Denis is a triumphal arch raised by the city of Paris in commemora- tion of the two months' campaign of Louis XIV., in 1672, in which short period he eflfected the passage of the Rhine, conquered from the Dutch the three provinces of Utrecht, Overyssel, and Guelders, together with above forty cities and towns, laying Holland prostrate and helpless at his feet. This war, as brilliant as it was unjust and fruitless in its results, was carried on in conjunction with the profligate English monarch, Charles II., who joined it for no better reason than that by so doing he might continue his shameless and disgraceful career of vice, having entered into a secret treaty, by which he was to receive from the French king the sum of £200,000 per annum for his co-operation. In this flagrant violation of justice, indeed, so false and frivolous were the reasons employed to justify his attack upon Holland, that one of the chief pretexts for it was the legend upon a medal, in which she boasted of having " secured the laws, purified religion, succored, defended, and reconciled the monarchs, asserted the freedom of the seas by the strength of her arms, made a glo- 44 • SCENES AND SKETCHES IN rious peace, and established the tranquillity of Europe ;" which was, perhaps, not boasting of much more than she had really done ; yet, upon the complaint of Louis, and to appease his pride, the die was broken ; but his thirsi for revenge and conquest was not so easily removed. Voltaire observes that " it is singular that not one of the enemies who were ready to overwhelm this little state, had any reasonable cause or pretext for their aggression," and compares it to the iniquitous triple alliance, known as the league of Cambray, against the liberties and existence of the republic of Venice. Upon Louis crossing the Rhine, a panic appears to have seized upon the whole population. City after city surrendered to his arms without striking a blow, and Amsterdam would have fallen into his power, had not the sluices been broken, and, by letting in the waters, overflowed the surrounding country, which became the means of saving the city, and eventually the country. Had the capital been taken, the republic would have perished. AVe quote from Voltaire : "The richest fami- lies, and those which were most zealous for liberty, prepared to flee into the farthest part of the world, and embark for Batavia. They took a list of all the vessels capable of making the voyage, and made a calculation of the numbers they could embark. It was found that fifty thousamd families could take refuge in their new- country. Holland would no more have existed, but at the extremity of the East Indies. Its provinces in Europe, which purchase their corn only with the riches of Asia, which subsist only by their commerce, and, if the expression may be used, by their liberty, would have been ruined and depopulated. Amsterdam, the mart and magazine of Europe, Avhere commerce and the arts are cultivated by two hundred thousand men, would soon have become a vast morass. All the neighboring lands require immense expenses, and thousands of hands to keep up their dykes. In all probability their inhabitants would have left them, with their riches, and they would have been at last sunk under water, leaving to Louis XIV., only the miserable glory of having destroyed the finest and most extraordinary monument ever erected by hu- man industry." It was in this fearful situation that the Dutch sued for peace, and implored the clemency of the victor ; but they were received with insulting haughtiness, and in- tolerable conditions prescribed. The terror of the people was changed into despair, and despair revived their drooping courage. Louis, finding a spirit of resistance arising, difficulties increasing, and that he could do nothing more in a country almost submerged, the dikes having been broken, left his army, and returned to Paris to enjoy the flattery and adulation of his court and of the people of his capital, who erected the vain trophy of the Porte St. Denis, to eternize conquests that were aban- doned before the proud monument was finished. This edifice is built on the site of the ancient Porte St. Denis, erected by Charles IX., and was designed by Blondel. Its beauty of proportion and execution renders it a very conspicuous ornament of the French metropolis. It rises from a base of seventy-two feet to a height of seventy-three feet, the principal arch being twenty- five feet wide and forty-three feet high. Two smaller openings on each side, five feet in width by ten feet in height, are rather defects in the structure, not originally mtended by the architect. Over these entrances are pyramids in bas-relief, which rise to the height of the entablature, and are ornamented with sculpture. The bas- reliefs over the arch represent, the one the passage of the Rhine, and the other the taking of Maestricht. In the spandrels of the arch are figures of Fame and Victory, and on the frieze, in bronze letters, is the inscription Ludovico Magno. Another edifice of a similar character is the triumphal arch of the barrier of Neuilly. This great national monument and work of art was opened to public view during the celebration of the Revolution of 1830. Every part of the design is com- pleted, with the exception of the figures and emblems which are to crown the pediment. The triumphal arch erected in honor of the emperor Constantine, at Rome, was sixty-eight feet high ; that of Septimus Severus sixty feet; and the fine arch in the department of Vaucluse, in the south of France, in honor of Caius Marius, was seventy-four feet high. The Porte St. Denis, at Paris, is perhaps the most remarka- ble work of this kind erected in modern times, with the exception of the one just completed. It was undertaken by direction of Louis XIV., and this vain monarch gave orders that its dimensions should exceed any similar work. Its height is sev- enty-seven feet, and breadth seventy-seven feet. The Arc de Triomphe de I'Etoile was CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 45 46 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN designed by the emperor Napoleon to commemorate the glory of the French armies, and the first stone was laid on the fifteenth of August, 1806, being the emperor's birthday. Its dimensions are more than twice as large as those of Constantine's arch or the Porte St. Denis, and are as follows: height, 161 feet ; breadth, 146 feet; thickness, 72 feet ; height of the grand archway 67 feet, breadth 47 feet ; height of the lateral arches 60 feet, breadth 27 feet. The depth of the foundations is 27 feet ; and the arc is 179 feet long by 79 feet wide. The front represented in the engraving faces the palace of the Tuilleries, and the approach from the palace is by the principal avenue in the gardens, through the Place Louis Quinze, and thence by the avenue of the Champs Elysees, There is a gradual rise of the ground for some distance before arriving at the barrier of Neuilly, and the arch is placed on a circular space at the summit. It forms one of the most commanding objects from various parts of the environs of Paris. On each of the two principal fronts there are two groups of sculpture. The first represents the departure for the armies in 1792, when France was menaced on all her frontiers, and by a solemn decree of the national convention the country was declared in danger. The Genius of War is represented pointing with a sword to where the enemies of the country ought to be met and overcome. A commander waves his helmet to invite the citizen-soldiers to follow him, and he is eagerly joined by a young man. A little to the right of the spectator a man advancing into years has already drawn his sword, thrown aside his mantle, and is prepared to march; and behind him an old man, who can no longer combat foi his country, offers his counsel to the commander. To the left, a warrior seated draws his bow, and behind him is another in a coat-of-mail, who sounds a trumpet; and at the back of this last figure is a young man on horseback. The whole group is surmounted by the na- tional flag. The triumph of the French arms, at the period when the empire appeared to be most firmly consolidated in 1810, is also represented on the side of the arqh nearest the Tuilleries. The emperor is crowned by Victory ; Fame publishes his deeds, and History records them. Citizens of vanquished towns approach to make their submission, and on a palm-tree there are suspended trophies of arms taken from the enemy. The group is completed by a prisoner in chains. The resistance made to the approach of the allies, in 1814, is the subject of the group on the right. A young soldier defends his invaded country ; -on one side his father, who is wounded, embraces him, and on the other, his wife, with a child which has been killed in her arms, vainly endeavors to stop him. Behind, a horse- man, mortally wounded,- falls from his horse ; above this group, the Genius of the Future encourages the young man to resistance. The other group on the Neuilly side is an allusion to the peace of 1815. A war- rior sheathes his sword in the scabbard ; on his left a woman caresses an infant on her lap ; another child, who is reading, leans upon her. To the right is a man oc- cupied with a ploughshare, surrounded by corn ; behind him, " wra soldat laboureur," returned to his hearth from the wars, subdues an ox which he wishes to put to the plough. These four groups are desiernated as follows: Le Depart (1792) ; Le Triomphe (1810) ; La Resistance (1814)^ La Paix (1815). There are two bas-reliefs on each of the principal fronts, and one on each of the sides. They represent the death of General Marceau, on the 19th of September, 1796. He was wounded so severely on the field of battle, that he fell into the hands of the Austrians. The Archduke Charles paid him the greatest attention, but he expired soon after he had received his wound, and the Austrian army showed the highest respect to his remains, which were interred, accompanied by the usual mil- itary honors, in which both the Austrians and French took part. The other bas- reliefs represent the battle of Aboukir, July 24th, 1799 ; the passage of the bridge of Arcole in Italy, on November 5th, 1796 ; the taking of Alexandria, in Egypt, July 2d, 1798 ; the battle of Austerlitz, December 4th, 1805 ; the battle of Jemappe, November 6th, 1792. The frieze of the grand entablature, on the front shown in the engraving, and the half of each of the sides, represents the departure for the armies. In the centre the representatives of the people, before the altar of the country, distribute the flags to the commanders of the difl'erent corps of the armies of the north and south. To the right and left, extending to one half of each side, the troops are in full march. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 47 On the Neuilly front, and the remainder of the sides, is represented the return of the armies. France, regenerated, accompanied by Prosperity and Plenty, distributes wreaths to the chiefs ; and on the right and left the troops defile, bringing with them the works of art. The shields contain a list of thirty victories which are supposed to have had the most important influence on the affairs of France. They are: Valmy, Jemappe, Fleurus, Montenotte, Lodi, Castiglione, Arcole, Rivoli, Pyramids, Aboukir, Alcmaer, Zurich, Heliopolis, Marengo, Hohenlinden, Ulm, Austerlitz, Jena, Friedland, Somo- sierra, Esling, Wagrara, La Moskwa, Lutzen, Bautzen, Dresden, Hanau, Mont- mirail, Montereau, Ligny. The tympans of the lateral arches contain the figures of a grenadier, a light horse- man, a heavy dragoon, a horse'and foot artillerymaa, a sailor, and a marine. In the exterior decoration of the arch, there could only be appropriated a space capable of containing the names of thirty battles. The ulterior of the grand arch, as well as the smaller arches, is inscribed with other actions to the number of ninety- six, in Avhich the French arms were not less distinguished. Under the heads of north, east, south, and west, follow the names of twenty-four actions which took place in each quarter. To the list of military combats are added the names of the commanders-in-chief, marshals, and generals, who contributed to their celebrity. The list includes those of several generals-of-brigade, and colonels, who perished in the field. It has been necessary to confine this list to the superior grades of the army, but it contains three hundred and eighty-four names, and includes some Polish, German, Italian, and Spanish officers, who fought in the ranks of the French army. These three hundred and eighty-four names are divided in four groups of six columns each. Beneath them are the names of the armies which France sent to the different theatres of war, and a list of them shows the prodigious efforts Avhich Avere required to sustain the system of Napoleon. On the north occur the names of tjie armies whose operations took place in that quarter, namely, the armies of the north, of Ardennes, of the Mo- selle, of the Rhine, of the Sambre and the Meuse, of Holland, of Hanover. On the east, the armies of the Danube, of Helvetia, of the Orisons, of the Var, of Italy, of Rome, of Naples. On the south, the armies of Dalmatia, of Egypt, of Spain, of Portugal, of Andalusia, of Aragon, of Catalonia, of the South. And on the west occur the gwmies of the eastern Pyrenees, of the western Pyrenees, of the West, of the Camp of Boulogne, of the Army of Reserve, and the Grand Army. Above each of the four tables of the names of distinguished officers is a bas-relief, representing military devices. The cost of the triumphal arch has been rather more than $200,000, which has been contributed in nearly equal proportions under the empire, the Restoration, and since the commencement of the reign of Louis Philippe. It has sometimes been said, that the French, while embellishing their towns, and particularly the capital, have neglected works which contribute to domestic and personal comfort. Improve- ments, however, are going forward, which prove that indifference toward the latter objects no longer exists, and that, Avhile the love of art has not diminished, great ex- ertions have been making at the same time in matters which really contribute to utility and convenience. The establishment called the " Morgue," was instituted in 1804, and is destined to receive the dead bodies of such individuals as have fallen victims to accident or assassination, or have been induced, by despair, to put an end to their oAvn lives; they are publicly exhibited, that they may be recognised by their relatives or friends. This receptacle for the unknoAAai dead found in Paris and the faubourgs of the city, contributes not a little to the forAvarding of the laedical sciences, by the vast number of bodies it furnishes, which, on an average, amount to about tAVO hundred annually. The process of decomposition in the human body may be seen at La Morgue, throughout every stage to solution, by those Avhose taste, or pursuit of science, leads them to that melancholy exhibition. Medical men frequently visit the place, not out of mere curiosity, but for the purpose of medical observation, for wounds, frac- tures, and injuries of every description occasionally present themselves, as the effect of accident or murder. Scarcely a day passes Avithout the arrival of fresh bodies, chiefly found in the Seine, and very probably murdered, by being flung either out of the windows which overhang the Seine river, or off the bridges, or out of the wine and wood-barges, by which the men who sell the cargoes generally return with 48 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN money in their pockets, and it is well known that many suffer in this way, whose home, being at a distance from Paris, those bodies, when found, are not seen by their friends, and there fall into the dissecting-room. The clothes of the dead bodies brought into this establishment are hung up, and the corpse is exposed in a public room for the inspection of those who visit the place for the purpose of searching for a lost friend or relative. Should it not be recognised in four days, it is publicly dis- sected, and then buried. CHAPTER n.— FRANCE. Water is one of the most essential necessaries of life ; and together with an ample or insufficient supply of food, enables population to add to its numbers, or compresses them within certain bounds. If the supply be scanty, or the quality unwholesome, and the evil can not be remedied by artificial means, it is plain that the existence of a large or thriving community is impossible. None but those whose poverty fixes them to a certain spot will reside there ; and if there should be the opportunity of acquiring property from the exercise of some local industry, those individuals who are sufficiently fortunate to do so, when they have become mas- ters of their own movements, will be under the strongest temptation to choose their residence elsewhere. Such a district will never be selected by those who can fix their .habitation where they please ; and it is therefore left to its poverty. A town thus situated may obtain a supply of water by means of aqueducts, canals, cisterns, reservoirs, hydraulic machines, &:c. ; and this triumph over the defects of situation places the inhabitants in circumstances favorable to their prosperity, and manufac- tures and arts may flourish, which could never have been pursued, but for an abun- dant supply of this necessary element. Paris, though now Avell supplied with water, in former times often experienced the effects of scarcity, owing to the indifference of the authorities to the public wants, the concessions made to individuals and religious communities, and the de- fective nature of the hydraulic power employed in drawing the supply from its sources. Under the E,oman domination, Paris obtained a supply of water by an aqueduct about five miles in length, which terminated at Arcueil. During the pe- riod which preceded the re-establishment of order and security, the Normans rav- aged the country, and this aqueduct was either destroyed or became dilapidated. Henry IV. resolved upon re-establishing the Roman aqueduct; and in 1613 the first stone of the work was laid by Louis XIII. and his queen. It was found that, owing to a part of the aqueduct being carried over quarries of calcareous stone, the water percolated through the strata, and the fountains which it supplied became nearly dry. In 1777, the necessary repairs were completed at an enormous expense. The other sources of supply are the Seine, the Ourcq, and the springs of St. Ger- vais, Belleville, and Menilmontant. The aqueduct of Belleville was constructed in the reign of Philip Augustus, and was repaired by Henry IV. The aqueduct of St. Gervais, or Romainville, conveys the waters of Romainville and the neighboring heights into a reservoir, whence it is conducted by leaden pipes to Paris. Besides these aqueducts, there are a number of hydraulic machines, the principal ones be- ing those of the Pont Notre Dame, of Chaillot, and of Gros Caillou, Under the reign of Philip Augustus, Paris only contained three fountains. Be- tween his reign and that of Louis XIV. thirteen others were constructed, and during the reign of Louis XIV. the additions were much more numerous. From 1804 to 1812, the palmy period of the empire, the number of fountains erected was sev- enteen. The number of fountains is now about seventy; and there are above one hundred and thirty homes fontaines, or orifices, in the public streets, from which the water issues. In 1608 an hydraulic machine, constructed by a Fleming, was fixed near the Pont Neuf, and in 1671 a similar machine was placed contiguous to the Pont Notre Dame. These machines were frequently out of order, and the greatest inconvenience was occasioned by the want of water. In 1769 the Chevalier d'Auxiron made a propo- sal for erecting steam engines in certain positions, which would obviate the defects of the old machines ; but no active steps were taken until 1778, when a company, authorized by letters-patent, commenced its labors. The engine at Chaillot, which CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. <19 £ w ■• JTff ' < ■ to li V Fountain in the Place du Chatelet. 50 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN they caused to be fixed, was the first of the kind worked in France ; this machine was put in motion in 1782. In 178S four fifths of the company's shares had been sold on the stock exchange for government securities; and the executive being in possession of nearly the whole property, the engines and the establishment of the proprietors passed into its hands. The supply of water has been vested in the gov- ernment ever since. A want of practical talent was exhibited by the French more frequently in the period preceding the revolution than since that change. During the reign of Louis XIV. splendid fountains were constructed ; but when completed they benefited no- body, as the water for supplying them was not to be obtained, and they stood as if in mockery of the wants of the people. The same course was pursued in ine suc- ceeding reign. The machines for raising water were inefficient, and the scarcity was great. Privileged individuals and religious establishments were abundantly supplied, but the inhabitants generally could not obtain a sufficient quantity. When complaints were _made which could not be silenced, the authorities attacked the privileges which had been granted to individuals, or they ordered new fountains to be erected. The fine fountain of Grenelie, finished in 1739, was the result of one of these eff'orts to satisfy the public ; but for some years it gave no supply, and hence it was generally called "La Trompeuse." It was not until the power of steam was applied to raise water that this fountain fulfilled the purpose of its con- struction. Under Louis XVI. the municipal authorities willingly undertook to erect fountains, but no plan of suppl3^ing them was seriously taken into consideration. Dulaure remarks, in his " Histoire de Paris," that " they wished to show that they had abundant resources, while at the same time they were attacked on all sides on account of scarcity ; they were poor, and they wished to show themselves magnifi- cent." In 1799 proposals Avere made for bringing the waters of the Ourcq to Paris, but the plan was not considered feasible. In 1802, however, the government gave di- rections for undertaking the work, the expense of which was to be defrayed out of the receipts at the barriers on diff'erent articles of consumption. Various circum- stances occasioned delays, and in 1814 a complete suspension of the works took place, but they were completed uiider the restoration. The waters of the Ourcq are conveyed by a canal, which is navigable, into a large basin within the barriers, whence the houses, manufactories, and fountains, obtain an abundant supply. The canal is about twenty-five miles in length, and, by avoiding the windings of the Seine, greatly facilitates the conveyance of goods. Few houses are supplied with water by pipes which convey it at once into the apartments. Hence a description of industry has sprung up which is unknown in this country, where water is bi-ought into the houses by pipes. In Paris it is sold by a distinct class of men, who carry it from house to house and from family to family. The price is one sous for each pail. The nutnber of " porteurs d'eau," having casks on wheels, exceed one thousand four hundred ; and those who carry it with yokes are still more numerous. It is calculated that about nine hundred thousand dollars a year are paid to the water-carriers. Besides the water obtained from the foun- tains there is a company, or companies, for supplying filtered water. The water- carriers are an industrious class of men, of simple habits, and very economical, for which they have an object sufficient to deter tliem from dissipation or ill-judged ex- penses. They indulge the hope of some day being enabled to possess a slip of land in their native department. The wife often assists in the labor of drawing the casks, which are placed on wheels, and is not less an advocate of every plan which can insure the completion of their hopes. Our engraving opposite represents a fountain which, although long designed, has never yet been erected — the famous "Fountain of the Elephant." This was one of Napoleon's many projects for the embellishment of the capital of France. The " Fountain of the Elephant" was to have been erected in the centre of the oblong rectangular space which now occupies the site of the bastile, between the canal of St. Martin and the arsenal. It was one, and might be considered, indeed, the crowning one, of many improvements, which would almost have rendered this the most superb quarter of Paris. The decree for the erection of the fountain was dated on the 9th of February, 1810, and it named the 2d of December, 1811, as the day on which the structure should be completed. The foundation, accordingly, ■was laid in the course of the year 1810 ; but to the present day nothing further has CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 51 Design for the rountain of the Elephant. 52 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN been done in the execution of the magnificent design. The model, however, in plaster-of-Paris, still exists ; and even from that it may be felt how fine the effect of the intended erection would have been. This model is kept in a large shed, where it was originally put up, close by the proposed site of the fountain. It is to be seen upon proper application ; and its enormous dimensions and fine proportions abundantly repay the curiosity of the visiter. Upon the massive pedestal of stone was to have been placed a colossal elephant in bronze, surmounted by a tower, as seen in the engraving, the whole forming a figure of about eighty feet in height. A staircase leading up to the tower was to have been concealed in one of the legs of the figure, each of which was to have been six feet and a half in thickness. The fountain was to have been adorned with twenty-four bas-reliefs in marble, representing the arts and sciences. The foundation and model of this unexecuted conception remain as memorials of how sometimes " Vaulting ambition doth o'erleap itself." The bronze for the enormous elephant was to have been obtained from the cannons captured by the imperial armies in Spain, in that contest, then only in its first stage, the course and issue of which some time after contributed so materially to hurl from his throne the proud military chief who thus so arrogantly anticipated con- quest while on the eve of discomfiture and destruction. The Palais Royal, with its gardens, its courts, its galleries, and arcades, is the central point of pleasiire in Paris. It was built in 1663, by Cardinal Richelieu, who gave it the name of the Palais Cardinal. He bequeathed it to Louis XIIL, after whose death Anne of Austria entered it with her infant son, Louis XIV., quitting the Louvre, where she had previously resided. From that time it has borne the name of Palais Royal. Louis XIV. resigned the occupation of it to his brother, and at last gave it to his grandson, the duke of Chartres. Since then it has remained in the family of Orleans, which made it their abode until 1791, and returned thither in 1816. Frenchmen who remember it as it was in the last century, speak with rapture of the great avenue of chestnut-trees, which formerly extended the whole length of the garden. From eleven o'clock in the morning it was crowded with people ; there were seats on each side, which were always filled with men of all ranks and all countries. In the centre was a tree — the celebrated arbre de Cracovie : under its shade the politicians decided the fate of the world. This was ever the most liberal spot in Paris. The trees were afterward superseded by rows of book- sellers' and jewellers' shops, gambling-houses, coffeehouses, theatres, and other estab- lishments of the kind. This assemblage brought a rich revenue to the duke. The walkers avenge themselves with jokes for the loss of their beautiful trees : they called the duke the egorgeur des ombres. In three years two of the great wings were finished, the arcades of which were immediately crowded Avith splendid shops. New rows of trees were planted, but they did not flourish, probably on account of the dust raised by the crowd which perpetually throngs the garden. The Theatre Francais was also placed in the Palais Royal, and yet remains there. During the revolution, the duke called this palace the Palais Egalite. In 1802, it had, for a short time, the name of Palais du Tribunal. The principal entrance to the Palais Royal is upon the Ptue St. Honore. The front is seen from the Chateau d'Eau — a building containing the reservoirs of water for the Tuilleries and the Palais Royal. The two front wings, with Ionic and Doric pillars (each of which is adorned with a pediment and statues by Pajou), are joined together by a Doric portico. Three gates form the entrances to the palace. Upon entering the first court, the two wings of the buildings here appear adorned with Ionic and Doric pillars. Between them is the outer court, which leads from the first court into the second (La Cour Royale). Massive Doric pillars arise on each side, but their eflFect is destroyed by the number of booths and shops which are crowded together about thein. The second court is separated from the garden by wooden galleries, and there the booksellers and pamphlet-sellers, the milliners and riband-venders, exhibit the articles in which they deal. Through this galerie de hois one enters the fairy-land of the garden, surrounded by its splendid arcades. This garden has no shade ; it is stiff and dry ; the ground is hard-pounded gravel ; the trees are small and quickly withered, being struck by the reflected rays of the sun. But the effect of the arcades and pavilions, especially in the evening, when CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 53 they are brilliaatly illuminated, is truly splendid. The two side-wings have a length of seven hundred feet, and the opposite ones a length of three hundred. They are all of a similar form. Fluted pilasters of the composite order, surround the building, and support a balustrade, upon which are vases, which cover its whole length. On the level ground, a vaulted gallery surrounds the ground, with one hundred and eighty arcades, between every two of which is suspended a large lamp. They terminate, on both sides, in two vestibules, adorned with magnificent columns. The intervals are ornamented with festoons and bas-reliefs. Over the arcades is the first story, with high windows, proportionate to the building ; above this, the second story, with lower windows ; and above this, the windows in the roof, before which runs the terrace. Here gratifications are held out to every ap- petite and desire. The book- shops aflford the oldest and the newest, the most sci- entific and the most frivolous books. Celebrated and unknown writers here meet, and the place swarms with critics and amateurs of literature. A splendid jewel- ler's shop, which fills three arcades, is, in the evening, lighted up by more than fifty wax-lights, and large mirrors increase the light and the play of colors. The ele- gant shops of the milliners afl'ord all that fancy can create with riband and gauze, with flowers and feathers. One lofty arch glitters with brilliant silk stuff's ; anoth- er with the finest cloths, the richest Eastern shawls, or the most delicate embroi- dery. Shops with watches of every kind alternate with others with beautiful por- celain ; here are ornaments of wedgewood ware and of diamonds ; there are gold watch-chains, sword-hilts of polished steel and silver ; here are exhaled the most delicious perfumes ; there beautiful miniature pictures or splendid engravings attract the eye ; bonbons and mathematical instruments, playthings and arms, are exhib- ted in great variety ; in one place we meet with a shop which contains every ar- ticle of dress, made 'in the most exquisite taste; in another, with luxurious furni- ture. Lottery-ticket sellers and money-changers, seal-engravers and pastry-cooks, restaurateurs and fruit- venders, are all crowded together. The choicest delicacies, from the sea and from the provinces, are collected in the celebrated Boutique au Grourmand, while the best ice is to be found in the Cafe de Foi, where assembles the most select company. In the Cafe des Aveugles is heard the gayest music, executed by blind persons, while loud cries and reckless gayety resound from the Cafe du Caveau and the Cafe du Sauvage. The Cafe du Ventriloque attracts many guests, to witness the performances of its proprietor; and the Cafe des Mille Colonnes, to view its thousand brilliant mirrors. All the ar- ticles for sale in the Palais Royal are dearer, by one half, than in the rest of Paris. Everything here appears intended for the gratification of the senses ; nothing spir- itual, pure, or natural, finds a congenial atmosphere, and the uncorrupted stranger soon wishes himself away from this intoxicating labyrinth. But the upper halls are still more seducing and dangerous than the galleries. Here, in the first story, between the rich shops and the brilliant halls of the restaurateurs, are the infamous gambling-rooms, where, at the green tables, roulette, and rouge et noir, stand ready for their victims. In the attics live the shop-keepers, Avhose places of business are below. At every hour of the day, men are to be found walking in the Palais Royal. Early in the morning, the industrious tradesman passes through it to breathe the fresh air before he goes to his labor. The inhabitants are yet plunged in sleep. At eight o'clock the shops are opened, and at nine the coff'eehouses begin to fill ; the newspaper-readers assemble, and the groups collect. From twelve to two, it is the rendezvous of the gay world. The benches are insufficient ; hundreds of straw- bottomed chairs, which are piled up under the trees, are brought forward, and let for two sous each. From two to five the crowd diminishes, but the nursery-maids and mothers, with their little children, employ this interval ; soon, all those who frequent the theatre pass by in crowds. About eight o'clock in the evening a bril- liant illumination begins, and the hours, until eleven, are noisy and variously em- ployed. After eleven the noise gradually ceases, and at twelve the gardens are empty, and everything is still. The walks are watered three times a day, so that the dust is not troublesome. A pleasant coolness is preserved by a large fountain, in the middle of the garden, with a jet d'eau in twenty-four streams. From the gardens the visiter can also pass, through a second gallery, into the court, where the most beautiful flowers and foreign plants are to be had. Another entrance leads, by an open staircase, into the splendid Rue Vivienne. The Palais Royal is the 54 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN richest and most faithful picture of the frivolity and luxury, as well as of the sensu ality and corruption, of modern times. The town-hall was commenced in the year 1533 ; it is in the Grothic style ol architecture, and very regular and harmonious in its proportions. Over the princi pal entrance is an equestrian statue, in bronze, on a pedestal of black marble, of Henry IV. This edifice has been the theatre of many remarkable political events The Mint is situated on the banks of the Seine, almost in the centre of Paris. Tht first stone was laid by the comptroller-general of the finances in 1771. The princi pal building is surmounted with an attic, on which is a group of allegorical figures. Paris is not a vast entrepot for the commerce of the world. Its inland position precludes this; but the mere daily consumption of a large metropolis occasions every day extensive transactions in home, foreign, and colonial productions. A con- centrated population, exceeding eight hundred thousand, an immense number of whom are engaged in manufactures of various kinds, which are in demand all over the globe, stimulates commercial activity, and enlarges the scale of traffic. The ex- penses of the state amount to upward of $225,000,000 per annum ; and receipts to the same amount are continually in the course of payment into the coffers of the public treasury. The national debt exceeds $1,500,000,000 ; so that Paris is the centre of great financial operations, and in this respect is second only to London. The only place authorized by the government for the general meeting of capitalists and merchants, for the transaction of business, is the Bourse. The funded system is the growth of modern times, and there are few buildings appropriated to this pur- pose which were erected before the seventeenth century. The exchange at Am- sterdam was begun in 1608 ; and the royal exchange of London was built at the ex- pense of Sir Thomas Gresham, after the great fire of 1666. They are to the large commercial transactions of the present day that which the market-cross was at an earlier period. * At the time when the Mississippi scheme of Law gave rise, in France, to the most extraordinary mania which the thirst of riches ever occasioned, the transactions took place in the open air, in the Rue Quincampoix, a street chiefly occupied by bankers and money-dealers. A royal road to wealth appeared to have been at- tained, but it led only to the most disastrous public and private calamities. In 1724, the exchange of Paris was first established in the Hotel Mazarin. It was not until the Emperor Napoleon directed his attention to the embellishment of the capita! that it was resolved to erect a building to be specially devoted to the meetings of persons engaged in transactions relating to the public securities and to commerce. The first stone of the present edifice was laid March 24th, 1808 ; but it was eighteen years before it was completed, the work having been suspended in consequence of political events. The form of the Bourse is a parallelogram, that is, having a square form, the sides of which are longer than the ends. The fronts of the Bourse are one hundred and sixty-four feet in breadth, and the length of the sides is two hundred and fifty-six feet ; and it is surrounded by sixty-four Corinthian columns. Each front is supported by fourteen columns, and each side by twenty — reckoning the pillars at the angles twice over. They are elevated on a basement of about eight feet in height, and in height are thirty-two feet. The colonnades are acces- sible to the public during the hours of business. The elevation terminates by a sim- ple entablature. The roof is made of copper and iron. It is confessed that the Bourse has scarcely the air of an edifice devoted to commerce. It was erected during the most prosperous days of the empire ; and the intention of the architect was to give to his design an imposing grandeur, and to produce a general effect, rather than to excite an appropriate idea of the objects of the building. The con- venience of the apartments for the use of the commercial authorities has, perhaps, been slightly sacrificed ; but undoubtedly the Bourse is one of the finest structures of which Paris can boast. The hall in which the business in the funds is transacted is one hundred and four feet in length, and fifty-nine feet broad, and will hold two thousand persons. The floor is paved with marble : and at the upper end is a space, surrounded by a circu- lar railing, termed the parquet, which is the place where the agens de change, or stock-brokers, assemble, who alone have the power of negotiating the public secu- rities. An arcade on each side of the hall is used as a " walk" by merchants and ship-owners. A gallery of ten feet wide extends round the hall, and a staircase on the left in the vestibule leads to it. From this gallery there is an excellent view of CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 55 56 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN the proceedings of the speculators below. The rooms at the sides and at the lower end are appropriated to the tribunal de commerce, and other authorized commer- cial bodies. The interior of the hall, the roof of which slopes toward a skylight, is embellished with sixteen admirable imitations of marble bas-reliefs, five beiifg on each side, and three at each end. The subjects are as follow: The Genius of French Commerce accepting tribute from the four quarters of the globe ; Europe ; Asia ; the town of Nantes; that of Rouen: these are on the north side. In front of the public entrance is the king of France presenting the New Exchange to the city of Paris ; the town of Lille, and the toAvn of Bordeaux. On the right side: the union of Commerce and the Arts contributing to the prosperity of the State ; Africa; America; Lyons; Bayonne. Above the entrance: the City of Paris re- ceiving from the Genius of the Seine and the Genius of the Ourcq the fruits of Abundance ; Strasburg and Marseilles. Between the arcades are inscribed, in let- ters of bronze, the names of all the first commercial cities in the world. At the London stock exchange no person is allowed to transact business but those who are ballotted for annually by the committee ; and the business is confined entirely to the purchase and sale of stock and other securities, the royal exchange being devoted to transactions Avhich are of a more strictly commercial nature. But the Bourse is both a stock and a commercial exchange. The business in the former commences at one o'clock and terminates at four. The parquet is then forsaken by- the agens de change, and the merchants and ship-owners transact business until five o'clock. Bordeaux, Lyons, and some other places, have their bourses, as the min- ister of finance, in 1819, authorized supplementary grand books of the state ; and the agens de change in those places are enabled to effect negotiations in the public funds without recurring to the capital. The inscriptions in these supplementary books are inspected by the prefect of the department, and signed by the depart- mental receiver-general. The transactions which have arisen out of this arrange- ment are on a small scale. The authorized brokers (agens de change) receive their appointment from the king, and are sixty in number. They are obliged to provide heavy security. No transactions in the funds or in bills of exchange can be negotiated but by the members of this body. Another public body, coni^-ected with the Bourse, is composed of the courtiers de commerce, whose number is also limited to sixty. They certify the nrice of gold and silver, establish the rates of insurance and freights, and are alone -dmitted in the courts of law as arbitrators in disputes of a commercial nature. The Tribunal de Commerce comprises the principal merchants of the Cjapital, who are nominated by a general assembly of the mercantile body. It is composed of eight judges, fifteen deputy judges, and has its subordinate officers; among whom are ten called gardes du commerce, xAio execute the judicial orders of the tribunal. The Tribunal de Commerce is the court of bankruptcy. Some years ago it was attempted to exclude females from the Bourse. The wo- men of France are accustomed to lake an active part in business, a practice which is in accordance with the habits and feelings of the French. They were active among the speculators at the Bourse, and, driven from its precincts, they carried on their operations iir one of the adjoining houses, and the fluctuations in French and foreign stock were conveyed to them by messengers. The exclusion was not long kept in force. During the revolution of the last century one of the churches Avas converted into an exchange. The present Bourse is in the centre of the gayest part of Paris, only a short distance from the Boulevards, and not far from the Palais Royal, by the rue Vivienne. Immediately facing this building, dedicated to business, is the theatre des nouveautes. In Paris the commercial speculator and the man of pleasure jostle each other continually. The last three articles of information in every daily paper in Paris consist of an account of the drawings of the state lottery, the operations on the Bourse, and the list of plays to be performed at the diflferent theatres. In the " Annuaire," published by the Bureau des Longitudes, the consumption of butter in Paris in 1834 is stated to have amounted in value to $2,100,000 ; and the consumption of eggs in the same year is valued at $882,915. No estimate is given of the value or quantity of fresh cheese annually consumed, but it probably equals the consumption of dry cheese, which is valued at $230,000 a-year. There are several places in France celebrated for the quality of cheese which they produce ; and among the better cheeses may be named the fromages de Roquefort, ia the department of the CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 57 58 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Aveyron ; those of the Mont d'Or, in the Puy-de-D6me ; of Neufchatel, in the Seme Inferieure ; of Montpellier ; of Sassenage, in the Isere ; of Marolles ; of Langres ; of Brie ; of the department of the Cantal ; besides many others. The peculiar qual- ities of some of them are owing to their being made with goats' milk, and also with the milk of ewes. Some of the above-mentioned descriptions of cheese are dry, and others are fresh. There is also a tolerably large consumption of Swiss cheese, prin- cipally of the kind called Gruyere. The common round Dutch cheese is also in re- quest, and occasionally Cheshire and Gloucester cheese may be seen in the stores of the principal purveyors, who ransack the world for the gratification of the ^owrmcni. The value of cheese annually imported into France amounts to above $3,250,000 per annum, and about one sixth of this amount is exported. In London the consumption of butter is believed to average about twenty pounds for each person per year, and the consumption in Paris is probably about one fourth less. There is, however, the greatest difference as to the manner in Avhich butter is used in the two capitals, the chief consumption being at the morning and afternoon meal in London, while there is no repast in France which answers to that one which, among the great majority of the people, follows that of dinner in England ; and butter does not necessarily form part of a French breakfast, so that the quantity consumed is almost, wholly employed in culinary preparations. The butter brought to the Paris market is in large masses or lumps, in a fresh state ; and instead of being conveyed in barrels, is wrapped up in cloths, as shown in the engraving. It is sold in the market at auction. The pres- ent markethouse was erected for the accommodation of the dealers in 1822, and is of a triangular form, the roof being supported by stone pillars. It is lighted from the top by a glazed cupola, beneath which is the bureau de vente, where the auctioneer and his assistants stand. The market opens every day at noon. On Monday and Friday the country people in the neighborhood bring their butter and eggs; on Tues- day the market is open only for the sale of cheese ; on Wednesday, the butter of Is- signy, a place some distance from Paris, is exclusively sold ; and on Thursday and Saturday, only the butter of Gournay, a small town in the department of the Seine Inferieure. Normandy is, indeed, the great source whence Paris draws its supply of food. In a pamphlet published by Mr. Burke, in the year 1795, entitled " Thoughts and Details on Scarcity," he commenced his work as follows: " Of all things, an indis- creet tampering with the trade of provisions is the most dangerous, and it is always worst m the time when men are most disposed to it, that is, in the time of scarcity. Because there is nothing on which the passions of men are so violent, and their judg- ment so weak, and on which there exists such a multitude of ill-founded prejudices." These truths have been applicable to all times, but it will be seen that they were peculiarly so during the period in question. The public anxiety in Paris respecting the supply of provisions was awakened in 1789, the year in which the states-general were assembled. One of the political par- ties into which the country was divided had, previous to the harvest, despatched cour- iers into the provinces with alarming rumors, that the " brigands" employed by the enemies of the national regeneration had the intention of cutting down the corn be- fore it was ripe. The object of this proceeding was to arm the people in support of the national rights, though it is contended by some that it was the opponents of change who had adopted this course, calculating upon the support of the country against the violent partisans of the revolution. At all events, it had the effect of arming the whole of France. The alarm thus engendered proved most injurious to the public confi- dence, and the rich farmers, instead of bringing their produce into the markets, pre- ferred waiting the arrival of quieter times. As supporters of the revolution, Necker and Bailly, fearing that its success would be prejudiced by popular tumults arising from the scarcity of food in Paris, made great sacrifices for the supply of the capital, but without much success. The markets were ill-supplied, and prices became ex- cessively high ; land carriage was difficult and expensive, owing to the necessity of recurring to a wider range of markets ; and robberies were frequently committed on the road, for the scarcity, though most severely felt in Paris, pressed upon the v/hole country. On the 5th of October, a tumult, which originated with the market-women of Paris, occasioned the celebrated movement of the populace to Versailles, whither they marched in disorderly masses, uttering cries for bread. The distance of this place is about twelve miles from Paris, and the journey there and back could not be performed by such a multitude in a single day. During the night a tolerable degree CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 59 of order was preserved, but early in the morning the palace was forcibly entered, and the queen had barely time to leave her sleeping apartment. The state of ignorance in which the people had been kept, may be judged of by the fact of their believing that proceedings of this nature would by any possible means have the effect of resto- ring plenty. Three years afterward, in 1792, the harvest was late, and, owing to the number of men required for the armies, the thrashing out of the grain had not proceeded very actively ; but, as in 1789, other causes of a more powerful nature were at work. Un- der ordinary circumstances, the farmer would have availed himself of a period of high prices to dispose of his graift, and labor, which was deficient, would have been stimulated by higher wages. The employment most profitable for the moment would have invited all the disposable labor at hand, and abundance would soon have been visible in the markets. This would have taken place, if the natural circumstances under which men act had been allowed their free operation ; but a number of vexa- tious regulations had been adopted, with a view of forcing supplies into the markets. The most absurd ideas were fermenting in men's minds, and the sans culottes had raised a clamor against the large farmers, whom they designated as " aristocrats," a term which a short time afterward was sufficient to bring a man to the scaflTold. The surplus produce of a large farm is greater in proportion than that of a small farm ; but, said these economists, the large farms ought to be divided. The more fiercely the farmers were attacked, the less disposed were they to expose themselves to the risk of pillage, and to injurious regulations ; and of course the scarcity became greater. The supplies which were furnished being small, were sold at an exorbitant price. These difficulties were increased by the creation of a new paper money, inten4ed to represent the national domains, the property of the church, and the estates of the emigrants, which the national convention had taken into its hands, for the purpose of defraying the expense of the war. To put in circulation the value of this prop- erty the assignats were resorted to. Th.ey were intended to represent this property, and as'it found purchasers the assignats were to be called in. The value of this money fluctuated from day to day, for if the revolution lost the ascendency in the nation, and the ancient state of things was restored, it was conceived that the currency which the revolution had created for its own purposes and wants would be dishon- ored, and of no value; and the fear that all sales of public property would become null and void kept back purchasers. Nevertheless, the quantity of assignats emitted was prodigious, and their value, as compared with specie and merchandise, was con- stantly diminishing, as they remained in circulation without representing an equiva- alent value. The working-classes, who received their wages in assignats, could not command the necessaries of life. Not only bread, but sugar, coff"ee, candles, and soap, doubled their prices. The washerwomen complained to the national conven- tion, that they paid thirty sous for soap which they formerly obtained for fourteen sous. The people were 'told to ask a higher price for their labor, in order that the proportion between their wages and the price of consumable articles might be re- established ; but this arrangement they could not eff"ect, and they denounced as objects of vengeance those whom they termed the mercantile aristocracy. On the 25th of February, 1793, Marat addressed the people in his newspaper, stating that the only means of putting an end to the evils of which they complained was to pillage the shops, and to hang up the shopkeepers at their own doors. This advice was fol- lowed : at first the shopkeepers were compelled to sell their commodities at half- price ; and the next step — and it was scarcely in any degree more unjust — was to take them without paying anything at all. The diflSculties of the shopkeepers them- selves were not less than those which the other classes of the people endured. They were backward in disposing of their goods in exchange for a currency whose value underwent daily changes, but they willingly sold if payments were made in coin, as the metallic currency alone remained the real standard of value. The general dis- tribution of the necessaries of life became impossible under these circumstances. The people who received only assignats in vain endeavored to procure the necessaries of life in exchange for them. Amid these harassing difficulties, it was determined that, as the anticipated value of the national property had been put 'm\o forced circulation, it was necessary to sus- tain its value by forced means. The convention decreed, that whoever was found guilty of exchanging a higher (nominal) value of assignats against a smaller quantity 60 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN of coin, silver or gold, should be punished with inaprisonment in irons for six years ; and that the same penalty should be inflicted upon whoever stipulated for a different price for payments made in paper or specie. Notwithstanding these heavy penal enactments, it was impossible that the difference in value, which was inseparable from the two species of money, should not have its due action in some shape or other. In June, a franc in coin was worth three francs in assignats ; and in August, only two months afterward, a franc in silver was worth six assignats. Merchants and shop- keepers refused to sell their commodities at the same price as formerly, because pay- ment was offered to them in a currency which had no more than a fifth or sixth of its value. Persons in official employments, the creditors of the state, and creditors generally, could not live upon their deteriorated property or income, and the Avorking- classes were in the greatest distress. It was suggested, as a means of remedying the general misfortunes, that a fixed price should be set upon all merchandise and prod- uce. The law had decreed that an assignat was worth so many francs, and had pro- hibited payments being made or demanded of so many assignats as made up the difference in value between the assignat in paper and in coin ; but it was necessary to advance a step farther, and to fix a value upon all saleable articles. In May, 1793, the convention passed a decree, by which the farmers and corn-dealers were obliged to declare the quantity of grain they had in stock, to thrash out that which was in ear, to carry the produce into the markets, and into the markets only, and to sell it, not at a price determined by the nature of things, but at a price fixed upon by the revolutionary authorities in each parish, which price was based on the prices of an anterior period. Nobody was permitted to buy more than was required for his per- sonal wants for a period not exceeding one month ; and those who bought or sold at a price higher than that which had been fixed upon by the above-mentioned authori- ties were punished with confiscation, and penalties of from sixty to two hundred dollars. Domiciliary visits were made, for the purpose of verifying the statements of the far- mers and dealers. The revolutionary authorities of Paris framed regulations which were to be strictly observed by the inhabitants on receiving their supply of bread from the bakers. Cards were delivered, on which was stated the quantity of bread to which the bearer was entitled, the proportion being according to the number of each family. The revolutionary committees even regulated the order to be observed in applying at the bakers. A cord was to be attached to the baker's door, and each person as he arrived took hold of it, and was served in his proper turn. The cord was sometimes cut by mischievous persons, when tumults ensued, and the armed force was called in to quell the disturbance. It must be remarked, that all this time there was no real scarcity of corn in the country. The immense task of supplying Paris with bread, which the government had taken upon its shoulders, the vexatious regulations of minor authorities, were each the consequence of a derangement and subversion of the ordinary principles of supply and demand, which these authorities had brought about by a system of interference with private interests. One step was' necessarily followed by another. The circulation of the assignats being forced, it became necessary to fix prices within rigid limits, to force sales, and to regulate even the hour, the quantity, and the mode of distribution. As many of the dealers closed their shops, in order to avoid the ruin with which they were menaced by the system of interfering with their concerns, they became the objects of hostile denunciations. At the same time the supplies intended for the capital were pillaged on the high- ways, and on the canals and rivers. The authorities endeavored to repress these outrages, and Pache, the mayor, caused the following address to be posted on the walls of Paris ; — " The mayor Pache to his fellow-citizens : Paris contains 700,000 inhabitants. The soil of Paris produces nothing for their nourishment or their clothing, and it follows that everything must be obtained from other departments and from abroad. If prod- uce and merchandise intended for the markets of Paris are pillaged, the producers and manufacturers will cease to send supplies ; Paris will no longer be able to obtain either clothing or the means of supporting its numerous inhabitants, and 700,000 starving men will devour each other !" In spite of this appeal to common sense, it was impossible to restore confidence, and the markets were nearly unsupplied. The convention endeavored to remedy this by an increased severity, and it was enacted that all sales which did not take place in the public markets should subject the seller to the punishment of death. The most vexatious and inquisitorial means were resorted to for the purpose of secu- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 61 ring attention to this regulation. Every merchant and dealer was required to make a declaration of the amount of his stock, and fraudulent attempts to conceal the real quantity subjected the unhappy individual to capital punishment. Persons distin- guished for their attachment to the revolution were appointed in each parish, and they fixed the price of all saleable commodities at a rate which it was presumed would leave a moderate profit, and not be beyond the means of the poor consumers ; but, nevertheless, sales were to be made whether any profit remained or not. These inflexible regulations occasioned a still greater number of dealers of all kinds to close their shops. The retail dealers were alone subjected to them at first, but it was soon apparent that the producers ought also to be under their control. The re- tail-dealer was not in a position in which he could influence the price of the raw material; or the rate of wages paid to the workmen by whom it was prepared for the market ; and, in order to avoid enormous losses, they sold none but articles of the most inferior quality at the prices fixed by the authorities. The butchers bought cattle which had died, and the bakers did not half bake the bread, in order to make it weigh heavier. They reserved articles of the best quality for those who came in a secret manner, and paid the full value. These practices were suspected by the people, and they demanded that all the dealers should be compelled to keep open their shops and continue their trade ; and that the regulations enacted for their ob- servance should be strictly obeyed. Chaumette, the procureur-general of the com- mune of Paris, threatened that the shops and manufactories which had been closed, should be taken in possession on behalf of the republic, with all the goods and ma- terials which they contained. The general violation of the principles of production had so completely disorgan- ized the economy of society, that the proposition of the state taking possession of all raw materials, and manufacturing on its own account, began seriously to be en- tertained. The ruinous consequences of such a course were overlooked amid the necessities of the moment. At every step in this career the public difficulties in- creased, and the erroneous principles which had given rise to them were still more earnestly clung to as a means of obtaining supplies. The commune of Paris re- quired each dealer in the necessaries of life to make a statement of the stock which he held, the orders which he had given for a fresh supply, and the expectation he entertained of its being received. All dealers who had been in business one year, if they gave up business, were placed on the list of disaff'ected persons, and as such were imprisoned. To prevent individuals accumulating a stock of provisions for their private consumption, the commune issued orders that the consumer could only be supplied by the retail-dealer, and the latter only by the wholesale-dealer, and it fixed the quantity which each should be thus allowed to obtain. Thus the shop- keeper could not obtain more than twenty-five pounds of sugar at one time of a wholesale-dealer. The cards authorizing the delivery of these scanty supplies were delivered by the revolutionary committees. The commune did not stop here, but as the crowds which surrounded the bakers' shops frequently occasioned tumults, and many persons passed a part of the night, in order to obtain an early supply, direc- tions were given that the last-comers should be served the first; but this neither di- minished the anxiety of the people, nor the causes of disturbance. On complaints being made that the worst description of bread was reserved for the poor, it was or- dered that there should be only one sort of bread made in Paris, Avhich should con- sist of three parts wheat and one part barley. Some delay had taken place in applying the maximum to goods before they left the manufactory, but it was at length determined that they should be subjected to it, and tables were prepared of the prices at the place of production three years before, and a scale of future prices was arbitrarily fixed, and even the rate of profit of the wholesale and retail dealer. The cost of carriage was also settled ; so that the ex- act price at which the goods were to be sold was established before they reached the retail-dealers. The raw materials were not yet comprised in the tariff", but at least one half of the labors of the community were brought within the most absolute and vexatious rules. Commerce, however, endeavored to emancipate itself from them in spite of the penalties by which it was surrounded ; and merchandise and produce were frequently concealed and secretly sold, or, what was worse, they ceased to be an object of production. In 1794, owing to the war in La Vendee, whence Paris drew its supplies of cattle, there was a real scarcity of meat. The butchers could only procure a supply at an 62 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN exorbitant price, and oblia:ed to sell at the established prices, they endeavored to evade the law. The best meat was reserved for those who could afford to pay a good price, and a number of clandestine markets were established in the neighbor- hood of Paris. The buyers who presented themselves in the shops, and offered the regulation prices, either could not obtain a supply, or meat of the worst description was offered to them. Vegetables, fruit, eggs, butter, and other articles, were no longer brought to market. The price of a cabbage was ten pence. The market- carts were met on the road, and the produce was bought up at any price. Paris, in the meantime, was in a state of famine. Great numbers of persons obtained a living by forestalling the markets, and selling provisions above the maximum to families in easy circumstances. The commune interfered with its regulations, and directed that those who forestalled the markets should be subjected to the heaviest punish- ments, and that the supplies should be equally distributed in the different places, for public sale. Persons waited around the butchers' shops in the same manner as at the bakers'. These multiplied regulations did not do away with the evils complained of; and at length it was suggested that the public gardens should be planted with potatoes and other vegetables. This idea was eagerly adopted, and the commune, which refused the people nothing, acceded to the plan. The authorities had granted everything which was demanded, but as the evil did not decrease, the most violent and ignorant began to attribute the public calamities to the moderation of one of the parties in the national convention ; and the clamor did not cease till these men were led to execution. The harvest of 1794 was abundant, and orders were given that it should be thrashed out immediately. To prevent wages rising to an extraordinary height, harvest la- borers were put in forced requisition, and their wages were settled by the local au- thorities. The supply of meat was still insufficient, and the daily consumption of Paris was fixed at seventy-five oxen, one hundred and fifty hundred-weight of veal and mutton, and two hundred pigs. These could only be slaughtered at one partic- ular place, and the butchers appointed by each section of the capital came there for their supplies. The inhabitants were served in rations like an army in the field Every five days each family was entitled to receive half a pound of meat for each individual. This supply could only be obtained on the presentation of a card deliv- ered by the proper authorities. As wood and charcoal did not arrive, owing to the operation of the maximum, the supply to each family was limited in like manner. During this period the country butchers carried on a lucrative trade. Profiting by the negligence of the rural parishes, they bought cattle in the pastures, and sold it above the maximum in a clandestine manner. The knowledge of this fact, however, soon occasioned the graziers to be subjected to a rigorous system of inspection. In 1795 the harvest was bad, and was followed by a severe winter. The reign of terror was over, but it was not so easy to restore life to commerce. The exirg.ordi- nary system of provisioning Paris not being sustained by men's fears, the supplies were more deficient than ever. The relaxation of the maximum was resolved upon, but this not being immediately followed by the awakening of individual industry and confidence, there was every prospect of a complete dearth. Prices were exces- sive, and the government, in order to bring them down, placed stores of its own at the pork-butchers, the grocers, and shopkeepers, to be sold at a cheaper rate. But this plan only led to frauds, which defeated the intentions of the authorities. This desperate state of things added to the exasperation of political parties. " Behold," said one, " the effect of the abolition of the maximum." — " Look," said the other, "at the inevitable effect of your revolutionary measures." — "Repair the injustices which have been committed," repeated some. "Restore the energy of the Revolu- tion," said others. On the 16th of March the inhabitants were put upon rations. A pound of bread per day was given to each individual; and a pound and a half was given to workingmen, Avho were also served the first. On the 26th of March, the quaatity of flour necessary for the supply of the day not having arrived, only one half of the usual rations was distributed, and the remainder was promised for the end of the day. On the 1st of April, a mob, which consisted of women and chil- dren in the first instance, created a tumult on account of this mode of obtaining the means of existence, which led to an outrageous violation of the freedom of the legislnture. In 1796 the directory suppressed the distribution of provisions by rations, but the change was not effected without difficulty, and for a consider- able time the government was under the necessity of buying grain at its full CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 63 value, and reselling it to the inhabitants, at a nominal value. The receipts scarcely- equalled the two hundredth part of the cost o[ this mode of supply, and the popu- lation of Paris was thus pretty nearly supported at the expense of the remainder of the country. Rations were for some time longer distributed to the indigent, to the creditors of the state, and to public officers whose incomes did not exceed one thou- sand crowns. The final suppression of rations to the inhabitants generally, excited violent commotions. For most of the last years France has not been visited with scarcity; the harvests have been abundant, and that shrewd monarch, Louis Phil- ippe, with that natural and foreseeing sagacity which is so important a feature in his character, has been quietly and silently depositing in reserve granaries the pro- vision for his people, to be used in time of need. It is thought now, in 1846, that these reserve stores will be needed. It will be perceived from the fioregoing circumstances, that the consequences of throwing the hopes and feelings of the industrious part of the community out of their ordinary sphere, were of the most mischievous character ; and that the task of sup- plying the population with food by forcing the action of commerce, and arbitrarily interfering with private concerns, was found to be attended with perils both to indi- viduals and to society. Let the system then pursued be contrasted with the silent operation of individual interest directed to the same end with such advantageous results to all classes. A more alarming state of things can not be conceived, than an immense population reduced to such a dilemma as the one which has been de- scribed ;' and the folly and inutility of coercive measures is rendered more glaring by the fact, that, generally speaking, there existed no alarming deficiency in the quantity of food. The want of confidence in the security and stability of things alone rendered its distribution uncertain and nearly impossible. The pouLTRT MARKET, which is both neat and commodious, was erected in 1810, and occupies the site of the convent church of the Augustins. It is situated nearly at the foot of the Pont Neuf, on the Quai des Augustins. The building is of stone, and is pierced with arcades, which are closed with iron rails ; betAveen the interior rand exterior walls are three galleries, which add considerably to its utility. The entire length of the building is one hundred and ninety feet, and the breadth one hundred and forty-one feet. It is open daily, but the supply is largest on Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays, and Saturdays. Game is sold in this market. A consider- able quantity of poultry is brought to the market alive, and as all the operations connected with preparing it for the spit are carried on within the building, it fre- quently presents rather a disgusting appearance. The supply of poultry required for the consumption of Paris in 1811, was as follows: the population has since in- creased about one third, aud as there has not been a proportionate increase in the consumption of meat, the actual consumption of poultry may perhaps be ascertained with tolerable accuracy by adding one third to each of the quantities given. The number of pigeons was 931,000; ducks, 174,000; fowls, 1,289,000; capons, 251,000 ; turkeys, 549,000 ; geese, 328,000. In 1834 the consumption of poultry and game amounted in value to $1,545,610; the value of the eggs consumed was $882,915 ; making a total of $2,428,525. In England, when a family which rarely consumes poultry, wishes to provide this species of food, a goose is most commonly selected for the occasional treat, and hence the number brought to market is much larger than that of turkeys; but in France there is a sort of prejudice against this bird, and comparatively few are reared for the Parisian market. The greater dry- ness of the climate of France probably tends to deteriorate the quality and flavor of the flesh of the goose. Poultry is an important object of French farming, and it is thought by many that the consumption of poultry equals that of mutton ; but at all events it is much greater than in England, and it may be interesting to notice some of the causes to which this may be attributed. In the first place may be mentioned the lean and in- ferior quality of cattle and sheep in France. The weight of the English sheep is more than three times that of the French breed. The average weight of the Tees- water breed is twenty-eight pounds per quarter ; of the Leicester, twenty-two pounds per quarter ; of the Southdown, eighteen pounds per quarter. About ninety years ago, the average weight of the entire sheep sold in Smithfield market, was about twenty-eight pounds, but it is now about eighty pounds ; and the average weight of cattle has risen from three hundred and seventy pounds to about eight hundred pounds. No such improvement has taken place in France. There does not exist to 64 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN any large extent a class of agiiculturists whose endeavors to improve the breed of live stock would operate in so extensive a manner as in England, where the change for the hetter in most of the domestic animals has been almost complete. In France, not only are the cattle not half fattened, in consequence of no proper food being grown for them, but the butchers do not prepare the carcase in so neat and clean a manner as with us. Some of the sheep, when fattened, do not weigh more than twenty pounds, and sell at about ninety-four cents a head. Bonaparte felt that it would be desirable to improve the breed of sheep ; but his interference, so far from producing the desired effect, tended to render the race more degenerate. The French butchers do not sufficiently attend to the age of the animals v/hich they kill. Calves are taken to market so young, that a little horse will sometimes carry two or three in a pannier hanging at its side ; and in the country -towns a farmer will walk into the market with as many as four live lambs on each arm, their fore and hind legs tied together, through which he puts his arm. The peculiar character of French cookery renders this want of perfection in butchers' meat less obvious ; but notwith- standing this, the greater consumption of poultry may be considered as one of its results. i The circumstances in which a large number of the cultivators of the soil are placed in France, do not "enable them to produce grain, even for their own con- sumption. Land has been divided and subdivided, in many instances, in very minute proportions, but the ambition to be landowners, which is so general in France, leads these small occupiers to make every exertion to maintain their position, although it is often an absolute waste of time to superintend the little patches into which their crops are divided. They grow, perhaps, a little wheat and rye, flax, garden prod- uce, and possess a few fruit-trees. They require some money, though not much ; and to obtain this, the produce of their garden, their fruit-trees, and their poultry, are exchanged at the nearest market-town. It will be seen that, to a class thus cir- curnstanced, the rearing of poultry is really one of the most important means of their acquiring the various necessaries of life ; for if corn be grown at all, it is re- quired for the domestic consumption. The Irish cotter is enabled to pay his rent , by the sale of his pig ; and though the French peasant has no rent to pay, yet money is equally indispensable to him, and poultry, fruit, and garden esculents, constitute the only surplus produce which he is in a condition to raise. Mr. Birkbeck, who visited France in 1814, and made some interesting notes on the agriculture of the country, thus describes the manner in v/hich tlie population is arranged. The ex- tract is not only interesting, as exhibiting the structure of society, but it shows that throughout the country it is consistent with the interests of a large class to supply all the minor objects of rural industry, and that they are, in consequence, likely to be cheap, Mr. Birkbeck says: "A town [Moulins, for instance] depends for sub- sistence on the lands immediately surrounding it. The cultivators individually, have not much to spare, because, as their husbandry is a sort of gardening, it requires a large country population, and has, in proportion, less superfluity of produce. Thus is formed a numerous, but poor, country population. The daily supply of the num- berless petty articles of French diet, employs, and therefore produces, a multitude of little traders. It must be brought daily from the country, and the number of in- dividuals whom this operation employs is beyond calculation. Thus fifty thousand persons may inhabit a district, with a town often thotisand inhabitants in the centre of it, bartering the superfluity of the country for the arts and manufactures of the town." Another cause which lessens the demand for poultry in England is the abundance of game. In France the game has been nearly all destro5^ed since the Revolution of 1789, and it is nowhere preserved as in England. Hence arises the larger con- sumption of poultry in France. The price of a hare in France, in a country town, is about sixty cents, and of a brace of partridges, about thirty-one cents. This is higher, as compared with the prices of meat and poultry, than in England. The consumption of Paris, in 1811 is stated to have been only 131,000 partridges, 29,000 hares, and 177,000 rabbits. The Maeche des Innocens occupies the site of the ancient burial-ground of the church dedicated to the Innocents, which v/as demolished about fifty years ago. Formerly it was not included within the walls of Paris, but it is now in the centre of the northern quarter of the capital. The cemetery having been used as a depos- itory for the dead for so long a period as eight hundred years, became, in conse- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 65 66 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN quence of the increase of the surrounding population, unfit for the numerous inter- ments, though it was not until the practice had been subject to complaint for many- years, that the authorities determined upon its remedy. In 1786, however, the church was taken down, and men were employed during the night for the space of several months in removing the relics of the dead. The exhalations which ensued on opening the graves occasioned much disease in this populous quarter. When the work was completed, fresh earth was brought to the place, the vacant ground was paved, and it was converted into a market for fruit and vegetables. In 1813 a wooden arcade or gallery was erected on each side of the market, for the conve- nience of the retail-dealers who attend during the day. The fountain in the centre of the market was formerly placed at the angle formed by the rue St. Denis and the rue aux Fers, and having been executed in the year 1551, in the best style of that day, is an interesting specimen of the sculpture of the sixteenth century. The parts were carefully taken down, and in the reconstruction a fourth arcade was added, so as to give it a quadrangular form. The architect em- ployed stone from the same quarry, and by intersecting the old pieces with the new, the general character and appearance of the whole was preserved. The Corin- thian pilasters are surmounted by a pediment ornamented with naiads and bas-re- liefs. The lions were placed at a subsequent period, and resejpable those of the fountain of Termini at Rome. The cupola is covered with scales of copper. The height from the ground to the top of the cupola is forty-two feet. In the interior, on an elegant pedestal, is a large vase, from which the water ascends and falls into four large vessels, and thence into the lower basin which surrounds the whole. A reference to the engraving will convey a better idea of the design than any descrip- tion. Formerly each class of dealers and each neighboring town had its particular mar- ket-place in Paris ; but this was before trade and commerce began to be considered of much consequence, and such a useless regulation has long ago become obsolete. There are now a number of large and well-arranged markets in different parts of Paris. The Marche des Innocens is the most important, from its situation in the midst of a dense population; and it also covers the largest quantity of ground. Hence it is generally called the liaUe, by way of distinction. There are several markets very near to the halle, and the Emperor Napoleon formed a design of uni- ting them in a square of above one hundred acres, which would have included the Halle aux Bles. The Marche des Innocens is clean and well regulated, and the same may be said of the other principal markets in Paris. The Marche a la Vi- ande is, perhaps, the least so of any ; though, as the cattle-markets are held at SceauS and Poissy, both at the distance of several miles from Paris, and all cattle are slaughtered at the public abatoirs in the outskirts of the capital, there is every cir- cumstance which can obviate such a state of things ; ex:cept, perhaps, that meat is mot so well adapted for sale in a public market open only at certain hours, but pre- 'serves its appearance, and is altogether better when brought at once from the slaughterhouse to the butcher's shop. A visiter who sojourns at Paris for a few weeks only, as is the case with many of •our countrymen, could take no better means of making himself acquainted with the appearance of the French peasantry, and the perfection and variety to which gar- den culture has attained in France, than by paying a visit to the Marche des Inno- cens. Saturday should be the day selected for this purpose. The month of Sep- tember is the season in which there is the greatest variety of fruit ; and from three o'clock in the morning till the opening of the market at four o'clock, is the most in- teresting time. During the day the market is occupied by the women of the halle or town-dealers, as the wholesale market is over in a few hours, and the country- people have taken their departure before eight o'clock. The market then becomes encTsmbered with refuse vegetables, and the appearance is altogether different from that which it presents when the business of the day commences. It is computed that six thousand peasants attend the Marche des Innocens every day, many of whom come from a distance of thirty or forty miles. The Frstit-Market, Paris. — The inhabitants of Paris would appear to be bet- ter situated for obtaining fruit in a fresh state than those of London. There are, first, the market-gardeners, who, however, do not cultivate on so extensive a scale as those in the neighborhood of London ; and then there are the small peasant-pro- prietors, who support themselves on the produce of their own soil, exchanging the CONTINENTAL -EUROPE.— FRANCE. 67 68 • SCENES AND SKETCHES IN surplus for groceries, &c. This class will take the most trifling articles to market, and are always determined to bring back something in exchange. Many of them occupy little more than half an acre ; and yet they will make this small patch pro- duce walnuts, plums, cherries, apples, grapes, currants, &c. Not possessing a suf- ficient quantity of land to enable them to have a proper rotation of grain-crops, they do not raise enough for family consumption, and though they might subsist with a very small outlay on colonial produce, yet the necessity of procuring bread sends them into the market with all the fruit, vegetables, poultry, eggs, &c., which they can spare by rigid economy ; for the French peasant would rather starve than give up his property in land. Covent-Garden market, on the other hand, is indebted for its supplies to a comparatively small number of commercial gardeners, whose oper- ations are conducted on an extensive scale. In London, therefore, the supply of fruit must be distributed chiefly by intermediate dealers, while in Paris the opportu- nities of obtaining it fresh from the producer are much more numerous. Some of the London market-gardeners hold above one hundred acres, while the largest gar- den in the neighborhood of Paris does not exceed sixty acres, and the proprietor of this employs some portion of it in the production of mangel-wurzel for milch cows. The large space of ground covered by nursery-gardens at Vitry, near Paris, com- prises nearly four thousand acres — [Loudon) ; but the number of nurserymen is two hundred — [Forbes). Mr. Loudon ("Encyclopedia of Gardening") says that "the great mass of opera- tive gardeners in France, both as masters and laborers, are incomparably more ignorant, both of gardening as a science, and of knowledge in general, than the gardeners of this country." Few of them are regularly apprenticed, and there is little or no demand for good master-gardeners. The assistant-gardeners in the neighborhood of Paris are said by Mr. Loudon to be poorly paid, and are worked much harder than the same class in England. In the time of Louis XIV. the work of the royal gardens was all done in the night-time, and finished by six or seven in the morning, as this vain monarch and his courtiers probably saw nothing to interest them in the labors of the garden. The hardy fruits of France exceed those of Britain, but this is dependent upon climate ; and it is the opinion of horticultural tourists, likely to be free from prejudice, that in no country is gardening more exten- sively cultivated, or with so much ardor, as in England at the present time. The French gardener has more difl&culties to contend with than might be supposed. The winters are sometimes excessively cold, and in summer the heat and drought are occasionally injurious to him. He is not stimulated to the same extent as in England by the patronage of the wealthy, and ten dollars per pound for cherries, one dollar for a single peach, and for other fruit, on its first appearance, in propor- tion, are prices which are never heard of in France, where they are more content to enjoy each description of fruit in its own season. If it were not for the indirect good proceeding from this lavish expenditure, the motive for which often arises from a spirit of exclusiveness that, has few redeeming qualities to recommend it, such ' extravagance would be more commonly regarded with less favor. In France, a greenhouse is not considered so necessary an appendage to a gentleman's residence as in England ; but forced productions are more in demand than they were ten years ago. The cultivation of the pineapple was only introduced at Versailles so recently as during the reign of Charles X. In the neighborhood of Paris, certain places have obtained a prescriptive claim for the excellence of the fruit or vegetables which they produce. Thus, around London, Battersea is celebrated for cabbages and cauliflowers; Mortlake, for aspar- agus; Charlton and Plumstead, for peas ; Twickenham, for strawberries; Pershore, for currants ; Maidstone, for filberts and cherries, &c. Rhubarb, for tarts, is sent by wagon-loads to the metropolis from a considerable distance. In the vicinity of Paris, there is Montmorency, famous for its cherries ; Montreuil, for peaches ; Ar- genteuil, for figs ; Fontenay-aux-Roses, for strawberries ; and, more distant from the capital, Fontainebleau, for its chasselas grapes, remarkable for their skin and fine flavor. Mr. Forbes, the head-gardener at Woburn Abbey, who has lately published observations made during a horticultural tour which he undertook at the expense of the duke of Bedford, in the course of which he visited France, makes the following comparison of the peaches produced at Montreuil with those grown in England : " On my approach to Montreuil I was surprised at the extent of white walls cov- ered with peach-trees and grape-vines." These walls, if extended, would reach CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 69 70 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN several miles. Mr. Forbes says, " The peaches on the walls in this country (Eng- land) are much larger than any in France or Belgium, although the soil and climate in these countries are more congenial to the growth of this tree and maturity of its fruit, than our more northern atmosphere." It would be with regard to flavor that we should expect the fruits of France to excel those of England, but Mr. Forbes merely speaks of the comparative size. These peaches are sold at from one to four cents each. Mr. Loudon, however, does not speak so highly as might be ex- pected of the fruit grown in France, compared wiih similar descriptions produced in England. In an account of a horticultural tour in France, made a few years ago, which he published in the "Gardener's Magazine," vol. vii., he has given his opinion as follows. Under the head, "Fruits for tarts and pickling," he merely re- marks, " On a par with British markets." He visited the Marche des Innocens on the 13th of September, and the following record occurs in his diary: "Abundance of apples, chiefly Colvilles ; and of pears, chiefly bon chretiens and bergamots ; rock and canteloup melons ; chasselas grapes ; peaches, figs, and plums ; pear- shaped sorbs, sold at about a cent each; and a great quantity of very excellent strawberries. The last article is the only one in which this market excelled that of Covent-Garden ; in all the other fruits it was much inferior." In his "Encyclope- dia of Gardening," Mr. Loudon has again drawn attention to the comparative mer- its of the fruit and vegetables brought to the markets of Paris and London. Allu- ding to the former, he says, " The quantity and variety of fruits are greatly inferior, and also the dryness and "flavor of potatoes, and the succulency of turnips, cabbages, and the other common culinary vegetables ; but the Paris markets approach to equality with those of London in mushrooms, salads, and aromatic herbs, during summer, and far surpass them in those articles during winter." In the produce of the vine England has no pretension to vie with France. The grapes used for making wine are not those which are preferred at the desert, just as we make a distinction between apples for the kitchen, for the cider-press, and the dessert. The finest chasselas grapes may be bought at about eight cents per pound. Grapes for the table are grown to a considerable extent in the market and flower-gardens around Paris. Fruit and vegetables, being articles intended for immediate consumption, are dis- posed of with the most advantage to the consumer, and the least cost to the produ- cer, in a public market-place. Paris has the benefit of several large markets, while London, containing twice the population, receives its supplies of garden prod- uce in one market, and then through a much smaller number of persons than Paris. Whatever, therefore,. may be the respective qualities of the fruit and vegetables of the two countries, the inhabitants of Paris can more readily deal with the producer than those of London, to many of whom a visit to Covent-Garden would be a jour- ney of no trifling distance. Mr. Forbes visited the Paris vegetable and fruit market on the 7th of October. He says, " The display of pears, grapes, and walnuts, was very fine ; there were also a number of peaches, but these were of an inferior size to those grown on the op-en walls in England. The fruit-market was really so crowded with baskets of pears and with women, that it was with much diffieUlty 1 could pass through it. There was an abundant supply of vegetables." The market represented in the engraving is used solely for the sale of fruit, which is chiefly brought in boats by the rivers Seine and Marne. Grapes and other de- scriptions of fruit may here be bought at a much lower rate than at the fruit-shops. A west view of Notre Dame is given on the right. The bridge here only crosses one arm of the Seine, the river here dividing into two channels, and forming the Isle du Palais, on which stands the cathedral of Notre Dame. The Wine-Market, Paris. — The words " halle" and "marche" are often ap- plied in an indiscriminate manner, but there exists a difference between their true import, which it_ rnay be useful to observe. A halle is a place of depot for mer- chandise, where it is at the same time stored for consumption and exposed for sale ; and it is, of course, sheltered from the elements. A marche., on the other hand, is an open space of ground where articles are not stored, but merely brought for im- mediate sale. When the business of the day is over, the marche is a vacant space, while the halle still contains its stores. Thus the spot where butter, eggs, fish, or vegetables, are brought for sale is, properly speaking, a marche, while the appointed public place where flour, cloth, or wine, are constantly kept on sale, is a halle. The Halle aux Vins, or wine-market, is one of the most complete and best-arranged CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 71 J ■^flll ll i! if ■H 72 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN of any o^" the places in Paris for the accommodation of merchants and traders. It is situated within the walls of the capital, at its eastern extremity, beyond the Jar- dia des Plantes. The inconvenience of the old Halle aux Vins, established in 1656, had long been felt ; but the first stone of the present market was not placed until the 15ih of August, 1813, when the empire was on its wane. At first the works were actively carried on, but political disasters occasioned them to be suspended, and they were not completed until several years after the Restoration. It fronts the river. The piles of magazines are seven in number, four in front and three behind. The two centre piles in front are divided into seven compartments, and are used as a market. One of the buildings in the back division is of large dimensions, for con- taining brandies. The buildings are neat and commodious, and a part of them are surrounded by a terrace. The space between the several masses forms a sort of street, of which there are several, named after the difi"erent kinds of wine, as the Rue de Champagne, Rue de Bourgogne, Rue de Bordeaux, Rue de Languedoc, Rue de la Cote d'Or. This latter street, which is represented in the engraving, is the finest, and extends the whole length of the halle. There are counting-houses for the merchants, and bureaux for the oflScers who superintend the entrance and deliv- ery of the wines. A duty of twenty cents is paid per cask, and the number of entries sometimes amounts to fifteen hundred a day. France can boast of the simplicity of its system of weights and measures, but improvements are often obstructed by local customs ; and in the halle there is a bureau de depotage, containing measiires of the casks in use in dilTerent parts of France, and here purchasers can have their casks gauged. The Halle aux Vins contains three hundred and twenty-five thousand square yards, enclosed by walls on three sides, and separated on the side toward the Seine by an iron railing eight hundred and eighty-nine yards in length. The buildings were calculated to contain four hundred thousand casks, though in making this estimate it was thought there would only be one row of casks above the ground-floor ; but the manner in which the constructions Aw^ere completed renders it probable that they will hold from six to eight hundred thousand casks. The consumption of wine and spirits in Paris is under twenty millions of gallons a year, and the halle probably contains sufficient for the consumption of eight or nine months, or twelve or fifteen millions of gallons. The quantity of wine and foreign spirits in warehouse under bond in London, when compared with the con- sumption, exceeds the proportion contained in the halle at Paris; for iii England ifty gallons of ale or porter are drunk to one gallon of wine and three fourths of a gallon of foreign spirits, while in Paris, for every fifty gallons of beer which is drunk, there are above one hundred and sixty gallons of wine. But, notwithstand- ing this difference in the relation of the articles consumed, the stock of wine in the docks of London is four millions five hundred thousand gallons; and of foreign spir- its there is more than nine months' consumption for the whole of the three king- doms, the quantity in bond exceeding three millions six hundred thousand gallons, making the total amount of Avine and foreign spirits in bond in London over eight mil- lions of gallons. If to this be added the stock in the hands of the dealers, the total quantity of wine and foreign spirits may be taken at twelve millions of gallons in London alone. The relative consumption of wine and beer in France being as three to one, the quantity of wine stored in Paris should be three times as great as in London. It is true that the stock taken into the Halle aux Vins, is consumed in Paris, while that in bond in London is partly destined for the general consumption of the country ; but in England, exclusive of the quantity in London, the wine in bond exceeds seven millions five hundred thousand gallons, being considerably more than one year's consumption for the three kingdoms ; and in the hands of the deal- ers there is also sufficient for a year's consumption. The foreign spirits in bond in England, exclusive of London, amount to nearly six millions five hundred thousand gallons, and nearly two millions of gallons are in the dealers' hands, Avhich makes a total of eight millions five htmdred thousand gallons, or two years' consumption for the United Kingdom. The supply beforehand of wine and foreign spirits amounts altogether to about twenty-two millions of gallons ; and if it Avere possible to estimate the stock in the cellars of private individuals, perhaps the total quantity ready to be consumed would not be less than thirty millions of gallons. Wine is consumed at the rate of six millions five hundred thousand gallons a year; and of foreign spirits the consumption is about four millions eight hundred thousand gal- lons a year, so that England contains sufficient for three years' consumption. ' CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 7f The corn-market is situated in the centre of Paris, in a circular space which was formerly the site of the Hotel de Soissons, built for Catherine de Medicis, in 1572. Six streets, leading to different quarters of the capital, issue from this central point. The last possessor of the Hotel de Soissons was the Prince de Carignan of Savoy, who died in 1741, in embarrassed circumstances. His creditors seized his property, including his hotel, which they obtained leave to demolish, with a view of selling the materials. The site was purchased by the municipal body of Paris, and it was determined, in 1763, to erect on the vacant place an edifice calculated to serve as a depot for grain and flour, the old Halle aux Bles not affording the convenience and ' accommodation demanded by the increasing population. In 1772 the building was completed. It Avas of a circular form, having vaults beneath, and galleries in the upper part, the internal space being uncovered. In 1782'the design of forming a rotunda capable of containing a larger quantity of produce, was carried into effect by surmounting the circular walls with a cupola. On the internal walls were placed medallions of Louis XVI., of Lenoir, one of the chief police authorities, and of Delorme, the architect by whom an ingenious plan, which had not been practised since the sixteenth century, was again applied in the construction of the cupola. During the revolution of 1789, the medallions of Louis XVI. and Lenoir were de- stroyed, but that of Delorme escaped the excesses of those times. In 1802 the cu- pola was entirely destroyed by fire, through the carelessness of a plumber, and the damage was not repaired before 1812. It is now formed of ribs of iron, covered with copper, and the building is therefore fireproof. The diameter is one hundred and thirty-six feet, being only fourteen feet less than the cupola which surmounts the Pantheon at Rome, The circumference is four hundred and ten feet, and height one hundred and seven feet. The light is admitted by a lantern, thirty-three feet in diame- ter, placed at the summit. It is composed of fifty-one curves, rising in a vertical direction from the cornice to the great circular window ; which are supported in the whole circumference by fifteen other curves, forming seven hundred and sixty-five compartments, the size of which progressively diminishes toward the top. The column which is seen in the engraving is the only remnant left of the Hotel de Soissons ; and it would have been destroyed when the hotel was demolished, had it not been for the zeal of a private individual, who purchased it, on condition that it should be allowed to remain. He presented it to the municipal body ; but, humil- iated by the reflection that they should have shown less zeal for the preservation of an interesting monument than an individual citizen, they repaid him the sum which he had advanced. It was then resolved that the column should be removed to the centre of the projected court, which, in the original state of the Halle aux Bles, was not covered in, and some steps had been taken to effect this object when the design was abandoned, and it is now attached to the exterior wall. The capital is of the. Tuscan order, but tl^e base belongs rather to the Doric style. The height of the column is one hundred and three feet, comprising the iron-work at the top, which is intended as a lightning-conductor. A sun-dial of very ingenious construction is placed at the spper part of the column, and at the base there is a fountain. The diameter of the base is ten feet, and the interior of the column contains a staircase. The miscalled science of astrology was in repute when Catherine de Medicis erected this column, from the summit of which attempts were vainly made to read the fu- ture. Bas-reliefs, representing trophies and crowns, fleurs-de-lis, the letters C and H interwoven, being the initials of Catherine and her husband, Henry II., broken mirrors, and other emblems of widowhood, are sculptured in various places. The Halle aux Bles is open every day for the sale of grain, seeds, and flour ; but the principal market-days are Wednesday and Saturday. While it forms a consid- erable depot, and is the centre of commercial transactions in grain, the Grenier de Reserve ou d'Abondance is on a much larger scale, and will contain sufficient corn for the consumption of the capital for two months. In this storehouse the bakers are compelled constantly to keep twenty-five thousand sacks of flour, besides seventy-eight thousand at their bakehouses. These greniers, or warehouses, are near the garden of plants, and were commenced in 1807. They were intended to have been on a vast scale, comprising mills for grinding flour, but the political events of 1814 occasioned an alteration in the original plan. In 1 833 the number of bakers in Paris was 600, and as the quantity of sacks of flour required to be kept in store is one hundred and three thousand, each baker must have about one hundred and seventy sacks on his hands, worth on an average from six dol- 74 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 75" lars to seven dollars fifty cents per sack. This arrangement can not but operate with great hardship, not only by locking up capital to the amount of six or seven hundred thousand dollars, but by placing the bakers too much in the hands of the corn-dealers, and also by affecting the price of bread. When the markets are rising, they can not resort to their stock in the warehouses without running the risk of having to replace it, at perhaps a considerable sacrifice ; whereas, by consuming their stock on hand, and keeping out of the market for a time, the price of corn would come down. An artificial demand is created, the effect of which is to raise prices in an unnatural man- ner. Private speculation effects by more economical means those arrangements which the executive power can not undertake without oppressing private interests. The notion of providing for the prospective consumption of Paris indicates a want of confidence in the ever-active agency of personal interests, operating in commercial transactions, which^ possibly will be soon regarded as of little importance, now that the nature of trade is more generally and better understood by the French people. If a scarcity be apprehended in any particular quarter, prices rise as a matter of course, and hundreds of individuals avail themselves of the opportunities which are best known to themselves ; and by purchasing wherever the commodity is in the greatest plenty and the cheapest, the scarcity is obviated and prices are equalized ; or, if there be a real deficiency in the supply, the same vigilance prevents its being felt more severely in one place than in another. The annual consumption of bread in Paris is 397,272,972 pounds, of the value of $10,262,000 ; the consumption of flour in pastry and various other ways is 27,145,732 pounds, of the value of $11,044,000 ; making the total consuinption amount in value to $11,366,000, and in quantity to 434,000,000 pounds. If the annual expenses of each inhabitant of Paris be divided into one hundred parts, nineteen of them, or nearly one fifth, are occasioned by the consumption of bread, twenty-two parts by the consumption of meat, and twenty-seven in wine and spirits. Each individual uses a greater quantity of bread in Paris than in London, and in the former capital the working classes may often be seen dining on bread and fruit, or with the addition of a small quantity of cheese, while in England there are few individuals of the same class who do not take animal food at their principal meal. It is fortunate that the price of bread in Paris is usually low. The price is fixed by the police every fort- night, in the ^me manner that the assize of bread was formerly taken periodically in London ; and it is generally sixty per cent, cheaper in Parii than in London, and of as good quality. Fuel. — A comparison between London and Paris, as to the extent to which the population of each capital actually enjoy an abundant supply of fuel, will be very much in favor of London, for the necessity of liaving recourse to fires is not felt for so long a period of the year in Paris ; and it is certain that the Parisians contrive to be cheerful without a fire, where an Englishman would often require one for " com- pany," as it is sometimes alleged ; yet the cost of fuel in Paris averages thirty-eight shillings and sixpence, and in London only thirty-two shillings, while the quantity used for manufacturing purposes is much greater in proportion in London than in Paris. The sum of thirty-two shillings goes twice as far in London in the purchase of fuel as thirty-eight shillings and sixpence in Paris ; and fuel is consumed in the latter place chiefly in indispensable cases, while in England it is regarded as increas- ing the means of comfort and cheerfulness. The consumption of every kind of fuel in Paris amounts in value to $8,360,000, being nearly one half the amount of the an- nual rental for all the houses in Paris, and two thirds of the sum annually spent in wearing apparel. The consumption in 1827 was 1,065,166 steres of firewood, 4,007,459 fagots, 2,174,865 hectolitres of charcoal, and 938,722 hectolitres of coal. The population has increased considerably since 1827, and a proportional addition must be made to each of the above articles to exhibit the present consumption. Du- ties are charged on the admission of the above articles within the walls of Paris. The supply of firewood is brought down by the Seine in rafts, of which about four thousand five hundred arrive annually ; but this number includes those which bring charcoal and timber for other purposes than fuel. The Seine rises in the department of the Cote d'Or, southeast of Paris, and receives the Yonne, the Aube, and the Marne, before it enters Paris. It communicates with the Loire, the Saone, the Somme, and the Scheldt, by canals.' The greater the distance whence the supply is brought, the more necessary it is that the wood should be seasoned so as to resist the effects of the water. If the bark has been stripped off al the time of the wood being 76 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 77 cut, and then allowed to remain exposed, it becomes hardened, and is much better adapted for fuel. The degrees in which several kinds of wood differ in their specific qualities, and the degree of caloric which each of those qualities will give forth, have been investigated. The wood which is obtained from trees growing in a stratum of stones and gravel is much esteemed, and is brought by the Yonne from the Bourgogne. The distance from Paris not being great, it does not receive injury by long contact with the water. Wood of an inferior description is used by the bakers. The poorer classes often use wood in nearly a green state, from a mistaken notion of economy ; but the moisture which is disengaged neutralizes the effect of the caloric, and dry wood, of a higher price, would in reality be more economical. There are two or three kinds of wood which are used on account of the pleasant perfume which they emit, and others on account of the clear and lively flame which attends their combustion. There is something extremely agreeable in a wood fire, on account of the cheerful blaze, the pleasant odor, and the absence of smoke and dust, which characterize it ; but this is a luxury of a very expensive description in Paris. To keep the embers in a smoulder- ing state is the only means of preventing the cost of fuel from bearing a great dispro- portion to other household expenses. A composition of charcoal, in the shape of small bricks, is used to economize wood. Stoves, though not so common as in this country, are still in extensive use in Paris. Charcoal is used in cooking only, and, as; in some parts of the south of England where fuel is scarce, the fire is lighted and put out several times a-day. Of the coal consumed in Paris, the great proportion is used, not by private families, but in manufactories and workshops. About one fourth of the quantity raised in France is obtained from the mines in the department of the Nord, and the supply arrives at Paris by canal from Lille. One seventh of the total quantity of coal exported by England, or one hundred and four thousand one hundred and thirty-eight tons, is imported by France, chiefly at Bordeaux and other towns on the coast, which find the cost of internal transport much greater than that of obtain- ing a foreign supply. The He Louviers, one of the three islands formed by the Seine within the walls of Paris, is used as a depot for firewood. It is about three quarters of a mile in length. A depot of this description [chantier) is represented in the engraving. The charbonniers forma class similar in some respects to the London coalheavers, and are distinguished by a peculiarity of costume. They are said chiefly to come from one particular part of France, contrive by industry to accumulate a small capi- tal, and then permanently retire to their native department. Before the revolution of 1789, a deputation of the charbonniers had the privilege of being admitted at court when any royal marriage or birth occurred. The market-women, or dames de la halle, enjoyed by courtesy a similar right. These distinctions, accorded under special cir- cumstances to a fraction of the people by despotic monarchs, who regarded the mass of the people as incapable of exercising any power in the state, are now unknown, and would, in France, be inconsistent with the broad basis on which a constitutional monarchy reposes, when all classes are permitted to approach the throne. CHAPTER III.— FRANCE. Among the public establishments of Paris may be mentioned the baths, which have much increased in number within these last few years, and received considera- ble improvements in regard to neatness, convenience, and elegance. On taking a survey of this extensive city from a central situation, such as the steeples of Notre Dame, or the cupola of the Pantheon, it presents, with its suburbs, a form nearly circular, and as coal is not generally employed for fuel, its spires and domes are clearly seen, so that the situation of the distant public buildings and mon- uments is distinctly marked. There are few streets in London which will bear comparison with the Boulevards of Paris; they occupy the space originally appropriated to the defence of the city. This space has been converted into wide and magnificent streets, in the centre of which is an unpaved road, and on each side of the road is a row of lofty trees, and between each row of trees and the houses are wide gravel walks, for the accommo- dation of the pedestrians. The waving line which these streets assumes, adds greatly to the beauty of the Boulevards ; the eye can not reach to the end of the 78 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN prospect, and the uncommon width is productive of no vacuity or dulness, so active are the movements of carriages and passengers, and so lively the scene presented in the shops, the hotels, and the coffeehouses on either side. The massy stone struc- tures of Paris appear to greater advantage here than in the narrower streets. On the southern side of Paris, the Boulevards extend a still greater length, and are planted with trees, but they are not considered to equal those on the other side of the city. The banks of the Seine present but few attractions to the visiter, except in the quarter of the Tuilleries, where, on one side are the Louvre and the Tuilleries, with its gardens, and on the other, from the Palais Bourbon to the Pont-Neuf, a succession of fine buildings. The older bridges were all constructed at points where the river is divided by islands. The oldest is the Pont Notre Dame, which was commenced in the year 1500. Ife three hundred and sixty-two feet long by fifty-two feet broad, and was formerly ornamented with statues and medallions of the tings of France, but these have been destroyed. The square tower rising above the centre of the bridge, contains machinery for raising water. On the banks of the river may be seen the washerwomen of Paris, beating vheir dirty clothes clean. The Pont-Neuf has twelve arches, and is 1020 feet long. The Pont-Roy'al, with five arches, was built by Louis XIV. ; the Pont de Louis XVI., or de la Concorde, completed in 1790, has five arches ; lower down the river, and opposite the Champ de Mars, is the Pont d'Jena ; and higher up, is the Pont d'Austerlitz, a fine iron bridge ; the Pont des Arts, opposite the Louvre, is also of iron, but is intended merely for foot passengers. The last three were built during the reign of Napoleon. The Pont de I'Archeveche, of three arches, was built in 1828 ; the Pont des Invalides, an iron bridge, in 1829 ; and the Pont d'Arcole, also of iron, in 1828. There are forty- nine quays ; they are stone embankments, on both sides of the river, and around the islands ; the whole extent is about fifteen miles. The sewers fall into the river through arches under the quays. Many passages, or covered streets, with shops fitted up in an elegant style, have been constructed within a few years. Paris is sup- plied with water, partly by aqueducts, and partly from the Seine ; there are eighty- six fountains in the public places and Boulevards, some of which are distinguished for their architecture. The houses are generally very high (seven or eight stories), and generally speaking, built of stone. For the magnificence of its palaces, the French capital surpasses every other city in Europe. From the Cite the streets run north to the Temple, and south to the Pantheon, but without being broad or elegant ; in recent times, the direction has been given them south to the suburb St. Germain, and north to the Tuilleries. They are not so clean as they might be, since the water is carried off by only one gutter, in the centre of the street ; a few of them are paved in the modern style, and provided with footpaths. The Rue de Rivoli, Rue de Cas- tiglione, and Rue de la Paix, are handsome streets. Among the finest of the public places are the Place Vendome and the Place du Carousel, which separates the Tuilleries from the Louvre. The Place Louis XVI., or de la Concorde, in which is a monument erected to the memory of Louis XVI., but which has recently been con- secrated to the charter, is also one of the most beautiful in! Paris. This place con- tains also one of the Egyptian obelisks brought from the Luxor ; one of the two is depicted in our engraving. When the French army, in their attempt on Egypt, penetrated as far as Thebes, they were, almost to a man, overpowered by the majesty of th6 ancient monuments they saw before them ; and Bonaparte is then said to have conceived the idea of re- moving at least one of the obelisks to Paris. But reverses and defeat followed. The French were forced to abandon Egypt, and the English remaining masters of the seas, eflFectually prevented any such importation into France. The project of Bonaparte had the sort of classical precedent he so much admired. Roman conquerors and Roman emperors had successively enriched the capital of the world with the monuments of subdued nations, and with the spoils of an from Si- cily, Greece, and Egypt. Among these, the Emperor Augustus ordered two Egyp- tian obelisks, also of the same character as Cleopatra's Needle, to be brought to Rome. To this end, an immense vessel of a peculiar construction was built; and when, after a tedious and difficult voyage, it reached the Tyter with its freight, one of the columns was placed in the Grand Circus, and the other in the Campus Mar- tius, at Rome. Caligula adorned Rome with a third Egyptian obelisk, obtained in the same manner. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 79 80 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN The emperor Constantine, still more ambitious of these costly foreign ornaments, resolved to decorate his new-founded capital of Constantinople with the largest of all the obelisks that stood on the ruins of Thebes. He succeeded in having it con- veyed as far as Alexandria ; but, dying at the time, its destination was changed, and an enormous raft, managed by three hundred rowers, transportedthe granite obelisk from Alexandria to Rome. The difficulties encountered by the large, flat, awkward vessel, do not appear to have occurred during the passage across the Mediterranean, which was, no doubt, effected during the fine, settled summer season, when that sea is often, for weeks together, almost as calm as a small freshwater lake ; but they presented themselves at the passage of the mouth of the Tiber, and in the shallows of that river. When all these obstacles were overcome, it required the labor of thousands of men to set up the obelisk upon its base at Rome. The emperor Theodosius, at last, succeeding in bringing an obelisk from Egypt to Constantinople, erected it in the Hippodrome. Though this was of an inferior size (being rather under than over fifty feet) it is recorded that it required thirty-two days' labor, and the most complicated contrivances of mechanics, to set it upright. The Constantinopolitan obelisk still stands where it was first erected by the em- peror ; but those of Rome have been removed by the popes. In all, there are twelve ancient obelisks erect in the modern city of Rome. Thirty years after Bonaparte's first conception of the idea, the French govern- ment, then under Charles X., hsving obtained the consent of the pacha of Egypt, determined that one of the obelisks of Luxor should be brought to Paris. "The difficulties of doing this," said M. Delaborde, " were great. In the first place, it was necessary to build a vessel which should be large enough to contain the monu- ment, deep enough to stand the sea, and at the same time, draw so little Avater as to be able to ascend and descend such rivers as the Nile and Seine. In the month of February, 1831, when the crown of France had passed into the hands of Louis Philippe, a vessel, built as nearly as could be on the necessary prin- ciples, was finished and equipped at Toulon. This vessel, which for the sake of lightness was chiefly made of fir and other white wood, was named the "Louxor." The crew consisted of one hundred and twenty seamen, under the command of Lieutenant Verninac of the French royal navy ; and there were, besides, sixteen mechanics of different professions, and a master to direct the works, under the su- perintendence of M. Lebas, formerly a pupil of the Polytechnic School, and now a naval engineer, M. J. P. Angelina accompanied the expedition in the quality of surgeon-major. On the 15th of April, 1831 (which we should have thought two months too early in the season), the "Louxor" sailed from Toulon. Some rather violent winds and heavy seas proved that a vessel so built was not very seaworthy, and appear to have somewhat frightened the " chirurgien-major ;" but they arrived, without any serious accident, in the port of Alexandria, on the 3d of May. After staying forty-two days at Alexandria, the expedition sailed again on the 15th of June for theRosetta mouth of the Nile, which they entered on the following day, though not without danger from the sandbank which the river has deposited there. At Rosetta they remained some days ; and on the 20th of June, M. Lebas, the engineer, two officers, and a few of the sailors and workmen, leaving the " Louxor" to make her way up the river, slowly, embarked in common Nile-boats for Thebes, carrying with them the tools and materials necessary for the removal of the obelisk. On the 7th of July, when the waters of the Nile had risen considerably, the " Louxor" sailed from Rosetta ; on the 13th she reached Boulak, the port of Grand Cairo, where she remained until the 19th; and she did not arrive at Thebes until the 14th of August, which was two months after her departure from Alexandria. The Turks and Arabs were astonished at seeing so large a vessel on the Nile, and frequently predicted she would not accomplish the whole voyage. The difficulties encountered in so doing were, indeed, very serious. In spite of the peculiar build and material, the vessel grounded and stuck fast in the sand several times ; at other times a contrary wind, joined to the current, which was of course contrary all the way up, obliged them to lie at anchor for days ; and the greatest part of the ascent of the river was effected by towing, which exhausting work seems to have been per- formed, partly by the French sailors, and partly by such Arabs and Fellahs as they could hire for the occasion. An excessive heat rendered this fatigue still more in- supportable. Reaumur's thermometer marked from 30° to 38° in the shade, and CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 81 82 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN ascended to 50? and even to 55P, in the sun. Several of the sailors were seized with dysentery, and the quantity of sand blown about by the wind, and the glaring reflec- tion of the burning sun, afflicted others with painful ophthalmia. The sand must have been particularly distressing ; one day the wind raised it, and rolled it onward in such volume as, at intervals, to obscure the light of the sun. After they had felici- tated themselves on the fact that the plague was not in the country, they were struck with alarm on the 29th of August, by learning that the cholera-morbus had broken out most violently at Cairo. On the 11th of September the same mysterious disease declared itself on the plain of Thebes, with the natives of which the French were obliged to have frequent communications. In a very short time fifteen of the sailors, according to our author, the surgeon, caught the contagion, but every one recovered tinder his care and skill. At the same time, however (panic, no doubt, increasing the disposition to disease), no fewer than forty-eight men were laid up with dysentery, which proved fatal to two of them. In the midst of these calamities and dangers, the French sailors persevered in preparing the operations relative to the object of the expedition. One of the first cares of M. Lebas, the engineer, on his arriving on the plain of Thebes, was to erect, near to the obelisks, and not far from the village of Luxor, proper wooden barracks, sheds, and tents, to lodge the officers, sailors, and workmen, on shore. He also built an oven to bake them bread, and magazines in which to secure their pro- visions, and the sails, cables, &c., of the vessel. The now desolate site on which ' the City of the Hundred Gates, the vast, the populous, and the wealthy Thebes, once stood, offered them no resources, nor a single comfort of civilized life. But French soldiers and sailors are happily, and, we may say, honorably distinguished, by the facility with which they adapt themselves' to circumstances, and turn their hands to whatever can add to their comfort and wellbeing. The sailors on this expedition, during their hours of repose from more severe labors, carefully prepared and dug up pieces of ground for kitchen-gardens. They cultivated bread-melons and water- melons, lettuces, and other vegetables. They even planted some trees, which thrived very well ; and they made their place of temporary residence a little paradise, as compared with the wretched huts and neglected fields of the oppressed natives. Referring our readers, then, to the engraving, we need only add on the present occasion, that it was the smaller of the two obelisks the French had to remove. But this smaller column of hard, heavy granite, was seventy-two French feet high, aud was calculated to weigh upward of two hundred and forty tons. It stood, more- over, at the distance of about twelve hundred feet from the Nile, and the intervening ^ace presented many difficulties. M. Lebas, the engineer, commenced by making an inclined plane, extending from the base of the obelisk to the edge of the river. This work occupied nearly all the French sailors and about seven hundred Arabs, during three months, for they were obliged to cut through two hills of ancient remains and rubbish, to demolish half of the poor villages which lay in their way, and to beat, equalize, and render firm, the . uneven, loose, and crumbling soil. This done, the engineer proceeded to make the ship ready for the reception of the obelisk. The vessel had been left aground by the periodical fall of the waters of the Nile, and matters had been so managed, that she lay imbedded in the sand, with her figurehead pointing directly toward the tem- ple and the granite column. The engineer, taking care not to touch the keel, sawed ofF a transverse and complete section of the front of the ship — in short, he cut away her bows, which were raised, and kept suspended above the place they properly oc- cupied by means of pulleys and some strong spars, which crossed each other above the vessel. The ship, thus opened, presented in front a large mouth to receive its cargo, which was to reach the very lip of that mouth or opening, by sliding down the inclined plane. When this section of the ship was eflfected, they took care that she should lie equally on her keel ; and where the sand or mud was weak, or had fallen away from the vessel, they supplied proper supports and props, to prevent the great weight of the column from breaking her back. The preparations for bringing the obelisk safely down to the ground, lasted from the 11th of July to the 31st of October, when it was laid horizontally on its side. The rose-colored granite of Syene (the material of these remarkable works of an- cient art), though exceedingly hard, is rather brittle. By coming in contact with other substances, and by being impelled along the inclined plane, the beautiful CONTINENTAL EUROPE— FRANCE. 83 Obelisk of Ltixor. 84 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN hieroglyphics sculptured on its surface might have been defaced, and the ohelisk might have suffered other injuries. To prevent these, M. Lebas encased it, from its summit to its base, in strong, thick, wooden sheathings, which were well secured to the column by Vneans of hoops. The western face of this covering, which was that upon which the obelisk was to slide down the inclined plane, was rendered smooth, and was well rubbed with grease, to make it run the easier. The mechafiical contrivance to lower the column, which was hy far the most crit- ical part, of these derations, is described as having been very simple. A cahle of immensp strength was attached to a strong anchor deeply sunk in the earth, and well secured at some distance from the monument. This cable was carried forward and made fast to the top of the obelisk, and then descending in an acute angle in the rear of the obelisk, the cable was retained in an opposite direction to the anchor by means of an enormous beam of wood, and by a series of pulleys and capstans. The column had been perfectly cleared from the sand and earth around its base, and walls of a certain height erected to keep it in the proper line of descent. Other works at its base prevented the column from sliding backward in its descent, and a strong bed, made of oak, and immediately connected with the inclined plane, was ready to receive it, .and pass it to the plane when it reached a certain low angle of decli- nation. To move so lofty and narrow an object from its centre of gravity was no difficult task — but then came the moment of intense anxiety ! The whole of the enormous weight bore upon the cable, the cordage, and machinery, which quivered and cracked in all their parts. Their tenacity, however, was equal to the strain, and so in- geniously were the mechanical powers applied, that eight men in the rear of the de- scending column were sufficient to accelerate or retard its descent. For two minutes the obelisk was suspended at an angle of thirty degrees, but finally it sank majesti- cally and in perfect safety to the bed of the inclined plane. On the following day, the much less difficult task of getting the obelisk on board the ship was performed. It only occupied an hour and a half to drag the column down the inclined plane, and through the open mouth in front into the hold of the vessel. The section of the suspended bows was then lowered to the proper place, and readjusted and secured as firmly as ever by the carpenters and other workmen. So nicely was this important part of the ship sliced off, and then put to again, that the mutilation was scarcely perceptible. The obelisk, as we have seen, was embarked on the 1st of November, 1831, but it was not until the ISth of August, 1832, that the annual rise of the Nile afforded ^sufficient water to float their long-stranded ship. At last, however, to their infinite joy, they were ordered to prepare everything for the voyage homeward. As soon as this was done, sixty Arabs were engaged to assist in getting them down the river (a distance of one hundred and eighty leagues), and the Luxor set sail. After thirty-six days of painful navigation, but without meeting with any serious accident, they reached Rosetta ; and there they were obliged to stop, because the •sandbank off that mouth of the Nile had accumulated to such a degree, that, with its present cargo, the vessel could not clear it. Fortunately, however, on the 30th of December, a violent hurricane dissipated part of this sandbank ; and on the 1st of January, 1833, at ten o'clock in the morning, the Louxor shot safely out of the Nile, and at nine o'clock on the following morning came to a secure anchorage in the old harbor of Alexandria. Here they awaited the return of the fine season for navigating the Mediterranean; and the Sphynx, a French man-of-war, taking the Louxor in tow, they sailed from Alexandria on the 1st of April. On the 2d a storm commenced, which kept the Louxor in imminent danger for two whole days. On the 6th this storm abated ; but the wind continued contrary, and soon announced a fresh tempest. They had just time to run for shelter into the bay of Marmara, when the storm became more furi- ous than ever. On the 13th of April they again weighed anchor, and shaped their course for Malta ; but a violent contrary wind drove them back as far as the Greek island of Milo, where they were detained two days. Sailing, however, on the 17th, they reached Navarino on the 18th, and the port of Corfu, where they were kindly re- ceived by Lord Nugent and the British, on the 23d of April. Between Corfu ana Cape Spartivento, heavy seas and high winds caused the Louxor to labor and strain exceedingly. As soon, however, as they reached the coast of Italy, the sea became CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. &5 calm, and a light breeze carried them forward, at the rate of four knots an hour, to Toulon, where they anchored during the evening of the 11th of May, They had now reached the port whence they had departed, but tbeir voyage was not yet finished. There is no carriage by water, or by any other commodious means, for so heavy and cumbrous a mass as an Egyptian obelisk, from Toulon to Paris (a distance of above four hundred and fifty miles). To meet this difficulty, they must descend the rest of the Mediterranean, pass nearly the whole of the southern coast of France, and all the south of Spain, sail through the straits of Gibraltar, and trav- erse part of the Atlantic, as far as the mouth of the Seine, which river afi"oids a com- munication between the French capital and the ocean. Accordingly, on the 22d of June, they sailed from Toulon, theLouxor being again taken in tow by the Sphynx man-of-war, and, after experiencing some stormy weath- er, finally reached Cherbourg on the 5th of August, 1833. The whole distance per- formed in this voyage was upward of fourteen hundred leagues. As the royal fiimily of France was expected at Cherbourg by the 31st of August, the authorities detained the Louxor there. On the 2d of September, King Louis Philippe paid a visit to the vessel, and warmly expressed his satisfaction to the offi- cers and crew. He was the first to inform M. Verninac, the commander, that he was promoted to the rank of captain of a sloop-of-war. On the following day, the king distributed decorations of the legion of honor to the officers, and entertained them at dinner. The Louxor, again towed by the Sphynx, left Cherbourg on the 12th of Septem- ber, and safely reached Havre de Grace, at the mouth of the Seine. Here her old companion, the Sphynx, which drew too much water to be able to ascend the river, left her, and she was taken in tow by the Heva steamboat. To conclude with the words of our author : — "At six o'clock (on the 13th) our vessel left the sea for ever, and entered the Seine. By noon we had cleared all the banks and impediments of the lower part of the river, and on the 14th of September, at noon, we arrived at Rouen, where the Louxor was rtiade fast before the quay D'Harcourt. Here we must remain until the autumnal rains raise the waters of the Seine, and permit us to transport to Paris this pyramid, the object of our expedition." The obelisk was then raised to its present position without difficulty. The Champ de Mars, Place des Victoires, Place de Greve, before the H6tel-de- Ville, Place du Chatelet, Place des Vosges, &c., deserve mention. The finest public monument in Paris is the column in the Place Vendome, erected under the superintendence of Denon, in commemoration of the victories of the cam- paign of 1805. It is an imitation of Trajan's pillar, in Rome, one hundred and thirty-four feet high, and twelve feet in diameter. It is of brass, and the material was furnished by four hundred and twenty-five cannon taken from the Austrians and Prussians in that campaign. It is covered with an immense number of plates of brass, by Lepere, skilfully united, containing bas-reliefs, representing events of the campaign. The triumphal arch in the Place du Carousel is forty-five feet high, and was erected after the war of ISOG. In 1815, the horses of St. Mark's, which had been placed on its summit, were claimed by the Austrians, and carried back to Venice. The gate of St. Denio, a triumphal arch erected by Louis XIV., is admired for its fine proportions and its execution. In the Place des Victoires, there is an equestrian statue of Louis XIV. In the new quarter, called Villa Trocadera, on the heights of Chail- lot, is an obelisk one hundred and twenty feet high, in commemoration of the cam- paign of 1823, in Spain. Some of the most celebrated prisons are the Conciergerie ; La Force ; St. Pelagie, in which are confined persons guilty of political offences; the Madelonnettes, for females ; the Bicetre, where criminals condemned to death and perpetual imprisonment are confined temporarily. The population of Paris, in 1791, was 610,620 ; the revolution, the emigration, the reign of terror, and the long wars, diminished the number, and in 1804 it amounted to only 547,756 ; in 1817, it ■was 713,996 ; in 1827, 890,451 ; and in 1830, nearly 1,000,000. Paris is divided into twelve arrondissements, over each of which presides a mayor ; each arrondissement is divided into four quarters ; in each quarter is a commissary of the police, and in each arrondissement a justice of the peace. The municipal coun- cil of Paris is the council-general of the department of the Seine, at the head of which is the prefect of the department, who, previous to the late revolution, was 86 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN appointed by the crown. A prefect of the police, whose jurisdiction extends over the whole department, has the charge of the public safety and of the health department he has under him a municipal guard, and a corps of sapeurs-pompeurs, or firemen. The national guard maintains the public peace of the city, preserves order, and de- fends the national liberties ; their number is about 80,000. Since the beginning of the present century, the manufactures of Paris have rapidly increased, and it is now the principal manufacturing city in the kingdom. All sorts of articles of luxury and fashion are made with the greatest elegance and taste. It is estimated that 40,000 letters leave Paris daily, and 30,000 arrive during the same period. Numerous dili- gences run to all quarters of the kingdom, and a ready communication between all parts of the city is kept up by the fiacres, omnibuses, favorites, cabriolets, &c., &c. Those who suppose Paris to be merely a theatre of frivolity and amusement, will find themselves much mistaken. That, in a population of nearly 1,000,000, of which above 50,000 are strangers, who resort to Paris merely for pleasure, there should be a great number of licentious individuals, is to be expected ; but who would judge of the character of the Parisians from the public promenades of the Palais Royal ? The truth is, that in these haunts of vice, the greatest number of the visiters are strangers. In the higher classes, there is little difference in the character of society throughout Europe. In Paris, however, it is distinguished for delicacy, polish, re- finement, and ease. The middling class in Paris, as in all France, is strongly char- acterized by the strictness and elevated tone of its manners. .The lower class is in- dustrious, but improvident, and shows none of that ferocity which the excesses of the revolution of 1789 might have led some people to expect ; and the events of the revolution of July, 1830, exhibit the Parisian populace in a very favorable light. They then fought the great battle of freedom for Europe, and exhibited to the sur- rounding nations a striking example of the moral regeneration that had been effected by the sanguinary revolution of the previous century, and the difi'usion of knowledge which had succeeded it. Paris is situated about ninety-six leagues southeast of London, two hundred and fifty leagues southwest of Copenhagen, three hundred and eighty leagues southwest of Stockholm, five hundred leagues southwest of St. Petersburg, and six hundred leagues southwest of Moscow. CHAPTER IV.— FRANCE. Normandy is a country which, in its general features, has often been compared to England ; and certainly there are sufficient points of resemblance to justify the comparison. The comparison holds in respect of climate, in the extent of undula- ting pleans with few mountains, in the excellence of the pasture, and in common vegetable products. The climate of Normandy is a little drier, and has a little more warmth and steadiness of atmosphere, than that of England ; but the same winds prevail, and produce the same effects, and the seasons are nearly similar. Agriculture is, however, in a comparatively backward condition, from the want of capital and the absence of improving example, rather than from any lack of inge- nuity in the cultivator. The farms are small, and a much larger proportion of the population is dispersed over the country in small villages and petty places, than in England. The villages are mostly situated in bottoms, the cottages being built with mud and covered with thatch. In the great towns most of the houses are of wood and plaster. A great deal of timber runs upward, downward, and crosswise ; the first story of the building projecting over the ground-floor, and the second floor over the first,, the roof being pointed with large stacks of brick chimneys at each end. A traveller, who was in Normandy about ninety years since, makes a remark upon these houses, which is worth transcribing: " Many of their old houses, when they are pulled down, have a great deal of chestnut-wood about them ; and as there are no forests of chestnut-trees in Normandy, the inhabitants have a tradition that this wood was brought from England, and there are some circumstances which, when rightly considered, add strength to this tradition. Many of the old houses in Eng- land contain a great deal of this kind of timber. Several of the old houses in Lon- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 87 Farmer of Normandy. 8b • SCENES AND SKETCHES IN don, particularly the Black Swan Inn in Holbom, situated near Fetter Lane end (which exceedingly resembles the houses in Normandy), and many others in the neighborhood, and most of the ancient houses in Cheshunt, in Hertfordshire, so named, as some etymologists tell us, from the quantity of chestnut-trees in that place, are built of this wood. There are also some woods and woody places in Eng- land called Chestnut-wood, particularly one near Sittingbourne, in Kent, although no wood is now growing there. Many houses in Hertfordshire, Rutlandshire, and other counties in England, are of the same kind in figure and materials; and, indeed, Normandy does so nearly resemble Old England, that the English traveller could scarce believe himself to be in France." A variety of the same species of house is mentioned by Mr. Dawson Turner. It consists of a frame-work of wood, with the interstices filled up with clay, in which are imbedded small pieces of glass, disposed in rows, for windows. The wooden sheds are preserved from the weather by slates, laid one over the other like the scales of a fish, along their whole surface, or occasionally by wood over wood in the same manner. At one end the roof projects four or five feet beyond the gable, in order to protect a doorway and ladder, or staircase, that leads to it; and this elevation has a very picturesque efi"ect. A se- ries of villages, composed of cottages of this description, occur on the road from Yvetot to Rouen, and may be seen in other parts. The gentry usually occupy houses of stone in the town, such things as country-seats being rarely seen. The farms, as already intimated, are rarely large, scarcely ever exceeding one hundred acres. The buildings attached to the dwelling-houses on a farm are very extensive, as neither corn nor hay are ever stacked out of doors ; but they are very indifferently built. The implements of agriculture are in a very primitive state ; the ploughs are heavy, the harrows continue to have wooden teeth, the thrashing- machine is not known, and the fan for winnowing corn has only partially been in- troduced. Nothing can be more simple than the mode of life at these farm-houses, and among the laboring population at large. Their food is bread, a few vegetables, and cider. Animal-food is never, or very rarely, used ; but coffee and treacle are among the articles which they consume. The dress of the rural population is ex- ceedingly plain, and has an antiquated appearance. This is true, also, of the vari- ous classes of the population, except the gentry and affluent citizens, who live and dress much in the same way as Parisians of the same rank in life. Having mentioned cider as a common beverage, we may add that apple-trees are extensively planted in this province, both sides of the road being frequently lined with orchards for miles together. The plantations are generally in large open fields, in which the trees grow about fifteen feet apart. " The apple-tree and pear- tree in Normandy," says Mr. Turner, " far from being ugly, and distorted, and stunt- ed, in their growth, as is commonly seen in England, are trees of great beauty, and of extreme luxuriance, both in foliage and ramification. The coccus, too, which has caused so much destruction among our orchards, is still fortunately unknown here." The cider of Normandy is famous throughout France. It is chiefly pro- duced in the western portion of the province, where scarcely any other beverage is used by the lower classes of the inhabitants. The cider of the first pressing is of a strong quality, but that of the second pressing is much inferior. The cider does not seem to be much relished by the English travellers, who, however, are by no means agreed in the grounds of their distaste. Another common object of cultivation in Normandy is flax. There are few far- mers who do not raise more or less of it upon their grounds ; and they get it carried through the different processes of manufacture by their family, on their own premises. A stock of linen thus manufactured in general forms the chief portion, if not the whole, of a young woman's dowry ; and it is therefore a great object with unmarried girls to accumulate as large a stock of it as they possibly can. This linen is of a coarse and strong quaMty, and forms the most general branch of man- ufacture in Normandy. Lace, also, is an important object of manufacture, and gives employment to a great proportion of the female population in difi'erent parts of the province. Men and women in Normandy generally marry young ; but they never do so till they are in some regular employment. A laborer earns, on an aver- age, one hundred and twenty dollars a year, on which he can subsist comfortably, according to his own ideas of comfort. If he has a wife and two children (about fourteen and eleven years of age respectively) able to work, he may get about two CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 89 hundred dollars a year, these sums being understood to include every advantage and opportunity for making money which his situation affords. Normandy is celebrated in France for its cattle, which is no doubt owing to the superiority of its pasture. The horses are of small size, with long tails, which are never docked ; their strength is much greater than might be expected from their size. The asses and mules are larger than ours. The cows are small, but give a good supply of milk. Oxen are generally employed in ploughing. Sheep are abundant, and their flesh is good. Turner says, " Throughout this part of France, large flocks of sheep are seen in the vicinity of the sea, and as the pastures are un- enclosed, they are all regularly guarded by a shepherd and his black dog, whose activity can not fail to be a subject of admiration. He is always on the alert, and attentive to his business, skirting his flock to keep them from straggling, and that, apparently, without any directions from his master. In the night they are folded upon the ploughed land, and the shepherd lodges, like a Tartar in his Ttihiika, in a small cart, roofed and fitted up with doors." Normandy supplies Paris with great quantities of cattle, corn, butter, and cider, as well as with its manufactures. Its extensive communications with the capital are carried on exclusively by land-carriage. The high roads, being kept in repair at the expense of the government, are broad and in good condition, being paved wherever the boggy character of the ground renders it expedient ; but the by-roads are here, as in other parts of France, in a very wretched condition, being very sel- dom repaired. The extensive fisheries on the coast not only supply the wants of the province in fish, but leave a large surplus, which is constantly transmitted to Paris in light carts that travel night and day. The woodcutters and forests of Normandy. — In passing through the great forests which lie upon or near the banks of the Seine, between Havre and Paris, in Normandy, many a group like that shown in ou'r engraving attracts the eye of the traveller, and gives a human interest to the otherwise solitary grandeur of the scene. The poor woodcutter, his wife, and boy, are going, probably to some neighboring village or town, to sell to the retail-venders the fagots piled up upon that very curi- ous and ingeniously-shaped saddle into which the horse's back fits so exactly, and with the money thus obtained they will purchase the necessaries required for their humble household, and which are to last them until the next journey. The persons engaged in this most primitive of occupations are a quiet, simple-hearted people, very ignorant, but at the same time very contented ; their chief wants, food and clothes, are generally well supplied, and their principal desire, amusement, seldom lacks opportunities for its gratification. They are very superstitious, and on the fes- tival of Corpus Christi will walk miles to touch a headless statue of St. Louis, or to count a rosary at the foot of an equally-mutilated semblance, whether in stone or in waxwork, of their celebrated St. Mein. The females of this class, like those of most others in Normandy, are fond of bright, showy colors in their apparel, particularly red, which they use in every variety of tint. The petticoat is perhaps of intense red, the neckerchief pink, the apron striped with orange, and not unfrequently " bends over all," not exactly the " blue sky," but the much less poetical canopy of an im- mensely large scarlet umbrella, which is used as a defence from the overpowering heat of the sun. Seen among the depths of the green forests, such forms give a rich- ness and harmony to the picture which would otherwise be wanting. The forests, composed chiefly of beech-trees, are mountainous, picturesque, and wonderfully luxuriant. The exquisite greenness of their foliage, a characteristic we have been accustomed to consider as peculiarly belonging to our own woods and fields, is most remarkable ; and no less so is the variety, profusion, and beauty, of their wild flowers, which are the same as those found in England, only more devel- oped, and nowhere perhaps could the student of English botany better examine the generic details of the plants of his own country. The wild columbine there grows to a larger size than the cultivated species of our gardens, and the common orchidae rival in size and color the hyacinths of our parlor windows. Nor is the ear less de- lighted than the eye. The birds sing with a greater volubility, and with a more sus- tained song than ours ; the mingling voices of countless myriads of crickets are everywhere heard ; in fact, the entire forests seem to ring and tremble with their incessant gratulations. We have spoken of the effect upon forest scenery of the brilliant colored dresses of the woodcutters' wives ; but another and still more pictu- resque class of individuals is frequently met with in the woods, namely, the hunters. 90 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Their weapon is the rifle, and one of the objects of their pursuit is the boar, which here grows large and savage. Their costume, conspicuous for its fitness and beauty, is, excepting the sugar-loaf-shaped hat, like that of the hunters of the Tyrol. Over the sportsman's frock they wear a broad belt, crossing from the shoulder to the waist, fringed with thread of bright variegated colors, and to which is attached a large leathern bag or pouch, curiously ornamented with tassels, which hang down at the side. "When not in use, the rifle is slung behind the back upon hooks attached also to the belt. On their breasts they wear a silver plate, exhibiting their names and number, which is the legal mark of their being duly licensed. They are attended by droves of great bear-like dogs. In the depths of the forests a kind of inn is every here and there built for their reception, called generally " Au Rendezvous des Chas- seurs." A stranger suddenly coming upon them in such a spot, and beholding them seated, standing, or strolling, in every variety of attitude about one of these rude hab- itations, might fancy, for the moment, he beheld the mimic effect of a theatre. The principal forests on the banks of the Seine in Normandy are those of Roumare on the left, of Bretonne near La Marll, Rouvray, DuPont de I'Arche, and the woods extending with but a slight interruption from the town of Andelys to Vernon, all on the right bank of the river. The origin of the name of the forest of Roumare is interesting. Rollo, one of the early and most famous rulers of Normandy, in order to check the habits of plunder which a military life had entailed upon his people, punished all oflFenders with great severity. In cases of theft, for instance, he hung both the robber and the receiver on their conviction of the crime. Whether from this, or from the operation of other wise regulations, he became universally feared and obeyed. " One day, after having hunted in the forest which rises on the bank of the Seine near Rouen, the duke, sur- rounded by a crowd of his servants, was seated on the edge of a lake, which we call in familiar language the pond (la mare), when he hung his golden bracelets on an oak. These bracelets remained hanging in the same place untouched during three years, so great was the terror of the duke ; and as this memorable fact took place near the pond, this forest is called the pond of Rollo (Roumare) to the present day." On the heights of Banteleir, in this forest, Voltaire for some time resided : many of his letters are addressed from that spot. The forest of Bretonne, which contains about twelve thousand acres, is very an- cient. It was the favorite hunting-ground of the early kings of France, one of whom built a country-house or fort in the neighborhood, at a village called Vatteville, the ruins of which yet remain. One of the curiosities of this forest is the " Tub," a tree so called, composed of three large branches united at the root, and forming a reser- voir for water, of which, in the hottest summers, it contains from three to five feet. At La Maillerie, on the edge of this forest, is the castle where it is said the Duchess de la Valliere first imbibed her unhappy passion for Louis XIV. The forest of Rouvray is very dense, and stretches to a considerable length along the banks of the Seine. It is supposed in growing up to have covered the ruins of some Roman settlement. Bronze medals of various Roman emperors, statues of Trajan, Antoninus, and Marcus Aurelius, and the remains of Roman agricultural implements, have been discovered there. The forest of Pont de I'Arche derives its name from the bridge of the neighboring town, which has twenty-two arches. Not far hence is the Cote des deux Amans, or the hill of the two lovers. This extraordinary name has been given to the mount- ain from its connexion with a still more extraordinary incident, and which, however romantic, is generally received as true. The king of that part of the country had a beautiful daughter, whose happy disposition and amiable qualities consoled him for the loss of a beloved wife. Time passed, and the people desired the princess should marry; but the king, unable either to refuse so reasonable a request, or to bear the loss of her society, caused it to be generally promulgated, that he alone of her suit- ors who could carry the princess to the summit of the mountain, without resting him- self, should receive her hand in marriage. The opportunity was eagerly embraced by a young nobleman, between whom and the princess there existed the most tender though secret attachment. Believing the feat to be impossible, the princess earnestly dissuaded her lover from the attempt, but in vain. A day was fixed, and the prin- cess appeared dressed in the lightest possible manner, and exhibiting, in the paleness of her features and the attenuation of her form, the severity of the measures she had adopted to lessen her weight. Full of confidence, her lover raised his charming CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 91 92 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN burden and ascended the hill, for a considerable period showing no signs of exhaus- tion. He began at last to pause, then go on, and pause again. His steps faltered, and he appeared to be entirely giving way. At that moment, some cheering thought or most precious word, whispered in his ear, instilled new vigor into his frame : he again assayed the terrible steep, until, amid the rapturous shouts of the assembled spectators, he sto6d fairly upon the top of the hill. He put her safely down, and then fainted away. The princess stooped to recover him, and the king, as he ap- proached, seeing her in this posture, called to an old peasant to raise them. " Sire," was the reply, " they are dead !" The lovers were entombed together a few days after, and the spot has since been called " the hill of the two lovers." In the town of Andelys was born the great painter Nicholas Poussin, and in the neighborhood of the forest stretching from Andelys to Vernon is the castle of Gail- lard, built by Richard Coeur-de-Lion in the twelfth century. This fortress stood a terrible siege in 1203, when it was attacked by the king of France, Philip Augustus, on the pretence of punishing King John, of England, to whom it then belonged, for the alleged murder of his nephew. Prince Arthur. The fort being impregnable to assault, it was reduced by famine. The garrison was, consequently, from time to time obliged to dismiss its useless inhabitants, who were allowed to pass unmolested by the besiegers. At last this relief was stopped, and when the garrison turned out at one period above four hundred old men, women, and children, the French fired upon them, and drove them back in despair to the walls. Here they were denied admittance, and for three months were these poor miserable creatures obliged to live in the open air, and with no other sustenance than grass and water. At last a cir- cumstance too dreadful to mention reached the ears of Philip, and he relented : all those who were yet alive were taken care of. In this same fortress David Bruce, king of Scotland, resided when in exile. In 1409 it came into the possession of the English, who held it for above forty years. In conclusion, we are sorry to add, that these fine forests are said to be fast dwindling away, not under the axe of the poor wood- cutters, whose exertions may be said to be useful, rather than otherwise, in keeping down their rapid undergrowth, but under the more wholesale operations of the spec- ulator and the capitalist. Since the Revolution, the agriculture of France has undergone great improve- ments. Before that event, the proportion of agriculturists to non-agriculturists was, according to the best authorities, as four to one, instead of two to one, as at present. Arthur Young, who travelled in France in the years 1787-'8 '9, states that, in some of the finest districts, agriculture was then in the same state as in the tenth century. The pastures of Normandy have always been celebrated for their richness, and Arthur Young thought there was nothing equal to them either in England or Ire- land, " not even the vale of Limerick." These pastures were well stocked ; but with regard to tillage — and Normandy was understood to be one of the best-culti- vated provinces in France — he remarks: " I did not see a well-cultivated acre in the whole province. You everywhere find either a dead and useless fallow, or else the fields so neglected, run out, and covered with weeds, that there can be no crop pro- portioned to the soil. " Shameful products !" he exclaims, after giving the average crops of what he terms these " noble soils ;" and yet there was everything which could invite and stimulate the "industry of man — but his efi'orts were paralyzed: " The political institutions and spirit of the government having for a long series of ages tended strongly to depress the lower classes and favor the higher ones, the farmers, in the greater part of France, are blended with the peasants." They were destitute either of capital or enterprise. The mode of raising the taxes also tended to repress agricultural improvement. It has left, however, one consequence which may be regarded as beneficial rather than otherwise. A little show of wealth being taken as a sign that more existed, which would appear were it not for fear of being taxed, the principle of economy became deeply rooted both in the habits and man- ners of the people. The domains of the " grand seigneurs" were not cultivated in a manner which made up for the generally-defective character of French agriculture. In a rich dis- trict, intersected by rivers, and one of the best-situated for markets, Arthur Young observes : " The quantity of waste land is surprising." A great proportion of this land belonged to two of the largest landowners in France : and he adds : " Thus it is, whenever you stumble on a grand seigneur, you are sure to find his property a desert. All the signs of their greatness I have yet seen are wastes, landes, deserts, CONfflNENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 93 94 SCENES AND SKETCHES I¥ fems, ling. Go to their residence, wherever it may be, and you would probably find them in the midst of a forest, very well peopled Avith deer, wild boars, and wolves." And again : " Great lords love too much an environ of forests, bears, and huntsmen, instead of marking their residences by the accompaniment of well-cultivated farms, clean cottages, and happy peasants." As to the state of the peasantry, says a con- temporary writer, " humanity will suffer by a detail of their manner of living." These woods and forests, in which the old noblesse had followed the chase, accord- ing to elaborate rules, more resembling those of an art than a pastime, were the first to suffer devastation when the revolutionary storm spread itself into the remote corners of France. Mr. Greene, writing in May, 1791, says: "The devastation committed in the prince's woods and forests, and the theft and plunder of his timber, are among the first acts of violence ; they have hewn down and cast into the fire whole thriving nurseries of oak and beech, and stripped every tree that answered to a poor man the trouble of cutting down. In a word, the whole estate begins to ex- hibit, in a natural sense, a mutilated and mangled prospect, once pleasing and prof- itable, and, in a ra,oral sense, a yet more melancholy view of the depravity, the ingratitude, and the wantonness of men, when they have not ihe fear of the law to restrain them." But the Revolution marched onward ; the feudal privileges of the nobility and clergy were abolished ; the gabelle, corvees, and other oppressive exac- tions, put an end to ; the property of the church and of the emigrants was thrown upon the market, and passed into the hands of a new class of proprietors. These have been the causes to which, in conjunction with the more general extension of knowledge, the subsequent improvement of French agriculture is to be attributed. The further subdivision of the land may check its progress, but that is an evil which, in the course of events, may be corrected without any departure from the principle of equal partition of property. Costume of Normandy. — The existing costumes of Normandy offer a more cu- rious subject than might at first be imagined ; for not only are they remarkably dis- tinctive in themselves, but in the prevailing dress of the females we discover evi- dent traces of a mode of attire which has been extinct in other countries for several centuries. Our chief authoriiies in this matter must be the respective tours through Normandy, of Mrs. Stothard and Mr. Dawson Turner ; and it is to the latter tourist "• that we are indebted for the indication of the analogy to which we have just adverted. Leaving out of view the costume of the upper and middle classes of society, whose attire offers nothing remarkable, being an imitation, generally slow and awk- ward, of the mode which Paris sets to the nations of Europe, we shall direct our exclusive attention to the costumes which seem more particularly characteristic. Both Mrs. Stothard and Mr. Turner, in describing Rouen, have mentioned the mot- ley groups of figures that appear in the streets of that ancient city. Among the most curious objects are the carts, which are sometimes drawn by eight or nine horses placed in a string, one before another, and usually adorned with sheepskins, dyed blue ; from the collar projects on each side of the neck a painted board, which is sometimes ornamented with pieces of looking-glass, the whole equipage having an exceedingly odd, but not unpicturesque, appearance. Other carts are sometimes drawn by yoked oxen. Some of the peasants who bring vegetables from the country on horseback, make a still more picturesque appearance. "But the best figures on horseback," says Mr. Turner, " are the young: men who take out their masters' horses to give them exercise, and who are frequently to be seen on the srand cours. They ride without hat, coat, saddle, or saddlecloth, and with the shirtsleeves rolled up above the elbow. Their negligent equipment, added to their short, curling hair, and the ease and elasticity they display in the management of their horses, give them, on the whole, a great resemblance to the Grecian warriors of the Elgin mar- bles." Then appear the women with their large baskets, tempting purchasers by a rich display of fine fruits and beautiful fiowers. Bonnets do not form part of the proper female costume of the country ; and the men are also frequently to be seen without hats, in the streets ; and when their heads are covered, the coverings are of every shape and hue, from the black beaver, with or without a rim, through all the gradations of cap to the simple white cotton nightcap. They seldom wear cravats. The common people of both sexes invariably Avear wooden shoes, fastened across the foot by a leather strap, with a piece of black or white sheepskin upon the instep, to prevent the foot from being galled by the pressure of the wood. " "When they CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 95 walk or run along the pavement," says Mrs. Stothard, " these shoes make such a clatter, that when I first arrived here, I frequently turned rouiid, thinking a horse was immediately coming upon me." Tourists complain sadly of the importunity and insolence of the beggars which swarm in the Norman towns. Strangers are continually beset by them, and are sometimes followed with great perseverance by eight or nine at a time, many of them displaying shocking personal distortions, deformities, and defects. Mrs. Stothard says at one place : "When we were going into the court-yard of an inn at Magny, in our road to Paris, the doorway was filled with mendicants ; one man, a most dreadful deformity of nature, was seated upon an ass, begging of every person that passed by. Frequently has the stump of a hand been actually thrust in my face. A beggar once seized me by the arm, demanding money, and was ascending the stairs to follow me into my chamber, till I got rid of her by yielding a trifle to her importunity, with which she seemed dissatisfied, because it was not a franc." It is much the same even while travelling on the road. The beggars station them- selves upon the side of every hill ; and the most interesting and agreeable of the ways in which they announce their object, is by throwing a nosegay into the car- riage. There is, however, no lack of more urgent applications. If the stranger is not moved by the plaintive tone with which they utter, "A small charity, if you please, ladies and gentlemen," he is attacked on the side of his devotion, and is inun- dated by a shower of paternosters, creeds, and Ave Marias, which fall upon him with the utmost velocity. Should all this prove ineffectual, wishes for the health and welfare of the assailed party, and for their safe and prosperous journey, are then essayed. They go through all this, according to Mr. Turner, " with an earnestness and pertinacity almost inconceivable, whatever rebuffs they may receive. Their good-temper, too, is undisturbed, and their face is generally as piteous as their lan- guage and tone ; though every now and then a laugh will out, and that probably when they are telling you that they are ' petiis miserables, pauvres petits malheureux, qui n'ont ni pere ni mere.^ With all this, they are excellent flatterers. An English- man is sure to be ' milord,'' and a lady to be ' ma helle duchesse,'' or ' ma belle prin- cesse.^ They will try, too, to please you by ' vivent les Americains P " It would seem that begging is practised occasionally, as a favorable opportunity offers, even by persons in the lower orders who do not make mendicity a profession. This is particularly the case with the women. Speaking of them, a lady who con- tributes some lively sketches to Mr. Turner's book, states that even the women who inhabit towns live much in the open air. Besides being employed in many servile offices out of doors, they sit at their doors or windows pursuing their business, or lounge about, watching passengers to obtain charity. " Thus," proceeds the lady, "their faces and necks are always of a copper color, and at an advanced age more dusky still ; so that for the anatomy and color of witches, a painter need look no further." We hope the lady is a little satirical here, and we apprehend her ob- servation must be limited to the lowest of the low. We can recollect that a large proportion of the young and middle-aged females, though bronzed, have very pleas- ing features ; and in the small shops and elsewhere, women that are decidedly pretty may frequently be seen. Mr. Turner himself admits, in another place, that the young are generally pretty, though the old are tanned and ugly. He adds: "The transition from youth to age seems instantaneous; labor and poverty have destroyed every intermediate gradation ; but whether young or old, they have all the same good-humored look, and appear generally industrious, though almost incessantly talking." In noticing the prevalent dress among the mass of the female population, we should do great injustice to the subject if we allowed it to be painted by any other hand than that of a female. We therefore give Mrs. Stothard's account : — " It looks singular at the first view, but when the eye is accustomed to it, appears by no means unbecoming ; it generally consists of a woollen petticoat, striped Avith a variety of colors, as red, blue, &c. ; an apron also of red or blue. The jacket of the gown is most commonly made of marone, white, black, or red worsted ; the long sleeves of which being sometimes, perhaps, of marone so far as the elbow, and the lower half of a scarlet color. A little shawl (white or colored) with a fringe round it, pinned in plaits upon the back, covers the shoulders. The head-dress, called the hourgoin, is the most remarkable and conspicuous part of their attire. It is formed of white, stiffly-starched muslin, that covers a pasteboard shape, and rises a great SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Norman Fruit- Woman. height above the head, frequently diminishing in size toward the top, where it fin- ishes in a circular form ; two long lappets depend from either side toward the back, and these are often composed of the finest lace. Some of the women have a piece of velvet, which fastens their head-dress under the chin, and others a riband, that crosses the forehead from the cap. Several women, on Sundays or holydays, appear clothed entirely in white instead of this costume ; but they still retain their hour' gain, which, on such occasions is always composed of fine muslin and lace." To this we should add that pockets of a different dye are usually attached to the outside, of the petticoat, and the appendage of a key or corkscrew may often be per- ceived. Large silver or gilt ornaments (usually crosses) are also suspended round their necks, while long gold earrings drop from either side of their head, and their shoes often glitter with enormous paste buckles. It must, indeed, be understood that the dress is by no means restricted to the lower or even middle classes, but is still preferred, or at least a modification of it, by many females in the higher walks of life. Speaking of it, Mr. Turner says that there is a manifest resemblance between it and the attire of the women of England in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. This is particularly apparent in that species of the bourgoin which forms part of the grand CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 97 'S .<; Norman Peasant. costume of a Norman woman, the very prototype of which may be found in Strutt's I' Ancient Dresses." " Decorated with silver before and with lace streaming' behind It towers on the head of the stiff-necked complacent wearer, whose looks appear beneath, arrayed with statuary precision. Nor is its antiquity solely confined to its form and fashion ; for, descending from the great-grandmother to the great-grand- daughter, It remains as an heirloom in the family, from generation to generation." We can not well conclude this notice of Norman c6stume without bestowing a few words on the fishermen of Pollet, a suburb of Dieppe, the following particulars concerning whom, are derived from a passage which is given by Mr. Dawson Tur- ner as a translation from a French history of Dieppe. Three fourths of the natives of Pollet are fishermen, who are no less distinguished from the mass of the citizens by their name of Poltese (taken from their place of residence), than by the difference in their dress and language, the simplicity of their manners, and the narrow extent of their acquirements. To the present day, they continue to wear the same dress as in the sixteenth century. This consists of trou- 98 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN sers covered with short, wide petticoats, which open in the middle to afford room for the legs to move, and woollen waistcoats, laced in the front with ribands, and tucked below, into the waistband of their trousers. Over these waistcoats is a loose coat, without buttons or fastenings of any kind, which falls so low as not only to cover their petticoats, but extends a foot or more beyond them. These articles are usually of cloth or serge, of a uniform color, and either red or blue ; for they allow no other variation, except that all the seams of their dress are faced with white silk galloon, about an inch in width. To complete the whole, instead of hats, they wear on their heads caps of velvet or colored cloth, forming altogether a dress which, while it is evidently ancient, is in a considerable degree pleasing and picturesque. Thus clad, the Poltese have the appearance of a distinct and foreign colony ; while, continually occupied in fishing, they have had no share in the changes and extended civilization which circumstances and the lapse of time have diffused over France. They are indeed scarcely acquainted with four hundred words of the French lan- guage, and these they pronounce with an idiom exclusively their own, adding to each an oath, by way of epithet, a habit so inveterate with them, that even at con- fession, at the moment of seeking absolution for the practice, it is no uncommon thing with them to swear that they will be guilty of it no more. To balance, how- ever, this vice, their morals are uncorrupled, their fidelity is exemplary, and they are laborious and charitable, and zealous for the honor of their country, and equally so in behalf of their priests, in defence of whom they once threatened to throw the archbishop of Rouen into the river, and. were well nigh executing their threats. The Abbey of La Trafpe is situated thirty-four leagues northwest of Paris, in a valley of Normandy. It was founded in 1140, and derived its name from its imper- vious situation. It was not approached by any regular path ; and being placed in the gloomiest recesses of a deep wood, its access was difficult, and almost impos- sible, to a stranger. The conduct of the monks in the sixteenth century procured them the appellation of the "Bandits of La Trappe," and we may, therefore, read- ily suppose that all the energy and perseverance of De Ranee were required to effect their reformation. At the Revolution the Trappists were compelled to leave France ; but at the Restoration their religious houses were restored to them, and they now possess several establishments in that country. There exists, also, a female convent, in which the poverty, the mortifications, and labors, of the order, are strictly en- joined and practised. In their convent tio sound of social intercourse is heard beyond the salutation, "Memento mori !" (Remember death). No news from the busy world reaches the inmates. Death and works of penitence alone occupy their thoughts; and each day, we believe, they are accustomed to scoop out a portion of their last narrow resting-place. A traveller who visited, a few years ago, one of the establishments of the order in France, in the department of the Landes, has written an interesting description of its appearance, and the habits of the brotherhood. The " Landes" is the name given to a vast, uncultivated wilderness, in the south of France, on the confines of which the convent was situated. For some miles before reaching it, the way passed through a sort of composite country, made up of woods and thickets, enlivened here and there by small green glades, where springs, or splashes of rain-water, had coaxed up the scanty vegetation ; or where some more vigorous pine-tree, peering above its neighbors, had bereft them of their fair portion of light and air, and thus created a space in which it reigned pre-eminently picturesque, with many a naked and sapless branch contrasted with the masses of its dusky foliage. Emerging thence, the eye rested on the boundless horizon of Les Landes ; on which, like gigantic cranes, or herons, in the distance, shepherds were seen, in the costume of the country, stalking about on elevated stilts. At length, on a small piece of com- mon ground, appeared a low wall, surrounding a comfortless, dilapidated-looking structure, comprising the convent and out-buildings. Universal stillness reigned around, interrupted only by the tinkling oi" the porter's bell, aimouncing to the inmates the approach of strangers. No bustling footsteps, no hum of voices, beto- kened an immediate answer to the summons ; but in process of time the visiters espied, through a chink in the door-way, a figure descending a flight of steps, and approaching slowly, with his head bent toward the earth, across a spacious court, half overgrown with weeds and rank grass. At length the key grated in the lock, and the gates, turning upon their hinges with a corresponding solemnity, admitted the party, before whom the figure they had seen prostrated himself; after which, on CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. The Porter of a Convent of La Trappe, in Normandy. requesting an audience with his superior, he bowed consent, and slowly wavins? an arm terminating in a bundle of emaciated and bony fingers, silently led the wav As mass was being performed, the visiters were directed to a small chapel, in whi^ the whole community was assembled, consisting of about half a dozen monks in dark-brown robes and cowls, a few noviciates in white woollen vestments, and three m black, who were temporary boarders on a penitentiary visit. The walls of the chapel were simply whitewashed, and the wood-work was unpainted : it was almost a caricature of simplicity. The superior was kneeling at an altar, nearly as prim- itive as the rest of the structure, and for a time there appeared no prospect of cora- mg in contact with him. All and everything was noiseless and motionless ; lips spake not, eyes looked not, hands stirred not ; when, lo ! in an instant, the dead silence was broken by a torrent of words, streaming forth from the superior's mouth with a garrulous rapidity, equally monotonous and unintelligible, and as if the tongue had no other object in its vibrations than to make the most of its brief mo- ments of liberty. Of the nature, language, or meaning, of this burst of articulation, no idea could be formed ; and they waited patiently till, having run itself down, like the rattle of an alarum clock, it stopped. Silence again ensued for a short tune, when- the service ceased, and the noiseless congregation by degrees dropped 100 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN off. While waiting for an opportunity of introducing themselves to the chief, our travellers followed two or three of the brothers into a small room, and ventured upon a few questions, to which no answers were given, though they were evidently disconcerted, and each eyed and pointed to the other, as a hint that the individual thus designated should be the spokesman. Not unwilling to press for an unneces- sary infringement of the rules, they retired, and fortunately met another, whose scruples were not so insuperable ; but his speech Avas so measured and vague, that it might be admitted a doubt whether he was in actual possession of either his wits or words. Having apologized for the intrusion, the threadbare state of his raiment, and certain other causes, which rendered a windward position with respect to his person preferable to what sailors would denominate " hugging him under his lee," led to a question or two relative to change of linen and cleanliness: "Apparently you are not accustomed to change your dress ?" — " Never, never," was the answer, in a draAvling, sepulchral tone. " Apparently, also, you never wash yourselves ?" — -" Never, never," he said again ; and certainly, as far as his externals went, there was symptomatic evidence of his speaking the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, though the party were subsequently assured by the superior that an under-garment (which or what garment could not be ascertained) was changed once a week, and that washing was not a prohibited luxury. The superior himself was a Spaniard by birth, and, judging from his countenance A Monk of La Trappe at his Devotions. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 101 and manner, a second Loyola in character. He was enthusiastic, of course, but shrewd and intelligent, and full of energy, and it was evident he had within him wherewithal to play a conspicuous part in the scene of life, had he been brought up under more favorable circumstances. From a copy of the rules which the travellers saw, it appeared that the hour of rising, in both winter and summer, was half-past one o'clock, and, on certain speci- fied days, at midnight; to which is added the incomparable luxury of sitting bolt upright for several successive hours on a hard-bottomed bench. The diet consisted of roots and vegetables, rice, and a few similar articles, but never either of fish or eggs, and cheese and milk only on rare occasions. Three hours' daily labor was required of each member. The^vow of obedience is so strictly enforced, that in no case is it even permitted to an innocent party to exculpate himself from any fault with which he may be unjustly charged. If indisposed, and required to take med- icine, the sick man must at once swallow the draught which is presented to him, as the exhibition of a preference for any particular medicament is considered a mark of sensual indulgence, and in point of sinfulness ranked with the desire to partake of meat, to vary the accustomed regimen of the order, or the hour a' which it is usual to serve up their repasts. Notwithstanding the apparent abse xe of tempta- tion which there must be in such a place, there is, nevertheless, a rule prohibiting any admission into the kitchen. The comforts of the fireside may be enjoyed under some restrictions and prohibitions. Shoes or slippers, however, must not be taken oflT for the purpose of quickening the circulation in a pair of frozen extremities, and the fire is to be kept at a respectful distance. All social ties must be dissolved on entering the convent-walls, friendship being termed " a pagan virtue ;" and in rela- tion to social intercourse it is observed, one of the greatest obstacles to the judicious employment of time is the habit of paying and receiving visits; and the rule which prohibits the brethren visiting each other in their respective cells is lauded as a peculiar specimen of wisdom. The intellectual gratifications, which it might be imagined would be liberally encouraged, are not less circumscribed than the sphere of their bodily enjoyments. The library was of the most meager description ; but yet no book could be obtained from it without the sanction of the superior, whose liberality in this respect was not very freely exercised. The rules observe that nothing is more pernicious than the perusal of works which are not inspired by the Holy Ghost, and that one of the deplorable abuses of the age is the practice of making use of profane works in the education of youth. The only visible approach to utility in connexion with the establishment was a school, in which. a few little children were taught the use of their mother-tongue by one of the order. The following appropriate reflections conclude the account from which we have borrowed the foregoing details : " My heart sickened as I turned away from the con- vent-gate, and pondered on the melancholy mummery and strange unsuitable garb in which religion, the greatest boorf of God to man, is so often arrayed ! and by those, too, whose duty and profession it more peculiarly is to invest it with attract- ive rather than repellant qualities ! And yet I parted from these monks with min- gled feelings of regret and respect for men who, with such palpable sincerity, sac- rificed so much of the present to the future ; with ail their faults I could not but respect them still." The castle of Arques is situated in the immediate neighborhood of the small town and river of that name, in the department of Seine Inferieure, in Normandy. The population of the town is very small, and its trade, principally in oxen and horses, insignificant. The river, the source of which is above St. Saens, throws itself into the ocean at Dieppe, after a course of about eleven leagues in length. The forest of Arques is about one league long, and a quarter of a league broad. The castle stands upon a very bold site, crowning, as it does, the extreme ridge of a line of chalk-hills of considerable height, which commence in the west of Dieppe, and terminate here. It is surrounded by a wide and deep fosse. The outline of the fortress is that of an irregular oval, varied by towers of uncertain shape, placed at unequal distances. Two piers only of the drawbridge remain, and three successive arches of the gateway, which, however, now look like great shapeless rents. The towers are of immense size and strength. Those at the entrance and those nearest to the north and south extremities are considerably larger than the others. One of the lateral towers is of a very unusual form. The architect appears to have intended originally to make it circular, but changing his design in the middle of his 102 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN work, attached to it a triangular appendage, probably by way of a bastion. Three other towers adjoining this are square, and look rather like buttresses than towers. The walls have been covered in most parts with a facing of brick, but which, now worn or broken away, exhibits beneath either rubble or a construction of alternate layers of brick and flint disposed with all the regularity of Roman workmanship, the bricks, too, having strongly the characteristics of Roman manufacture. The castle is internally divided into two wards. The first and outer one is everywhere rough with the remains of foundations ; the second and inner ward, which is by far the largest, is approached by a square gate-house, with high embattled walls, and contains, toward its farther end, the quadrangular keep, the shell of which is alone standing. The walls of this shell are of immense height, and in their perfect state " were carefully faced with large square stones, mos* of which have been torn away. The vaults beneath the castle are very spacious, and may still be traversed for a con- siderable distance. From this description the general grandeur of the appearance of this noble ruin may be partly comprehended; and although it is now evidently abandoned to the ravages of time, wind, and weather, its mouldering walls and tow- ers may yet remain for centuries to attest the grandeur that has departed. Antiquariais suppose a castle to have been founded little posterior to the Christian ^a, and upon the site of an earlier Roman fortress. If so, that, as well as the Ro- man, must have disappeared, for William, an illegitimate son of the fourth duke of Normandy, built the present castle, and was created count of Arques. This same nobleman, about 1055, during the reign of William VII., duke of Normandy, since so popularly known under the name of the " Conqueror," assumed the title of duke, and fortified various castles, among others that of Arques. The rightful duke sum- moned his refractory vassal to return to his allegiance, but received so insulting an answer, that he immediately set out to attack him in the castle of Arques. Owing to the immense strength of the fortress, the duke saw that it would be easiest to reduce it by famine. He therefore caused entrenchments to be dug around the castle, and then left the prosecution of the siege to Gifi'ard, count of Longueville, leaving the strictest command against the admission of succors to the garrison. The count had been abetted in this revolt by Henry, king of France, to whom, therefore, he sent an account of his deplorable position. Henry instantly assembled troops and marched to its relief. Giffard, hearing of his approach, placed a strong ambuscade in a wood through which the French must pass, and then sent forAvard a small body of horsemen with the apparent intention of disputing the way. The French sol- diers rushed hastily upon this band, which retreated, followed by its enemy into the very heart of the ambush. In an instant the concealed Normans poured forth, and committed the most terrible slaughter upon their surprised foes. Henry, however, succeeded in throwing succors into the castle, and then attacked Giffard in his entrenchments. The attack was unsuccessful, and Henry returned to France. The duke, hearing of what had been done, was exti^mely exasperated, and immediately returned to the command, swearing he would not quit it till the count and the castle were in his power. The garrison was at last reduced to such distress, that the count, throwing himself upon the generosity of his relative, asked only for the lives oThis adherents and himself, which being granted, the fortress was surrendered. When the duke saw the miserable appearance of the prisoners, he was touched with pity, and at once pardoned the whole ; the count in particular he treated with kindness and affection, although he was afterward obliged to banish him from his dominions. In 1149 Arques was besieged by Eustace of Boulogne, who claimed the duchy of Normandy, the castle being then in the possession of Geoffrey, earl of Anjou. The siege, however, was raised shortly after, in consequence of a treaty. During the wars between Richard II. Cceur-de-Lion, duke of Normandy, and Philip of France, Arques appears to have been alternately possessed by both ; at the treaty of 1196 it was left in possession of the former, as duke of Normandy. In 1449 the Knglish duke of Somerset, being besieged in Rouen by the king of France, surren- dered on certain conditions, giving up, at the same time, the castle of Arques, among others, to the French. But the great historical circumstance which has given an imperishable interest to the name of Arques, is the battle fought here in 1589, between the popular Henri IV. of France and the duke of Mayence, the chief of the League. Toward the close of the year the king came with a small party and posted him- self before the castle of Arques, resolved to resist the progress of the army of the CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 103 104 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Leaguers to the last extremity. On examining the ground, Henry found at the end of the causeway of Arques a long winding hill, covered with coppice. Beneath was a space of arable land, through which ran the great road to Arques, having thick hedges on each side. Lower down, upon the left hand, there was a great piece of marsh or boggy ground. A village called Martinglise bounded the hill about half a league from the cause- way. In and around that village was the whole army of the duke of Mayenne en- camped. The king saw, that by attempting to resist an army of 30,000 men with less than 4,000, his conduct would be charged with rashness ; but besides that it would be very difficult to find a place more favorable for his few troops, and that there was danger in going back, he thought that the present weak condition of his party demanded some bold stroke. He determined therefore to fight, and accord- ingly neglected no precaution that might compensate in some degree for the small- ness of his forces. He ordered deep trenches to be cut along the causeway, and above as well as beneath the great road. He posted 1,200 Swiss on the sides of the road, and 600 German foot to defend the upper trenches, and placed 1,000 or 1,200 others in a chapel he found between the upper and lower trenches. These were all the infantry he had. His cavalry, amounting in all to but 600, he divided into two equal parties, and with one posted himself between the wood and the road, while the other he separated into platoons, and sent them down into the space between the road and the marsh. He slept not the whole night, for, fearing the enemy would attempt to make himself master of the causeway during the darkness, he kept guard there himself. In the morning he took some refreshments in the ditch, and invited his principal officers to breakfast with him. The meal was scarcely over, when he was informed by his guards that the army of the League was marching toward him in order of battle. He now sent a detachment into the wood, to endeavor to make some prisoners, which soon returned with the Count de Belin. The king went to meet him, and embraced him, smiling. The count, whose eyes were in search of the king^s army, expressed his surprise at the small number that seemed to be with him. " You do not see all," said Henry, with considerable animation, " for you reckon not God and my claim, who fight for me." At this eventful moment, "I could not help," says Sully, " admiring the tranquillity that sat upon his countenance, on an occasion so much the more desperate, as it gave time for reflection. His air was so serene, and his ardor tempered with so much prudence, that he appeared to the soldiers to tower above humanity, and inspired them all with the intrepidity of their leader." The duke of Mayenne ordered the upper trenches to be attacked by a squadron of his German foot, who pretended to refuse fighting because they had only Germans to encounter, and whose motions intimated a desire to surrender. The Germans in Henry's army were so effectually misled by this artifice, that they suff'ered the others to advance and gain the trench, when they were undeceived by being instantly at- tacked and driven out. From this position the Leaguers then caused Henry's army considerable annoyance. A squadron of 800 or 900 horse now advanced toward the marsh where Sully was posted, who could only collect together 150 horse to oppose its progress, with which, however, he drove it back into the valley. Fresh reinforcements on both sides caused success to alternate from one to the other in this part of the field, till Sully was ultimately overpowered by numbers and driven back to the chapel, where other troops were posted, and where a sanguinary engage- ment took place. The duke now commanded all the rest of his German foot to at- tack the chapel, which was then yielded, as were also the hollows in the road, and at last the road itself. The Swiss battalion now interposed, and withstood the pur- suers' shock with such valor and fortitude, as to enable the retreating troops to rally and join again in the battle. The duke then ordered 500 horse to march along the side of the marsh, and take Henry's army in the rear, which must then have been overwhelmed, but the advancing horse, approaching too near to the marsh, became entangled in the mire, and were with great difficulty disengaged. The battle con- tinued for some time in this state, until at length the king's small but heroic band became worn out with fatigue. On his side the same troops continued to sustain the action, while on the duke's fresh supplies were every moment pouring in. Still, every man of Henry's army " gave proofs of a valor scarcely credible." A thick fog had hitherto partially concealed the armies from each other ; this suddenly clearing off, showed the entire army of the duke bearing down upon Henry's, which, it would seem, must now have been overwhelmed, but for the very circumstances which ex- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 105 106 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN hibited and apparently enhanced the danger. The fog had hitherto rendered the cannon of the castle useless, but no sooner was the army of the Leaguers distinctly visible to the garrison, than the pieces, only four in number, were discharged with such terrible effect as to throw the Leaguers into confusion. Four other volleys suc- ceeded with the greatest rapidity, and with similarly destructive results. The Leaguers wavered, and at last, unable to endure the fire, retired in disorder to the side of the valley, behind which all the immense multitudes disappeared in a few moments, astonished, without doubt, at the great loss they had sustained, and utterly disheartened by a resistance they had so little anticipated. And thus ended the battle of Arques, which in a great measure fixed Henry IV., the most popular of French monarchs, on his throne. Other engagements ensued ; the king received assistance from Queen Elizabeth, of England ; and in 1593 the League was virtually broken up, after some preliminary negotiations, by the king's public profession of the catholic faith — an act which did not deprive his protestant subjects of a sincere and valued friend. CHAPTER v.— FRANCE. Rouen is an ancient city in the north of France, and the capital of the department of the Lower Seine. It stands on the right bank of the river Seine, and is by far the most interesting city on the banks of that river. The surrounding country is fertile and agreeable. It presents a very imposing appearance ; but the interior of the city does not correspond with its external beauty. Almost all the houses are built of wood, with each story projecting over the one below it, until their pointed roofs nearly meet from the opposite sides of the narrow, crooked streets, into which, under such circumstances, light and sunshine make but feeble inroads. The door-posts, window- frames, beam-ends, and wood-work, with which the fronts of almost every building are chequered and intersected, are frequently ornamented with rich carving, gro- tesque heads, flowers, and other fanciful devices. At every turning, some relic of antiquity, a pointed arch, the mutilated statue of some saint, or a Gothic fountain, strikes the eye ; while the mouldering magnificence of the cathedral, churches, Pa- lais de Justice, and other public edifices, carries the imagination four or five centu- ries back in the history of society. The demolition of the ancient fortifications and castles which defended the approach to the city, is, perhaps, the only innovation of modern times. They have been replaced by boulevards, or broad avenues of trees, forming stately promenades or vestibules of verdure, which have, however, like most things stately, something of stiffness and monotony. Among the public edifices of Rouen, the cathedral is pre-eminent. It is said to have been founded as early as 260, to have been enlarged by St. Romanus in 623, and afterward by Archbishop Robert, first duke of Normandy, in 942, until it was raised to its present splendor by arch- bishop Maurillus, in 1063. Its superb facade is terminated by two lofty towers. That on the right hand is said to have been first built by St. Romanus, but completed in its present style by Cardinal d'Amboise, in 1482, who also built the tower on the left of the facade, called the Butter tower, because it is reported to have been raised with the money collected from the sale of indulgences to eat butter during Lent. This second tower is a beautiful specimen of the most elaborate Gothic ; it is ter- minated by a flat roof, surrounded by balustrades of stone, and adorned with rich Gothic pinnacles, which give it the appearance, at a distance, of being surmounted by a rich crown. The other tower is also terminated, in its upper story, by pinna- cles at each corner and face, four of which, on each side, bear colossal statues, the whole being surmounted by a grotesque pyramidal spire. The space between these towers is again divided by four pinnacles of the richest and most delicate sculpture, which crown, like eastern minarets, the centre of the fapade and portal. The latter consists of three entrances, of which the two lateral are richly sculptured. The central doors are carved, and surmounted by a basso-relievo, representing the genea- logical tree of " the root of Jesse." The pointed arch of the porch is adorned with three bands of images, in alto-relievo, each figure standing beneath a Gothic taber- nacle. This central entrance has a pyramidal pediment, carved, and containing a large dial. It is also flanked by two graceful pinnacles, one of which is in part de- cayed, toward the bases of which are niches, filled with the colossal images of saints CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 107 and bishops. But this is a feeble effort to portray forms of sculpture too rich and complicated to be adequately expressed by words. The artist's pencil can alowe do justice to the architect's conceptions. The whole interior length of the edifice is five hundred and eight feet ; the nave is eighty-three feet across, and is divided into three aisles ; of these, the central is flanked by ten clustered columns, which are cut by an arcade surrounding the whole building. The lateral aisles are lower than the central, and have each eight chapels on either side. The transept is one hundred and fifty feet from one side entrance to the other. Four massive columns, each con- sisting of a cluster of thirty-one smaller pillars, support the principal tower, which rjses to the height of three hundred and eighty feet, and is terminated by a lofty spire bearing a cross, on the top of which is a weathercock. The choir is separated from the lateral aisles by fourteen plain columns, with capitals of leaves. These originally resembled the clustered columns of the nave, but were pared away to let in more light ; an alteration by which the effect of the perspective is much injured. Another blemish is the screen of the choir, which, like that of Winchester cathe- dral, is a piece of modern architecture, ornamented with Corinthian columns, altars, and statues, all in the modern taste. The lateral aisles which surround the choir, terminate in the chapel of the Virgin, which contains some of the most interesting objects in the cathedral. Near the altar is the monument of the cardinals d'Am- boise, uncle and nephew, both archbishops of Rouen. It is of white marble, and was completed in 1522. It consists of a fiat tomb, on which the two cardinals are kneeling in their robes ; both these figures are very finely sculptured. Above their heads, an image of St. George on horseback adorns the richly-fretted canopy-which arches the mausoleum. The face of the tomb is enriched with small statues of white marble, representing the many virtues of the two prelates, the elder of whom was ininister to Louis XII., and boasted of holding but one benefice, though, as Vol« taire justly observes, " the kingdom of France stood him instead of a second." West Front of the Cathedral of Boaen. 108 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN* . Another monument, on the opposite side of the chapel, equally remarkable for the beaaty of its sculpture, is that of the grand senechal de Breze, governor of Rouen, who died in 1531. His undraped effigy, in black marble, lies upon a tomb, sup ported by four Corinthian columns, on the face of which he is again represented on horseback, in complete armor. On either side are two females, one of whom is sup- posed to represent his wife, at whose expense the monument is said to have been erected. Above the entablature are four allegorical figures of Prudence, Glory, Victory, and Faith. These monuments deserve attention, not only from the merit of their execution, but also as curious specimens of the style of sculpture which, toward the end of the reign of Louis XH., and during that of Francis I., connected the Gothic with the revived Grecian, by a mixture of the faults and beauties of both. TJius, warriors and prelates were raised from their recumbent to a kneeling or erect position ; alle- gorical personifications, borrowed from pagan mythology, began to figure as their attendants ; and undraped exhibitions of the human body were frequently substi- tuted for those exact imitations of costume and armor peculiar to foregoing periods ; the various orders of architecture were mixed with Gothic pinnacles and niches ; and the final result began to have that inappropriateness which is commonly the conse- quence of imitation. Besides these two monuments, the chapel of the Virgin for- merly contained the Gothic tombs of the archbishops of Rouen, each of whom lay in his episcopal robes and ornaments ; but they have been all demolished recently. The sites of the tombs of Coeur de Lion, of his brother Henry, and Queen Eleanor, are marked by inscriptions on the pavement, which merely record their names and burial ; but the simple name of "Ricardi Cor Leonis dicti," supersedes the neces- sity of a more splendid epitaph. Behind the choir an inscription marks the burial- place of John, duke of Bedford, who died at the chateau of Rouen in 1435, In the chapel of the southern transept is the tomb of Rollo, first duke of Nor- mandy. His effigy, in a recumbent posture, is of stone, colored ; the feet are broken off, and seem to have been made of plaster. He wears a long robe, with open sleeves, fastened with a brooch on one shoulder. His countenance has a cast of effeminacy, little suited to a captain of pirates. The inscription tells us that the monument was placed in its present situation by Archbishop Maurillus, when he repaired the church, and who, as well as William Longsword, the son and successor of Rollo, have their tombs in it. The abbey of St. Ouen was founded by Clotaire I., and rebuilt by Richard, duke of Normandy.; it is now, however, re-edified, and since the revolution, has been converted into an hotel de ville, museum, and public library. The church was completed, as it stands at present, in 1319, by John Roussel, surnamed Silvermark, the twenty-third abbot. The facade was never finished ; but a lofty tower rises above the transept, and terminates in a number of pinnacles, in the fashion of a ra- diated coronet. The interior is a model of Gothic eflfect ; the walls retain their venerable gray ; the light, streaming with dim richness through " storied pane," falls upon unbroken ranges of clustering columns and pointed arches of the most delicate symmetry ; the eye strains dovm the depth of " long-drawn aisles," which, as they recede round the choir, seem of an indefinite extent, while the splendid win- dows of " Our Lady's Chapel," which forms the eastern extremity of the edifice, give the termination of the prospect the radiant, yet awful, appearance of a sanctuary " In which a God might dv«Jpll." The church of St. Maclou is a Gothic edifice, remarkable for its superb portals, especially that toward the Rue Martainville. They were sculptured in the reign of Henry III., either by the hands of the celebrated John Goujon, or under his direc- tion. The detail, delicacy, and precision of the innumerable figures, and other orna- ments, are truly astonishing. The church of St. Vincent is an elegant Gothic struc- ture, enriched with windows of the most brilliant colors, but defaced in parts by the modern barbarism of French taste. Besides these churches, several others, little inferior to them in architectural magnificence, are either walled up, or converted into stables and warehouses. The Palais de Justice, in which the ancient parliament of Normandy held its sit- tings, was finished in 1499. It consists of a quadrangle, surrounded on three sides by buildings of various dates and orders ; an embattled wall, with two antique gates, closes it toward the street. Several ffights of steps conduct to the Salle des Procu- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 109 i 1 • ■ II II ^^^^B I^Mll ffiH|Bw|roM|| — 1 Hh 11 \m IIP - '-. m t==:^n;:rTj^_ ^=r^:-L ^--^^^mmmmmmmmim. ■L--- 1 li'A m k% i'litii ffii fl'l Irfi ifl 1 1 II" i II'" 1'' i ' 5 M ^^ m HHi m ill f'i' ( VI ^ 1 m^raB^m}S*. \\ IMmm 1 W A^^^^ 1 If 1 1 1 i 1 11 1* mi! in -fflR' ■lit Mi ||UmI|nU' 1 cA ■pi lift i i ™if! 11 ifii 11 1 11 In i 1 11 1 i 1 i Piiiiiinii J fflilj limSf II. S ^■Wj ■ 1 M If liiiPRMvi il II fl 1^ 1 j| i^SlH 1 — . oiM r|| i IE 4111 ^^^Ss jm ^^^^^^1^^^^ iVI— -^ 1 ■ North Side of the Ch arch of Mac eu. ■^ 110 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN reurs, a Gothic room, one hundred and seventy feet long, and fifty feet broad. Its wooden roof resembles the inverted hull of a ship, and its whole style and appear- ance somewhat resemble Westminster Hall, to which it answers not less in its use and arrangements, than in its architectural features. The Maid of Orleans. — The stranger's first impulse, when he arrives at Rouen, is to inquire for some monument of Jeanne d'Arc, the heroic Maid of Orleans ; he is directed to the Place de la Pucelle a market-place surrounded by ancient edifices, and having a fountain in its centre, crowned with her statue, by Peter Stodts, The 6th of January is said to be the birthday of this extraordinary person, whose exploits form one of the most brilliant adventures in modem history. She was the daughter of Jacques d'Arc, a peasant residing in the village of Domremy, then sit- uated on the western border of the territory of Lorraine, but now comprehended within the department of the Meuse, in the northeastern corner of France. Here she was born, according to one account, in 1402, according to another, in 1412, while other authorities give 1410 as the year. She was one of a family of three sons and two daughters, all of whom were bred to the humble or menial occupations suitable to the condition of their parents. Jeanne, whose education did not enable her even to write her own name, adopted, at first, the business of a sempstress and spinster ; but after some time she left her father's house, and hired herself as ser- vant at an inn in the neighboring town of Neufchateau. Here she remained for five years. From her childhood she had been a girl of a rfemarkably ardent and imaginative cast of mind. Possessed of great beauty, and formed, both by her per- sonal attractions and by the gentleness of her disposition and manners, to be the delight of all with whom she associated, she yet took but little interest either in the amusements of those of her own age, or in any of the ordinary occurrences of life. Her first, and for many years the all-absorbing passion, was religion. Before she left her native village, most of her leisure hours were spent in the recesses of a for- est in the neighborhood. Here she conversed not only with her own spirit, hut in imagination, also, with the saints and angels, till the dreams of her excited fancy assumed the distinctness of reality. She believed that she heard with her ears voices from Heaven ; the archangel Michael, the angel Gabriel, Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret — all seemed at different times to address her audibly. In al? this there is nothing inexplicable, or even uncommon. The state of mind described has been in every age a frequent result of devotional enthusiasm. After some time another strong sentiment came to share her aS'ections with religion — that of patriotism. The state of France, with which Lorraine, though not incorporated, was intimately connected, was at that period deplorable in the extreme. A foreign power, England, claimed the sovereignty of the kingdom, was in actual possession of the greater part of it, and had garrisons established in nearly all the considerable towns. The duke of Bedford, one of the uncles of Hen- ry VL, the king of England, resided in Paris, and there governed the country as regent, in the name of his young nephew. The duke of Burgundy, the most pow- erful vassal of the crown, had become the ally and supporter of this foreign domina- tion. Charles VH., the legitimate heir of the throne, and decidedly the object of the national attachment, was a fugitive, confined to a narrow corner of the kingdom, and losing every day some portion of his remaining resources. These events made a great impression upon Jeanne. The village of Domremy, it appears, was almost universally attached to the cause of Charles. In her eyes, especially, it was the cause of Heaven as well as of France. While she lived at Neufchateau she enjoyed better opportunities of learning the progress of public afi'airs. Martial feelings here began to mix themselves with her religious enthusiasm — a union common and nat- ural in those times, however incongruous it may appear in ours. Her sex, which excluded her from the profession of arms, seemed to her almost a degrading yoke, which it became her to disregard and to throw ofi". She applied herself, accordingly, to manly exercises, which at once invigorated her frame, and added a glow of finer animation to her beauty. In particular, she acquired the art of managing her horse with the boldness and skill of the most accomplished cavalier. It was on the 24th of February, 1429, that Jeanne first presented herself before King Charles at Chinon, a town lying a considerable distance below Orleans, on the south side of the Loire. She was dressed in male attire, s^nd armed from head to foot; and in this disguise she had travelled in company with a few individuals whom CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. Ill 112 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN she had persuaded to attend her one hundred and fifty leagues through a country in possession of the enemy. She told his majesty that she came, commissioned by Heaven, to restore him to the throne of his ancestors. There can be little doubt that Charles himself, or some of his advisers, in the desperate state to which his affairs vpere reduced, conceived the plan of turning the pretensions of the enthusiast, wild as they might be deemed, to some account. Such a scheme was not near so unlikely to suggest itself, or so unpromising, in that age, as it would be in ours, as the result which followed in the present instance abundantly proves. At this time the town of Orleans, the principal place of strength which still held out for Charles, and which formed the key to the only portion of the kingdom where his sway was acknowledged, was pressed by the besieging forces of the English, and reduced to the most hopeless extremity. Some weeks were spent in various proceedings intend- ed to throw around the enterprise of the Maid such show of divine protection as might give the requisite effect to her appearance. At last, on the 29th of April, mounted on her white steed, and with her standard carried before her, she dashed forward at the head of a convoy with provisions, and in spite of all the opposition of the enemy forced her way into the beleaguered city. This was the beginning of a rapid succession of exploits which assumed the character of miracles. In a few sallies she drove the besiegers from every post. Nothing could stand before her gallantry, and the enthusiasm of those who, in following her- standard, believed that the invincible might of Heaven itself was leading them on. On the 8th of May the enemy, who had encompassed the place since the 12th of the preceding October, raised the siege, and retired in terror and disorder. From this date the English dom- ination in France withered like an uprooted tree. In a few days after followed the battle of Patay, when a great victory was won by the French forces under the com- mand of the Maid over the enemy, conducted by the brave and able Talbot. Two thousand five hundred of the English were left dead on the field ; and twelve hun- dred were taken prisoners, among whom was the general himself. Town after town now opened its gates to the victors, the English garrison retiring in general without a blow. On the 16th of July Rheims surrendered, and the following day Charles was solemnly consecrated and crowned in the cathedral there. Having now, as she said, fulfilled her mission, the Maid of Orleans petitioned her royal master to suffer her to return to the quiet and obscurity of her native village and her former condition. Charles's entreaties and commands unfortunately prevailed upon her to forego this resolution. Honors were now lavishly bestowed upon her. A medal was struck in celebration of her achievements, and letters of nobility were granted to herself and to every member of her family. Many gallant and success- ful exploits illustrate her subsequent history ; but these we can not stop to enumer- ate. Her end was lamentable — indelibly disgraceful to England, and hardly less so to France. On the 24th of May, 1430, while heroically fighting against the army of the duke of Burgundy, under the walls of Compeigne, she was shamefully shut out from the city which she was defending, through the contrivance of the governor ; and being left almost alone, was, after performing prodigies of valor, compelled to surrender to the enemy. John of Luxembourg, into whose hands she fell, some time after sold her for a sum often thousand livres to the duke of Bedford. She was then brought to Rouen, and tried on an accusation of sorcery. The contrivances which were resorted to in order to procure evidence of her guilt exhibit a course of proceedings as cruel and infamous as any recorded in the annals of judicial iniquity ; and on the 30th of May, 1431, she was sentenced to be burned at the stake. During all this time no attempt had been made by the ungrateful and worthless prince, whom she had restored to a throne, to effect her liberation. In the midst of her calamities the feminine softness of her nature resumed its .sway, and she plead hard that she might be allowed to live. But her protestations and entreaties were alike in vain ; on the following day the horrid sentence was carried into execution in the market-place of Rouen. The poor unhappy victim died courageously and nobly as she had lived ; and the name of her Redeemer was the last sound her lips were heard to utter from amidst the flames. Rheims. — This large and very ancient city of France is the capital of the depart- ment of Marne, in the northeast of this kingdom. It stands on the banks of the small river Vezele, in a plain that in itself presents few attractive features, but which is pleasantly limited in the distance by low hills covered with trees and vine- yards. The town, as seen from the declivity of these hills, presents a fine appear- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 113 114 ■ « SCENES AND SKETCHES IN ance, to which its taJ] and majestic cathedral not a little contributes. The form of the city is oblong-, extending- from southeast to northwest, and its circumference is about four miles and a half. It is surrounded by a mound of earth, which is bor- dered by parapets, and planted on both sides Avith double rows of trees. This mound overlooks a ditch, which is filled up in many places ; and the town is also bounded by a wall. These appendages are not held in any consideration with a view to the defence of the place, its proper fortifications having been demolished in 1812. Access to Rheims is furnished by six gates, all of which present a fine appearance through the shady avenues by which the approach is made. Two of them, tlie "Porte de Mars" and the "Porte de Ceres," retain their Roman names; and out- side the latter there is a suburb of the same name. A very considerable part of the large space enclosed by the walls is unoccupied by buildings, particularly toward the south, where there are immense gardens and spots of naked ground. The closely-built part, which is not one half of the space enclosed, forms a well-deter- mined oval, of which the square called the "Place Ptoyale" may be considered the centre. This "Place" is of a square form, and is, for a French square, large. It is furnished with some very handsome buildings, of which the most important is the customhouse, which occupies all the south side. In the centre of this square there is a fine pedestrian statue, in bronze, of Louis XV., erected in the year 1818, in the place of one that was thrown down and destroyed in 1793. The streets are gener- ally well paved, wide, and straight, with the exception of those in the northern part of the town, where they are nearly all very narrow and tortuous. There are three or four streets remarkable for their width and length ; of these, that which leads in a straight line across the whole width of the town, from the eastern to the western gate, is mentioned as the finest. The houses are generally built either with chalk- stone or with boards, and are covered with slates. They are seldom of more than one story, and many still display the Gothic gables which surmounted all the facades in former times. A French writer, who seems to have a strong feeling against gables, say's that at Ptheims they give to the streets a saddened aspect, which singularly harmonizes with and augments the apparent inactivity and deser- tion of the streets, in many of which the grass grows in abundance. The city pos- sesses a great number of fountains, for which it is indebted to the canon Godinot. One of them, near the cathedral, preserves its name, and is worthy of notice for its antiquity and its architecture. Of the public buildings of Rheims, the most remarkable, beyond all comparison, is the cathedi'al of Notre Dapae, which is considered one of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe. It is a work of the twelfth century, and, regarded as a whole, is an exceedingly grand and imposing structure. It is rendered still further remarkable as the building long dedicated to the ceremony of anointing and consecrating the kings of France. The length of the building is four hundred and ■ sixty-nine feet, its width ninety-seven feet, and its height one hundred and fourteen feet. The west, or principal front, which is represented in our engraving, is a mag- nificent work, having a general resemblance to that of the church of Notre Dame at Paris. It has three noble entrances, ornamented with the curvature of the point- ed arches which compose each entrance. The front is likewise decorated with a mass of bas-reliefs, sculptures, and other ornaments, of the most delicate workman- ship. Altogether, there are between four and five thousand figures sculptured on the interior of this edifice, of which four or five hundred decorate the principal por- tal. Above the middle door there is a large circular window, with another of the same form above it. Each end of the principal front is surmounted by a tower, the height of which from the level of the ground is two hundred and sixty feet. There are seven flying buttresses between the transept and the end of the nave, and in each buttress there is a niche, or rather a recess with columns, containing a full- length statue. Above the buttresses, upon the top of the principal wall, there is a singularly light balustrade of pointed arches, which appear projected against the roof At the east end of the cathedral, which is circular, there are quadruple flying buttresses, surmounted by pinnacles. The two gates on the north side of the tran- sept have their fine sculptures in excellent preservation; a third gate appears to have been built up. The interior of this magnificent structure does not disappoint the expectation which the exterior is calculated to excite. There are ten noble Gothic columns in the nave on each side, with two windows between each column. The places in the roof where the groins meet are all gilt, the upper windows in CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRA'NCE. 115 West Front of the Cathedral at Rheims. 116 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN the nave are most beautifully colored, and the lower part is adorned "with twelve pieces of tapestry. In the choir there are ten columns, six of which are circular, and all with beautifully- wrought capitals. The pavement of the choir is much ad- mired, being composed of lozenges of different kinds of marble ; it was transferred from the ancient church of St. Nicaise, which is no longer existing. From the same church was also transferred the curious tomb of F. V". Jovinus, who was a citizen of Rheims, and became Roman consul in the year 366. This monument, which is of white marble, presents upon one of its faces an exceedingly well-preserved sculptured representation of a hunting scene. In the north ead of the transept there is one of the finest organs in France, over which there is a grand circular window of painted glass, and on the opposite side there is another. Among the other remarkable objects in the cathedral, we may mention that the chapel of the virgin contains a bas-relief by Nicolas Jacques, and Poussin's fine picture of "The Washing of the Feet." There is also a marble font, in which it is believed that Clovis, the first Christian king of France, was baptized. This building was com- menced in the year 1211, to replace one that had been burnt down the preceding year ; but it was not completed until toward the end of the fifteenth century. Next to the cathedral, the church of St. Remi is the most interesting building in the town, and forms a very conspicuous object on the approach to it, particularly on the road from Chalons. We shall not undertake to describe it particularly, but may mention that it was remarkable in popular opinion for nothing more than for being the building in which was deposited the famous vial of oil with which the kings were anointed, and which, according to a tradition not yet quite exploded, was ])rought from Heaven by a dove at the baptism of Clovis. The town has five cliurches in all. Rheims possesses a very superb townhall, which was begun in the year 1627, but only completed in 1825. The facade is decorated with Corinthian, Ionic, and Doric columns, and terminates in two large pavilions, between which another, more light and elegant, surmounts a fine tower. This vast building contains the public library, which consists of twenty-five thousand printed volumes and one thousand manuscripts. Rheims was a place of importance under the Romans, and of this fact there still remain some indications. Of these, the ancient names by which several of the streets and gates are still called do not seem the least interesting. The old gate of Mars, which was closed up in 1542, is situated near the new gate of the same name, and although much decayed is an interesting object. It consists of a triple portico, decorated with eight fluted Corinthian columns ; the middle arch is nine- teen feet in width, and the other two twelve feet six inches. Writers are not agreed by whom or in whose honor this triumphal arch was erected. At a little distance from the town there is an isolated mound, which is believed to be composed of the rubbish of an amphitheatre. The city is the seat of an archbishopric, of which the arrondissement of R.heims and the department of the Ardennes form the diocese, and which has for its suffra- gans the bishops of Amiens, Beauvais, Chalons-sur-Marne, and Soissons. It is,, in fact, the ecclesiastical capital of France, of which the archbishop is the metropol- itan prelate. This dignitary was formerly premier duke and peer of France, and enjoyed the exclusive privilege of consecrating the kings of that country. In the year 1179, Philip Augustus was crowned in the cathedral at Rheims, in the presence of all the peers of France; and from that time until 1829, when Charles X. was crowned here with great magnificence, all the sovereigns of the country have been crowned in the same place, with only three exceptions : that of Henry IV., who was crowned at Chartres ; of Napoleon, whose coronation took place at Paris ; and of Louis XVIII., Avho Avas not crowned at all. When Louis Philippe was called to the throne, in 1830, the costly ceremony was abolished altogether. Among the public establishments of Rheims there are the usual offices of local government, judicial administration, and commercial association. A university was founded in 1587 by the cardinal of Lorraine, and attained some celebrity ; but it perished at the Revolution, and is now replaced by a royal college, or high-school. There is also a medical school, several schools of mutual instruction, and a botanic garden. The manufactures of the town consist chiefly of cotton and woollen goods, with hats, stockings, candles, oil, leather, and spiced biscuits and bread. Its traffic with CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 117 these and other articles, and, above all, with the wines of Champaigne, is consider- able, and is much facilitated by the excellent roads which connect it with the me- tropolis and other important towns. The present population of thirty-eight thousand is a considerable increase on that exhibited in former years. Amiens, in Picardy, a fortified city in the French department of the Somrae, is situated on the river S^mme ; long. 2° 18' E. ; lat. 49° 53' N. It contains 5,980 houses, 41,000 inhabitants, is the residence of a bishop, and has possessed, since the year 1750, a Societc d'' Emulation, an academy of arts and sciences, of literature, commerce, and agriculture, a lyceum, a school at St. Acheul, under the direction of the Jesuits, a convent of the order of La Trappe, in the Abbey du Gard, many con- siderable manufactories of woollen cloth, tapestry, damask, and kerseymere (of which 130,000 pieces are sold annually), leather, soap, as well as eighty cotton factories. The pastry of Amiens, also, often goes across the channel, and is very celebrated. The cathedral of Amiens has always been accounted one of the chief glories of Gothic architecture. It was erected at the time when, in France at least, whatever might be the case in England, that style had reached its highest perfection, namely, the early part of the thirteenth century. To this period are to be referred all the other greatest works of the same kind in that kingdom: among others, the cathedrals of Paris, of P\,oden, of Rheims, and of Lyons, the Sainte Chapelle of Paris, the church of St. Nicaise at Rheims, and that of Notre Dame at Nantes. All these famous structures were completed, we believe, a considerable time before the close of the thirteenth century, and they were most of them begun a few years before or after its commencement. From the extraordinary richness and beauty displayed in these buildings, nothing of a character similar to which, it is contended, was seen in England till nearly a hundred years later — a very powerful argument has been deduced in refutation of the notion of some writers, that what is called Gothic architecture is of English origin. So far, it is said, is this from being the case that, if the comparative state of the art in the two countries at the same date is to be taken as evidence of Avhich borrowed it from the other, it is impossible not to admit that France must have been the fore- runner and teacher of England. It would appear that the only way in which this argument can be met, is by questioning the fact upon Avhich it is founded ; and ac- cordingly it has been asserted, that Salisbury and other English cathedrals, built in the thirteenth century, exhibit as advanced a style as those of the same age in France. After all, neither of the theories which make the one of these two countries to have borrowed its Gothic architecture from the other is altogether free from difficulties; and probably the truer supposition is, that both derived the art from some third, quarter, or, it is even possible, from two perfectly distinct quarters, and that it was then carried forward independently in each. , One of the most able expositions and defences of the opinion, that the English Gothic is of French origin, is contained in a work entitled, "An historial survey of the ecclesiastical antiquities of France, by the Rev. G. D. Whittington," published in 1809, after the death of the author, under the care of the earl of Aberdeen. The views maintained in this work are supported by a reference, among other edifices, to the cathedral of Amiens, and by an elaborate comparison of it Avith that of Salisbury, which was b,eg'un in the same year, and also completed nearly with the same space. The present is the third cathedral which is recorded to have been erected at Amiens, the two fjrmer having been successively destroyed by fire (the common catastrophe of large buildings i"n those days) in 1019 and 1,218. The zeal of Bishop ■Evrard, however, who presided over the see when the latter of these two calamities occurred, did not permit him to lose much time in making preparation for the erection of a new and more splendid church ; and, after money had been collected by every available method for the pious work, the building Avas begun in 1220. It was zealously carried on by Evrard and his successors, till, having been finished in all its material parts, it was consecrated in 1269, in the time of Bishop Bertrand d'Abbe- ville, the fifth from its founder. The ornamental part of the work, however, it Avould appear, continued to be carried on for nearly lAventy years after this date ; and the two great towers over the west front are stated not to have been erected till the following century. There are some verses, in old French, inscribed on the pave- ment of the nave, which state that the main part of the building was the work of 118 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN three successive architects: "Maistre Robert de Lusarche, Maistre Thomas de Cor- mont, and Maistre Regnault." The structure is in the customary form of a cross, composed of a nave and choir in the one direction and a transept in the other. Both the nave and the transept are furnished with aisles, and there are double aisles on each side of the choir. The following are the principal dimensions, as given by Mr. WUiittington in French feet (each of which contains about 13 English inches) — length from east to west, 415 feet; length of the transept from north to south, 182 feet; breadth of the nave with its aisles, 78 feet 9 inches ; breadth of the transept, 42 feet 9 inches. The external appearance of this magnificent building presents a striking combina- tion and harmony of boldness and lightness. The windows are ranged in two tiers, and are of so great height and breadth, being divided from each other only by nar- row buttresses, that to adopt Mr. Whittiugton's expression, no wall, properly speak- ing, is visible anywhere ; the pile is all window. The buttresses stand out distinctly from the line of the building, and shoot up into pinnacles above the commencement of the roof. When Mr. Whittington visited Amiens, in 1802 or 1803, the original stained glass was still in the windows, and he describes its effect as exceedingly beautiful ; but later authorities speak of this ornamental accessory as having been now removed. The only considerable extent of solid masonry is presented by the west front; and this is magnificent in the extreme. Our engraving is taken from an original drawing by Mr. W. Frome Small wood, who has delineated most of the other representations of continental buildings that have embel- lished our publication. There are, it will be observed, three great entrances, the central one of which in particular is of colossal dimensions. The entire breadth of the facade ex- ceeds 160 English feet. "This front exhibits," says Mr. Whittington, "the most gorgeous display of statuary, armies of saints, prophets, martyrs, and angels, line the door-ways, crowd the walls, and swarm round all the pinna- cles ; nothing can be more rich." Tlie wall is so deep as, in each of the doors, to admit of eight parallel rows of statues running up and ribbing the arch. The execution of many of these figures eviiices great talent in the artist, and a correctness of taste which we do not often find in Gothic statuary. In the south porch there are also several fine statues. We adjoin a copy of one representing the Virgin and her child, which, both in outline, expression, attitude, and drapery, possesses a simplicity and beauty that would do honor to a better school. Above the central door is a noble circular or madrigal window ; others, similar to which, ornament the north and south terminations of the transept. The towers over the extremities of the west front are each of the height of 210 French, that is, about 230 English feet. There is besides . a wooden spire over the intersection of the nave and transept ; but it does not claim much admiration. The view yn entering the church is in the highest degree striking and splendid. Owing to the organ being placed over the west end of the nave, the whole extent of the in- terior opens at once on the eye. The unusual loftiness of the roof, which is about 145 English feet from the pave- ment, adds powerfully to the effect. The arches, which unite tJie rows of columns on each side of the nave, are also very high, and have a most majestic air. Rows of chapels, Virgin and Child, from South rich with sculpture and other decorations, display themselves Porch. on each side, amidst the blaze of light that falls from the spacious windows. But the crowning ornament is a semi-circular colonnade, pene- trated with lancet-shaped arches, which terminates the choir, and is of course full in view. "The choir," says Mr. Whittington, "is superb; it is paved with fine marble, and angels, leaning forward from every pillar, support the lights ; at the CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 119 West Front of the Cathedral of Amiens. 120 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN termination, a mass of clouds, with gold rays bursting forth, has an exciting effect." The length of the choir is 130 feet (French), and between it and the nave there is an interval of 18 feet. The Lady Chapel beyond the choir is 45 feet in length. Some of the monumental sculptures are worthy of observation — one particularly, in the choir, in which there is a representation of a child weeping. There are also on each side of the grand entrance the tombs of Bishops Evrard and d'Abbevillc, the founder and finisher of the cathedral, with their figures in brass. Among the relics preserved in the choir are shown what are called the bones of St. Firmin, tJie founder of the see of Amiens, about whose era, however, there is a good deal of difference among the authorities. Some say he lived in the first century ; while others assign him to the third, or even the fourth. They used also to show here the head of John the Baptist, which was alleged to have been brought from Constantinople about the beginning of the thirteenth century. At the. Revolution, the cathedral of Amiens was pillaged of all its more valuable ornaments; but the fabric was saved from in- jury by the spirit of the mayor and the inhabitants, who armed themselves in its de- fence when it was about to be attacked. Chartees, the principal town of the department of the Eure and Loire, is about sixty-five miles southwest of Paris, on the road which passes through Versailles and Rambouillet to Tours. It is one of the oldest towns in France, and was knoAvn to the ancients under the names of Antricum and Carnutum. During the middle ages it was frequently taken and pillaged, and in the fifteenth century it was for a considerable period in the possession of the English ; but it was retaken by Dunois. In 1568, the protestant party, then in arms, beseiged Chartres, but without success. In 1591, .when France was torn by internal contests, the town was taken by Henry IV. Three years afterward he was crowned in the cathedral, that of Rheims, in which the ceremony had always been performed, not being in his possession ; or, as is sometimes stated, the prelate of Rheims being considered a disaffected person, the m'onarch transferred his favors to Chartres. At the village of Bretigny, a short distance from Chartres, a treaty was signed between the French and English, by which the French king, who had been taken prisoner at the battle of Poictiers, in 1356, was restored to his country. The ancient defences of the town are destroyed, but the houses in many parts of it still retain the appearance which is peculiar to the domestic edifices of the middle ages, standing with their many-gabled fronts toward the narrow and crooked streets, the wood with which they are constructed exhibiting curious specimens of the car- ver's art. Some of the houses have Utile towers, which are still more characteristic of the period referred to. The town slands on an eminence, and is divided into the upper and lower town ; the former, being the most modern, contains the principal inns, the postoffice, and other public buildings. Nevertheless, the place of St. Peter, which is in the old town, is very agreeably ornamented by alleys of trees. The old ramparts are converted into a boulevard, which is much frequented as a promenade. The finest public walk is the Place des Barricades, which is beyond the walls. Three of the old gales are- standing, the most remarkable of which is the Porte Guillaume. The communication between the upper and lower town is by pathways so steep, as totally to exclude the use of carriages ; and wine, wood, coal, and other bulky articles, are introduced by means of handbarrows. The river Eure, which runs through the lower town, divides into two branches, only one of which enters within the limits of the town. The bridge was constructed by Vauban. Chartres does not possess any variety of public buildings. The Prefecture was formerly the palace of the bishop, bui the Revolution has changed its destination to secular pur- poses. There is a statue of General Marceau, who was a native of Chartres, and while employed by the republican government in the task of pacifying La Vendee, earned this memorial by his admirable prudence and good feeling in such difficult circumstances. The choir of the church of St. Andrew is built on an arch beneaih which the Eure passes. The construction of the church is somewhat peculiar, and the stones are cemented in such a manner, that the edifice appears as if constructed out of the solid rock. The population of Chartres is above fourteen thousand. It is the seat of a bishop, and con-ains several administrative offices, of the first class. The spires of the cathedral are visible twenty-five miles before the traveller reaches Chartres, from whatever quarter he approaches the town ; and yet it is not possible to obtain a complete view of this fine old edifice, so closely is it surrounded by other buildings. One of the spires is heavy and without ornament, if we except CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE- 121 122 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN the stones being cut like the scales of a fish, the effect of which is singular, rather than pleasing. This spire seems always to be leaning, from whatever point it is viewed. This is owing to the angle which faces the spectator, being so straight, as to appear as if it were entirely vertical. The other spire is enriched with ornaments toward the middle ; but as they are not continued throughout, the effect is not har- monious. The steeples of Chartres are about three hundred and six feet high ; that of Strasburg is four hundred and ninety-two feet in height. There is in France an old saying, to the effect that all th.e requisites for a perfect church would be combined by adopting the entrance of the cathedral of Rheims, the nave of that of Amiens, the cboir of Beauvais, and the steeple of Chartres. The entrance to the cathedral is by a porch, a portion of which is represented in the engraving. The obscurity which reigns in the interior is so great, that except the day be bright, it is not pos- sible to read small print. This is owing to the thickness of the glass, and to its being highly stained. Along the exterior of the choir there are forty-three niches, filled with groups illustrative of Scripture history, above which are delicately-exe- cuted Gothic ornaments, and beneath, arabesque ornaments equally graceful. The intei'ior part of the choir contains representations in effigy of various scenes in die life of Christ, executed in Carrara marble by Bridan ; and one to commemorate a vow made by Louis XIII. in this cathedral. The choir is surrounded by a double range of lateral naves, sustained by thirty-two pillars. In the. middle of the nave the pavement is laid in a spiral form, and is popularly called "la lieue," from the belief that the length of the circles, if traced from their commencement, would be equal to a league. The nave is supported by a single row of sixteen pillars ; eiglit sustain the cross, making, altogether, fifty-six pillars. The principal altar is re- markable for a colossal group, in marble, of the Assumption of the Virgin, Avhich was executed in 1773 by Bridan. This work had very nearly been destroyed during the Revolution, but was saved by one of the inhabitants, who proposed changing the Virgin into the Goddess of Liberty, and accordingly placed a Phrygian cap on her head. The group is supported by five columns, which stand in the lower church. This latter portion of the cathedral, previous to the destruction, during the Revolu- tion, of the chapels and effigies which it contained, was one of the most complete of its kind in France. It is not at present generally exhibited to visiters, though highly curious and picturesque. The Rev. G. D. Whiltington's " Ecclesiastical Antiquities of France" contains the following account of the cathedral of Chartres : — " The cathedral of Chartres, one of the grandest works of the age, was rebuilt in the eleventh century, by Fulbert, its bishop. This church, which is said to have been originally founded in the third century, had been frequently burnt, particularly by lightning, in 1020 ; upon which Fulbert undertook its entire reconstruction, and the great reputation he enjoyed in France and the rest of Europe, enabled him to execute it in a manner, till then unknown in his country. Kanute, king of England, and Richard, duke of Normandy, were among the princes who assisted him with contributions. Some accounts mention that he had the gratification of seeing the work finished before his death, which happened in 1028 ; this, however, is dis- proved by the epitaph upon Thierri, or Theodoric, his successor, still existing in the church of St. Pere, which ascribes the completion of the fabric to that prel- ate, who died in 1048. The northern part was erected afterward, in 1060, at the expense of Jean Cormier, a native of Chartres, and physician to the king." The above he has taken from the account given by Lenoir, who derived his information from the archives of the city of Chartres, preserved in the king's library at Paris. Mr. Whittington adds: "The length of the cathedral at Chartres is four hundred and twenty feet ; the height, one hundred and eight feet ; the nave is forty-eight feet wide, with aisles eighteen and a half feet wide, and forty-two feet high. On each side of the choir the aisles are double, and the transept, which is two hundred and ten feet long, contains aisles, which seems to have been the first instance of this magnificent arrangement in France. There are seven chapels in the chevet, and the crypts and lower church are built with great art and regularity. Laon, one of the most ancient cities in the north of France, is the chief town of the department of the Aisne. Before the last territorial division of France, a small district surrounding Laon was called Laonois, but it was included in the larger prov- ince of Picardy. Picardy was bounded on the west by the English channel, and on the southwest by Normandy. It was, after Normandy, the province with which the CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 123 124 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN English were most intimately connected during the period which preceded the con- solidation of France as a European power of the first rank. The town is built on a hill, which stands alone, in the midst of a vast plain. It was a natural defence, which, doubtless, was soon rendered more impregnable on account of the constant want of order which prevailed. The castle, built on the side of Laon was the means of affording protection against the violence of power. Clovis granted some privileges to the population which had resorted hither to avail themselves of this advantage, and an episcopal church was founded in 515, by St. Remy. The last kings of France of the second race, hemmed in by powerful contenders for the ter- ritory of what now constitutes the kingdom, found their power confined within a small extent of country around Laon. Louis d'Outre-mer, after having besieged the town, died a prisoner there, in 953. Laon was one of the earliest towns in the north of France, in which the inhabitants emancipated themselves from the shackles of feudal power. Within Amiens, Beauvais, Noyon, and other places which had also obtained a considerable degree of independence, there existed a spirit of rough freedom, the influence of which deserves to be duly estimated by the student of this period of European history. In 1419 Laon was taken by tlie English, but they were subsequently driven out by the inhabitants, who rose against them. It enjoyed some repose until the wars of the League ; but it surrendered, in 1594, to Henry IV. The citadel which he caused to be built is destroyed. In the seventeenth century Laon suffered much, in consequence of the wars of religion and the Fronde. In fact, throughout the history of France it has been generally connected with the leading events, or in some manner experienced their influence. This arose chiefly from its position as a place of defence, and its situation on the frontiers. The town and castle were anciently regarded as one of the ramparts of France. An old wall, flanked with little towers, is all that remains of its former defences. Laon is about seventy-five miles from Paris, and is visible on all sides to the dis- tance of sixteen or eighteen miles. The town occupies the greater part of the crown of the hill, which in one place extends in a forked direction. On one arm of the hill stands the ruins of an abbey. The view from the Boulevards on the ancient walls is extensive. Laon has only one considerable street; the others are narrow and ill-built. The population, in 1831 was eight thousand four hundred. There are five fauxbourgs at the foot of the hill. The usual establishments of a town of this class are to be found at Laon. The cathedral, as will be seen by the engraving, is a fine old building. It existed in 1114, but the precise date of its erection is not known. Its length is three hun- dred and thirty-three feet, breadth seventy-eight feet, and height of towers one hun- dred and -seventy-nine feet. The only description we have been able to obtain of the cathedral is from the manuscript journal ef a tourist, who communicated his notes to the editor of " Sir David Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopaedia." The Avriter says: " The open buttresses, and the long open Avindows in the square towers, give a peculiar air of lightness to the building when seen from a short distance ; but at a considerable distance, and particularly in the night, they give it the appearance of a scaffolding, the light coming through in every direction. The great portal is not unlike that of Rheims, but it is less elegant in the sculptures. There is a small spire on the south tower of the cathedral. The interior of the cathedral is very fine. In the nave are ten circular pillars on each side, with capitals; two of them on each side having four small columns round it. Above the choir is a most magnificent cir- cular window of painted glass. There is another fine circular window in the nave, above an excellent organ, and at each end of the transept." The bishopric was suppressed at the Revolution. Its revenues amounted to thirty- five thousand livres, and the bishop was invested with the title and privileges of a duke and peer of France, and took part in the ceremonies at coronations. The chapter consisted of four dignitaries and eighty-four prebends. Beauvais is a city of France, the capital of the department of the Oise, situated upon the Therain, in a valley surrounded by woody hills. The site of Beauvais was occupied, in very remote times, by a city, which is mentioned in the " Commentaries of Caesar," by the name of Caesaro-magus, and which it afterward dropped for that of Bellovacum, derived from a Belgian people, the Bellovaci, by whom it was inhab- ited. It was ravaged by the Normans in the year 850, and at other periods ; and few cities have experienced more calamities and frequent fires than Beauvais. The town still exults in the glory of having sustained two very formidable sieges without CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. U5 126 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN being taken. The first of these was in the year 1443, when the English were re- pulsed by the devoted heroism of Jean Signiere ; the second was in 1472, when Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, unsuccessfully besieged it with eighty thou- sand men. On this occasion, the females of Beauvais, headed by Jane Hachette, joined the garrison, and fought with uncommon intrepidity. This heroine herself, on one occasion, seized the flag which the enemy were about to plant on the walls, and threw from the rampart the soldier by whom it was carried. The assailants were obliged to withdraw. Until the revolution, the event was annually commem- orated, on the 10th of July, by a procession, in which the women marched first. The cathedral of Beauvais, the south front of which is represented in our engra- ving, is the principal architectual ornament of the town. The building was com- menced in the year 1391. It is particularly noted for its choir, which is regarded as a masterpiece of Gothic architecture, being as much admired for its height and breadth as for the lightness of the work and the fine arrangement of the vault and its outworks. It has ten pillars on each side of its length, with chapels all around. The pavement of the sanctuary, which is very large, is all of marble. This mag- nificent building seems never to have been finished. The nave is incomplete, and there are neither towers nor apparent belfries. The church possesses, nevertheless, some great bells, which are placed in a separate building, about fifteen paces Irom the front entrance. Near the cathedral there are four small collegiate churches which are distinguished as " the four daughters of St. Peter," to which saint the ca- thedral is dedicated. Our engraving represents the south front of the cathedral. It can only be viewed from a very narrow street ; but its magnificent dimensions, and its elaborate ornaments, afford a remarkable specimen of the ecclesiastical architec- ture of France. Besides the cathedral, there are few buildings at Beauvais that claim particular notice. The townhall is a fine edifice, and contains a picture representing the heroic action of Jane Hachette. There is one large hospital, a communal college, a public library containing six thousand volumes, a cabinet of natural history, and a hall for exhibitions. The place possesses some considerable manufactories, principally of rich tapestries, serges, and woollen cloth, which give it a respectable tvade. The population is twelve thousand eight hundred. The situation of Beauvais is not unpleasant, but the town, on the whole, does not present an agreeable aspect. The houses are built chiefly of wood, a circumstance which accounts for the frequent fires to which we alluded. The streets are suffi- ciently wide, and the ramparts afford pleasant and shady promenades. Dieppe is a seaport town of France, situated between two rocky mountains, at the mouth of the river Arque, which empties itself into the British channel. In the ancient division of France into provinces, Dieppe belonged to Normandy ; but the more recent division into departments renders it one of the towns of the Lower Seine, and the principal place of a district of its own name. It is distant 90 miles north- west from Paris, and 140 miles south-southeast from London. The town is not very ancient, and originated with the fishermen who constructed their cabins at the mouth of the Arque, which afforded an advantageous situation for the prosecution of their employment. It began to figure in history toward the end of the twelfth century, it having been destroyed and its vessels burnt, in' the year 1196, by Philip Augustus, dyring the quarrels between him and Richard Coeur de Lion. The houses seem, however, to have been soon rebuilt, and the other disasters repaired. Previously to the reign of Charles VII., Dieppe, with the rest of Normandy, remained in the possession of the English ; but, in the year 1433, it was taken by the French ; and although, about nine years after, Talbot besieged it with powerful artillery, his attempts to retake it were rendered abortive by Dunois, who threw himself into the place, and was speedily succored by the dauphin, son of Charles VII. In the fourteenth century Dieppe had already become celebrated for its in- dustry and its commerce ; and at a later period, under Francis I., it possessed an immense maritime commerce. Ango, the principal of its privateering chiefs, covered the sea with his vessels, and sent armed squadrons, at his own expense, to chastise the povi^ers which had insulted his flag, and treated with their ambassadors as an equal. Some of the most remarkable commercial enterprises of those times emanated from Dieppe. In 1335 the inhabitants fitted out an expedition to the coasts of Africa, where they afterward built forts and established a considerable trade. France also owed to them its first establishments in Canada, and the foundation of Quebec ; and CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 127 128 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN they have the honor of numerous geographical discoveries which we can not here enumerate. The prosperity of Dieppe underwent a serious interruption in 1694, when it was reduced to ashes by an English squadron, which threw into the town 3,000 bombs and 4,000 balls. The castle, two churches, and a few houses, alone escaped the effects of this terrible bombardment. The town was, however, shortly rebuilt with the assistance of the government ; and the opportunity was taken to give it more regularity and greater uniformity of appearance than it previously possessed. Notwithstanding the variations of temperature at Dieppe, the air is considered to be generally pure and healthy. The water for common use is abundant and of good quality : there are 68 fountains dispersed through the town, fed by an aqueduct, which is cut in the rock to the extent of upAvard of three miles. The town itself is, upon the whole, handsome and well built. The streets, which are wide and straight, are for the most part composed of good and uniform houses, which are generally built with bricks, covered with tiles, and furnished with balconies. The high street, which is more than a mile in length, is particularly worthy of notice. Nevertheless the general effect of the town is spoken of as unpleasing to an English eye. The fronts of the houses are dingy, and the windows disfigured with clothes hung out to dry. The streets, too, are indifferently paved, and are cleaned by gutters which run down the middle with cuts on each side leading to the houses. The town has two suburbs, one of which, called Le Paulet, is inhabited principally by fishermen and sailors. The principal ecclesiastical structure is the parish church of St. James, one of those which escaped the bombardment of 1694; it is a fine edifice surmounted by a tower, from which the coast of England can be seen distinctly. There are two other parish churches, and a place of worship for protestants. The place contains two hospitals, a communal college, with a library of 3,000 volumes, a navigation school, a theatre, barracks for infantry, &c. Dieppe has a good stone bridge of seven arches: there are several small squares, and the ramparts afford a very excellent promenade. The castle of Dieppe is situated to the west of the town ; it occupies a strong and picturesque situation, commanding at the same time the town, the valley, and the sea. Its high walls are flanked with towers and bastions ; but it is, taken altogether, an irregular and badly-fortified structure. The harbor is at the opposite or eastern end of the town : it is formed by the mouth of the Arque, and though tolerably commodious, is narrow, not being fitted to contain more than 200 vessels of from 60 to 400 tons burden. It is in the form of a semi-circle, and has a depth of eighteen feet at high water, and is furnished with two very fine moles of strong brick- work, about half a mile in length. Avery excellent establishment of seabaths was formed at Dieppe in the year 1822. It consists of two distinct parts ; the first is an erection upon the beach destined to receive the bathers, forming a gallery about 100 yards in length, decorated at each end with elegant pavilions. The tents placed upon the sand, and the bathing-ma- chines, appertain to this part of the establishment. The other part consists of a hotel, in which are lodgings particularly appropriated to the strangers who frequent the baths and who increase in number every year. In the town, opposite the theatre, there is another establishment, containing hot, cold, and shower baths, of both sea and soft water. This establishment also contains a magnificent ballroom, a fine coflfee-room, and a reading-room. There are not, in any country, many towns better provided than Dieppe in facilities for bathing, the importance of which to health and comfort has been hitherto sadly overlooked in this country. The manufactures and maritime commerce of Dieppe suffered greatly during the last war between England and France ; but a revival has since taken place, though we have no materials estimating to what extent. A great deal of cooper's work is done in Dieppe, barrels being much in dernand for fhe fisheries during the salting- season: there are sugar refineries, rope manufactories, and yards for building mer- chant-vessels. But the principal manufactures of the place are in ivory and lace. The toys, of very superior workmanship and reasonable price, which are manufac- tured at Dieppe from ivory, horn, and bone, and which have always been consider- ably in demand, furnish employment to a rather large section of the population. The manufacture of lace is less considerable now than in former times, although the establishment of a school for the manufacture has given activity to this branch of employment. The following particulars relate to the manufacture as it existed pre- viously to the French revolution ; but they are still, we believe, applicable in details CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 129 130 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN , though not in extent. In 1788 the manufacture afforded employment to about 4,000 married and unmarried females and children, chiefly the wives and daughters of fishermen ; and its annual produce was about 18,000 pounds. The merchants sold the thread to the women, and paid them for the lace according to its value, which differed from sevenpence-halfpenny to fifteen or sixteen shillings a yard. Common lace consumed, of course, more thread than the fine bone-lace. Thus a yard of fifteen-penny lace would contain ninepennyworth of thread, while a yard of eight or nine shilling lace contained no more than threepennyworth of thread. The inferior ■ work people could earn about threepence or fourpence a day at this employment, while the more skilful might get from sixpence to a shilling a day. Small sums these seem ; but this was fifty years ago, and in France, where the people can live on less money than here. It is its fisheries, however, which afford to Dieppe the most important branch of its trade. As it is the nearest seaport to Paris, and is most advantageously situated for fishing on the coast, the metropolis, naturally looks to Dieppe for the principal part of its supply of fish. This circumstance gives great activity to this branch of employment, which occupies a large number of men and vessels. The principal fisheries of Dieppe are those of the herring, whiting, and mackerel. The fish in- tended for the Paris market are sent off, as soon as landed, in light carts, which travel night and day. Oysters too are abundant in the harbor of Dieppe or its vicinity and many thousands are annually sent hence to Paris. The population of Dieppe is commonly estimated at 20,000 ; but the most recent authority, the " France Pittoresque," gives it only 17,079. The town has been the birthplace of several distinguished men, among whom the " Dictionnaire Geogra- phique Universal" mentions the physician Jean Pecquet, who discovered the thoracic duct, to which his name has been given ; and Bruzen de la Martiniere, the author of " Le Grand Dictionnaire Geographique." Poitiers is the chief city of the' department of Vienne, and is situated upon a rocky hill at the confluence of the rivers Clain and Boivre, the waters of which almost entirely surround it. It is of an oblong form, large, and surrounded by an old wall, which is flanked by towers and pierced with gates, four of which are in connexion with as many bridges over the Clain. Poitiers is very irregularly built ; the streets are narrow, crooked, and badly paved ; the houses without any preten- sion to architectural beauty ; and the squares, with the exception of the Place Roy- ale, small and unornamented. There is a pretty public promenade which over- looks the Clain and the surrounding country. The cathedral and other churches are only remarkable for their antiquity, but the old castle has many historical recollec- tions associated with it, having been inhabited at different times by eminent persons. It was in a great measure demolished under Louis XIII. Poitiers is the seat of a bishopric, suffragan to the archbishop of Bordeaux ; and also of a Cour Royale. It contains, besides, an Academic Universitaire, with a faculty of law ; a royal col- lege, with a museum ; a diocesan seminary, with secondary schools of medicine, surgery., and pharmacy, and a cabinet of natural history ; a free-shool of design and architecture; a botanic garden, with a nursery department; a library, with twenty- two thousand volumes; hospitals, charities, &c. The trade of Poitiers is not very extensive, but embraces several kinds of manufacture. Among the most important are common cloaks, blankets, flannels, cotton and woollen hosiery, lace, wool, flax, hats, wines, &c. There are several fairs. In the environs there is a quarry of fine freestone, and indications of a coal-mine. The population is about twenty-two thousand. Among the eminent persons born in or near Poitiers, may be mentioned Cardinal Balue, General Montalembert, and Madame and Mademoiselle D^rroches, the poetesses. In the church of the Gray Friars repose the ashes of Madame de Montespan. Poitiers is one of the most ancient cities of Gaul. At the time of the conquest by Julius Cesar, it was considered a place of some strength ; and in Ptolemy's time, in the second century, had become still more considerable. Its name was then Limo- num. It afterward took the name of Pictavi, as being the capital town of the tribes of the Pictavi, or Pictones, a people of Gaul. By the Romans it was embellished with various great works ; of these there only remain vestiges of the palace of Galienus, of the aqueduct by which water was brought to the palace, and an am- phitheatre. In the fourth century Poitiers became the seat of a bishopric, which it Still continues to be ; and in the fifth it belonged to the Visigoths. After the battle CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 131 132 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN of Vonille, in which Clovis obtained a victory over Alaric, it became attached to the French crown. By the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine with Henry, duke of Nor- mandy, who afterward became king of England, Poitiers, and the entire district of Poilou, of which it was the capital, passed into the possession of the English in 1157, by whom they were retained for above two centuries. In 1356 the famous battle was fought here, about a league from the town, between King John, of France, and the "Black Prince," of England, which ended so disastrously to the former, in the loss, not only of his army, but of his own personal freedom. As it is the remembrance of this battle which has made the name of Poitiers a " household word," we need not apologize for embracing the present opportunity to give a short account of it. Into the preposterous claims to the throne of France, made at different times by Edward III., and as a remote consequence of which the battle of Poitiers was fought, we shall not enter. His son. Prince Edward, in 1335, marched from Bor- deaux with an army of sixty thousand men toward the Pyrenees, thence northward by Toulouse, burning, plundering, and slaughtering, all the way, and returned in safety to Bordeaux. In the following year he set out on a similar expedition, with twelve or fourteen thousand men, and penetrated into the very heart of France, marking his progress at every step with fire and the sword. The national indigna- tion was now raised to the utmost pitch, and the king of France marched with an immense army toward Poitiers to intercept the English. So intense and universal was the abhorrence the English had inspired by their excesses, that the prince was unable to obtain any intelligence of John's movements, and therefore pursued his way toward the same place. On the 17th of September the van of the English army fell in most unexpectedly with the rear of the French, and the prince soon discovered that his retreat was cut oflF, and the neighborhood swarming with hostile forces. " God help us," he exclaimed, " we must then consider how we can best fight them." He chose a most admirable position — an elevated field, planted with vineyards, enclosed with hedges, &c., and to which there was but one approach for horses, namely, a narrow lane, also skirted with hedges, which he lined with bow- men. On the following morning, Sunday, King John drew up his army in three divisions, of which he himself commanded the first, the dauphin the second, and the third, or reserve division, was intrusted to the care of the duke of Orleans. The French had no less than sixty thousand horsemen, besides an immense body of foot, and were commanded by the chief men of the kingdom ; while the entire army of the English did not exceed, horse and foot, ten thousand men. The battle was about to be commenced, when Cardinal Talleyrand, the pope's legate, arrived in the field, and besought both parties to prevent the ensuing carnage, the one by granting, and the other by accepting, honorable conditions. " Save my honor," said Prince Edward, " and the honor of my army, and I will listen to any reason- able terms." He offered to restore all the castles and towns he had taken in the expedition, to give up all his prisoners without ransom, and to swear that he would not, for the next seven years," bear arms against the king of France. That mon- arch, however, offered as his ultimatum, that the prince and one hundred of his best knights should yield themselves as prisoners to him, on which the remainder of the army might go free. Not a man in that small but heroic band of English- men but spurned such dishonorable terms. These negotiations took up the whole of Sunday, during which the English dug trenches, threw up banks, made barriers of their wagons, &c., and otherwise strengthened their already formidable position. On the morning of Monday the trumpets were heard at earliest dawn calling the soldiers to the fray ; but the indefatigable Talleyrand now made another attempt to induce John to offer more favorable proposals. He was received so roughlj as to convince him all further endeavors were fruitless; he therefore returned to the prince and informed him that he could not move John, and that he must do his best. " Then God defend the right,'' replied the prince, and, with a cheerful countenance, prepared his army for the conflict. In this hour of danger, both the army and its chief were, doubtless, animated with the recollection of the battle of Crecy, fought not long before between armies similarly disproportion ed in numbers ; and, in their present desperate circumstances, resolved to emulate the courage of their country- men in that conflict, with, perhaps, a faint hope of an equally successful result. Their ground was almost impregnable, and their confidence in their leader unbound- ed. His hope and expectation was that he should be attacked where he lay ; other- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 133 wise, in fact, he saw that all was lost. To quit that spot and endeavor to cut his wa^'^ through the enormous army before him, was to advance to almost certain ruin ; yet he had no other course, for the army was short of provisions and fodder, and could not exist many days in its present position. He was not deceived. The bat- tle was commenced by a body of chosen French cavalry, commanded by two mar- shals of the kingdom, who charged along the lane, to attack and force the English position ; but the archers who lined the way galled their horses so terribly with their arrows, as to make the animals unmanageable, and to throw the whole corps into confusion. Before many minutes had elapsed the marshal was killed, another made prisoner, the lane choked with the bodies of dead or dying men and horses, and all who could save themselves by flight had done so. This discomfiture so alarmed the division under the dauphin, that it wavered, and many individuals were seen retreating to the rear. The circumstance escaped not the eagle-eyed vision of the prince ; he immediately caused a body of six hundred ■ bowmen to wheel round upon the flank and rear of that division. It did so, but the French scarcely waited to be attacked ; the dauphin immediately quitted the field with seven hundred lances, many other knights, alarmed at the idea that they should be unable to regain their horses, which were in the rear, when they might want to fly also, followed ; the dreaded "green jackets and white bows" poured in an incessant stream of deadly arrows upon their troops, which, thus deserted by their leaders, fell into confusion and speedily gave way. The English men-at-arms, exulting at their successes, leaped into their saddles, shouting with irresistible ardor, " St. George for Guienne !" Avhile the distinguished Sir John Chandos, one of the ablest warriors of his age, and who, during this eventful action, never for a mo- ment quitted the prince's side, said to Edward, " Sire, ride forward, the day is yours ! Let us address ourselves to our adversary, the king of France, for in that part lies all the strength of the enterprise. Well I know that his valor will not permit him to flee, therefore he will remain with us, please God and St. George." The prince saw the auspicious moment had arrived, so calling out to his standard- bearers to "Advance banners, in the name of God and St. George," they rushed through the lane, charged at full speed across the moor, and precipitated themselves upon the enemy. The shock was terrible and irresistible. The constable of France, with many squadrons of horse, vainly endeavored to hold his ground ; they were overborne, and the constable, with his chief knights, killed. A body of German horse was attacked by the prince, and instantly defeated. The third divis- ion, under the command of the duke of Orleans, fled without striking a single blow but the greater part of the first, under the command of the king himself, remained firm, stimulated by the example of the sovereign. In fact, had the judgment of the king of France on that day been equal to his courage, the action must have had a different issue. He had been advised to begin the attack with his men-at-arms on foot, but the advice was rejected, and the consequences were as we have seen, most disastrous. And now, when he saw the English approaching at full speed to attack him, he instantly applied that former advice to his present totally different circum- stances. He and his principal knights were therefore on foot, and, in spite of this disadvantage, continued the action gallantly. With a battle-axe in his hand. King John stood foremost in the fray, while, by his side, his younger son, Philip, kept close to him, with his eyes fixed upon his parent, crying out from time to time, as he saw occasion, " Father, guard yourself on the right ! guard yourself on the left !" Around them were the great lords of the kingdom, who remained faithful to their monarch, dropping every instant in the agonies of death, while in other parts of the field the soldiers were disbanding themselves and running away. The prince, with Sir John Chandos, kept the English army steadily together, and concentrated all its efforts against the king and his adherents, whose number death lessened every mo- ment in the front and desertion in the rear. A throng of English and Gascon sol- diers now pressed near to the French monarch with cries of " surrender !" He was wounded and beaten to the ground, but again rose, and, with indomitable courage, continued the fighl. And thus he would have perished, but for a young knight of St. Omer, who, forcing his way, cried out in French, " Sire, surrender !" Struck by the French accent, and seeing the hopelessness of further opposition, the king asked, " To whom ? Where is my cousin, the prince of Wales ? If I saw him I would speak." — " Sire," returned the knight, " he is not here ; but surrender your- self to me and I will lead you to him." — " Who are you ?" inquired the king. 134 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN " Sire, I am Denis of Morbecque, a knight of Artois, but I serve the king of Eng- land, because I can not belong to France, having there forfeited myall." The mon- arch then gave him his right-hand glove, saying, " I surrender to you ;" but he was still in considerable danger, for the English soldiers dragged him away from Sir Denis, each striving to claim the honor of the capture. He was, however, ultimately conducted in safety to the tent of his conqueror, the Black Prince. The English army behaved after the victory this day in the most humane manner, or the slaugh- ter of the fugitive French must have been frightful. As it was, only eight thousand of the French were killed in all, while, besides the king, thirteen counts, one arch- bishop, seventy barons and baronets, two thousand men-at-arms, and an immense number of inferior soldiers, were taken prisoners. Indeed, the prisoners were alto- gether twice as numerous as their captors. Most of these dangerous acquisitions were speedily dismissed ; the more important of the captives pledging themselves to appear on a certain day at Bordeaux and there ransom or yield themselves again to captivity. And now the prince exhibited as much chivalrous generosity in his treatment of the illustrious prisoner, as he had previously shown courage and mil- itary skill in overthrowing him. In spite of his lather's pretension to the throne of France, which now seemed more than ever feasible, " it was no longer in his eyes," says Sismondi, "■ John of Valois who styled himself the king of France, it was, indeed, the true king, whom he acknowledged for the chief of his house, and suze- rain of his lordships which he held in France. In the evening he gave a supper to his royal and other distinguished prisoners. But not all the entreaty of King John could induce him to sit down himself to the banquet. His constant reply was (and- could ever words have been more deliciously soothing to the wounded vanity of a brave man in King John's position?) he 'was not yet qualified to sit at the table of so great a prince and of so brave a man.' Seeing the king took little refresh- ment, he said on his knees, ' Dear sire, please not to make simple cheer ; what if God has not been willing to consent to-day to your will, you have on this day won the lofty name of prowess, and have surpassed all the best on your side.' " Thus concluded the battle of Poitiers. Succeeding events are too well known to need repetition here. We may notice very briefly the other principal events in the history of Poitiers. In 1372 it came into the possession of Charles V., who granted the inhabitants some important privileges. Charles VII. transferred thither, for some time, the sittings of parliament. Louis VII. kept his court at Poitiers, and enlarged and strength- ened the place. It suffered much during the religious wars. No less than twenty- three state-councils have been held in the city. Boulogne is a seaport-town on the coast of Picardy, now chief town of an arron- dissement of three hundred and eighty-eight square miles, with 74,676 inhabitants, in the department Pas de Calais, at the mouth of the Laine. It consists of the up- per and lower town ; the latter of which is called Boulogne sur Mer, and is far superior to the former in the beauty of its houses and streets. Both parts contain together above sixteen thousand inhabitants, and sixteen hundred houses, and a har- bor, which is too shallow for large vessels-of-war, but the largest merchant-vessels can go in and out, at high tide, without danger. With a favorable wind, vessels can reach the coast of England in two or three hours, from this place. Bonaparte, therefore, ordered the harbor to be made deeper, and a number of vessels to be built, in order to transport the army intended for the invasion of England, and some small forts and batteries to be erected, in order to strengthen the harbor and town. A large army remained here for many months in a camp, which almost resembled a town, waiting to embark ; when, upon the breaking out of hostilities with Austria, 1805, they were called to other places. Boulogne is a bishopric, contains many churches, an hospital, an exchange, a mar- itime court, a society for the promotion of agriculture, commerce, and the arts, a school for instruction in navigation, sea-baths, manufactures of soap, earthenware, linen and woollen cloths. The most attractive object, however, at Boulogne, is the museum. The museum is situated close to the guardhouse adjoining the principal church of the lower or new town. An unornamented gateway leads to a quadrangle, around which are disposed the apartments of the officers of the museum, and the exhibition rooms, the latter being on the first floor. At the foot of the staircase which leads to the public rooms, is placed a colossal head of Henry IV., one of the most popular CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 135 of the kings of France. The original bust of bronze may be seen on its pedestal, opposite the gate of the old town. The visiter will find specimens of European and Asiatic costume, arms, and armor, from the bow and reed-arrow of the savage, to the improvements which civilized people have made in the arts of designing and manufacturing offensive weapons. There are objects of Egyptian, Greek, and Ro- man art ; statues and busts from the aatique ; specimens of natural history ; a small gallery of paintings, containing about a hundred pictures, the older of which are by Dutch masters, presenting lonely windmills surrounded by willows, boors enjoying their rude carousals, or burgomasters and their comfortable-looking and careful wives. The medal-room contains an interesting collection, commencing at an early period and embracing the fine medals struck under the consulate and the empire, down to the reign of the present king. The Napoleon collection contains one of the medals intended to commemorate the invasion with which he threatened England. There are but few specimens in existence, as they were, it is said, suppressed ; the failure of the scheme having egregiously betrayed, either the predominant vanity and confi- dence of Napoleon, or, what is perhaps more probable, the anticipatory inscription, " Struck at Londan in 1804," is merely a proof how well he knew how to excite and stimulate for his own purposes the enthusiasm and confidence of the army. The medal represents a powerful male figure disabling and crushing a monster, half man and half fish, which latter is intended to be emblematic of the British people. While preparations were making for the invasion, Boulogne and the neighborhood was a scene of military activity which had not been witnessed in that part of Europe since Caesar and his legions had crossed over to Britain. The " Grand Armee" con- sisted of two hundred thousand men, who were in encampment on the surrounding heights. The port of Boulogne was filled Avith a numerous flotilla, which was twice unsuccessfully attacked by the English — by Nelson, on the 15th of August, 1801, and by Admiral Keith, on the 10th of August, 1804. The defeat of the combined French and Spanish fleets, in 1805, and a new European coalition, was the cause of the encampment being broken up, and the troops were marched to the Rhine. One of the rooms of the museum contains plaster-casts of the bas-reliefs on the columm erected within a mile of the town by the army of invasion. Medal struck by Napoleon, to commemorate the Invasion of England. Catherine de Medicis. — Strnck to commemorate the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. Another medal exhibits the portrait of Catherine de Medicis. This singular woman was born in 1519, at Florence, and was thoroughly imbued with the princi- ples of policy which prevailed at that period in the Italian courts. In 1533 she was ■ married to the son of Francis I. of France, who afterward succeeded to his father's throne. Her husband died in 1559, and the death of Francis II., in the following ^ear, placed the government of the country in her hands, as regent, during the mi- nority of her son, Charles IX. Catherine had favored the protestants from motives of policy, after her husband's death, as her son, who had married Mary, afterward Queen of Scots, was attached to the opposite party, and she hated an authority of which she could not partake. Her son's death led to a temporizing and wavering 136 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN policy, which gave opportunities for the display of that spirit of intrigue and treachery which was so congenial to her character. She flattered alternately the Guises, who were at the head of the catholic party, and Conde and Coligny, who represented the protestants, then numerous, influential, and in the enjoyment of con- siderable power, endeavoring to attain, by intrigue and treachery, objects which she might have secured by openness and candor. Her son was declared of age when he was fourteen, in order that she might exercise the most absolute power in his name. At this time, the state of parties was such, that her purposes could be pro- moted only by the defeat of one or other of them. The massacre of St. Bartholo- mew, on the 24th of August, 1.572, was a consequence of this position, and of her efforts to disembarrass herself of all impediments to her wishes ; for which purpose she irritated her son, by jealous feelings of his younger brother, into that dependent state which was most favorable to her objects. Catherine again became regent on the death of Charles IX., until the return of Henry III. from Poland. To her are to be attributed, in a great measure, the misfortunes of his reign, and the state of France, at her death in 1583, was deplorable in the extreme. Her m^anners were elegant, and she possessed a taste for literature and the arts, but her life was a series of cruel, artful, and unprincipled actions. A copy of the medal, in which, probably, her portrait was flattered, is strongly indicative of that wickedness of character which seemed natural to her. Among the medals which bear impressions of female heads, is one of Mary, queen of Scots, taken when young; and a simple and interesting profile of Char- lotte Corday, who assassinated Marat. In the room adjoining the medal-room there is a shelf containing flagons and drinking-cups, which the authorities of Boulogne were anciently accustomed to use, when they received the visits of distinguished persons. Two of these are here rep- resented, one of which has the arms of the town, a swan and three pellets, struck on each side. The other is of the fashion of the fourteenth century. Ancient Boulogne Flagon. Old Drinking-Cup. The room to the right of the staircase is filled with a very miscellaneous collec- tion. Here are various articles of the costume of inhabitants of the most remote CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 137 regions — the thick robes of a Norwegian dame and the rush cloak of the Hottentot, contrasted by the splendid costume of the Chinese mandarin. Specimens of the arts of all ages and countries are here collected into one focus ; the sword of the crusader hangs peacefully by the cimeter of the Paynim prince ; and the elaborate carvings of the New-Zealander, so placed as to be easily compared with the more facile and elegant pro- ductions of the Greeks. Strange as this medley may appear to the classical reader, we doubt not that the less learned visiter is more gratified by the variety of forms which present themselves, than he would be by an arrangement in which much uniformity would necessarily be unavoidable. Among the most interesting objects is an ancient sling, in very good preservation. The use of this implement has long since been superseded in civilized countries, by the more perfect and destructive instruments which the progress of the " art of war" has introduced. But in ancient times, as every biblical and classical reader knows, the sling was neither an inefficient nor an uncommon instrument of destruction. Even after the intro- duction of the more deadly arrow, the sling was much used by contending armies ; and we have many accounts of its power, and the skill of those who wielded it. After its use in war had been superseded by weapons more easily wielded, and more certain in their effect, it was often had recourse to by various nations (particularly the Saxons) in the chase ; but in the pres- ent day it is only known as a toy. The sling in the Boulogne museum has a strong leathern pocket, to which is attached a move"able iron apparatus, appa- rently for the purpose of confining the stone, when not in use, or it may be to assist in the propulsion of the missile. The straps supporting this apparatus are formed of leather, stamped in ridges, and painted alternately red and yellow, and are attached to long pieces of coarse and strongly- woven sack-cloth. Two balls, ornamented with red and blue worsted, render the Ancient Sling. hold of the hand firm, when using the instrument. Another curious relic of antiquity maybe seen in the case adjoining that in which the last-mentioned article is preserved. It is formed of a few stout bars of iron, crossmg each other in a peculiar manner, and riveted together by a series of iron studs. We have represented this in the annexed engraving, in which the form is ac- curately portrayed ; it would appear to have been worn by the ancients to defend the head from the blows of an enemy ; and if we imagine this iron " braincap" sur- mounting the head of a warrior, we may readily conceive that it would afibrd no slight obstacle to the blow of an antagonist's sword. Brain-Cap. Contiguous to these warlike instruments are many interesting specimens of the instruments contrived by the ancients for the purpose of enlivening their leisure by 138 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN that " concord of sweet sounds" to which the human mind has, from the most remote ages, testified its devotion. These musical instruments are principally constructed with reeds ; but there are several stringed instruments, and many curious contri- vances of the natives of islands in the Pacific, and of the continent of America, for the production of musical sounds. In this room is also a small, but curious collec- tion of coins of many nations. We now pass into another apartment, where many Egyptian, Greek, and Roman antiquities arrest the attention, among which are several beautiful specimens of an- cient workmanship, in bronze, &c. Pompeii has furnished a few articles of pottery, some of which contain the remains of fowls, and other small animals, ready cooked, but apparently left untasted on the table, in the alarm and confusion consequent on the awful volcanic eruption which destroyed the city. Here may also be seen several early English machines and instruments of war, as also other archaeological curiosities, among which is a curious antique drinking-cup, or chalice, of a form which we often find represented in old English manuscripts. Beneath one of the windows is a carving in ivory, representing one of those amorous contests between the knights and their "fair ladyes," of which the troubadours and minnesingers of the ages of chivalry delighted to chant to the ardent youth of those interesting times, and remnants of which practice may be discovered in the masques and entertainments with which the court of Elizabeth was wont to be enlivened. The engraving now introduced, is copied from a portion of this interesting speci- men of ancient art, and is doubly curious, as representing one of those clumsy ma- chines used in the rude warfare of our ancestors, and called by them the " trebuchet." It was principally used by besiegers, for casting stones and other missiles into the towns and castles they beleaguered, and is often mentioned by Froissart, in his " Chronicles." The receptacle at the lower portion being filled with the missiles intended to be cast into the besieged place, the upper arm of the instrument (loaded with a heavy weight) was allowed to descend, which, owing to the unequal balance, it did with great velocity ; and the larger arm then swung in the air, and scattered its contents over the besieged. The knight represented in the engraving is intent upon crowding the receptacle of the trebuchet with full-blown roses, with which to belabor his fair adversaries, who, our readers must take our word for it, are not at a great distance ofi", holding out the Trebuchet. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 139 castle of love or delight against the knight of desire. From the costume of the figures in this carving, we should suppose it to have been the work of an artist of the fourteenth century. In this museum there is a very useful collection of casts from the most eminent antique statues and reliefs in the principal European collections. The student in design may derive considerable benefit from the study of these casts ; and we are happy to hear that the gallery in which they are contained, is much frequented. It would be impossible for us to enumerate all the objects which the visiter will find arranged in the museum. We will merely add, that besides the very miscella- neous collection of articles, showing the handiwork of man, there are many speci- mens of natural history arranged for inspection, including zoological, mineralogical, and botanical specimens. The museum is under the superintendence of a committee of gentlemen, who an- nually publish a volume, descriptive of the contents of the establishment, and con- taining various essays on literary and scientific subjects. There are also schools and public lectureships attached to the institution. St. Omer. — The town of St. Omer is situated in the department of the Pas de Calais, in French Flanders. The river Aa flows through it, and becomes divided into a number of arms, more or less considerable, which spread over the environs. A canal, uniting the rivers Lys and Aa, passes, also, through the town, and it is here that the Aa first becomes navigable. The town itself is a place, from its posi- tion, of great natural strength, and is rendered stronger by considerable fortifications, which surround it, being nearly a league in circumference, and by deep fosses, which may be filled with water at any time. The adjacent country may also easily be in- undated, with the exception of a part toward the south, which, being hilly, will not admit of this means of defence ; but the passage by this path to the town is so nar- row and difficult, that an attack from that side would scarcely be attempted. How- ever, the fortifications here are of great extent. It is a portion of these which is represented in the engraving. It is, besides, defended on the southeast by the forts of St. Michel and Notre Dame de Grace ; on the east by that of " Les Vaches ;" to the north and northeast by the marshes which surround the fortified parts called Haut Pont and Lizel ; and to the northwest by the " Fort of the Four Mills." The town has four gates, two of which communicate with the environs ; and it boasts some considerable streets, well built and clean, but most of the houses are low and irregular, and the appearance any- thing but cheerful. There are several churches, but the cathedral of Notre Dame is the only one of importance. It is a Gothic edifice of great antiquity, in which is the tomb of St. Omer, from whom the town has taken its name. There is also a fine picture by Rubens, of the " Descent from the Cross." The interior of this cathe- dral is paved with the fragments of bas-reliefs of high Norman antiquity (the re- mains of a former edifice), a careful study of which, particularly of the pavement in the transepts, would afford matter of much interest to the antiquary. We be- lieve such a survey has never been made. As in most French towns, there are a number of fountains in the streets, which, by their appearance, and the freshness of the waters, impart a degree of cheerful- ness, of which the town stands much in need. The neighboring village of Haut Pont, of considerable size and well built, ex- tends itself to the north of the town, on the borders of the canal. Lizel is situated on the banks and the isles of Little Meldich ; the inhabitants are nearly all garden- ers, of a Flemish origin, who have preserved their ancient language. St. Omer possesses two parochial churches, an Ursuline convent, a common college, contain- ing the public library of sixteen thousand volumes, an arsenal (wher# is deposited a large collection of arms), four powder-magazines, an academy for architecture and design, a theatre, and several hospitals. The quays of the canals, the avenue from Calais, and the ramparts, which are planted with elms, aflTord agreeable prom- enades. Many different manufactures and arts are carried on at St. Omer, but the com- merce in which it is engaged is not so extensive as might be expected from the advantages of its situation, being, as it is, in the neighborhood of good roads and numerous canals, affording an easy communication with Calais, Gravelines, Dunkirk, Aire, and the interior of the kingdom. There are about nineteen thousand inhab- 140 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN itants, or, including those of Haut Pont and Lizel, nearly twenty-two thousand, besides a considerable number of English families who reside there. St. Omer, in 626, was only a small hamlet, which had formed itself around a strong castle crowning the summit of Mount Sithiu, from which it took its original name. Adroald, the possessor of the castle and the surrounding lands, gave it, in 645, to St. Omer, bishop of Therouenne, who built the cathedral, and in 648 found- ed a monastery of Bernardins, where he established his residence, and to which St. Bertin, its second abbot, imposed his name. In 880 the Abbe Foulques began to surround the town with walls, a task which was completed in 902 by Baudouin, the second count of Flanders ; and it was about this time that the village of Sithiu be- came known as the town of St. Omer, the original name being dropped for that of the patron of the town. In 1152 a fire destroyed a great part of it, but Baudouin V. repaired and improved it considerably, and Charles V. added to the fortifications. In 1559 the pope, Paul IV., transferred to it the bishopric of Therouenne on the destruction of that town. In 1477 Louis XI. besieged it in vain; but in ten years after, the inhabitants, having revolted, delivered the town to the Burgundians, from whom Louis XI., in 1492, obtained it by the treason of Philippe de CrevecoBur, the governor ; but the archduke Maximilian shortly afterward retook it. In 1638 it was again attacked unsuccessfully by the French ; but they became possessed of it in 1677, after the battle of Cassel, and were secured in the possession by the treaty of Nimeguen in the following year. St. Omer was one of the points at which the troops destined by Napoleon for the invasion of England were stationed in 1805. The entrance to the town from Calais is represented in the engraving. Like most others in French Flanders, it is approached by a noble avenue of trees, from which a peep of its embattled walls is occasionally obtained. Its exterior aspect is cheer- less in the extreme ; nothing is to be seen but long lines of fortification, and a few tall gable roofs and the spires of the principal churches, which tend rather to con- firm than relieve the general monotony. On reaching the end of the avenue a gate of tremendous strength presents its imposing masses to the traveller ; passing which, he finds himself on a long bridge, which crosses the moat and connects the external walls with an insulated intrenchment. Then a vast array of barriers, gates, portcullises, &c., defend the passage of a tunnel, through which the visiter passes, and then over a second bridge, which spans the inner moat and leads to the town walls, which are defended by another gate of considerable strength. In making the passage of these works, the traveller is repeatedly stopped, and his per- son and passport examined with as much vigilance as though an hostile army were in the neighborhood. Tours is a city of France, and the capital of the department of Indre-and-Loire, on the Loire. It is situated on a delightful plain, in one of the finest parts of France, the surrounding country being remarkably beautiful. It contains a cathe- dral remarkable for its lofty spire and extensive library. The houses are generally low, and most of the streets are narrow and gloomy. But the Rue Neuve, or Roy- ale, is a street of great elegance, the houses being built of stone, on a uniform plan. The approach to the town is remarkably fine, the avenues being bordered with rows of trees. The principal manufacture is that of silk, which formerly employed in the town and neighborhood twenty thousand people ; but at present not more than one third of that number. Tours was formerly more populous than at present. Before the Revolution it was the capital of Touraine. In 732 the Saracens were defeated by Charles Martel, near this town, with the loss of ten thousand men. Tours contains ten thousand inhabitants, and it is one hundred and forty miles south- west of Paris. In the vicinity is an old chateau of Louis XL, called Plessis les Tours. " Th^ chateau of Plessis les Tours," says the old chronicler Saint Wan- dulfe, " presents, at first sight, three walls, rising one benind the other, each higher than that before it. In front of the first is a fosse filled with water and edged with long iron spikes. Before each of the other walls is a similar fosse, also defended by iron spikes. In the midst of these three fosses and ramparts is the chateau, composed of unequal buildings," fee. A late traveller remarks : " The wall now visible is certainly very ancient, and may be the remains of the outermost of the three mentioned by Saint Wandulfe. It is of considerable thickness, built of rough stone, firmly set together, and surrounds the chateau at some two or three hundred yards distance, enclosing within it a large space of ground. Saint Wandulfe men- tions nothing that answers to the old peasant's wood of walls ; he says only, that CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 141 142 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN stones, fragments of rocks, rubbish, sand, fee, had been thrown on the ground around the chateau to prevent trees from growing there, in order that an enemy- might be seen from the turrets at the greatest distance possible. The ground about the building is now without any vestige of walls or rubbish, and covered with the richest crops. I moved off the road-way somewhat to the right without fear now of having my foot pierced by one of those iron caltrops, or of the chaussee-trappes, which, of old, waylaid the wanderer from the single road to the chateau; and by the assistance of a bank of earth, gained a full view of the building over the wall. The outside, alas ! called up little remembrance of former greatness. I saw before me a building, of no great size, two stories high, with modern windows, a lofty roof, and the tower I had noticed from a distance rising high above the roof on the other side, the whole raised, on this front, upon a superstructure or basement, which seemed to be open and unused by the inhabitants of the chateau. I inquired of the old peasant if he thought I might see the inside of the building. 'Ah, monsieur,' said he, ' a stranger from Languedoc, I believe, took it a year since ; he is a foul- tongued brute, a villain Chinois ; and since he has been there no one has been allowed to go inside of it.' " I however made my way first along the front of the building, which I before saw, to the basement-story I had noticed under the main pile of the chateau. This I found consisted of a set of vaults which had no communication at present with the rest of the building. The little light that found its way in by the door and the deep grated loopholes in the outer wall did not allow me to judge whether there had ever been any opening through the roof communicating with the rooms above. These vaults are built of hewn stone, and evidently of very old mason-work ; and if they have never served for dungeons, their villanous aspect much belies them. The building raised upon them is of brick, and although now in decay, of much more recent date than the vaults themselves. It seems probable, I think, that the line of building marked by these vaults originally opened upon an inner court of the old palace, the other sides of which are now destroyed. Attempting to get round the building from this side, I found myself stopped by a wall which I had not before perceived, running at right angles to this front. I turned back, rested myself in the cool shade of the vaults, and stole a luncheon of grapes from a neighboring vine. I then marched up to the gateway, pushed in the porte-cohere, and entered the en- closure. I was on an enclosed plat, elevated, by at least the height of the vaults I had just left, above the surrounding grounds, bounded on the left by the chateau, in the front and on the right opening (with a dwarf wall) over vine-yards and maize- grounds, and enclosed on the side I had entered by a line of outbuildings and the gateway ; near the centre was an alley of trees, and at the corner between the two open sides stood a little open summer-house. I had hardly completed my survey when I perceived a servant coming toward me, and, at a little distance, the redoubt- able master of the mansion himself I addressed the latter, hat in hand, with the best French compliment I could muster; he replied, I rejoined, and he answered ; but what was odd, all civilly enough, and with a mighty strange Languedoc accent. At last, looking him full in the face, ' I think, sir,' said I, ' that I have the pleasure of addressing a brother Briton.' — ' Faith, you're right, sir, for I come from the County Cork ; and somehow I thought all the time you must be an Englishman.' The mystery was soon explained : the ' villain Chinois' from Languedoc had left some time before, and my fellow-countryman had only just taken possession of the chateau. He insisted on showing me over the whole building himself The brick pile is, as I supposed, of comparatively modern date ; the rooms in it lofty and well- proportioned, but looking melancholy from neglect. The approach to these roon)s is by the tower, which stands at the corner of the building, and carries a stone staircase built on the principle of the turret staircases in England, but with steps of magnificent width and easy ascent: the vault overhead finely turned, and the sup- ports — corbels, I fancy, the architects call them — exquisitely carved. Here your antiquary is on safe ground: Louis certainly used these stairs; in the rooms which are above, his son (Charles VIII.) passed his childhood. The tyrant may have chuckled over a new fraud, or meditated some fresh hypocrisy, or for an instant thought fondly of his infant boy, while his eye rested on these very sculptures you now admire. But, alas! for antiquaries and sentimental travellers, the two upper stories of the tower were raised by the last proprietor, with the intention of turning the tyrant's abode into a shot manufactory. This grand staircase and the vaults CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 143 Present state of Plfessis lea Tours. below the building are the principal remains of the time of Louis XL in the chateau itself. And is this all, thought I, that remains of the towers and fortifications and halls of the palace of Plessis les Tours! where the doorways were defended with thick gratings, the windows armed with spikes of iron, the approaches to which were filled with pitfalls and chaussee-trappes, and the prospect from the royal apartments ornamented by the gibbets which the king and his companion-hangman Tristan so liberally honored with victims; a palace inhabited only by the king and the ministers of his cruelties, and to which even the members of the royal family approached through a low narrow wicket, answering to the challenge of the numer- ous guards with the watchword of the day, and submitting to have their persons searched before entering the presence of the monarch. Little, indeed, remains of the abode of the tyrant, whose ill deeds have been cloaked under the title of 'Resto- rer of the Monarchy ;' and the daily changes taking place from the state of the property will probably soon sweep away that little, and leave the scene of so much political craft and of so many crimes a maize-field or a vineyard. " The summer-pavilion on the terrace, which consists of a slated roof resting on arches of -wood-work, covers the site of the oubliettes, where the victim to be con- signed to oblivion was precipitated through a trap into a deep pit. There is no English name, thank Heaven, for this accursed invention, but almost every ancient chateau throughout France boasts its oubliettes. On the side of the terrace, about 144 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN midway between the pavilion and gateway, is the site of the cavern-cell in which Cardinal Balue, when imprisoned for treason, was allowed to sleep at night, being suspended during the day in one of those iron cages of which the miserable man was himself the inventor. The terrace-wall at this spot is about ten feet above the surrounding field. The cell was entered by an opening in front of the wall, and the chateau and the field below falling into the possession of different parties, this tor- ture-hole became appropriately enough the subject of a lawsuit. The owner of the field asserted the cell belonged to him, for the only entrance to it was from his land ; the owner of the chateau claimed it because it was hollowed out of his ter- race ; and the judge decided the cause by ordering the hole to be filled up. In the field below, going from this cell to the gate-side, and not far from the gateway and of the chateau, still stands a rude oratory and confessional, built of stone, to which the victims of the cruel and superstitious Louis were hurried before passing to the oubliette. Beside it is a stone cot, which they show as the residence of the king's favorite 'gardener. " Below the terrace, on the south, that is, the side between the pavilion and the chateau, is another wall, detached, I believe, from the terrace, and running parallel to it ; this the people of the neighborhood say is as old as the time of Louis XL, but it seems too slightly built to have lasted so many centuries. In this wall, and nearly facing the old tower, is a small doorway leading into the outer enclosure, or paddock, as one might call it. The old main wall, as I before mentioned, surrounds this paddock, and just outside this boundary-wall, nearly in a line with the small doorway, stands the old house, once the residence of Francois de Paule, the last confes,sor of the terrible Louis. Louis, as the chronicles tell us, allowed his palac^ to be approached only by winding and fortified paths ; but the tradition here is, that, for the convenience of communicating with his confessor in his last illness, he made a direct approach from this house to the chateau, and that it passed through the small doorway in the inner wall which I have spoken of. There is no longer any opening through the outer wall toward the house, but that may have been filled up when the property within and that without this boundary passed into different hands." But if Plessis les Tours furnishes sorrowful reminiscences, it has others of glory. In the great hall of the palace Louis XII. received the reward of his virtues. This Louis figures in Scott's romance as the duke of Orleans, and in that touching scene in the Hall of Roland at Plessis les Tours. On the death of Charles VIII. (son of Louis XL) without leaving issue, the duke of Orleans became king of France, by the name of Louis XII. In 1506 he assem- bled the states-general in the great hall of Plessis les Tours. Bricot, canon of Notre Dame, addressed the king and the assembly, and after eloquently recounting the good done by Louis, the pardon of his enemies, the reduction of imposts, his victories abroad, his purification of the judicial tribunal at home, he exclaimed : " How shall your subjects repay you ? Deign, sire, to accept the title of Father of the People, which they offer you this day by my voice." The whole assembly on their knees urged the orator's request, and Louis, with many tears, assured them that title was the most acceptable gift his subjects could have made him. About the middle of the last century Plessis les Tours was converted by the gov- ernment into a house of correction for vagrants. La Rochelle is situated in the department of the Lower Charante. It stands on the shores of the Atlantic ocean, one hundred miles northwest of Bordeaux. It is well built and strongly fortified (by Vauban), and contains many handsome squares and fountains. The harbor is safe and commodious, but is accessible for large vessels only at high water ; and the Place d'Armes, or du Chateau, is one of the finest in France. Glass, stoneware, and refined sugar, are the principal articles manufactured, and it has a considerable commerce with the United States ; sending to our shores in the course of the year, many cargoes of brandy, wine, &c. Rochelle is chiefly remarkable at the stronghold of the French protestants in the times of the house of Valois, and of the first Bourbons. In 1627, it was besieged by Richelieu, and was reduced by famine, after a heroic defence, in which fifteen thousand of the besieged perished. A great number of the inhabitants fled to North America. La Rochelle has a population of rather more than eighteen thousand persons. The fourteen departments which the basin of the Seine comprises contain about one sixth of the total population of France. In one of these departments there is the CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCS. 145 146 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN capital, with its million of inhabitants; and in another, Rouen, the Manchester of France. The soil of this region is fertile, and agriculture is in an advanced state. Greater industry and superior resources enable the population to command a larger share of necessaries and luxuries than twice the number of the population enjoy in those parts of France which are less favored by nature and circumstances. The Seine, and its tributaries the Aube, the Yonne, the Marne, the Oise, the Eure, and the Rille, with the Aisne, the Ourcq, and Grand Morin, are navigable for an aggregate length of nearly one thousand nyles. Thus the interchange of raw materials and manufactures is rendered easy throughout the whole of this important portion of the country. The two great ports of the basin of the Seine are Rouen and Havre. Rouen is about the same distance from the sea as London, and during the middle ages engrossed the maritime commerce of the Seine. Vessels of from two hundred and fifty to three hundred tons can get up to the town. Perhaps, however, the principal cause which, rendered Rouen a place of commercial importance during the unsettled periods of European history was the greater security which it offered, as the ports on the coast were exposed to the attacks of pirates and other rovers of the sea. In the sixteenth century these enemies were no longer dreaded, and Havre, then a small place, inhabited by fishermen, from its situation at the mouth of the Seine, was much resorted to by mariners. In 1509, Louis XII. laid the foundations of a town. His successor, Francis I., surrounded it with walls, and in 1618 the Cardinal Richelieu added a strong citadel to the fortifications. Louis XVI. and Napoleon both encouraged the prosperity of Havre, and, from about the year 1783, its commercial prosperity has been constantly increasing, and consuls from the principal commercial nations of the world now reside there. Havre is the only eligible harbor between this portion of the coast and Cherbourg. It is on the right bank of the Seine, which is here several miles wide. There are two roadsteads, and the harbor consists of three basins in the heart of the town, communicating with each other, and capable of containing five hundred vessels, including the largest merchant ships. The tide rises to a height of from twenty-two to twenty-seven feet, and the vessels are always afloat in the harbor. Cape la Heve, two miles and a half west of the town, is a headland about one hundred and thirty yards high, on which there are two handsome lighthouses about fifty feet high. A short time before the revolution of 1789, Rouen made an efi'ort to obtain a share, of foreign commerce, which its rival at the mouth of the river had engrossed. When ships of a large size began to be employed in distant voyages, the navigation of the Seine up to Rouen was not considered safe for this class of vessels, and Rouen only participated in the coasting-trade. But about the middle of the last century the obstacles which the navigation of the Seine presented were carefully examined, and an enterprising individual, conceiving that they were not of so formidable a nature as had been generally supposed, built a large vessel suitable for the foreign trade. His example was soon followed, and ixiany other vessels were built with a similar object by joint-stock companies. The foreign commerce of Rouen was rapidly in- creasing when the revolution put an end to its prosperity. Since 1814 it has revived, but Rouen has not obtained the rank which it formerly occupied, probably in con- sequence of the direction of capital and industry to manufactures, as well as the in- feriority of its situation to the port of Havre. The foreign trade of Rouen is however respectable, and a direct intercourse is maintained with Portugal, Spain, the Levant, the north of Europe, and with America ; the number of vessels engaged in foreign trade exceeding one hundred annually, while nearly the same number of foreign vessels are entered inward. The foreign trade of Havre is more than five times greater then that of Rouen; but the quantity of goods brought to Rouen by coasting vessels, and barges, which navigate the rivers and canals, is as eight to five, com- pared with the extent of this branch of the trade at Havre : one fourth of the coasting trade carried on between the difi"erent ports of France situated on the Atlantic sea- board is engrossed by the two ports. In 1836 there arrived inward at the port of Havre six hundred and three vessels belonging to foreign countries, five hundred and one French vessels engaged in the foreign trade, one hundred and eighty-five English packets, one hundred and nine large coasting vessels, besides nearly three thousand small vessels navigating the Seine and its tributaries. Havre engrosses the largest share of the trade between France and the United States of America. Packets sail regularly for New York, Vera Cruz, Bahia, Lisbon, Hamburg, and Southampton. The number of packets on the New York station is sixteen ; and with Amsterdam, CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— FRANCE. 147 148 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Hamburg, Southampton, Rouen, and Paris, the intercourse is maintained by steam- boats. The value of the imports at Havre in 1829 amounted to $50,000,000 ; the imports of raw cotton amounting to |5,500,000 ; and of sugar to $9,000,000. Havre and Marseilles are the only ports of France in which raw cotton is admitted. Other imports of Havre consisted of coifee, indigo, dye-woods, hides, iron, tin. The cus- toms' duty amounts to $5,000,000 annually. The usual exports are silk and woollen goods, wines, brandies, lace, gloves, perfumery, trinkets, and articles of Parisian manufacture, perfumery, &c. Soap, starch, vitriol, and earthenware are manufac- tured in the town, and there are also breweries, sugar-refining-houses, shipyards, and rope manufactories, which give employment to considerable numbers. Many sea- men are employed in the herring, cod, and whale fisheries ; and the wives of sailors and artisans obtain work as lace-makers. The town is divided into the old and new quarters, the houses in the former being ill-built, while those of the new quarter are much superior in appearance, and the streets are better lighted. Ingouville is a populous and pleasant suburb, containing the country-houses of the merchants. The population of the town and suburbs does not exceed 30,000. The customhouse is a large building, but the public buildings arc, on the whole, rather of an inferior order. There is a fine public square planted with trees, which forms an agreeable promenade. The principal local institutions are a court for the settlement of commercial disputes, several literary and scientific establishments, a public library, containing above 15,000 volumes, a museum of natural history, a high school and school of navigation, and a school for geometry applied to the arts. Oyster Dredger on the Coast of France. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 149 CHAPTER VL— PORTUGAL. Portugal is but a small c.puntry, in the form of an oblong square, extending from 37° to 42° north latitude. Its greatest length is about three hundred and fifty miles, from north to south, and its breadth averages about one hundred and fifteen miles ; consequently, the area of its surface is about forty thousand square miles, and it is therefore not much more than one fifth the size of France. Yet the fleets and com- merce of Portugal, at one time, were more extensive than those of any country in Europe ; and for two centuries, the Portuguese were equally pre-eminent as adven- turous and successful navigators. Madeira, the Azores, and parts of the Gold Coast, were settled bj^ them early in the fourteenth century, and the kings of Portugal placed themselves at the head of that enthusiastic ardor, which, stimulated by the hope of finding a way by sea to the countries from which Europeans received ivory, gold-dust, and other commodities, across the desert, was at length successful in ac- complishing its object. The Poruguese led the way from Europe to India, by sea ; they planted colonies on the shores of the African continent, from its northern ex- tremities almost to its southern headland ; they held possession of extensive territo- ries in India, by the right of conquest, and claimed for themselves the exclusive right of navigating the Indian seas. In the new world, Brazil was one of the ear- liest European settlements ; and Lisbon became the great European mart for the productions of India, Africa, and America. Being the first to open new paths to commercial enterprise, and engrossing the trade with newly-discovered countries, great profits were made. When the trade to India was carried on overland, Venice was better situated as an entrepot for the productions of the east, than Lisbon ; but when they were brought by sea, Lisbon, situated between the north and south of Europe, was most conveniently placed. The Portuguese endeavored to secure to themselves, if possible, the exclusive advantages which their adventurous spirit had placed in their hands. No other country was allowed to participate in the trade to the Portuguese settlements ; and the right to traffic with the natives of newly-dis- covered countries was permitted only to those who had sufficient interest to obtain a license, and who were often worthless adventurers. Though, for a considerable period, commerce flourished, and profits were great, the system of monopolies, both in the colonies and at home, was sure to undermine the prosperity of the country, at some future period ; and many subsequent evils are to be traced to illiberal restric- tions, framed in the hope of excluding other countries ftom the African, Indian, or trans-Atlantic trade. These eff'orts to maintain a monopoly were fruitless; and when other nations became their competitors, Portugal was in her turn shut out from profitable branches of foreign commerce. Thus she was left to her monopolies. Manufactures declined, though, having such extensive colonies, it might have been expected that the demands on the industry of the mother-country would have greatly increased ; and the direct object of their restrictive system had been to promote the interests of Portugal. Political events rapidly hastened the crisis which would, sooner or later, have been occasioned by the unsound commercial policy of the country. In the fifteenth century, Portugal was successfully struggling for maritime and commercial pre-eminence ; in the sixteenth century this object had been ob- tained, and the people were reaping the benefits of their enterprise ; but from 1580, when Portugal was annexed to Spain, its long and melancholy decline commenced. The authority of the mother-country being relaxed, its connexion with the colonies was weakened, and it was not powerful enough to defend them against aggressions, so that, one by one, they fell into the hands of the Dutch or English. Of all its pos- sessions in Africa, India, and the new world, only Madeira, Azores, and one or two settlements in Africa and India, now remain. In 1640, Portugal once more became an independent state under the sovereigns of the house of Braganza. But this revival of its political life failed in quickening in- dustry and commerce, which had gradually sunk into insignificance ; and though in fact nominally independent, the principles of vitality which should have rallied and invigorated public spirit were so stagnant, that foreign support was required to sus- tain the tottering state. 150 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Under the administration of Pombal, a minister of superior energy, the country had displayed some signs of life, and useful reforms had been effected ; but both were transient benefits, disappearing when the influence by which they had been produced was no longer felt. In 1807, amid the distractions occasioned by foreign invasion, the royal family of Portugal emigrated to Brazil, and from that time until the close of the war, life and property were insecure, and industry languished. After the peace, when the nation began to improve their internal resources, Portugal was not permitted to enjoy the same tranquillity, but was disturbed by civil dissen- sions, which raged from 1820 to the expulsion of Don Miguel, in 1834, and were but ill-calculated to stimulate industry, or to alloAV of the commencement of those enterprises which render a nation prosperous. But the energy and vigor which had distinguished the Portuguese of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, were no longer the characteristics of the nation. Ignorance and misgovernment had produced their wonted effects. The foreign trade of Portugal, once more extensive than that of any other power, was chiefly carried on at the two ports of Lisbon and Oporto, with English capital ; and but for the same stimulus, even the work of reproduction would have ceased in many instances. At the termination of the late civil war, all the interests of Portugal were, as may be supposed, in a struggling condition ; and the physical causes which obstruct the internal activity of the country, necessarily render it a work of time to overcome these difficulties. Portugal consists, in a great measure, of mountain-ridges divided by chasms. Alemtejo and Beira are the only provinces which contain plains of any extent. The rivers are few, and in summer, even some which are navigable at other seasons are nearly dry ; there are no canals, and the roads are wretched. Thus the traffic between one part of the country and another, is insignificant, and local preju- dices, of the most antiquated date, hold undisputed sway in petty districts, cut off from each other by ravines and desolate tracts. These circumstances have also their political influence. At present the country is too poor to construct good roads, but Roman energy overcame the natural difficulties which the surface presented, and there are the remains of highways which they formed. The want of roads is greatest in the south, but in the northern provinces the main roads are tolerably good, and there are bridges where they are required, but these are of ancient date, and not the result of recent improvements. The crossroads resemble the tracks which cover the vast steppes of Russia. There are neither stage-coaches nor any system established, by which travellers may pursue their journey with post-horses ; Portugal, in this test of civilization, ranking lower than any other country in Europe. The inns are few in number, and afford very poor accommodation, and indeed, are only to be found in the larger towns. It is evident that there are few arrangements based on the locomotive habits of the people. The wheel-carriages which are in use are in keeping with the roads over which they are to travel, and on many of the roads, conveyance by wheel-carriages is not possible, and goods are carried on the backs of mules. But even on the best roads, a clumsy cart, drawn by bullocks, is used, and the rate of travelling is about thirty miles in twenty-four hours ; while the cost of this imperfect mode of transit is so great, that the carriage of wines from some of the inland districts, not very far from Lisbon, is equal to the cost of the article conveyed. Oxen are almost universally used for draught, horses seldom being employed, and they are therefore not numerous; mules are much in request. In the streets of Lisbon, even, primitive-looking carriages may be seen, and also heard, as they creak along, drawn by a couple of bullocks. The want of good roads, and the difficulty of transporting commodities from place to place, would alone suffice to keep a country in a depressed condition ; but in Portugal, these ne- cessary aids to the development of the national prosperity not only are wanting, but this evil is aggravated by a number of other causes, the united effects of which are sufficient to account for the low state in which the public interests were found, at the close of the late civil war. The coasts and rivers of Portugal abound with fish, and in the sixteenth century the Portuguese were rather extensively engaged in the Newfoundland fishery, but at the period of which we speak, and long before, the fisheries on their own coast sup- plied only a limited proportion of the home demand, and the Norwegians, Swedes, Dutch, English, and Americans, furnished the remainder. The consumption is very great, and but for a tax of twenty per cent, on the produce of the coast-fisheries, it is inconceivable how so natural a source of employment should have been neglected. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 151 Manufactures, at the same period, were unimproved. No new machinery was in- troduced, and the commonest and most obvious contrivances for abridging manual labor, were not adopted. The consequence of this low state of art and ingenuity- was, that the manufactures of woollens, hats, glass, and eartheuAvare, cottons, &c., were of the coarsest description, sheepskins being not unfrequently worn for clothing in the remote parts of the country. Privileged manufactories, secured in their mo- nopoly by licenses, will partly account for th^ inferiority of Portuguese manufactures. The right of manufacturing tobacco, soap, and some other articles, was also farmed out. The common handicrafts were in a rude state. The retail-dealers, who in other countries are anxious to obtain custom, are in Portugal apathetic, and too in- different to give themselves trouble for the sake of obliging a purchaser. The mines of lead, iron, copper, and other metals, and the quarries of fine marble, all once profitably worked, were neglected. In the fourteenth century, when the population of Portugal was greater than at present, sufficient corn was grown to admit of some quantity being exported ; but when trade had dwindled, and agricul- ture was the chief resource left, Portugal had become a grain-importing country. Butter and cheese are imported in considerable quantities from England and Hol- land. Cows are seldom kept, goats' milk being usually used. The wool of the sheep in the plains of Beira is of good quality, and greater attention might be ad- vantageously paid to the fleece, which would become an important article of ex- change with other countries. The development of the agricultural resources of Por- tugal ought, indeed, now to be the great object of her rulers. With a fine climate, and a soil favorable to the production of corn, wine, oil, and a variety of fruits, the aggregate riches of the country might be easily increased. Maize and rice are raised ; potatoes are not much cultivated. If irrigation were more generally prac- tised, and other improvements introduced, the surplus produce of the soil would not be confined to fruits, such as oranges, lemons, citrons, almonds, chestnuts, &c., which it requires little exertion to render profitable objects of cultivation. The olive is rather extensively cultivated ; but the produce is chiefly consumed at home, the oil forming one of the commonest ingredients of cookery in Portugal. The cork-tree is also a profitable native production. But the vine is the most valuable ; and when, in 1765, in accordance with the spirit in which the industry of the country was reg- ulated, the vineyards of the Douro and Mondego were partially converted into corn lands by order of the government, they did not remain long diverted from their for- mer more profitable uses. It is estimated that four fifths of the population of Portugal are employed in agri- culture ; in France the proportion is two thirds, and in England one third. The total population of the kingdom is about 3,500,000, and the relative number of inhabitants per square mile is greater than in Spain, Denmark, Poland proper, and Prussian Poland, and rather more than one half the proportion of England and Wales. The most populous province is that of the Douro and Minho ; and if the other parts of the kingdom were as densely peopled, the number of inhabitants would exceed 10,000,000 ; while if they were as thinly scattered as in the large province of Alemtejo, they would not amount to 1,500,000. Lisbon and Oporto are the only ports of considerable importance in Portugal. The entrance of the Tagus is magnificent, and ships of burden come close up to the town ; but how sadly has the commerce of this once-famous entrepot declined ! At one period, four hundred large ships traded between Lisbon and South America, besides those which were employed in the trade with Africa, India, and China, and with the Moluccas and other distant parts ; but the whole foreign shipping of the country has now dwindled to fifty vessels ; and in 1838, only three hundred and twenty-four vessels entered the Tagus, including steamboats which arrive from Eng- land once a week, the aggregate tonnage of these three hundred and twenty-four vesisels being fifty-three thousand seven hundred and twenty-eight tons. The manner in which the decline of foreign commerce occurred, may be easily explained. When the Dutch and English, instead of obtaining the produce of America and the Indies from Lisbon, proceeded direct to those parts of the globe, Lisbon ceased to be the great depot, which circumstances had temporarily made her. The trade with Brazil was, however, preserved until within the last few years; but the monopoly of Portugal ceased when Brazil became an independent country, and England and other countries carry on a direct trade for cotton, sugar, and those articles of Brazilian produce which the mother-country formerly required 152 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN to be brought to Lisbon, previous to tlieir distribution in Europe. The produce and manufactures of Europe, also, instead of reaching the Brazilians from Lisbon, are received direct from the countries whose industry has given them an exchangeable value. The obstacles to a more extensive export trade of the native productions of Portugal arise to a great extent from the cost and labor of conveying goods and mer- chandise ; and thus, beyond a certain distance from places which are near a ship- ping-port, or possess some facilities for reaching it, the stimulus to production which foreign commerce excites, is not very strongly experienced. Still, the trade of Lis- bon is extensive, as there are few seaports in Portugal, and mercantile operations are concentrated chiefly in Lisbon and Oporto. The population of Lisbon is about 260,000. Oporto, a view of which is given, is the second port of the kingdom, and delightfully situated on two hills near the mouth of the Douro, which winds among steep hills crowned with woods. It is on the left bank of the river, the suburb of Villa Nova being opposite, and connected with Oporto by a bridge of boats. Oporto appears to great advantage after escaping from the filth of Lisbon. The immense magazines of the great wine company are prominent objects of interest. The pop- ulation amounts to about 70,000. There are, of course, many small ports, but, with the exception of St. Ubes, they are merely the resort of coasting-vessels. About five hundred vessels load annually at St. Ubes with bay-salt, which Portugal ex- ports to the extent of one hundred thousand tons annually. Ships with fish take back cargoes of this salt, which is of a good quality. There are but few rivers which exhibit so many of the beauties of nature, com- prised in one view, as the Tagus near its mouth ; and but very few cities which possess so many circumstances contributing to picturesque effect as Lisbon. The capital of Portugal is built upon a range of hills, which form the termination of the Guadarama mountains, after having traversed the provinces of Beira and Estremadura. Seven of these hills are covered by the city ; and they may be classed in three groups, namely, Lisbon, or those occupied by the castle of St. George, the convents of St. Vicenti de Fora and La Gracia, Campo d'Orique, &c., &c., which form the upper and principal part of the city, in which are the government offices, palace of the Cortes, arsenals, &c. ; Buenos Ayres, containing the palace of the Necessidades, Estrella, &c. ; and Belem ; the valley of Alcantara divides the two latter groups, which is crossed by a bridge dedicated to St. Peter. On entering the Tagus, after having passed Fort St. Julien, the old tower or castle of Belem is the first object we arrive at. This beautiful specimen of the Moresque style of architecture stands on the sandy beach of the Tagus, at the point of a small bay, covering Lisbon from the sea, in conjunction with the Bouje, or Lighthouse Fort, *on the opposite side of the bar. The batteries, which extend from the tower along the bank of the river, though almost entirely ruined by the French and by neglect, still mount sufficient guns to make them formidable. Behind the tower stands the convent of St. Jeronimo, now called the Casapia, or house of charity. To describe this building so that any idea might be formed of its extreme beauty or elaborate workmanship would be impossi- ble : the sculpture-covered chapel, with its walls and pillars and roof of white marble, the beautiful quadrangle, with its delightful fountain, the minaret-shaped buttresses, are each sufficient for a treatise ; suffice it to say, that tbere is scarcely a stone in the building but has some elegant Moresque device carved upon it. Casapia signifies literally " house of pity" — the word (pia) being an abbreviation of piedade, pity — it is therefore appropriated to the preservation and education of orphans, and such children as are deserted by their parents, from whatsoever cause. The inanner of placing children there is as follows : Near the door is a circular box, in which the infant is laid, with the name desired written on a piece of paper, as well as any private sign by which it may be reclaimed at any future period ; the box then turns on a pivot, and its burden is thus introduced to the interior. Many persons too. poor to educate their ofi'spring, deposite them here, as at any future period, should their fortunes prove more prosperous, they may recover them on the payment of a certain fine : the females are educated, and the product of their industry forms part of their marriage portion ; the males are taught a useful trade or profession, and when arrived at a proper age are set up in business, or provided for in some suitable calling. The convent is enormously rich, as few persons make their wills without remembering the Casapia. It was from the front of this convent that Vasco de Gama took leave of Portugal when embarking on that memorable expedition CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 153 -.- ;■, 4 J*\*\\ 154 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN which has ranked his native land as one of the first maritime countries in the world at that time. Near the convent of St. Jeronimo are the royal gardens and summer lodge of the queen ; the building is plain, in the villa style, and the gardens tastelessly laid out and badly kept. The town of Belem is small and irregular, although the great number of quintas and palaces of the nobility give it an appearance of great beauty. The height immediately in the rear of the gardens is crowned with the large and unfinished palace of the Adjuda ; only the side toward the city has been finished, and about two thirds of that facing the water: enough, however, has been done to give an idea of the design. The finished front consists of two stories, flanked at each end by square towers one story higher, and ornamented with two rows of pilasters, the lower of the Doric, and the upper of the Ionic order ; a window is placed in each intercolumniation, except in the centre, where their place is supplied, in the lower story, by three archways, leading into the interior quadrangle ; the centre projects but very little from the body of the building, and has a heavy and unpleasing effect ; the towers are surmounted by trophies, and the entrances ornamented with statues, whose ill proportions and clumsy execution show but too plainly the low ebb of the fine arts in Portugal. The view wliich this building commands, from its elevated position, is one of unrivalled grandeur ; and should it ever be finished, v/ill form a most delightful as well as noble residence for the monarchs of Portugal ; but it is much to be doubted whether the national funds will ever be in so flourishing a con- dition as to afford the means of finishing so great an undertaking. Lisbon, as indeed all the cities of the peninsula, abounds with convents and re- ligious houses. These edifices give an air of beauty and grandeur to places which otherwise would be unworthy of notice ; but in Lisbon, where such fine opportunities occur, through the inequalities of the ground, for placing buildings in prominent situations, they become objects of admiration, whether we look on them in the mass, as adding to the beautiful appearance of the city by their innumerable towers and belfries, or whether we consider them singly as works of art. The great defect of public edifices in England is the want of a proper point of sight ; thus the most celebrated buildings, such as St. Paul's, can be viewed only in detail, the effect as a whole being entirely lost; but in Lisbon sufficient space is generally left to select a point whence the entire building may be seen at one view. Those in the heart of the city have large squares in front, while those on the heights generally stand in solitary grandeur. Among the sacred edifices of Lisbon, the one represented in our engraving is the largest, though perhaps not the most beautiful in architectural design, being surpassed by the Estrella (chapel of the stars). The church, however, is a fine specimen of that peculiar species of classic architecture which prevails so much in Portugal. It consists of two square towers of three stories, each story being ornamented with Doric pilasters ; the upper ones form the belfry, and are surmounted with octagonal domes and lanterns: the centre, between the towers, is divided into three compartments by pilasters of the same order, the ground-floor having three gates of exquisite workmanship, surmounted by niches and statues, while three windows occupy the spaces in the upper story ; and a magnificent flight of steps leads up to the portal. It would be a vain task to attempt a description of the interior, as every chapel would require a separate account ; so lavish have been the founders of their wealth, and the architects so profuse of ornament. . The convent itself, which joins the church, though not ugly, possesses, few points worthy of remark. The monastic houses of Portugal are all built pretty nearly on the same plan, and one description may serve for all ; they are squares of various shapes, some being oblongs of various degrees, and some perfect squares: a long passage runs completely round the building on the upper stories, on the outer side of which are the dormitories or cells of the rnonks — small square apartments, with a window looking outward. The lower floor is occupied by the refectory, the kitchen, the dispensario, and other offices ; while seyeral large apartments are left for social meeting or for council. The interior quadrangle is surrounded by a cloister, and the centre is occupied by a garden and fountain. The vows made by the inmates of these houses were often curious and whimsical, and the means taken to avoid an absolute breach ingenious. Thus the monks of St. Vicenti, who were all nobles, had a vow not to walk beyond the precincts of their convent : the consequence was, that they invariably rode in carriages ; and their immense wealth enabled them to keep the best equipages in Lisbon. This convent CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 155 156 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN was erected by King John III. ; and it is worthy of remark that the architect fell in the fatal expedition of Dom Sebastian III., in the year 1577. The next convent in size is that of La Gracia, which crowns the summit of a hill, forming a triangle with the castle and St. Vicenti, but is entirely destitute of archi- tectural beauty. Since the suppression of the monastic orders in Portugal, this con- vent is converted into a barrack, and is capable of quartering 5,000 or 6,000 men, when in perfect repair ; but only one wing being used, the rest is suffered to fall into decay, a great part being unroofed. The chapel of St. Roque, near the palace of the Marquis Quintilla, is, perhaps, the richest of its size in the world. The pillars to the altar are formed of one piece of lapis-lazuli, and the pavement and walls are mosaics of the most exquisite work- manship, and of inestimable value. It is said that when Junot, during his occupa- tion of the Portuguese capital, saw this chapel, he conceived the design of conveying the mosaics entire to France ; but the workmen, in the attempt to remove them, having loosened some of the stones, " Desist !" said he, " it shall not be said that Junot was barbarous enough to injure so beautiful a work of art." The story does not accord with the rapacious character of the French general, although the destruction of the beautiful in art could call forth a tear even from a Marius. The Estrella, or Church of the Stars, stands on the hill of Buenos Ayres. It is built in the Corinthian order, and forms one of the most picturesque objects in the city : it serves as the chapel to the convent of the Heart of Jesus (Convento de Coracao de Jesus), and, from its proximity to the palace, and the frequent attendance of the queen, is more generally known as the Queen's chapel. The towers are exceedingly graceful and beautiful, and the noble dome is a perfect model. The portico is per- haps too small in proportion to the building, and indeed a tradition is preserved, that the architect perceiving this fault too late to rectify it, threw himself from the aqueduct, the central arch of which is three hundred and thirty feet in height. The convent of Necessidades is now occupied as the royal palace : it is a plain unsightly building ; nor has the painting of the front of a red color contributed to in- crease its beauty. After the magnificence, the grandeur, and the dazzling glitter of the national churches, there is an unpretending simplicity in the chapel of the British factory which touches the heart. There we seem freed from the burdensome pomps and pageants which dazzle the eye, but enter not the bosom ; and the hymn poured forth by the congregation seems to speak a language of calm devotion which it is impos- sible to feel when surrounded by the bustle which is constant in the foreign churches. The burial-ground is tastefully arranged ; thick rows of cypress-trees cast their mournful shadows over the quiet spot, and the rose and the lily may be seen bloom- ing amidst the habitations of the dead. The contrasts which Lisbon presents are very striking. Viewed as it rears itself amphitheatrically on the right bank of the Tajo, or Tagus, extending from east to west (from Xabegras to Belem) about seven leagues, and about three in breadth from south to north, it is no less imposing than captivating ; while many parts of the in- terior of the city — in fact, nearly all that portion which escaped the dreadful earth- quake of 1755 — are absolutely repulsive, being no better than a labyrinth of narrow, crooked, filthy streets — a chaos of habitations, gloomy and dismal to the eye, and unhealthy for their occupants. In the new town, on the contrary, which is daily en- larging itself, the principal streets are wide and long, many of them quite straight. and all intersected by lesser streets or lanes called traviesas. The houses, too, have a certain cheerfulness of aspect, the very reverse of the murkiness that characterizes those of the old city. They are generally from three to five stories in height, and several have gardens attached to them. Yet, "although the streets themselves are kept tolerably clean, they are for the most part unpaved, with the exception of trot- toirs along the sides. Although it may be asserted that, with the exception of the celebrated aqueduct, Lisbon does not possess a single building that will bear the test of critical examina- tion, or that can be reckoned a really fine piece of architecture, there are many which are striking enough in regard to decoration, and some which exhibit several beautiful parts. Of the two hundred and fifty churches which this city boasts, the principal are the Patriarchal church or cathedral, called also the -Se, and Santa Maria, a mod- ern edifice, which, notwithstanding its vast size, has an air of melancholy rather than of solemnity or grandeur ; the church Da Roia. remarkable for the magnificent chapel CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 157 158 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN of San Joan Bautesta, which John IV. caused to be fabricated at Rome, and afterward conveyed to Lisbon as a present to the Jesuits ; that called Do Caracao de Jesus, the largest and most splendid pile of any erected since the great earthquake, and which is crowned with a dome that in regard to its construction may be pronounced a work of surprising hardihood. This edifice serves also as the mausoleum of its foundress, Queen Maria I., the same who commenced the palace of Ajuda. The convents, formerly so numerous, are now all of them suppressed, and their spacious and magnificent buildings have either been converted to other purposes, or stand empty — that, for instance, called Necessidades is now the residence of the queen, and in that of San Bento the cortes now hold their sittings. Among the pub- lic buildings of this capital, the aqueduct Agoas-fivres is incontestably the finest — one of the noblest productions of modern architecture in all Europe, and one that may fairly challenge anything of the kind achieved by the ancients. Notwithstanding its being yet incomplete, and moreover displaying many defects, Ajuda is an imposing architectural pile, one of the finest royal palaces anywhere to be seen, and possesses, besides, a nobleness of site and prospect which hardly any other can boast of. We would fain attempt to convey some idea of the stir and bustle in the streets of this extensive, beautiful, and yet, it must be added, somewhat gloomy city. The last epithet is undoubtedly rather strongly contradictory to that which precedes it, and by no means very prepossessing ; nevertheless, its general aspect, with its masses of dingy gray buildings piled up on hills, and towers rearing their heads among them, and intermixed with numerous ruins of churches and private houses — ranges of bare and windowless walls — can not fail to impress every stranger with a feeling of melancholy. Yet is the city itself surrounded by nature in all its freshness and luxuriance — is can- opied by a joyous sky of azure — is laved by the green waves of the stream that flows up against its walls. Lisbon shows itself to the imagination as an elderly matron who has seated herself in a garden of roses, where she meditates on her gay youth- time, when all the world contended for her smiles ; perhaps, too, gives a thought to her children, who, far away from her, have established homes for themselves beyond the ocean, leaving their parent lonely and deserted. Is not such in fact the present condition of Lisbon? Severed from her by the Atlantic, Brasillia is now estranged also from her interests, which no longer touch that Avestern country ; and Africa, the bare recollection of Africa, aAvakens only sorrow, shame, and despondency. Strange is the mingled feeling of delight and disgust with which one wanders through its swarming streets. When the boat from which we landed first touched the steps leading up from the Tajo to the Prapa do Commercio, our bosoms beat wi:h joyous anticipations. A crowd of sunburnt, swarthy figures, with naktd feet and arms, and many of them with sufficiently ferocious visages, immediately surrounded us, boisterously proffering services we did not need. These were Barqueiros and Gallejos, of whom Lisbon, contains about 20,000, and who generally play a leading part in every political ferment or popular excitement. Such as happen to be unem- ployed may be seen basking in the sun, either stretched upon the ground, or lolling on the steps and balustrades along the river, accompanied by their wives and chil- dren, who, like themselves, "are sleeping or eating, or else purifying their persons, although not after the fashion of Mohammedan ablution. The Praca itself is a noble square ; but it appears singular that it should be suffered to become the haunt and rendezvous of the lowest part of the population, who seem to put no restraint upon their behavior in any one respect, but act just as their incli- nations prompt them, indifferent whether their actions seem decent or otherwise in the eyes of any one else ; in fact, little better than in a state of nature. Neither in Berlin, nor any other German city, would such things be tolerated as here pass for matters of course ; in none is such an equipage to be seen as that cart-like vehicle, drawn by asses, which its owner seems to consider part of his dignity. Then, again, what hideous wagons, with oxen yoked to them — what swarms of Moors and ne- groes, were they indeed but decently covered, but they are half, or more than half, naked. What repulsive figures, too, are the women one beholds here collected — not merely devoid of all feminine charms, but many of them with mustaches calculated to inspire in our military gallants no tenderer passion than that of envy. In one place may be seen, squatting round a fire, like so many Hottentots, a group of ragged, stockingless boys, who are occupied in roasting some kind of animal unheard-of in the annals of gastronomy. Perched on the shoulders of one of the party sits another epicure, to wit, a monkey, who is busily engaged in exploring the lad's unkempt CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 159 160 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN head for game, of which he doubtless finds abundance ; a little further on, passes hy a two-wheeled bier, or litter for the dead, dragged by mules ; this is succeeded by a procession of priests, attired in red robes ; and to make up the moving, motley scene, we see ladies in veils, pacing by with stately steps, attended by a negro ; sailors of all nations and complexions, from the jet-black African to the white-hued Dane; beggars of the most loathsome appearance, and smart, fashionably-dressed gentle- men, all intermingled in the strangest manner. Further on, before the portal of an extensive building, we behold soldiers; and the sight of regular military inspires a certain feeling of safety in the midst of this tumultuous scene. It is the barracks of the marines ; and a number of the men — all in good uniforms — are sitting, standing, or lying, on the ground around the entrance, smoking their cigars. Among them were, as we perceived on a closer inspection, many handsome and well-formed, though sunburnt, countenances ; and also several negroes, who cut a strange figure in their uniforms. Close behind us we hear the tinkling of a bell, and turning our heads behold a black seated in a small cart drawn by two sheep. The owner of this singular equipage was dressed in a blue jacket, very full of buttons — for which it appears the Portuguese have a par- ticular affection — and displayed, not only a Avhite shirt, but very deep ruffles. As soon as he saw that he had caught our attention, he held out his hat with a very gra- cious smile, nor was it till then that we discovered him to be a beggar who had losi both his legs. " Agoa I agoa !" is the cry incessantly kept up by the water-venders ; and a most lugubrious cry it is ; yet are the voices which utter it deep, sonorous, and not unhar- monious, although certainly too elegiac. The> hawkers of fish and poultry employ, on the contrary, if not a much more agreeable, a livelier tone; less poetical, per-: haps, but not altogether so dismal. Besides these vocal itinerant dealers, who invite custom by exercising their lungs, there are others who carry on their trade less noisily ; and to say the truth, the oranges, lemons, figs, majos, roses, and other flowers, with which that long cavalcade of mules and asses is laden, require not to be heralded by sound of voice, since both the sight and the scent from so delicious a freightage recommend it sufficiently to notice. Nothing is more common than to see cows milked at the doors of palaces, and innumerable hens, with their chickens, running about the streets, to say nothing of the swarms of dogs. The creaking and grating noise of a cart drawn by oxen, ' whose wheels are never greased until they threaten to catch fire, may be heard at half a mile's distance, as may likewise the jingling bells of a team of mules ; and as for cabriolets and other carriages, they drive at a very slow pace. On the other hand, there are more persons to be seen mounted on horseback than in almost any city in^ the world ; not, indeed, exactly on horseback either, the quadrupeds being generally mules or asses. In the Rua d'Auro, one of the handsomest streets, by-the-by, in all Lisbon, and that which leads to the se, or cathedral, I beheld a most singular — I might say hor- rible — procession, namely : of malefactors belonging to the extensive prison called Lamoeiro, who are in this manner conducted abroad at stated seasons for an airing, attended by a military guard. Their appearance was that of demons rather than of human beings ; nor can anything equal either their disgusting squalidity, or their no less disgusting atrocity of expression. The rattling of their chains, and the wild howl and gestures with which they extended forth their hands to passengers for alms, had something in them quite appalling ; even now it can hardly be reflected on without a shudder. By way of making an end of this catalogue of the various disagreeable sights one is compelled to encounter in the streets of Lisbon, we may mention the number of dogs without owners, that roam wild about the streets, prowling for food, and picking up what they can — often feeding on the most nauseous matter. Many of these wretched animals have no hair on iheir hides, and are cov- ered with biles and blotches, or otherwise shockingly disfigured by disease. What the condition of the streets, therefore, must be, may easily be imagined ; and yet they are noi in so abominable a state as formerly. Not many years ago it was the custom to make them the general receptacle for dirt and filth of all kinds ; but this has been put a stop to by the present government, and dirt-carts go about with bells, apprizing the citizens of their approach. At first it was very diSicult to make the good folks of Lisbon comply_ with this arbitrary innovation, but they seem now to be tolerably well reconciled to it. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 162 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Having thus dwelt on the shadows of the picture, we are, in all fairness, bound to point out its lights and its particular beauties. What lends Lisbon no ordinary- interest and attraction, is the life and activity everywhere to be seen, and in which the natives of so many different lands bear their parts. And what prospect of the kind can be more noble and imposing than that of the majestic Tajo, with its thou- sands of vessels, as beheld from the Praca do Commercio, from that do Romulares, or from the Caes do Sodre ? We question whether any other city in the world can afford one equally fine. The shops, again, with the luxuriant display they make of oranges and other fruits of the south, and rich flowers, impart to the streets an air of joyousness and abundance that is absolutely cheering. The monks, it is true, have disappeared ; they formerly swarmed in the streets, and now not a single one is to be seen in all Lisbon. In them the city has lost a very striking class among its population ; yet it still retains much that impresses a stranger as being altogether di^imilar from that to which he has been accustomed. We have already mentioned the situation of Lisbon on the right or north bank of the Tagus, where it occupies, like ancient Rome, seven hills, the extremities of a mountain-range, which traverses the entire province of Estremadura, in which Lis- bon is situated. The ascent to the highest parts of the city is by a gradual slope, covered with irregular streets, though in some parts they are so steep as to render a descent, except on foot, extremely hazardous ; while in others they are broad and spacious. After the great earthquake in 1755, which laid the entire city in ruins, the marquis de Pombal, who was then prime minister, formed the design of rebuild- ing it on a regular plan. For this purpose, with the assistance of the ablest archi- tects he could collect, he divided the ground into a number of squares, at equal dis- tances from each other, subdividing the intervening space into streets, perfectly straight and parallel, and again dividing these by others at right angles. Only a very small part of this magnificent plan was carried into execution ; and we can conceive, from that portion, what would have been the grandeur and magnificence of a city, situated as Lisbon is, and commanding so many excellent points of view, had it been thus rebuilt ; but, as in 'London after the great fire, the opportunity was lost of erecting one of the most beautiful cities in the world, and it is to be hoped that such opportunities will not again occur. The Placa do Commercio (as seen from the river) is one of Porabal's squares, and was intended to form a kind of ex- change for colonial and foreign merchants. The houses are of an equal height, i. e. two stories, and occupy three sides of the square, the fourth being open to the river. These three sides are surrounded by a piazza, under which business is conducted among the various merchants who assemble there. The customhouse, war-offices, and natioad library, occupy the upper chambers. In the centre stands the beauti- ful equestrian statue of King Jose, the figure and horse, as Avell as the serpents be- neath his feet, are of ^bronze ; the horse's eyes are said to have been formed of two splendid brilliants, and that Marshal Junot, being unable to remove the statue, car- ried off these valuable ey^. The pedestal is formed of a single block of white marble, which is said to have required eighty yoke of oxen to draw it from the quarry. The front is ornamented with a bronze profile of the king, and the two sides are adorned with sculptures, representing the triumphs of Portugal in India and America. The whole is surrounded by an iron rail, supported at intervals by marble pillars, upon a platform ascended by about eight steps. The extreme ele- gance of this railing might serve as a model for imitation. The quays or caes of Lisbon are upon a noble plan where finished, but, like the other parts of Pombal's design, are neglected and discontinued by a government that had not capacity to understand its beauty nor its utility. The principal landing-place is the Placa do Commercio (perhaps better known as Black-Horse square), where the ascent from the river is formed by a magnificent flight of steps. The three principal streets, Rua d'Auro, Rua de Plata, and Rua de Panno, so called from the trades carried on respectively in each, lead in parallel lines from Black-Horse square to the Rocio, a large and beautiful square, in which reviews of the troops, national guard, &c., take place ; the central window of what once was the palace of the inquisition, being fitted up for the royal reception. A little beyond are the public gardens, which, under the reign of the present queen, have been con- siderably enlarged. The beauty of these, as indeed of most foreign gardens, con- sists in a great number of trees and hedges cut into curious and grotesque figures, among which the corkscrew figure seems to be the favorite. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 163 The castle of St. George (the patron saint of Portugal) overloots the Rocio, and the ascent to it is extremely toilsome, the streets leading up being so steep as in many places to be little more than one vast flight of steps. When, however, the summit is gained, the magnificence of the prospect amply recompenses the labor. The view is uninterrupted for leagues around on every side. To the north the ho- rizon is bounded by the beautifully-picturesque mountains of Cintra ; following the line of coast, variegated with towns and villages and forts, we see the noble Tagus, guarded as it is by Belem and the Bouje, rolling its mighty stream into the bound- less ocean ; then from the plain green fields we see the houses deepen, street upon street follows, till all the city crowds upon the eye with its thousand domes, and convents and palaces: as we turn to the southward, the precipices of Almada, crowned with the fort and tower, the deep bays of Moita and Alcoxete, the distant mountains of the Arabida, the isolated and castle-capped Palmella, combine to form a picture indescribably grand, and, as far as I have seen, unrivalled. The descent from the castle by the principal street is much more gradual than the ascent ; and we here meet with the Limoeira or jail for prisoners of all classes, and a little lower down the cathedral. This church, though extremely plain, and nearly destitute of any kind of ornament, has a noble and ancient appearance. The front consists of two towers, the space between them being occupied by the arched doorway and a circular window. The chapel of St. Antonio de Se in its front adds considerably to the effect, as it relieves, by its lavish ornament, the plainness of the cathedral. There is a small fruit-market held here. Crowning the hill beyond the castle, stands the convent of St. Vicenti di Fora. The suburbs of this division of Lisbon are extremely beautiful, being crowded with the quintas or villas of the nobility and gentry. These villas are the more numerous, as, save a trip to Cintra in the sum- mer, few of the nobility leave the capital, even to visit their estates. Indeed, so small is the desire among the Portuguese to improve their property by agricultural means, that few have any idea of its condition, know its extent, or possess plans of even parts of their estates. Besides these mansions in the environs, many of the nobility possess splendid palaces in the heart of the city ; such, indeed, is the palace of the Marquis de Quintilla, a little above the Caes do Sodere. There is little in the external appearance of this edifice to attract attention ; but the interior is fitted up in the most splendid style, the furniture and ornaments being after the English fashion. The marquis, who derives his immense wealth from the tobacco monop- oly, is a great admirer of foreigners, and has several foreign servants. The chapel of the Quintilla palace is, internally, very beautifully fitted up ; there are a few good pictures in it, and the carvings around some of the shrines are very ele- gant. On the opposite side of the small square (Largo dasduas Igrejas) stands the Loretto; or Italian church ; in the centre of the square there is a beautiful fountain, with a colossal statue of Neptune in white marble ; higher up, and near the suburb of Val de Pereiro, stands the college of nobles, founded in 1761, which is one of the three universities of Portugal, the other two being those of Coimbra and Evora. As we have referred frequently to the earthquake of 1755, we shall now proceed to describe it. The great earthquake at Lisbon in 1755. — The appalling events, of which the following narrative presents a picture, are brought before the eyes of the reader with a force and simplicity which leave no doubt of the exact truth of the details. It is extracted, with a few omissions, from a book little known, and in most respects, of very small merit — " Davy's Letters on Literature." This portion of a work now forgotten, purports to be communicated to Mr. Davy by an English merchant, who resided in the ill-fated city : — " There never was a finer morning seen than the first of November ; the sun shone out in its full lustre ; the whole face of the sky was perfectly serene and clear, and not the least signal or warning of that approaching event, which has made this once flourishing, opulent, and populous city a scene of the utmost horror and desolation, except only such as served to alarm, but scarcely left a moment's time to fly from the general destruction. " It was on the morning of this fatal day, between the hours of nine and ten, that I sat down in my apartment, just finishing a letter, when the papers and table I was writing on, began to tremble with a gentle motion, which rather surprised me, as I could not perceive a breath of wind stirring. While I was reflecting with myself what this could be owing to, but without having the least apprehension of the real 164 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN cause, the whole house began to shake from the very foundation ; which at first I imputed to the rattling of several coaches in the main street, which usually passed that way, at this time, from Belem to the palace ; but on hearkening more atten- tively, I was soon undeceived, as I found it was owing to a strange, frightful kind of noise under ground, resembling the hollow, distant rumbling of thunder. All this passed in less than a minute, and I must confess I now began to be alarmed, as it naturally occurred to me that this noise might possibly be the forerunner of an earth- quake, as one I remembered which had happened about six or seven years ago, in the island of Madeira, commenced in the same manner, though it did little or no damage. " Upon this I threw down my pen, and started upon my feet, remaining a moment in suspense, whether I should slay in the apartment or run into the street, as the danger in both places seemed equal ; and still flattering myself that this tremor might produce no other effects than such inconsiderable ones as had been felt at Madeira ; but in a moment I was roused from my dream, being instantly stunned with a most horrid crash, as if every edifice in the city had tumbled down at once. The house I was in shook with such violence, that the upper stories immediately fell, and though my apartment (which was the first floor) did not then share the same fate, yet everything was thrown out of its place in such a manner, that it was with no small difficulty I kept my feet, and expected nothing less than to be soon crashed to death, as the walls continued rocking to and fro in the most frightful man- ner, opening in several places, large stones falling down on every side from the cracks, and the ends of most of the rafters starting out from the roof. To add to this terrifying scene, the sky in a moment became so gloomy, that I could now dis- tinguish no particular object ; it was an Egyptian darkness indeed, such as might be felt ; owing, no doubt, to the prodigious clouds of dust and lime raised from so vio- lent a concussion, and, as some reported, to sulphureous exhalation, but this I can not affirm ; however, it is certain I found myself almost choked for nearly ten minutes. " As soon as the gloom began to disperse, and the violence of the shock seemed pretty much abated, the first object I perceived in the room was a woman sitting on the floor with an infant in her arms, all covered with dust, pale and trembling. I asked her how she got hither, but her consternation was so great that she could give me no account of her escape. I suppose that when the tremor first began, she ran out of her own house, and finding herself in such imminent danger from the falling stones, retired into the door of mine, which was almost contiguous to hers, for shelter, and when the shock increased, which filled the door with dust and rubbish, ran up stairs into my apartment. Be it as it might, this was no time for curiosity. I remember the poor creature asked me, in the utmost agony, if I did not think the world was at an end ; at the same time she complained of being choked, and begged, for God's sake, I would procure her a little drink. Upon this I went to a closet where I kept a large jar with water (which, you know, is sometimes a pretty scarce commodity in Lisbon), but. finding it broken m pieces, I lold her she must not now think of quenching her thirst, but saving her life, as the house was just falling on our heads, and if a second shock came, would certainly bury us both. "I shall always look upon it as a particular providence, that I happened on this occasion to be undressed, for had I dressed myself as I proposed when I got out of bed, in order to breakfast with a friend, I should, in all probabiliiy, have run into the street at the beginning of the shock, as the resi of the people m the house did, and consequently have had my brains dashed out, as every one of iliem had. However the imminent danger I was in did not hinder me from considering that niy presen dress, only a gown and slippers, would render my getting over the ruins almost im practicable; I had, therefore, siill presence of mind enough left to put on a pair of shoes and a coat, the first that came in my way, which was everything I saved, and in this dress I hurried down stairs, the woman with me, holding by my arm, and made directly to that end of the street which opens to the Tagus. Finding the pas- sage this way entirely blocked up with the fallen houses, to the height of their sec- ond stories, I turned back to the other end, which led into the main street (the com- mon thoroughhire to the palace), and having helped the woman over a vast heap of ruins, with no small hazard to my own life, just as we were going into this street, as there v/as one part I could not well climb over without the assistance of my hands, as well as feet, I desired her to let go her hold, which she did, remaining two or CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 165 three feet behind me, at which instant there fell a vast stone from a tottering wall, and crushed boih her and the child in pieces. So dismal a spectacle at any other time would have affected me in the highest degree, but the dread I was in of sharing the same fate myself, and the many instances of the same kind which presented themselves all around, were too shocking to make me dwell a moment on this single object. " I had now a long, narrow street to pass, with the houses on each side four or five stories high, all very old, the greater part already thrown down, or continually fall- ing, and threatening the passengers with inevitable death at every step, numbers of whom lay killed before me, or Avhat I thought far more deplorable, so bruised and wounded that they could not stir to help themselves. For my own part, as destruc- tion appeared to me unavoidable, I only Avished that I might be made an end of at once, and not have my limbs broken, in which case I could expect nothing else but to be left upon the spot, lingering in misery, like these poor, unhappy wretches, without receiving the least succor from any person. "As self-preservation, however, is the first law of nature, these sad thoughts did not so far prevail as to make me totally despair. I proceeded on as fast as I conve- niently could, though with the utmost caution, and having at length got clear of this horrid passage, I found myself, safe and unhurt, in the large open space before St. Paul's church, which had been thrown down a few minutes before, and buried a great part of the congregation, that was generally pretty numerous, this being reck- oned one of the most populous parishes in Lisbon. Here I stood some time, consid- ering what I should do, and not thinking myself safe in this situation, I came to the resolution of climbing over the ruins of the west end of the church, in order to get to the river's side, that I might be removed as far as possible from the tottering houses, in case of a second shock. " This, with some difficulty, I accomplished, and here I found a prodigious con- course of people of both sexes, and of all ranks and conditions, among whom I ob- served some of the principal canons of the patriarchal church, in their purple robes and rochets, as these all go in the habit of bishops ; several priests, who had run from the altars in their sacerdotal vestments, in the midst of their celebrating mass ; ladies half dressed, and some without shoes ; all these, whom their mutual dangers had here assembled, as to a place of safety, were on their knees at prayers, with the terrors of death in their countenances, every one striking his breast, and crying out incessantly, ' Miserecordia meu Dios P " Amid this crowd I could not avoid taking notice of an old venerable priest, in a stole and surplice, who, I apprehend, had escaped from St. Paul's. He was continu- ally moving to and fro among the people, exhorting them to repentance, and endeav- oring to comfort them. He told them, with a flood of tears, that God was griev- ously provoked at their sins, but that if that they would call upon the blessed Vir- gin, she would intercede for them. Every one now flocked around him, earnestly begging his benediction, and happy did that man think himself, who could get near enough to touch the hem of his garment ; several I observed had little wooden crucifixes and images of saints in their hands, which they offered me to kiss, and one poor Irishman, I remember, held out a St. Antonio to me for this purpose, and when I gently put his arm aside, as giving him to understand that I desired to be excused this piece of devotion, he asked me, with some indignation, whether I thought there was a God. I verily believe many of the poor bigoted crea- tures who saved these useless pieces of wood, left their children to perish. How- ever, you must not imagine that I have now the least inclination to mock at their superstitions. I sincerely pity them, and must own, that a more affecting spectacle was never seen. Their tears, their bitter sighs and lamentations, would have touched the most flinty heart. I knelt down among them, and prayed as fervently as the rest, though to a more proper object — the only Being who could hear my prayers, to afford me any succor. " In the midst of our devotions the second great shock came on, little less violent than the first, and completed the ruin of those buildings which had been already much shattered. The consternation now became so universal, that the shrieks and cries oi Miserecordia could be distinctly heard from the top of St. Catherine's hill, at a considerable distance off, whither a vast number of people had likewise re- treated ; at the same time we tould hear the fall of the parish church there, whereby many persons were killed on the spot, and others mortally wounded. You may 16ff SCENES AND SKETCHES IN judge of the force of this shock, when I inform you it was so violent that I could scarce keep on my knees, but it was attended with some circumstances still more dreadful than the former. On a sudden I heard a general outcry, ' The sea is coming in, we shall be all lost.' Upon this, turning my eyes toward the river, which in that place is nearly four miles broad, I could perceive it heaving and swelling in a most unaccountable manner, as no wind was stirring. In an instant there appeared, at some small distance, a large body of water, rising as it were like a mountain. It came on foaming and roaring, and rushed toward the shore with such impetuosity, that we all immediately ran for our lives as fast as possible ; many were actually swept away, and the rest above their waist in water at a good distance from the banks. For my own part, I had the narrowest escape, and should certainly have been lost, had I not grasped a large beam that lay on the ground, till the water re- turned to its channel, which it did almost at the same instant, with equal rapidity. As there now appeared at least as much danger from the sea as the land, and I scarce knew whither to retire for shelter, I took a sudden resolution of returning back, with my clothes all dropping, to the area of St. Paul's. Here I stood some time, and observed the ships tumbling and tossing about as in a violent storm ; some had broken their cables and were carried to the other side of the Tagus ; others were whirled round with incredible swiftness ; several large boats were turned keel upward ; and all this without any wind, which seemed the more astonishing. It was at the time of which I am now speaking, that the fine new quay, built entirely of rough marble, at an immense expense, was entirely swallowed up, with all the people on it, who had fled thither for safety, and had reason to think themselves out of danger in such a place : at the same time a great number of boats and small vessels, anchored near it (all likewise full of people, who had retired thiiher for the same purpose), were all swallowed up, as in a whirlpool, and never more appeared. " This last dreadful incident I did not see with my own eyes, as it passed three or four stones' throws from the spot where I then was, but I had the account as here given from several masters of ships, who were anchored within two or three hundred yards of the quay, and saw the whole catastrophe. One of them in particular in- formed me, that when the second shock came on, he could perceive the whole city waving backward and forward, like the sea when the wind first begins to rise ; that the agitation of the earth was so great even under the river, that it threw up his large anchor from the mooring, which swam, as he termed it, on the surface of the water ; that immediately upon this extraordinary concussion, the river rose at once near twenty feet, and in a moment subsided ; at which instant he saw the quay, with the whole concourse of people upon it, sink down, and at the same time every one of the boats and vessels that were near it was drawn into the cavity, which he sup- poses instantly closed upon them, inasmuch as not the least sign of a wreck was ever seen afterward. This account you may give full credit to, for as to the loss of the vessels, it is confirmed by everybody ; and with regard to the quay, I went a few days after, to convince myself of the truth, and could not find even the ruins of a place, where I had taken so many agreeable walks, as this was the common rendezvous of the factory in the cool of the evening. I found it all deep water, and in some parts scarcely to be fathomed. " This is the only place I could learn which was swallowed up in or about Lisbon, though I saw many large cracks and fissures in difierent parts ; and one odd phe- nomenon I must not omit, which was communicated to me by a friend who has a house and wine-cellars on the other side of the river, viz., that the dwelling-house being first terribly shaken, which made all the family run out, there presently fell down a vast high rock near it ; that upon this the river rose and subsided in the manner already mentioned, and immediately a great number of small fissures appeared in several contiguous pieces of ground, whence there spouted out, like a jet d^eau, a large quantity of fine white sand to a prodigious height. It is not to be doubted the bowels of the earth must have been excessively agitated to cause these surprising effects, but whether the shocks were owing to any sudden explosion of various minerals mixing together, or to air pent up, and struggling for vent, or to a col- lection of subterraneous waters forcing a passage, God only knows. As to the fiery eruptions then talked of, I believe they are without foundation, though it is certain, I heard several complaining of strong sulphureous smells, a dizziness in their heads, a sickness in their stomachs, and difficulty of respiration, not that I felt any such symptoms myself. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 1G7 4 168 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN ' " I had not been long in the area of St. Paul's, when I felt the third shock, which though somewhat less violent than the two former, the sea rushed in again, and retired with the same rapidity, and I remained up to my knees in water, though I had gotten upon a small eminence at some distance from the river, with the ruins of several intervening houses to break its force. At this time I took notice the waters retired so impetuously, that some vessels were left quite dry, which rode in seven fathoms water : the river thus continued alternately rushing on and retiring several times together, in such sort, that it was justly dreaded Lisbon would now meet the same fate which a few years ago had befallen the city of Lima ;* and no doubt had this place laid open to the sea, and the force of the waves not been some- %vhat broken by the winding of the bay, the lower parts of it at least would have been totally destroyed. " The master of a vessel, which arrived here just after the 1st of November, assur- ed me, that he felt the shock above forty leagues at sea so sensibly, that he really concluded he had struck upon a rock, till he threw out the lead, and could find no bottom, nor could be possibly guess at the cause, till the melancholy sight of tliis desolate city left him no room to doubt of it. The first two shocks, in fine, were so violent, that several pilots were of opinion, the situation of the bar, at the mouth ol the Tagus, was changed. Certain it is, that one vessel, attempting to pass through the usual channel, foundered, and another struck on the sands, and was at first given over for lost, but at length got through. There was another shock after this, which pretty much, affected the river, but I think not so violently as the preceding, though several persons assured me, that as they were riding on horseback in the great road leading to Belem, one side of which lies open to the river, the waves rushed in with so much rapidity that they were obliged to gallop as fast as possible to the upper grounds, for fear of being carried away. " I was now in such a situation that I knew not which way to turn myself; if I re- mained there, I was in danger from the sea ; if I retired further from the shore, the houses threatened certain destruction, and, at last, I resolved to go to the Mint, which being a low and very strong building, had received no considerable damage, except in some of the apartments toward the river. The party of soldiers, which is every day set there on guard, had all deserted the place, and the only person that remained was the commanding officer, a nobleman's son, of about seventeen or eighteen years of age, whom I found standing at the gate. As there was still a continued tremor of the earth, and the place where we now stood (being within twenty or thirty feet of the opposite houses, which were all tottering) appeared too dangerous, the court- yard likewise being full of water, we both retired inward to a hillock of stones and rubbish : here I entered into conversation with him, and having expressed my admi- ration that one so young should have the courage to keep his post, when every one of his soldiers had deserted theirs, the answer he made was, though he were sure the earth would open and swallow him up, he scorned to think of flying from his post. Li short, it was owing to the magnanimity of this young man that the Mint, which at this time had upward of two millions of money in it, was not robbed ; and indeed I do him no more than justice, in saying, that I never saw any one behave with equal serenity and composure, on occasions much less dreadful than the present. I believe I might remain in conversation with him near five hours ; and though I was now grown faint from the constant fatigue I had undergone, and having not yet broken my fast, yet this had not so much effect upon me as the anxiety I was under for a particular friend, with whom I was to have dined that day, and who lodging at the top of a very high house in the heart of the city, and being a stranger to the language, could not but be in the utmost danger : my concern, therefore, for his preservation, made me determine, at all events, to go and see what was become of him, upon which I took my leave of the officer. "As I thought it would be the height of rashness to venture back through the same narrow street I had 50 providentially escaped from, I judged it safest to return over the ruins of St. Paul's to the river-side, as the water now seemed little agitated. Hence I proceeded, with some hazard, to the large space before the Irish convent of Corpo Santo, which had been thrown down, and buried a great number of people who were hearing mass, besides some of the friars ; the rest of the community were standing in the area, looking, with dejected countenances, toward the ruins. From this place I took my way to the back street leading to the palace, having the ship- * This happened in 1746. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 169 170 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN yard on one side, but found the further passage, opening into the principal street, stopped up by the ruins of the opera-house, one of the soHdest and most magnificent buildings of the kind in Europe, and just finished at a prodigious expense ; a vast heap of stones, each of several tons weight, had entirely blocked up the front of Mr. Bristow's house, which was opposite to it, and Mr. Ward, his partner, told me the next day, that he was just that instant going out at the door, and had actually set one foot over the threshold, when the west end of the opera-house fell down, and had he not in a moment started back, he should have been crushed into a thousand pieces. "From here I turned back, and attempted getting by the other way into the great square of the palace, twice as large as Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, one side of which had been taken up by the noble quay 1 spoke of, now no more ; but this passage was likewise obstructed by the stories fallen from the great arched gateway. I could not help taking particular notice, that all the apartments wherein the royal family used to reside, were thrown down, and themselves, without some extraordinary miracle, must unavoidable have perished, had they been there at the time of the shock. Finding this passage impracticable, I turned to the other arched-way which led to the new square of the palace, not the eighth part so spacious as the other, one side of which was taken up by the Patriarchal church, which also served for the Chapel Royal, and the other by a most magnificent building of modern architecture, prob- ably indeed by far the most so, not yet completely finished ; as to the former, the roof and part of the front walls were thrown down, and the latter, notwithstanding their solidity, had been so shaken, that several large stones fell from the top, and every part seemed disjointed. The square was full of coaches, chariots, chaises, horses, and mules, deserted by their drivers and attendants, as well as their owners. • " The nobility, gentry, and clergy, who were assisting at divine service when the earthquake began, fled away with the utmost precipitation, every one where his fears carried him, leaving the splendid apparatus of the numerous altars to the mercy of the first comer ; but this did not so much affect ine, as the distress of the poor ani- mals, who seemed sensible of their hard fate ; some few were killed, others wounded, but the greater part, which had received no hurt, were left there to starve. •' From this square, the way led to my friend's lodgings through a long, steep, and narrow street ; the new scenes of horror I met with here exceed all description ; nothing could be heard but signs and groans. I did not meet with a soul in the passage who was not bewailing the death of his dearest friends, or the loss of all his substance ; I could hardly take a step, without treading on the dead, or the dying. In some places lay coaches, with their masters, horses, and riders, almost crushed in pieces ; here mothers, with infants in their arms ; there ladies, richly dressed, priests, friars, gentlemen, mechanics, either in the same condition, or just expiring ; some had their backs or thighs broken, others, vast stones on their breasts ; some lay almost buried in the rubbish, and crying out in vain to the passengers for succor, were left to perish with the rest. *' At length I arrived at the spot opposite to the house where my friend, for whom I was so anxious, resided ; and finding this, as well as the contiguous buildings, thrown down (which made me give him over for lost), I now thought of nothing else but saving my own life in the best manner I could, and in less than an hour got to a public-house, kept by one Morley, near the English burying-ground, about half a mile from the city, where I still remain, with a great number of my countrymen, as well as Portuguese, in the same wretched circumstances, having almost ever since lain on the ground, and never once within doors, with scarcely any covering to de- fend me from the inclemency of the night air, which, at this time, is exceedingly sharp and piercing. " Perhaps you may think the present doleful subject here concluded ; but alas ! the horrors of the first of November are sufficient to fill a volume. As soon as it grew dark, another scene presented itself, little less shocking than those already de- scribed — the whole city appeared in a blaze, which was so bright that I could easily see to read by it. It may be said without exaggeration, it was on fire at least in a hundred diff'erent places at once, and thus continued burning for six days together, without intermission, or the least attempt being made to stop its progress. " It went on consuming everything the earthquake had spared, and the people were so dejected and terrified, that few or none had courage to venture down to save any part of their substance ; every one had his eyes turned toward the flames, and CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 171 stood looking on with silent grief, which was only interrupted by the cries and shrieks of women and children calling on the saints and angels for succor, whenever Uie earth began to tremble, which was so often this night, and indeed I may say, ever since, that the tremors, more or less, did not cease for a quarter of an hour together. I could never learn that this terrible fire was owing to any subterranean eruption, as some reported, but to three causes, which, all concurring at the same time, will naturally account for the prodigious havoc it made. The first of Novem- ber being All-Saints day, a high festival among the Portuguese, every altar in every church and chapel (some of which have more than tweniy) was illuminated with a number of wax tapers and lamps, as customary ; these setting fire to the curtains and timber-work that fell with the shock, the conflagration soon spread to the neigh- boring houses, and being there joined with the fires in the kitchen chimneys, in- creased to such a degree, that it might easily have destroyed the whole city, though no other cause had concurred, especially as it met with no interruption. " But what would appear incredible to you, were the fact less public and notorious, is, that a hardened gang of villains, who had been confined, and got out of prison when the wall fell, at the first shock, were busily employed in setting fire to those buildings which stood some chance of escaping the general destruction. I can not conceive what could have induced them to this hellish work, except to add to the horror and confusion, that they might, by this means, have the better opportunity of plundering with security. But there Avas no necessity for taking this trouble, as they might certainly have done their business without it, since the whole city was so deserted before night, that I believe not a soul remained in it, except those exe- crable villains, and others of the same stamp. It is possible some among them might have had other motives beside robbing, as one in particular being apprehended (they say he was a Moor, condemned to the galleys), confessed at the gallows that he had set fire to the king's palace, with his own hand ; at the same time glorying in the action, and declaring with his last breath, that he hoped to have burnt all the royal family. It is likewise generally believed that Mr. Bristow's house, which was an exceedingly strong edifice, built on vast stone arches, and had stood the shocks without any great damage, further than what I have mentioned, was consumed in the same manner. The fire, in short, by some means or other, may be said to have destroyed the whole city, at least everything that was grand or valuable in it. " "With regard to the buildings, it was observed that the most solid in general fell the first. Every parish-church, convent, nunnery, palace, and public edifice, with an infinite number of private houses, was either thrown down or so miserably shattered, that it was rendered dangerous to pass by them. " The whole number of persons that perished, including those who were burnt, or afterward crushed to death while digging in the ruins, is supposed, on the lowest calculation, to amount to more than sixty thousand ; and though the damage, in other respects, can not be computed, yet you may form some idea of it, when I as- sure you that this extensive and opulent city is now nothing but a vast heap of ruins ; that the rich and poor are at present upon a level ; some thousands of families which but the day before had been easy in their circumstances, being now scattered about in the fields, wanting every convenience of life, and finding none able to re- lieve them. " A few days after the first consternation was over, I ventured down into the city by the safest ways I could pick out, to see if there was a possibility of getting any- thing out of my lodgings, but the ruins were now so augmented by the late fire, that I was so far from being able to distinguish the individual spot where the house stood, that I could not even distinguish the street amid such mountains of stones and rubbish, which rose on every side. Some days after, I ventured down again with several porters, who, having long plied in these parts of the town, were well ac- quainted with the situation of particular houses ; by their assistance I at last discov» ered the spot, but was soon convinced that to dig for anything here, besides the dan- ger of such an attempt, would never answer the expense, and what further induced me to lay aside all thoughts of the matter, was the sight of the ruins still smoking, whence I knew, for certain, that those things I set the greatest value on, must have been irrecoverably lost in the fire. " On both the times when I attempted to make this fruitless search, especially the first, there came such an intolerable stench from the dead bodies, that I was ready to faint away, and though it did not seem so great this last time, yet it had like to 172 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN have been more fatal to me, as I contracted a fever by it, but_ of which, God he praised, I soon got the better. However, this made me so cautious for the future, that I avoided passing near certain places, where the stench was so excessive, th»t people began to dread an infection. A gentleman told me, that going into the town a few days after the earthquake, he saw several bodies lying in the streets, sotne horribly mangled, as he supposed, by the dogs ; others half burnt.; some quite roasted ; and that in certain places, particularly near the doors of churches, they lay in vast heaps, piled one upon another. You may guess at the prodigious havoc which must have been made, by the single instance I am going to mention : There was a high arched passage, like one of our old city gates, fronting the west door of the ancient cathedral; on the left hand was the famous church of St. Antonio, and on the right some private houses, several stories high. The whole area, surrounded by all these buildings, did not much exceed one of our small courts in London. At the first shock, numbers of people who were then passing under tJie arch, fled into the middle of this area for shelter ; those in the two churches, as many as could possibly get out, did the same. At this instant, the arched gateway, with the fronts of the two churches and contiguous buildings, all inclining toward one another with the sudden violence of the shock, fell down, and buried every soul, as they were standing here crowded together." CHAPTER VII.— PORTUGAL. Elvas. — The city of Elvas stands upon a part of the Zoledo range of mountams, which enters Portugal a little above the city of Badajos, and occupies the centre of the large and fertile province of Alemtejo (beyond the Tagus), of which Elvas is the second city of importance. In the peninsula each province has its separate gov- ernment and local institutions, and is defended by its own troops, who are not removable in ordinary times to the other provinces of the kingdom. The governor or viceroy is invested with large powers, but is of course responsible to the central administration at Lisbon. Each province has, therefore, a capital, where the busi- ness of the little kingdom is carried on. The nominal capital of Alemtejo is the city of Evora ; but Estremos has been latterly adopted, from its greater security on account of the protection afforded by Elvas, from which it is distant about eighteen miles. The works of Elvas are so strong as to require a large army and a regular siege before any impression could be made ; and thus opportunity would be afforded to collect the force of the province to repel an invader. Though ranked the second city of the Alemtejo, it is decidedly the best fortified and the strongest, the defensive works being a chef d^ozuvre of the conde La Lippe Schomberg, and a perfect model of their kind. Fort La Lippe, situated on a steep hill at the back of the city, is im- pregnable except to famine ; and Fort St. Lucia in the front, connected with the redoubts on either side, is of sufficient importance to cause much trouble to a be- sieging force. There are three gates to the city: the Porta d'Esquina on the north, the Porta d'Oliven^a in the centre, and the Porta de San Vicente on the south, all strongly fortified .with ravelins, cavaliers, and counter-guards, forming a curve bent outward. The only gate by which strangers are allowed to enter is the Olivenca, because they are thus forced to pass one half of the works, and are exposed to the observation of a long chain of sentinels. From this gate several long and narrow streets diverge into different parts of the city ; and though from the main street, or Rua de Cadea, is a perfectly straight line to the gate, the number of openings at this point of entrance to the town, are as perplexing as the streets at the Seven Di- als in London, which they somewhat resemble, requiring a person to be well acquainted with them before he can readily hit upon the right one. The Rua de Cadea is a fine antique-looking street, and the remains of part of the Moorish houses and towers give it an air of solemn grandeur and dignity which it would not other- wise possess. The cadea or prison stands at one end of this street, and on the op- posite side is the hospital for the townspeople ; an excellent establishment, conducted with extreme regularity, and with almost military discipline among the attendants. The sick are placed in wards, although separate apartments are prepared for those suffering from infectious diseases. The hospitals of Portugal are decidedly the best- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 173 174 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN regulated establishments in the country. The street of the cadea forms the boun- dary of the ancient Moorish town ; remains of the old walls may be traced from end to end ; and several fine towers raise their embattled walls above the houses. The ancient interior gateways still exist, and through one of these we enter the praca, or great square (as represented in our engraving, p. 173). To a casual observer the pra^a of Elvas would present no object worthy of attention, except, perhaps, the singularly-formed tower to the cathedral or see, which stands at the upper end ; but on closer inspection, the peculiar forms and construction of the various houses, ex- hibiting specimens of the domestic architecture of several succeeding ages, from the days of Moorish beauty and elegance to modern times, can not fail to excite feelings of interest in a mind to which the varying manners and changing habits of a people are objects of interesting inquiry. The two large houses on either hand of the gateway, for the gate itself has long ceased to be, are decidedly Moorish, and there is an elegance about the long open arched terrace in front not to be met with in the houses of a later construction. Several of the grotesque carvings are executed with a richness and delicacy unknown to modern Portuguese art, and though the dwelling-houses of the day are generally erected on the ancient plan as far as possible, yet there is a want of proportion and finish in some of their best buildings of this class, which leaves a disagreeable impression on the mind. The rooms are large, lofty, and paved with bricks, arranged in various figures, and the windows, which are unglazed, admit but a shadowy light from the latticed blinds, which are almost impervious to the rays of the sun. The Moorish houses are better arranged than the Portuguese ones, and have a more cheerful appearance, and the fiat roofs and various terraces with their display of flowers and shrubs have quite an enchanting effect. Of course I do not speak of the houses of the nobility, in some of which great taste is displayed, not only in the architectural beauties and domestic comforts, but also in the grounds. The fine climate allows them to adorn their houses, both outside and inside, with the choicest productions of the flower-garden, whose beauties serve to screen many defects, at least according to our notions of perfection. Many of the houses have piazzas in front, which, though increasing the size of the rooms above, add nothing to their external beauty. Some houses of this description may be seen in our engraving. The only use I could ever perceive for these piazzas was for the lazy market-people to lounge beneath, and obstruct the passage with their goods. A little beyond this piazza is one of those remarkable pillars so prevalent throughout the peninsula. It consists of a single block of mar- ble beautifully carved. These pillars stood and still stand before the house of the chief magistrate, and once served as a kind of standing gallows, the four hooks with rings being to hang the criminals upon, while the spikes above were ready to re- ceive the heads of the decapitated traitors. The pedestal stands upon a base of five or six steps, either circular or octagonal. Adjoining to this pillar is the main guardhouse, opposite to which is the governor's house, formerly the bishop's palace. It consists of a long range of buildings, occupying nearly half the square, and com- municating with the cathedral. The cathedral is a mixture of Arabesque and Gothic, in which the Gothic rather preponderates. The exterior possesses not the slightest pretensions, either to beauty or symmetry, except the singular tower, which forms the front. The interior, how- ever, compensates for the want of external adornment, and consists of a nave and two aisles, without a choir ; the roof, which is arched, is supported by sixteen col- umns, and in the aisles, each intercolumniation is occupied by the chapel of some saint. The decorations and ornaments in some of these chapels are extremely ele- gant, the walls and ceilings being covered with a profusion of gilded carved work, but the pictures are execrable. It is curious to mark the superstitions of the people. Some of these chapels are literally crowded with waxen eflSgies of every part of the human body, as well as with pictures of sick persons, to whom the saint is ap- pearing, of course in a cloud of yellow, and red, and blue. These effigies are oflTer- ings of gratitude to the saint for having effected cures where medical skill was unable even to give relief The grand altar which faces the entrance is supported by Corinthian pillars of gray marble, which are surmounted by a canopy of crimson and gold silk, beneath which is a large picture of the birth of Christ ; the altar itself is covered with crimson and gold silk of great value, and crowded with silver can- ' dlesticks. On great festivals, and also on some other occasions, silver busts of six of the apostles and the first six bishops of Rome, as large as life, are carried in the CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 175 176 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN procession, which adds greatly to the splendor, illuminated as they are by a hundred wax candles, and surrounded by the priesthood in their rich dresses. The tower will need no description here. It is accurately represented in the engraving. Be- hind the cathedral is a convent of nuns, dedicated to St. Domingo. There is a little church not far from the cathedral, the walls of which are surrounded with niches, and in these stand the dried and withered remains of the sisters of Santa Clara, the air in this church, or some peculiarity in the situation, having arrested the progress of decay, and done the office of the embalmer. Placed upright, and supported by an iron ring, they have stood for ages. From some the clothes have rotted off, yet still the body remains entire, while others are in their every-day attire, which is un- injured by decay. As there is no room within the town for public gardens, the covert way from the Porta d'Esquina to the Olivenca gate is planted with trees, and each "place des armes" is occupied by a fountain, and tastefully laid out in beds of flowers. At the entrance, near the aqueduct, the trees and shrubs are cut into the most grotesque forms, four knights on horseback being ready to dispute the entrance. The contrast between the green figures and the white faces which are fixed to the branches in the proper place, has rather a startling effect, as the figures are Avell preserved, and of a gigantic size. The walk round the ramparts is also extremely fine, afford- ing an uninterrupted view of the country for leagues around. The Rua de las Cadeas, or street of the chains, so named from the prison which stands in the centre, is situated in the middle of the town of Elvas; the buildings which range along on either side being irregular, and partaking much of that Moor- ish character so observable in the architecture of the peninsula. Though the generality of the Portuguese houses are clumsy and disproportioned, there is an air of Gothic solidity, and occasionally a profusion of ornament, which render them picturesque when taken in the mass. The Moorish arched fronts, the latticed windows, the veranda, and the beautiful luxuriance of the flowers, arranged in fanciful pots along the house-tops — alHend their aid to give a peculiar and pleasing effect to the narrow and ill-paved streets; and an additional chirm is, the universal custom among the fair sex of standing for hours in the balconies Avhile the sun declines, and is succeeded by the refreshing coolness of the evening breeze. It is along this street that the gorgeous processions of the church proceed, either to or from the cathedral, whose singular tower forms so attractuig an object in the praca, or square. It is here also that the market is daily held, but the principal day, when it is enriched by all the productions of the adjacent country, is Monday. Then may be seen the spruce farmer, dressed in his picturesque costume ; the shepherd in his jacket of sheepskins, with his blanket thrown carelessly over his shoulder ; the country lass, with her clean muslin kerchief on her head, and best green " capa," trimmed with velvet of the same color; the muleteer; and, in short, specimens of every class, from the rich fidalgo down to the poor mendicant, all equally busied in their various oc- cupations of buying, selling, or exchanging. Having given a brief notice of the city of Elvas, Ave shall now proceed to offer a few remarks on the two forts, the Moorish aqueduct, and the surrounding country. Perhaps few situations could have been selected better adapted fur a series of fortifications than that of Elvas. Standing on three detached hills, gradually rising upward, and divided from each other by a hollow, they offer a means of separate defence of the strongest nature. Santa Lucia is the first of the series; it stands on a small hill which commands the country all around, and is flanked by tAvo strong redoubts ; the figure being square, with bastions and ravelins ; and the entrance is by one gate facing the city. The centre is occupied by a strong square tower, or keep, which is entered half Avay up by a draAvbridge from the ramparts. As this tower is of solid masonry, and loopholed in every direction, the possession of the ramparts is but a secondary consideration, as the defence of the toAvcr may cause more loss to the assailants than the entire operations necessary to reduce the outworks to a heap of rubbish. On the top of the tower is the governor's house, Avhich is entered by a covered way from the drawbridge, and is otherwise totally unconnected with the body of the building, so that its destruction would not Aveaken the means of defence. Besides the covert-way leading to the city, there is a mine or tunnel from the centre of the tower, by which provisions, ammunition, or reinforcements, may be conveyed, should the regular communication be cut off. There is also a deep well, and a reser- voir sufficient to supply the garrison with water for twelve months. The roof of the CONTINENTAL* EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 177 tower is bomb-proof, and mounts twelve guns, or more when necessary. The garri- son necessary to defend this fort, independent of the redoubts, is one "thousand men. The city occupies the second hill, and contains eleven bastions in its circuit, with ravelins, counter-guards, and cavaliers ; and the southern gate is further protected by a crown-work of considerable strength. The works of the castle are of the meet powerful description ; five batteries rising one above another, and commanding the country in every direction. The bastion de Principe mounts ten guns ; and the bastioa de Concacao, at the opposite angle, thirteen, besides a number along the intermediate curtains. Elvas, independent of her outworks, mounts one hundred and fifteen guns, and these within the short compass of less than two miles. Behind the town and castle of Elvas runs a deep valley, through the bottom of which a little stream, or rivetta, as it is called by the inhabitants, winds its mur- muring way ; here and there a small cottage may be seen between the mighty forts ; while as we asceiid the hill, the olive grove overshadows the road, and the fountain of clear water, with its curious architecture, invites the passenger to repose in the coolness of the umbrageous trees, to enjoy the refreshing draught. In this solitude peace seems to dwell : the view of the fort is concealed by the surrounding trees, and indeed after the grove is passed, we have no idea of being in the immediate neigh- borhood of the strongest fort of its kind in Europe, and we stand in admiration gazing on the fairy scene presented to our view. At our feet lies the city with all her varied architecture and busy inhabitants, diminished by distance to pigmies, moving about ia the pursuit of their varied occupations ; beyond is Fort Santa Lucia, and the magnificent aqueduct, stretching at intervals along an extent of fifteen miles ; the beautiful valley of AlmoCeira, and the barren bleak hills beyond ; from which issues like a silver thread the " dark Guadiana," broadening as it approaches toward the city of Badajoz, and occasionally concealed from view, now by the little town of Jerumania, now by the high banks, and next reflecting the star-like Oliveupa, diminished by distance to a bright speck, as the sunbeam catches its whitewashed walls and enormous tower ; now again silently weeping past the fisher's cabin, and then struggling and foafhing beneath the broad arches of the bridge of Ba'dajoz, till it becomes lost again behind St. Chrisiobal, the proud towers of Badajoz, the distant heights of Albuera ; and then again the town of Campo-Mayor, with the intervening hills covered with olives and quiatas, and lemon and orange trees, form a prospect of unrivalled grandeur, and cause the lover of the beautiful works of nature and art to pause in silent wonder on the scene beneath him : after the first burst of admiration is over, the desire to ascend to the top of the hill to enjoy if possible a more exten- sive view from a greater height, or to rest and gaze at leisure, becomes insurmounta- ble ; and notwithstanding the excessive steepness of the ascent, we toil forward till we are surprised by the challenge of the sentinel, and find that unwittingly we have stumbled over Fort LaLippe, which in our admiration we had scarcely remembered. The glacis of this fort rise so gradually from the steep conical hill from which they spring as to be scarcely perceptible, except from their extreme steepness; and so well screened from view are the works as not to be perceived from the glacis, while at the same time fifty guns could be pointed on the spot where we stand. It is only on entering this fort that we become aware of its strength, for though of the same figure as Santa Lucia, a fortified square, there is so much more of solidity and strength, and so many obstructions to surmount, that we wonder how so simple a figure could be rendered so strong. At the back there is a horn-work, which takes in the entire summit. The description of Santa Lucia may be equally applied to this, only that every part is stronger, the ditches are traversed in every direction by loopholes and casemates, while the ramparts are crowded with artillery. There is a reservoir constantly supplied with water sufficient for the garrison of two thousand men for two years, and stores of corn and provisions for that time are also laid up. There is a mill within the walls for grinding corn, and an oven for baking sufficient bread, so that as there are no means for taking the fort but by treachery, surprise, or famine, the siege of La Lippe must be a work of patience, not to mention the loss ; for as the besieged will be perfectly safe within their walls, so will the be- siegers be completely exposed to the fire of the garrison : though surrounded on three sides by hills, they are all too low and too well commanded by the fort to ad- mit of any annoyance from them. There is a curious circumstance in natural history connected with Fort LaLippe: a well, which is of amazing depth, yields water 12 178 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN which mixes readily with oil, and produces a thick fluid resembling milk, hut the flavor of which is disagreeable. The Moorish aqueduct, a representation of which is given on the opposite page, con- veys the water of an excellent spring, for the distance of fifteen miles, to the city, where an immense reservoir is kept constantly filled, and contains sufficient for the inhabitants for six months: the part which we have selected for our sketch is tliat which crosses the valley of the Campo de Feira (or Field of the Fair), being so named from the annual fair which is heM here. It might be thought that a conduit for water should be carried on in one undeviating line ; but the aqueduct of Elvas forms an irregular zigzag, somewhat resembling the representations of a flash of lightning : the great height and narrowness of the hill require this formation to give greater strength, as every angle is a powerful supporter. Unlike the celebrated aqueduct over the valley of Alcantara, at Lisbon, whose vast arches rise to the height of three hundred and thirty -two feet, this consists of four stories, or tiers of arches, the lower ones being nearly one hundred feet, and the upper ones about forty feet in height ; giving a total, allowing for the thickness of the arch, of about two hundred and fifty feet in height. The valley which this stupendous pile crosses is about one mile and a half in breadth, and the vastness of the Avork may be conceived, when we consider the immense quantity of masonry required to erect a series of arches of this description, even were it no more than to cross this valley, and the great length of the w^ork, crossing many hollows and stretching over hill and vale to the fountain- head. It is supported at intervals by large buttresses, some triangular, some, square, and some round, with stories decreasing in size as they approach the top. That the principles of hydraulics were known to the builders of this aqueduct is evident, for the ancient fountains still existing in all parts of the city attest the fact: we must suppose, therefore, that the nature of the ground was such as to prevent the possi- bility of laying a water-course : the earth in this part of the country, as at Lisbon, scarcely covers the rock, which is a species of coarse marble, extremely hard ; in many places long tunnels would have been necessary ; the solifl rock must have been cut through, and quantities of masonry required to connect parts separated by fissures and ravines ; so that upon consideration, the pile under our notice, gigantic as it is, was probably the cheapest and least laborious method of conveying water to the city : but be that as it may, it will never cease to be an object of interest and admi- ration boih to the antiquary and the passing traveller, as affording a specimen of the greatness of the singular people by whom ir was erected. Braga is a city in Portugal, and the capital of Entre Duero-e-Minto. It is built on the banks of the beautiful river Cavedo, and contains a handsome cathedral, sev- ,eral convents, with a population of about fourteen thousand. The subjoined engra- ving gives an accurate view of one of the inhabitants of this city, in the common costume of the laboring classes. An obstinate battle was fought at Braga and in its vicinity, between the French invading army, under Napoleon, and the Portuguese, in which the former were victorious, although the battle was fought with the greatest bravery. The following ac- count is from the pen of an eye-witness : — The 20th of September, at nine o'clock, the French were in motion ; Franceschi and Merrnet leaving a detachment on the hill they had carried the night before, endeavored to turn the right of ihe people on the Monte Vallonga. Laborde, supported by La Houssaye's dragoons, advanced against the centre of the bridge connecting Carvalho with the Monte Adanfe. Hendelel, with a part of his division, and a squadron of cavalry, attacked the left, and made for the Ponte Porto. The Portuguese immediately opened a straggling fire of musketry and artillery in the centre ; but after a few rounds, the bursting of a gun created some confusion, from which La- borde's rapidly-advancing masses gave them no time to recover, and by ten o'clock, the whole of the centre was flying in disor- der down a narrow wooded valley, leading from the Adanfe to Braga. The French followed quick, and in the pursuit, discov- ering one of their voltigeurs, who had been prisoner, still alive, Laborer of Braga. but mutilated in the most shocking manner, they gave little or CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 179 180 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN no quarter. Braga was abandoned, and the victorious infantry passing through, took post on the other side ; but the cavalry continued the havoc for some distance on the road to Oporto ; yet, so savage was the temper of the fugitives, that, in pas- sing through Braga, they stopped to murder the corregidor and other prisoners in the jail ; then, casting the mangled bodies into the street, continued the flight. Mean- while, Hendelet, breaking over the left of the Monte Adanfe, descended upon Ponte Porto, and after a sharp skirmish, carried that bridge, and the village on the other side of the Cavado. Franceschi and Mermet found considerable difficulty in ascending the rugged sides of the Monte Vallonga, but having at last attained the crest, the whole of their ene- mies fled. The two generals then crossed the valley to gain the road of Guima- raens, and cut off that line of retreat, but fell in with three thousand Portuguese, posted above Falperra. These men, seeing the cavalry approach, drew up with their backs to some high rocks, and opened a fire of artillery ; but Franceschi, pla- cing his horsemen on either flank, and a brigade of infantry against the front, as at Verim, made them all charge together, and strewed the ground with dead. Never- theless, the Portuguese fought valiantly at this point, and Franceschi acknowl- edged it. The vanquished lost all their artillery, and above four thousand men, of which four hundred, oiily, were made prisoners. Some of the fugitives crossing the Cavado river, made for the Ponte de Lima, but the greater number took the road of Gui- raaraens. CiNTRA is a town of Portugal, In the province of Estremadura. It is built at the foot of a promontory, on the north side of the entrance of the river Tajo, commonly called the rock of Lisbon which lies between the mountains of Cintra. In this town was concluded, on the 22d of August, 1808, the celebrated convention between the British forces under Sir H. Dalrymple, and the French army under General Junot, the latter agreeing to evacuate Portugal with all their spoil ; and the English, by the conditions of this peace, lost everything that they had earned by a well-fought contest. Here was a beautiful palace built by the Moors, which was destroyed by an earthquake in 1655, but was rebuilt in the same style immediately after. This town is a favorite summer retreat of the inhabitants of Lisbon. The Douro. — The engraving represents the castle of St. John, on the north bank of the river Douro, protecting the entrance to that river, sufficiently difficult from the enormous bar, or sandbank, which almost reaches from side to side. Its position is sufficiently described by its name, St. Joao da Foz, meaning literally, St. John at the mouth of the river. It is a modern fortification, of irregular figure, and stands on an angle of the beach, at once facing the sea and the river, as a protection against a naval attack on the the city of Oporto, which stands at some distance, higher up the river. St. Joao da Foz is a post of much importance, but the opposite banks of the river being so much more elevated, completely command it. The view given opposite is from the Cabo Dello, a sandbank which runs out from the opposite bank a good way into the river, and represents the state of the building immediately after the last memorable siege by Don Miguel, during the late civil war. From the fortress we naturally turn to the river which it protects. Rio Douro, literally interpreted, is the golden river, and was probably so named at first from the great quantities of gold, both in dust and grains, found among its sands. The Douro is not the only river in the peninsula whose waters flowed over golden sands; the Tagus, the AgUeda in Spain, and several others, produced sufficient metal to aiford a consider- able trade. The sources, however, whence these precious particles flowed, have become exhausted ; and though gold is occasionally found, even now, mingled with the sand, the occurrence is by far too rare to oflFer any inducement to the cupidity of the natives. We need not be surprised that the waters of many of the rivers in the peninsula should have washed down from the mountains particles of a metal, of which, at one time, there was such an abundance. The enormous quantity of the precious metal carried from Spain and Portugal during the Carthaginian and Roman occupation, might well have drained the country, and, indeed, would lead us to doubt the truth of the statements handed down to us, did not the vast mines worked by those singular people attest their veracity. But the Douro may now be called the golden river, from another cause. Oporto, or the port, whence all the fine wines af this part of the country are shipped, is situated on its banks ; and the wealth which flows into the country from this source, is sufficient to warrant the appella- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 181 182 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN tion. The superiority of the wines of this parr of Portugal over those of the south, is too great to require any comment, and the rich vines grown in the neighborhood of the river, make a favorite port wine. During the wine season, the Douro may be seen crowded with the wine-boats, whose disproportioned sails have a singular effect as they sweep down the rapidly- flowing stream, toward Oporto, their place of destination. From the rapidity of the current, the voyage downward is performed in a few days; as the rush of waters, from the high lands over which it passes, carries them forward with a velocity nearly equal to our railroads, particularly when aided by the wind. The return, however, is the work of some weeks ; for the same cause which accelerates the voyage one way, retards it the other. The beauty of the scenery is unrivalled ; few rivers possess so many varied sources of delight to the lover of the sublime and beautiful in nature, as the Douro. Though its deep, dark waters are occasionally confined within over-arching precipices, the rich tinting of the hardy vine may be seen mingling with the ruggedness of the rocks, every cleft or ledge covered with verdure, and the terrible or sombre relieved by the beauty of the wild herbs and flowers which struggle for existence among the high masses ; and when it flows through the cultivated valleys, though its rapidity is abated, its beauties are fully equal. It is now the mountain torrent — now the broad river — now the rushing cat- aract — and again, the smooth though rapid stream ; yet slill, in all its characters, the source of weollh to all the districts through which it passes. The Douro rise^ in the province of Soria, in Spain, in a chain of mountains near the village of Almarza, in the kingdom of Old Castile ; the city of Soria, the capi- tal of the province, is watered by it ; Valladolid, Toro, and Zamora, are also on its banks. A few leagues from ihe last-mentioned place, it changes its course from a westerly to a southern one ; and from the village of Miranda becomes a boundary between Spain and Portugal, for the distance of sixty miles. When above Sobra- dilla, it resumes its westerly course, and falls into the sea at Oporto. The lightness of the soil, and the extreme velocity of this river, have created an immense har at its mouth; and the opposition of the current of the ocean, which is also very strong, causes a surf of so dangerous a character, as frequently to delay ships from entering the harbor, for five or six weeks together. For any species of navigation except that of the Vvriae-boais from the interior, the Douro is of no use beyond the city of Oporto. Several attempts have been made at improving the navigation of the Douro, bul all have been rendered vain by the apathy of the government. The Tagus might also be much improved, and a great source of national wealth opened by a free com- munication with the interior. A scheme was set on foot, some short time since, to establish a steam-navigation company on the Tagus; the government saw the im- mense advantages likely to result from such a company, and highly approved of the plans proposed, but absolutely refused to incorporate the company unless they exclu- ded all foreigners. There is no part of the peninsula which presents a greater diversity of character m its scenery than the immediate neighborhood of Setubal, or St. Ubes. The town itself, which is situated on the shores of a deep bay or arm of the sea about thirty miles south of Lisbon, possesses little worthy of remark beyond the beauty of the surrounding landscape. The natives attribute the foundation of Setubal to Tubal, the son of Lamech. It is however certain, that a city of antiquity once occupied the site, or nearly so, of the present town. Greek and Roman as well as Phoenician re- mains are frequently dug up, and the island of Troya, on the opposite side of the bay, still presents the ruins of some ancient buildings. The great earthquake which laid Lisbon in ruins, swallowed up many of those remains of antiquity whose solidity had hitherto withstood the slow but certain waste of time. What few relics have remained serve only to preserve traditions as vague as they are unsatisfactory. The Portuguese historians ascribe the foundation of the town to Ulysses, what remains exist are constructed of small stones, united with a cement as hard as granite, which indeed they somewhat resemble. The upper stories have been swept away by the great convulsions of nature, whose traces are everywhere visible throughout Porlu- gal ; but the solidity of these lower chambers, and the smallness of their size, seem to have preserved them pretty entire. They consist of one and occasionally two compartments, of an oblong square form, about twelve feet long by eight broad, and about seven feet deep ; they have neither windows nor doors, and the floors are com- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 183 184 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN posed of the same strong cement and stone as the walls, which are nearly three feet thick. Some of these curious cellars have been transposed in a curious manner by the earthquakes before mentioned ; one end being lified up on the higher bank, entire, like a square box, with one end resting on a s one, while two others, leaning outward, seem ready to slide into the sea in opposite directions. The island, or rather the peninsula, on which these ruins stand is of a singular form, and extends along the outside of the bay like a long wa-11, covering the harbor on every side, the entrance being very narrow. All the rivers of the peninsula are obstructed more or less by bars, the sandy nature of the soil over which they pass being peculiarly adapted for these formations. The river Ludao, though not so large as many others, yet passes over the sandy levels of the Alemtejo, and has car- ried down the soil to the bay of Setubal in such quantities as to have closed the harbor almost entirely, the opening in the bar being extremely small. This bar joins the island of Troya on one side, the sea on either side being of a great depth. On the main land, and at the foot of a high and precipitous cape, stands the fort Outao, a strong fortification, placed so as to close the harbor against any naval force. This cape, which forms the western point of the bay, is part of the range of the Arabida mountains, in which is erected the beautiful convent of the same name. The Serra d'Arabida extends from Cape Espichel to the Tagus, and covers the entire neck of land from Setubal to Moita ; it is on one of these mountains that Palmella town and castle stand, which town is visible from its extreme elevation for many leagues around, and is distinctly seen from Lisbon, a distance of twenty miles. It stands upon the top of an isolated mountain, which rising gradually from the plain to the castle that crowns its summit, falls suddenly on the opposite side. It is on this steep ascent that the high road to Lisbon is formed ; and notwithstand- ing the filthiness of Palmella, the wretchedness of the hovels called inns, and the badness and dearness of everything to be had, the traveller finds a few moments' rest a luxury, which can only be appreciated by those who have ascended a steep mountain road, beneath a burning southern sun. The castle of Palmella contains nothing worthy of a moment's pause ; but it commands boundless view of mountain and valley, land and sea, all mingled together in one wide expanse of beauty and grandeur. To the northward the horizon is bounded by the bald peaks of the Ci'ntra mountains, whose variegated and beautiful forms are admirably seen from any point of view; beneath these the capital of Portugal, with its domes and turrets glittering in the sunshine ; the noble Tagus, rolling his mighty tide to the sea ; the vast At- lantic sweeping a line of coast of thirty leagues in extent ; the mountains of Arabida toward the west, with all the varied alternations of precipice and valley, of thickly wooded ascent and bald bare peaks. Toward the south the lovely bay of Setubal, with its long island and picturesque town. To the east the sandy plains of Alemtejo, with many a stream winding its peaceful way to the Tagus or to the sea ; all these objects combined form a panorama of the most diversified and impressive character. The beautiful valley, represented in our engraving, is that which lies at the foot of the hill Palmella, and through which the high road passes. The great royal forest of the Alemtejo covers this valley, as indeed it does the neighboring mountains, to the sea, and the intervening valleys to the Tagus. The peculiar character of the pines (the principal wood of the forest) ; the frequent recurrence of the aloe, with its rigid leaves and golden flower ; and the singular forms of the prickly-pear, give an appearance peculiarly foreign to scenery sufficiently beautiful to fill with admiration the lovers of nature. But, unfortunately, the inhabitants of these lovely scenes seem unconscious of the charms by which they are surrounded. The peasantry who dwell on the borders of the forest admire its shade and its intricacies only as a means of seizing the unwary traveller, whom they frequently plunder without mercy. There is a remarkably fine pine-tree about half-way between Moita and Palmella, on the Lisbon road, well-known to the guerrillas and ladrones of the forest ; some few dozens having been executed on its widely spreading branches. Robberies however are not now so frequent as formerly in this forest, a more vigilant police, the constant movement of troops from place to place and in every direction, and the garrison of Palmella castle, have done much to insure the safety of the passenger ; but the state of the peasantry must be much ameliorated, before industry and persevering labor in the honest avocations of life, will be substituted for the precarious gains of crime. EvoRA. — The temple on the opposite page is the most beautiful remain of ancient architecture to lie found in Portugal, and one of the finest and best preserved speci- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 185 186 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN mens that exist in any part of Europe. The cityof Evora, in which it stands, is the capital of the fine province of Alemtejo. It is a place of great antiquity, and from its advantageous situation has probably been occupied as a town by all the successive races of men that have inhabited or conquered this part of the peninsula. According to Spanish and Portuguese antiquaries it was first built, by the Celts nearly eight hundred years before the Christian era, but of course no positive belief is to be given to assertions which are supported by no positive proof. Pliny and other Roman Avriters agree in thinking that it had been inhabited by the Gauls, PhcBnicians, and Persians, in very remote times. That extraordinary man Quintus Sertorius, who, proscribed by Sylla, and, flying from his tyranny, nearly succeeded in establishing a great and separate republic in Spain and Portugal, took Evora about eighty years before Christ, fortified it in the Roman manner, and adorned it with many public edifices. Its next conqueror was Julius Csesar, who further enlarged it, made it a principal town, and gave it the name of Liberalitas Julia. It continued, however, to be commonly called Ebura by the Romans, of which name the modern Portuguese denomination is only a slight corruption. It was taken by the conquering Moors in A. D. 715, and retaken from them in 1166 by the Portuguese Christians under the command of the celebrated Giraldo, " cavalheiro sim medo" (the knight without fear), whose person is still represented in the city arms, riding on horseback with a naked sword in one hand, and the heads of a Moorish man and woman in the other. Since that time it has been a frequent residence of the Portuguese sovereigns, and John ITI. bestowed some repairs on its Roman aqueduct and other ancient structures in the course of the sixteenth century. Evora is beautifully situated on an eminence which is nearly covered with orange and olive groves, vineyards, and orchards, while at the foot of the hill the country is laid out in corn-fields, and the middle distance varied with old and solemn-looking cork-woods. The city contains about 20,000 inhabitants, and is the seat of an arch- bishop. It formerly contained a prison and tribunal of the inquisition, but we are happy to say that even as far back as 1788 when Murphy travelled in Portugal, the offices of the inquisitors and familiars had become mere sinecures, and that the establishment has long been wholly suppressed. There was also a Jesuit college at Evora, but that, too, was suppressed at the expulsion of the order. The first object that attracts the attention of the traveller on arriving at Evora, is the ancient temple represented in our engraving, and which, from some inscriptions discovered, appears to have been dedicated to the goddess Diana. The front of this temple is what is called an hexastyle, i. e., it has six columns. The columns, of the delicate ornamental Corinthian order, are three feet four inches in diameter, and have suffered little from time and weather, or the violence of man. The entablature is entirely destroyed, except part of the first facia of the architrave. The sharp pinnacles by Avhich it is crowned, and which give the upper part of the temple the appearance of an eastern fortification, are an addition made by the Moors, who could never au^pt their beautiful but altogether different style of architecture to the style of the Greeks and Romans. The rest of the edifice is almost in its original condition, and is in a wonderful state of preservation, considering that in all proba- bility eighteen centuries have passed since it was built by the Romans. The material of the building is not marble, but fine hard granite. Antiquaries, who like to make everything as old as they can, have attributed the erection of this temple to Quintus Sertorius, and as Roman architecture was not equal in his time to so elegant a work, they have supposed he employed Greeks upon it. Perhaps a more reasonable supposition would be, that the temple was built about a century later, under the Roman emperors, when the arts were in a very ad- vanced state. The Portuguese having been rather deficient in taste with respect to this chaste and delicate temple: they have converted the interior into a slaughter-house for cattle to supply the butchers' shops of Evora. Having given our readers a view and a short description of the beautiful Temple of Diana at Evora, we now present them with some more interesting antiquities which exist at the same place. Our engraving represents a portion of the fine old Roman aqueduct, terminating toward the town with a circular castellum. These castella or castles answered more than one purpose. In the long water-courses and successions of aqueducts that sup- plied ancient Rome, they were erected at certain distances from each other as lodg- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 187 188 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN ing places for soldiers, who were charged with the protection and guard of the im- portant works ; and hence, in all probability, they derived their military name. Some of them were occupied by masons and builders constantly at hand to keep the aqueducts in repair, while others again merely served as fountains or conduits where the water could be procured and drawn off by means of pipes and cocks. In this latter sense, the old gray-stone building that used to be seen some years ago in the Pentonville fields near to White Conduit house, which place of entertainment took its name frctn it, was once a castellum, or, as we call it, a conduit, a term that equally implied an aqueduct or the pipe or cock at which water was drawn off. The tower at Evora is also a castellum of this sort. In the interior of it there is a reser- voir to hold part of the water conveyed across the arches ; and some pipes emit this water on the spot, while other tubes carried under ground convey the fluid to different fountains and cisterns within the town. In too many instances in Spain, Portugal, Italy, Dalmatia, and other countries where the ancient Romans left almost imperish- able evidences of their sway, in the stupendous buildings they erected, works of similar public utility have been suffered to go to decay and become useless ; but here both aqueduct and castellum are well preserved, and as useful as ever ; and the modern inhabitants of Evora still drink the wholesome water that was brought to the place by art and industry some eighteen hundred years ago. The aqueduct is built of stone mixed with hard marble-like mortar or cement. The castellum is most neatly constructed of brick, and coated over with the almost imperishable Roman tonica or plaster. These ancient bricks are altogether different from ours. They are flat like paving tiles, seldom more than two inches thick, and as hard and as thoroughly baked as the solid clayey substance called terra-cotta. They are laid down horizontally, or on their flat sides, and the cement or mortar placed between them binds them together with wonderful strength and compactness. Walls and even vaulted roofs composed of these materials are frequently found in the most per- fect state of preservation, when the parts of the same or some contiguous ancient edifice that were built of stone are mouldering away or in ruins. The fragility — the perishableness which attaches to most of our modern brick buildings has nothing in common with the ancient Roman walls of brick, to the quality of which, in any country where stone and marble are scarce, builders and architects would do well to turn their attention. The walls of the castellum at Evora are as perfect as if they were built yesterday, and indeed much stronger, for the cement hardens with time. The plan of this building, which will be better understood from our engraving than from words, is circular : its greatest circumference, not embracing the surround- ing columns, is thirty-eight feet. The columns, which are eight in number, are of the Ionic order. In each intercoluraniation there is a niche ; and a door in one of these niches gives access to the reservoir of water and the interior of the building. The second story of the castellum is decorated with Ionic pilasters, between which are apertures to admit light and air. The top of the building is covered with an hemispherical dome. There is another and more modern object at Evora which generally attracts the traveller's notice, and which is considered by many of the natives as far more curious than their Roman antiquities. When Mr. Murphy was there about half a century ago, and busily employed in making drawings of the temple and aqueduct, he was asked whether he had seen that wonder ^f Portugal, the human-bone or charnel- house in the Franciscan monastery. On replying that he had not, his interlocutor, with the pride of a Cicerone, said, " Well then, Mr. Stranger, you have seen noth- ing ! so pome along with me." Murphy went ; and after passing through the body of the Fraiiciscan church, was ushered into a gloomy, horrible vault, over the arch- way of which he read the following somewhat startling inscription: — " Nob OS ossos que aqui estamos Pellos V08S0S esperanios," or, " We whose bones are here are expecting your bones." This dismal apartment is about sixty feet long and thirty-six wide. On each side of the nave are four large, broad piers, and all the eight piers are completely covered over with grinning skulls and human bones, which are fastened upon them with a hard and rough stucco. Such exhibitions of the miserable remains of mortality are CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 189 repugnant to our feelings ; and they produce no soberness of thought or salutary awe, being visited merely as curious shows. Evora is about eighty English miles from Lisbon, lying a little to the south of the high road from that capital to Badajoz and Madrid. Besides several Roman re- mains, some interesting Celtic ruins and altars are' found in the neighborhood of this ancient city. CHAPTER VIII.— PORTUGAL. Forests. — Besides the beauties of her cities, Portugal possesses many scenes of a highly romantic and interesting character, as well from the historical associations connected with them as from the rich and noble natural productions which adorn them. The soil of Portugal, like that of the neighboring kingdom (Spain), is ex- tremely light ; but the fine climate amply compensates for the want of a richer soil. The olive, the orange, the lemon, the fig, the pomegranate, the almond, and indeed every plant loving a warm climate, are to be found in the greatest luxury of growth. The deep tones of the olive mingling with the foliage of a lighter tint, and the golden hue of the orange and lemon through the dark leaves, give a character to the groves of Portugal peculiarly enchanting. The orchards of the nobility are for- ests of fruit-trees, interspersed with fountains in every possible variety of shape and situation ; and the coolness imparted to the atmosphere by the shadows of the trees and the playing of the water, renders a walk in their gardens exceedingly pleasant. But, notwithstanding the little labor which is necessary to make the soil productive, large tracts of land remain totally uncultivated, and others are covered with forests of pine or of cork. The royal forest of the Alemtejo (beyond the Tagus) is the largest in extent in the country, and is as beautiful in its appearance as varied in its productions ; now covering the level plain for leagues, and now climbing up the mountain-side ; now overshadowing the roaring torrent, and now spreading its green canopy over the beautiful valley ! Among the forest scenery, the pine bears a dis- tinguishing preponderance. Though these trees do not grow to the magnitude of the same species in the northern climates, yet they serve all the purposes for which they are required by the Portuguese : charcoal and wood for burning are indispensable requisites in a country where coal has not been discovered ; and the extreme inflam- mability of the pine renders it an invaluable product in the domestic economy of a Portuguese family. When used in the natural or uncharred state, the more resinous parts are cut out, and are used as lamps and torches by the country-people, while the remainder, in its greenest state, burns with a strong and bright flame. The pine also yields an exquisite nut, which the natives call " pintao," and of which they are exceedingly fond. The appearance, also, of the pine in the peninsula is diff"erent from any of the same family in colder climates. The trunk is bare from the root to the height of twenty, thirty, or forty feet, when the branches shoot out in lines curved upward, and pointed with the apple which yields the nut. There are also many specimens of the common Scotch fir, but not in sufficient quantities to form a prominent feature in the products of the country. There is a fir of this description near Moira, on the Tagus, which for grandeur and size I have not seen surpassed. It is known as the "guerrillas' tree," from the frequent robberies and executions which took place beneath- its branches, which were made to serve as a gallows to the thieves, when taken. Such specimens are, however, extremely rare ; the heat causes the trees to shoot up to a disproportionate height, and the necessity of supply- ing the country with charcoal causes them to be cut down before they can acquire size by age. Here and there, amid the boundless woods, may be seen an olive grove, or a vineyard, surrounded by a hedge of aloes, whose strong pointed leaves render them useful as a fence as well as ornamental. The oak grows in considerable quan- tities, but is dwarfish and insignificant compared with the cork-tree, which, in Por- tugal at least, is king of the forest. The ancient forests of these noble trees are now mostly converted into parks for the king or nobility ; they resemble much our larger kind of oak in the form of their branches, though, perhaps, more graceful ; the leaves are smoother, and of a brighter green ; the bark, which is of an immehse 190 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN thickness, is extremely rugged, and of a yellowish tint, mixed with a bright gray, and not unfrequently covered with a species of dry gray moss. The most extensive cork-forest is situated a fnw miles from the town of Moira, in the Alemtejo. When we beheld it, the beauty of the scene was heightened by the temporary occupation of the troops of Don Pedro. The bivouac is always a scene of bustle and animation: the lively costume of the soldiers, the glitter of their arms, the artillery drawn up, the cavalry dismounted, the soldiers formed into groups of various magnitude, are at any time objects of interest ; but when sur- rounded by the noblest works of nature, the effect is irresistibly imposing. Such was the scene in the cork-forest of Moira, of which our engraving is a sketch; every tree became, as it were, a house for a dozen or more soldiers, the broad branches and thick foliag-e affording ample protection, as well from the heat of the sun by day as from the heavy dews by night; some were busied in preparations for the frugal meal, others were reposing after the fatigues of the march ; others, again, forming beds from the branches or underwood, and all happy that they could avail themselves of a protection and cover as beautiful as it was grateful. There is a remarkably fine specimen of the cork-tree at the pass of Matter Quatra, near Santarem. This tree, we have no doubt, will be well remembered by many travellers, as the picket in that romantic valley covers the road to Lisbon by Car- taxo ; and the tree itself served, and still serves, as a station for a sentinel in troubled times. As the manner of rearing the vine is somewhat peculiar in the peninsula, we shall briefly notice it. We are accustomed in Italy, and in some parts of France, to see the vine gracefully curling around the poles placed in the earth for their support, and the rich fruit hanging, in large bunches, from every branch ; but in the penin- sula, the vine is cut down almost to the ground, and in winter has much the appear- ance of a withered and blackened stump. With spring, however, the branches shoot out in every direction, till they attain the size of a currant-bush, which, indeed, they very much resemble. Only a few of these branches are suffered to vem;iin, and those which are left are cut at the end, to prevent them running into useless wood. The vine thus trimmed produces from eight to a dozen bunches, but these are of a superior flavor, and make the best wines. When the grapes are gathered, which is done with great care, and mostly by women, the inferior bunches are suf- fered to remain for a day or two, when they also are gathered, and manufactuied into a wine of lower quality, or hung up to dry for winter consumption. Imrnense quantities of grapes are cultivated, also, for the table. The Muscatel wine must be drank in its own country to be duly appreciated, for, from its exceeding richness, it loses its flavor by travelling ; even passing the Tagus depreciates it iu quality ; and the denizens of Lisbon, when they v/ant to enjoy a glass of Muscatel wine in per- fection, cross the river to some of the many wine-stores on the Almada side. The method of gathering the olive varies in different parts of the peninsula. The most general way in Portugal, however, is to beat them down with long poles, and afterward collect them in sacks, or baskets. Both the oil and the fruit are inferior by this method, as the fall bruises the produce too much. The Spaniards gather them all by hand, and though the process is more laborious and more expensive, ample compensation is made in the superiority of these olives over those beaten down by poles. When intended for food, they are prepared in two ways : one is simply to cut them, and soak them in salt and water, adding a few herbs to give a flavor ; the other is, first to dry them in the sun, whereby they become black, and afterward to put them in jars, with oil, salt, pepper, or other spices, adding also a few herbs. When eaten by the natives, they are invariably flavored with oil, and a little vinegar. With us, olives are used only as a luxury — disagreeable enough to those who are unaccustomed to their flavor ; but in the countries of their growth, they are essential articles of food. The shepherd takes nothing with him to the field but a little bread, a flask of wine, and a horn of olives ; the carretiero, or car- man, carries with him only his wineskin, his loaf, and olives ; and the laborer in the field, and the peasant in his cottage, often have nothing more till nightfall ; indeed, bread and olives form an extremely nutritive and refreshing diet. The olive-tree is extremely picturesque and grotesque in its form, the trunk some- times consisting of a huge mass of decayed wood, with young and graceful branches springing from the top and sides ; at other times a large and bushy tree may be seen supported upon two or more small fragments of the same apparently dead wood, CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 191 192 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN while the remainder of the trunk is completely hollowed out. The wood hums readily when green, and the leaves emit a strong, sparkling flame, and apparently contain much oil. The ground between the olive-trees is not lost, being frequently sown with grain, and sometimes, though rarely, planted with vines. The deep color of the foliage of this most useful tree gives a solemn character to the landscape, and subdues the usual vivid brilliancy of color — the effect of the clearness of the atmo- sphere and the heat of the climate. Green, such as adorns our own meadows, is a color never seen in a Portuguese landscape ; the scanty herbage, which springs up spontaneously, is burned by the sun into a bright straw-color, and the soil, through the great heat, becomes almost white. On the sides of the hills, however, the beau- tiful pale purple flower of the wild thyme, and the delicate gray of its leaf, contrast prettily with the surrounding glare ; and it is only the olive, with its deep hues and the low, bushy vines, which can claim the name of green. The cultivation of the orange and the lemon is confined chiefly to the neighborhood of large cities, very few groves of these fruits being met with in the open country. The Spanish bull-fight has been often described ; but that species of bull-fight which, while it aff'ords pastime to the people, subdues the noble animal to be a par- taker of the labors of the husbandman, is, we believe, little or not at all known in this country. The peninsula abounds with extensive forest lands, which, though reaching over a wide extent of country, is sufficiently open to afi'ord pasture and food to herds of wild cattle, who roam almost unmolested among their shades. The great forest of the Alemtejo is an apt illustration. In this, some hundreds of square miles of country are occupied by growing timber ; but within its bounds large open spaces exist which serve for pasturages, and occasionally a farm, a vineyard, or an olive-grove, may be seen struggling, as it were, for existence amid the vast solitudes. But though occasional glimpses of culture appear, they are far too few and far between to offer any serious check to the increase and independence of the herds which roam around them undisturbed. It was in this forest that a writer wit- nessed, for the first time, the method of capturing the wild bulls. " I had received intimation," says this writer, " that the village of Alcoxete, on the Tagus, was to be the scene of a bull-fight, and that the villagers for many miles round were invited to join in the hunt, which was to take place on the following day. I accordingly crossed the river in company of about twenty persons, mostly military, each being provided with a long pole, having a small spike fixed in one end, and mounted as inclination or ability suited. When we arrived on the opposite bank, a little before daybreak, we found about two hundred and fifty or three hun- dred persons assembled, some mounted on different sorts of quadrupeds, from the noble Andalusian horse to the humble hack donkey, and very many on foot. They were all armed in a similar manner to ourselves. As soon as daylight began to ap- pear we all marched off toward the forest. The morning was peculiarly fine, and the interest of the beautiful scenery was heightened by the varied costumes of the persons by whom we were surrounded. As soon as we had advanced some distance into the wood we halted for the purpose of refreshment, before the arduous and somewhat perilous duties of the day began. After a hasty meal we divided into two parties, one stretching in a long line to the right, and the other to the left. We had not advanced far in this manner before we fell in with a herd of cattle having twelve bulls with it, which no sooner descried us than they bounded off with the speed of lightning. The sport had now begun ; we put our horses to the utmost speed, threading our way among the tall pine-trees as well as we could, and endeav- oring by wild cries to drive the bulls toward the other party. At length, after about an hour's chase, some half dozen of us who were better mounted than the rest came up with them, and commenced the attack with our long poles. The manner was this : one person riding at full speed gave the bull nearest him a sharp prick with the goad, which it no sooner felt than it turned upon its assailant and gave chase ; another horseman then coming up attacked it on the other side, when, leaving the first assailant, it turned upon the second ; he in like manner was rescued by a third, and so on. The attention of the infuriated animal thus distracted prevented his escape, and gave time for the other hunters to come up. The bulls were thus at length separated from the herd. A sufl5cient number having arrived to form a circle round them, we commenced operations for the purpose of driving them toward the town. All the skill of the riders was now necessary, and all the activity possessed by both man and horse, to keep clear from the pointed horns which on every side CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 193 13 194 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN were directed against him, as well as to prevent the herd from breaking through the living net with which it was surrounded. This was, perhaps, the most difficult part, and was attained by keeping each hull separately engaged, and thus prevent- ing united action ; for what line was sufficient, armed as we were, to resist the simul- taneous rush of these most powerful animals. The continued activity and exertion requisite had used up many poor jades who had started in the morning, and the circle became smaller and smaller as the day advanced ; several, too, had been car- ried off severely gored and wounded by the horns and feet of the bulls. I, however, and the party with whom I started, were resolved to see the conclusion, and redoub- ling our efforts, we at length, about four o'clock in the afternoon, succeeded in driving them into an enclosure where were a number of oxen (all at one time wild) with bells, quietly grazing. Here they were kept till required for the next day's sport. " The square of Alcoxete had been fitted up in the form of an arena, with seats, or rather standing-places, all round ; the centre was carefully cleaned, all stones removed, and fresh sand strewed. At one side a cart was stationed for a purpose to he presently described ; at the other a pen was fitted up for the reception of each bull as it was to make its appearance, communicating by a door with the place where the herd was enclosed. The difficulty of bringing the bulls from their temporary rest- ing-place to the scene of their humiliation Was not less than that of their original capture. Through the forest they had only the trees, and shrubs before them, to which they were accustomed; and if the line of huntsmen alone was sufficient to awaken their rage and terror amid scenes familiar to them, how much more must those feelings have been excited when passing through the streets of a town crowded with people, the houses gayly decorated with red, blue, white, and green hangings," and greeted with a thousand tongues in the joyfulness of expectation ? Twice the terrified and furious herd turned and dashed through the assembled crowd, tossing and goring all who ventured to oppose them, and twice the circling horsemen brought them back. One fine black bull took to the river and swam out about two miles before a boat could be put off to recapture it. Several of the English soldiers who were quartered near the town swam after it, when a fishing-boat came up, and fixing a cord round the bull's horns, towed it in. The soldier, however, was re- solved not to have his trouble for nothing, and mounting on its back, was landed safely amid the shouts of the spectators. The sport of baiting the bulls for the pur- pose of taming them, began at three in the afternoon, when the heat of the sun had somewhat abated. Six of the wild. animals were ushered into the circus, surrounded by a band of mounted picadores, and accompanied by several tame cattle with bells, when one by one they were secured with cords to a cart, and a leathern cap placed on the points of the horns, after which they were all driven into the pen. The cir- cus was then cleared, and the combatants entered, gayly attired in the Andalusian costume, the grace and elegance of which must be seen to be properly understood. The hair, which is worn long, is confined in a black silk bag, which is fastened with bows of black riband ; the light-colored velvet jacket covered with gold lace and silver gilt buttons, the velvet vest richly embroidered, the lace shirt, red silk sash, velvet breeches and silk stockings, ail harmonizing in color and form, set off" the figure to the best advantage, and add to the grace and elegance for which the Anda- lusian is so justly celebrated. These men, of whom there were five or six, are ac- customed from their infancy to the dangerous employment of bull-fighting, and the agility and dexterity displayed in evading the furious attacks of the bull are aston- ishing. After carefully examining the arena, they each armed themselves with four short barbed darts, and waited for the coming "of the bull ; they had not to wait long : the door was thrown open and the animal rushed into the centre, greeted by the shouts and vivas of the spectators. One of the men advancing invited the attack, when the bull, who, at first, bewildered and amazed, had stood tearing up the earth with its feet till almost hid from view by the cloud of dust, lashing itself into fury with its tail, rushed upon its opponent. All who were not accustomed to such spectacles thought the man must inevitably have perished ; but just as the long and powerful horns seemed to touch his body he stepped nimbly aside, and, turniiig smartly round, planted all four darts in the animal's neck just behind the horns. Loud shouts of applause rewarded his dexterity, and the bull, more enraged than ever, ran round the arena, tearing up the earth and bellowing with rage, until en- countered by a second picadore with like success. After his opponents had exhaust- ed themselves in exciting the rage of the bull, they quitted the arena, and the popu- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 195 196 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN lace were admitted to throw the bull. This was generally done by one man leaping between the horns, upon which he supported himself in an upright posture, till relieved by his companions, who threw the bull to the ground. The cry of ' largo, largo,' was the signal for its liberation, when, some tame cattle being admitted, it was led by them to the pen. Six bulls were thus baited the first day, the other six on the day follow;ing. Three weeks afterward I had these very animals under my charge as baggage-oxen, as tame and gentle oxen as could be desired." Smuggling. — In all countries where the imposts on commerce are heavy, and the government inactive or corrupt, smuggling will exist in a proportionate degree. The facilities for contraband trade in the peninsula are very great, for the govern- ment, though avaricious to the last degree, has not sufficient energy to check men who rove about the country in the face of day, in bands of from forty to fifty. It is true that the system, so long practised by the government, of conniving at evils they have not ability to crush, has given the contrabandistas a power sufficient to cause much trouble ; they are invariably well mounted, well armed, and ready on all occa- sions to meet the threatened danger. Indeed, so lax is the police, that they not only find a ready market in the open towns and villages, but fearlessly enter fortified towns and forts, transact business in open defiance of the law, and march out at their pleasure, without any particular notice being taken of them. I was much surprised one day to see a police report given to the governor of Elvas, which announced the arrival of fifteen Spanish smugglers from Badajoz as a mere matter of course. If an hotel in France contained fifteen, or even one such guest, with their contraband goods with them, the house would soon be surrounded by swarms of customhouse officers, and the goods, as well as their owners, conveyed in a marvellously short space of time to a place of security ; and if the guilty knowledge was capable of proof, to a place of punishment. But here there seems to be a mutual understand- ing between the authorities and the contrabandistas, by means of which the business is conducted on the most amicable terms. As the life of a contrabandista (which means, properly speaking, a land smug- gler) is to a certain extent roving and romantic, so are his habits lively and ener- getic, and his costume picturesque. The best accommodation the inns can afford are his, whether on the road or in the town, and frequently his gay and cheerful temper renders him an agreeable visitant. As he has ample opportunities of col- lecting information in his continuous perambulations, he is considered as a walking newspaper, and may be seen in his brown jacket with its gaudy embroidery and sil- ver bell buttons, his red sash and shirt of lace, his short loose trowsers and conical hat, standing at the hostel door, recounting the news to a group of eager listeners, or seated in the chimney-corner, with his wine-skin by his side, and cigar in his mouth, enlivening the company with his guitar. When the contrabandista is mounted, the animal carries him, his arms, and his goods. His arms consist gener- ally of a cutlass, two braces of pistols, one in holster and the other in his belt, and a long Spanish gun ; this latter is carried between the thigh and the saddle in a pe- culiar manner, with the barrel pointed downward. The goods are packed in small bales or cases, and slung over the crupper of the saddle, which is adapted for the purpose; and thus mounted and accoutred, it becomes a difficult matter to seize the goods without first taking the man. In Portugal the articles of illicit trade are not wines or spirits. These produc- tions are so similar in other countries, as to render the smuggling of them of no advantage ; but goods of Spanish manufacture, cigars, tobacco, chocolate, soap, jewelry, the lighter articles of dress, lace, &c., all of Avhich bear heavy duties, are thus imported in large quantities. Along the coast smuggling is practised much less than on the frontiers ; although the traffic in cigars and tobacco is considerable, the entire monopoly of these articles by one individual, the Marquis de Quentilla, renders them not only of a high price, but also of an inferior quality, none being allowed to enter the country, except from the Portuguese colonies. The conse- quence is, that contraband cigars are held in great esteem, not only for their supe- rior quality, but also for their reduced price ; the usual price of Havanas, and what are called Gibraltars, from these men, being about twenty crusadoes nove the thou- sand, or about one cent each, while the trash sold by the estanco is at the same price. It must be remarked that the Portuguese are seldom seen without a cigar in their mouths. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— PORTUGAL. 197 198 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN CHAPTER IX.— SPAIN. Of all the great countries of Europe, Spain is, perhaps, the least known. Its sta tistics are yet in a state of uncertainty ; the amount of its population has not heen determined within a million or two. Even Laborde, the most accurate traveller that has visited that couiitry, has fallen into error on this subject. It appears, however, that the present population of Spain is somewhat betAveen thirteen and fourteen mil- lions. The great cities of Spain are few and far between ; the communications are slow and insecure ; the face of the land is rugged, and intersected by high ridges of mountains; there are no canals or navigable rivers, and few carriage roads ; mules carry on the commercial intercourse of Spain. Intellectual intercourse between the various parts of the kingdom is at a still lower ebb. Few books are printed, few people read, and there is hardly a newspaper, deserving the name, in the whole land. It is evident that the people of such a country can little resemble those of France, Germany, England, or even Italy. Spain is essentially, and almost solely, an agricultural country. Its rural popula- tion forms the great body of the nation ; and he who would judge of Spain ought to make himself acquainted with the country-people, their character, habits, and feel- ings, rather than draw his inferences from the limited society of Madrid, Barcelona, or Cadiz. Several of the apparent contradictions in the late history of that country would become resolved by attending to this principle. The number of landowners and farmers throughout Spain amounts to nearly one million; that of the laborers and shepherds to full as many. These, with their fam- ilies, constitute the great bulk of the population, while the tradespeople, merchants, artisans, and manufacturers, altogether, do not amount to half a million, scattered about different parts of the kingdom. The Spanish peasantry, taken in a body, are perhaps the finest, and certainly the proudest, in Europe. They are generally well-made and robust, very frugal and pa- tient under privations, naturally solemn and taciturn, high-spirited, and brave. An exclusive love of their native country, and a dislike to foreigners, are with them tra- ditional feelings, connected with their religion, ever since the period of the Moorish wars. At the same time, they have so little idea of the construction of the social and political body, that they even lately did not know the meaning of the word nation, and they applied their corresponding word, nacion, to designate foreigners, exclusively and indiscriminately. They had never heard of " the Spanish nation," until the constitution of 1820 adopted the appellation ; but they knew the meaning of Spain, and Spaniards, and still better those of Casiilians, Andalusians, Valencians, &c., according to their respective provinces. Their good qualities are obscured by prejudices ; their sternness degenerates, at times, into ferocity, as their piety does into superstition. Yet, in the common intercourse of life, in quiet times, they appear warm-hearted, good-tempered, and civil. Although uninformed, they are very far from dull ; and though poor, they are not unhappy. " Nothing," says the late M. Martignac, who accompanied the French army in 18^3, in a high and important capacity, " nothing in other countries resembles the Spanish peasant — the Spanish laborer.- Everywhere else the peasant is a man of toil and of want, daily and en- tirely absorbed by the necessity of providing subsistence for himself and family. In Spain, the journeyman, the lal)orer, is never entirely engrossed by a similar care. His wants have been so reduced by frugal habits, that the fear of destitution seldom disturbs his repose or affects his humor. Strangers who visit Spain, and pay atten- tion to the manners and the language of the humbler classes, are struck with the simple, easy, and often elevated talk of the country-people. Their conversation is never trivial or vulgar, ihey reason justly, and often express generous sentiments with a natural nobleness. Above all, they have a feeling of pride, which makes them disdain proffered assistance or gratification, for a voluntary service. At Buytrago, I went to visit the fine estate of the duke of Infantado, and its flock of Merino sheep. The steward gave me a farm-servant to show me about. The latter fulfilled his charge with intelligence and politeness. At the moment of departure, I felt some- what embarrassed how to show my gratitude, without wounding his national pride. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN.. 199 I glanced at ray guide's attire — it showed but little of comfort ; his children, whom we had met, were in tatters. I resolved to offer him ray mite, and on arriving at the gate, I attempted to slip, as quietly as I could, a gold piece into his hand. He was in the attitude of bowing very low, while showing us out ; but, at the touch of the money, he raised himself proudly up, and told me, with an accent of repressed anger, 'Sir, we stand in no need of any one's assistance ; our master is a great lord, who does not let his people want for anything.' A similar feeling makes the Spanish peasant impatient of advice, and averse to any novelty that wounds his feelings, his habits, or his faith. Such is the Castilian peasant ; such, also, the Aragonese, with a greater admixture of obstinacy ; such the Catalonian, with greater activity, and also a deadlier spirit of revenge. In the southern provinces there are greater re- mains of barbarism and ferocity, owing, perhaps, to the more protracted struggle with the Moors, and also to their African neighborhood," ' It would be indeed absurd to attempt to reduce the whole population of so vast a country as Spain, to a fixed standard. There are considerable shades of difference between the native of the northern provinces, bordering on the Atlantic ocean, and the inhabitant of the sunny coast of the Mediterranean ; and also between these two and the dweller in the great central table-land of Castile, Leon, and Estrema- dura. These may be considered as the three grand divisions of Spain. Laborers' wages are lower in the north than in Castile and the other central prov- inces, where the population is thinner, and villages at a greater distance from each other. The working-days are about two hundred and seventy-three in the year, the rest being Sundays and other holydays. The food of the laboring classes consists of bread, bacon, Spanish peas or beans, oil, garlic, greens, and wine. They seldom eat fresh meat ; salt fish is a relish on meager days. The men lay out but little upon clothes, their outer garment being made of sheepskins, or coarse woollen cloth, which lasts out a man's life. Spanish bread is not fermented like ours, but is compact and cake-like ; it has, however, a very good taste, for Spanish wheat is of excellent quality. The common wine in the central and northern provinces, where it is the universal beverage, is generally very poor ; but in the south of Spain, whence the fine wines come, in the districts of Xeres, Rota, Malaga, Alicant, the country-people hardly drink any ; it is too valuable for them. In Catalonia, and other provinces near the Mediterranean sea, a family of four persons will dine upon half a pound of salt-fish, bread, and oil, and sup on a lettuce. The Catalonians, however, are very fond of wine and spirits, but one seldom sees a Spaniard intoxi- cated, except among the lowest populace of the cities. Smoking is universal, but on a very economical plan ; they carry a tobacco-stick in their pocket, out of which they cut a piece, crumble it in the palm of their hand, wrap it up in paper, and the cigar is thus made. In the wide plains of Castile and Leon, the great corn-country of Spain, and in the other central provinces, very few farmhouses are to be seen ; the inhabitants are crowded together in villages, and the houses, made of bricks baked in the sun, look dilapidated and comfortless. It is only in the north, or in some of the maritime dis- tricts of the south, that one sees anything like the farmhouses and cottages of other countries. The Castiiians have of old a singular aversion against trees, as being the means of attracting and sheltering birds, who would peck the corn. This na- kedness of the great table-land of Spain struck, particularly, an American traveller, who has written a very interesting tour of that country. " After having long since stripped the country of its trees, the Castilian, instead of creating nurseries for their restoration, has such an abhorrence for everything of the kind, that he will even pre- vent the establishment of them along the high roads, by wounding those which the government has been at the expense of planting there. In consequence of their proscription in the interior of Spain, it has been remarked that the soil, scorched by a powerful sun, with no trees to moderate its force, or attract humidity, has gradu- ally lost its streams and fountains, of which nothing now remains but empty ra- vines, to mark the forgotten source of former fertility." The mountains of New Cas- tile supply the inhabitants of the plains with charcoal for fuel. Nothing is more strikingly dreary than the country round Madrid ; not a grove, nor an orchard, nor country-seat, to be seen. The fields in Castile are not enclosed ; the corn is thrashed and left on the ground, till the dealers and speculators in corn, to whora, in most cases, the harvest is mortgaged beforehand, corae to fetch it away. The farmers are without capital, and therefore are incapable of making improvements on their 200 . SCENES AND SKETCHES IN lands. The markets are distant, and although corn is often double the price in Gal- licia, Asturias, and other maritime provinces, to what it is in the central ones, yet the expense of carriage on mules' backs, or in carts drawn by oxen, absorbs the whole profit. Nearly one half of the produce goes in the shape of taxes and tithes, and out of the other half, the tenant must pay his rent and support himself. We have said that there is considerable difference between the various provinces of Spain with regard to agriculture. In Valencia, Murcia, and Grenada, the systerh of irrigatior. prevails. There the country, sloping between the mountains and the sea, is formed either by nature or art into luxuriant platforms, rising above each other like the grades of an amphitheatre. The streams descending from the mountains are turned into numerous channels lo irrigate the whole. The right to the use of every stream is of course nicely defined. When the season arrives, those who enjoy water* privileges sedulously prepare their fields, open their sluices, fill the ditches, and inundate the whole, even to vineyards and olive orchards. In consequence of this system, productions are multiplied to a wonderful extent, and the earth continues prolific throughout the year. The mulberry-trees are thrice stripped of their leaves, and the meadows of clover and lucerne are mown eight or even ten times; citrons are often gathered of several pounds weight, and bunches of grapes of fourteen pounds ; wheat sown in November yields thirty for one in June ; barley in October gives twenty in May ; rice in April yields forty in October, and Indian corn planted as a second crop gives one hundred fold. In the north, the provinces of Navarre and Biscay are the best cultivated ; the inhabitants are industrious and comfortable. They enjoy their own local adminis- tration, and vote the taxes among themselves. They compound with the king's treasury, and for a certain sum are free from a number of petty taxes to which the rest of Spain is subject. They have also manufactures, especially of iron, having coal-mines in their country. The Biisque provinces form a sort of separate kingdom, having their separate laws and language. The mountaineers of Gallicia, at the western extremity of Europe, tlirown out as it were into the stormy Atlantic, which washes their rugged country on two sides, are poor, hardy, and patient. The soil being too barren to afford maintenance to a numerous population, the Gallegos emigrate by thousands, and resort to the large cities, especially to Madrid and Lisbon, where they perform the offices of- porters and water-carriers. They have a general reputation for honesty, very different from the natives of the sunny land of Valencia, who have a bad name in Spain. The Asturians share the same condition and pursuits as their neighbors of Gallicia, with something of a more adventurous character. The mesta is a source of tribulation to many a Spanish farmer. It is a chartered company of proprietors of sheep, who have the right of grazing their flocks over all the pasture lands of Spain, subject to trifling fees. The number of their sheep amounts to about five millions, and they employ about fifty thousand persons, in the capacities of agents, shepherds, and other servants. They have officers and judges who exercise many oppressions over those who stand in the way of their assumed rights and privileges. The sheep migrate from the plains to the mountains in the summer, and back again before the winter, trespassing over the cultivated lands, driving the other flocks out of their meadows, and causing much mischief. This is one reason \yhy the fields in central Spain are unenclosed. The company of the mesta monopo- lize the wool trade, the private graziers and sheep proprietors having no chance of competing with such a powerful and wealthy body, which reckons among its members men high in office, noblemen, and dignitaries of the church. This evil has been long complained of by Spanish agriculturists ; it is one of the most extraordinary monopolies ever granted in any country. The arricros or muleteers form a numerous and rather conspicuous part of the Spanish population. Mules are preferred in Spain for driving, as being more sure- footed and hardierof living than horses. Besides which, there are caravans of mules, with loads on their backs, constantly crossing Spain on the various roads, carrying corn, rice, flour, pulse, wine, and oil in skins, as well as goods from the seaports to the interior. The muleteer is a primitive being ; he wanders all over the vast peninsula; his home is everywhere ; light-hearted and jovial, he is also honest, and his punctuality in general may be depended upon. He is very kind to his mules, calls them by their names, talks to them, scolds them, and his first care on arriving at the inn is to see them comfortably provided for, and then, and not till then, he CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 201 202 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN thinks of himself. He is sutler or travelling merchant, carries parcels, and executes commissions for the people on his road. The master muleteer, or owner of -a num- ber of mules, sends his servants on various journeys, pays their expenses on the road| besides their wages. On more important and profitable expeditions he sets forth himself. During the war in the peninsula, the muleteers were much employed by the English commissariat, to carry provisions for the army, and they were paid handsomely. Accordingly, some of them were known to have come with their mules from the heart of Castile, then in possession of the French, to the frontiers of Portugal, where the English cantonments were, evading the French posts and scouring parties. Having spoken of the laboring classes we will now make a few remarks on the population generally. The Spaniard of the southern provinces, requires his shade in summer and sunshine in winter, his tobacco, his melons, his dates, and his wine, and he asks no more. But in opposition to this indifference to political rights, the Spaniard offers many valuable national points of character ; he is in general reserved, honest, temperate, and pious ; and though frugal, is so indifferent to outward goods, that were he less courteous and good-humored, he might pass for a practical philosopher of the school of Diogenes. The Spanish ladies are, generally speaking, of a middle size, and well formed, with an expressive countenance, brilliant eyes, beautiful teeth, and black hair. The females are distinguished for beauty of person and dignity of manners ; their complexion is dark ; and they dress with taste and move with ease and grace. They are characterized by intelligence, deep feeling, fidelity, and constancy, but they are almost entirely uneducated. The Spaniards, like the Italians, have been celebrated for their abstemiousness with regard to meat and drink. Perhaps this virtue in both is more imaginary than real ; and where real, is perhaps more the consequence of necessity than choice. The breakfast is said to be generally chocolate ; the dinner, beef, veal, and pork, but above all, mutton, dressed in various ways. This must be understood of the higher ranks ; the diet of the lower classes is extremely meager, consisting chiefly of vegeta- bles, such as radishes, garlic, and onions. Wine is said to be used only in small quantities — a circumstance which has been attributed to the heat of the climate ; the poverty of the inhabitants is a cause no less probable. To sleep after dinner is customary with both sexes of almost every rank. The time of taking air is in the evening ; the heat of mid-day being so intense as almost to preclude every species of exercise. The theatre is but little frequented. The reason which has been gen- erally assigned, is the insipidity of the greater part of the dramatic pieces ; but this reason is by no means satisfactory. All excellence is comparative ; and the Spaniard, who has no just standard by which to judge of the dramas of his own country, will no doubt consider them as excellent, and consequently admire them in the representa- tion. That the Spaniards are not deficient in wit and humor, is evident from the works of several of their writers Avell-known in every nation of Europe. The comic scenes in many of the chapters of Don Quixote are exquisite. Dancing is a favorite amusement ; but one, it must be owned, somewhat incompatible with the alleged gravity of the nation. Under the mild sky of Spain every animal and vegetable production is rapidly matured by the ceaseless activity which nature displays throughout the whole year. The fruits and plants of this country offer a greater variety, and are more luxuriant, than those of any other country of Europe. The principal production in the animal kingdom is the horse, which in Spain is a noble and beautiful animal ; but it has degenerated in most of the provinces, and it is only in a few studs that the true Andalusian breed is still to be found. The Asturian horse is not so fine as that of Andalusia, but is stronger. Asses are very large here, and mules are held in higher estimation than horses. The cattle are small and not of a fine appearance. The strong bull of Andalusia lives wild in the Sierra Morena. The sheep of Spain are celebrated for the fineness of their fleece and for the delicacy of their mutton. There are three kinds, viz. : merinos, with a short soft wool ; chourros, with higher legs, a smaller head, and coarser wool ; and metis, which are a race between the two former breeds. Bears and wolves exist in the Pyrenees ; monkeys on the rocks of Gibraltar and on the Sierra de Ronda ; there are also chameleons, lizards — among which is the legartho, two feet in length — serpents, and vipers. We find here do- mestic and wild fowls of diflferent kinds, larks of an extraordinary size, eagles, and CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 20b the magnificent flamingo. There are not many varieties of fresh-water fish ; but the seas are very rich in various kinds of excellent fish, oysters, mussels, and corals. Bees, silkworms, cantharides or Spanish flies, tarantulas, locusts, and mosquitoes, are numerous. The finest wines are those of Malaga, Tinto, Xeres, Alicante, and Valdepenas. A good many grapes are also exported in a fresh and a dried state. The fruits of the south are lemons, bitter and SAveet oranges, pomegranates, figs, dates, olives, almonds, pistachio-nuts, and capers; apples, pears, cherries, peaches, and chestnuts, are grown in the northern provinces. The quantity of hazel-nuts • which are exported from Catalonia is remarkable ; carubes are eaten, and are also made use of for feeding cattle. Vegetables of all kinds, asparagus, artichokes, onions, melons, potatoes, flax, hemp, -cotton, madder, aloes, and liquorice, thrive well. On the Pyrenees, the Cantabrian mountains, the Sierra Nevada, and the Sierra Morena, are fine forests ; but there is a scarcity of wood on the table-land of the interior. Among the forest-trees of Spain we may enumerate oaks, tamarisks, pines, beeches, chestnut-trees, nut-trees, firs, poplars, and the sumach, the bark of which is used by tanners and dyers. Spain was always celebrated for its minerals, indeed, it originally supplied the ancient inhabitants of Europe with the greater part of the precious metals which they possessed. The silver of Spain was not only abundant in quantity, but, in respect of quality, was preferred to that of all other regions. In the time of Han- nibal, the mine called Bebelo is said to have yielded daily three hundred pounds weight of this precious metal ; but the southern districts were celebrated as being the richest in the precious metals. As this kingdom is situated under the same parallel of latitude as Italy, its climate is extremely similar. In the northern parts the cold is never excessive; but the heat in the southern districts, during the three months nearest midsummer, is very great, and would be sometimes almost intolerable, were it not lessened by the sea- breeze, which begins to blow at nine in the morning, and lasts till five in the evening. The interior, being generally considerably elevated, is not so warm as might be expected from the latitude under which it is situated ; and here the tem- perature is more regulated by the degree of elevation than the geographical position. It is the extraordinary configuration of this country which accounts for the aridity of the soil in the interior of the Castiles, the amount of evaporation, the want of rivers, and that difference of temperature which is observable between Madrid and Naples, two cities situated in the same latitude. It is only since the eighteenth century that navigable canals have been executed in Spain. But several small irrigatory canals, of very ancient date, exist in the provinces of Seville, Jaen, Cordova, Granada, Murcia, Valencia, and Catalonia; most of them are remnants of Moorish industry. Irrigation is of the highest im- portance in Spain, and has been carried to a great extent in Valencia, Catalonia, and Granada, where springs, streams, and rainwater, are collected into enormous cisterns, called pantanos, from which they are distributed over all the districts which need watering. The Spaniards are not wanting in skill for the useful arts ; but they dislike to de- vote themselves to any kind of trade, which they think beneath their dignity, and a Spanish hidalgo Avould much rather beg his bread than procure it by devoting him- self to any useful labor. The inhabitants of Catalonia, Valencia, and Galicia, alone are distinguished from the rest of their countrymen by activity and industry. Still there might be enough of tradesmen to supply the home consumption, but their work is so ill done and dear, that all finer articles are imported from Great Britain and France. The manufactures of Spain have been ruined by war; many have been entirely annihilated, and others are in a very languid state, as their produce was especially calculated for the colonies, of which the market is now closed to Spain. Most of the manufactures in Spain have been established by joint-stock companies, which shows how poor individuals are in a kingdom which so long enjoyed the ex- clusive possession of the new world. No country in Europe equals Spain in natural commercial advantages, whether we consider its situation or facilities of produce. Its situation renders an intercourse with all parts of Europe extremely easy, and its intercourse with America and Africa is carried on by a shorter and more direct course than that of any other nation. Its ports are numerous and commodious; and its inhabitants, accustomed to a warm climate, visit the tropical regions with more safety than the inhabitants of colder 204 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN climates, and yet it is behind every other country of Europe in point of commercial importance. It is difficult to estimate the state of the population of Spain. According to Monaco, they amounted in 1826 to 13,732,176 souls. This number has, however, varied very much since that period. Madrid. — The capital of New Castile and of Spain, and now also of the province of Madrid, stands on a range of small hills rising in the middle of the extensive plain of New Castile, which is bounded on the north by the mountains of Guadarrama, and on the south by those of Toledo, in 40° 24' 18" north latitude, and 3° 42' west long- itude of Greenwich. Madrid is supposed to occupy the site of the Mantua Car- petanorum of the Romans, which was called Majoritum by the Goths, whence its present name Madrid is derived. Some antiquarians contend that it was so called by the Spanish Arabs, in whose language the word Magerit meant " a well-aired house." During the occupation of the peninsula by the Arabs the place served as a frontier town, and its castle was often taken from the Arabs and retaken by them until 1086, when it was finally taken by Alphonso VI., the conqueror of Toledo, who annexed it to the bishopric of Toledo, to which it now belongs. It continued to be a mere village until the reign of Henry III. of Castile, who, being passionately fond of hunting the wild boar and the bear, both which animals were then abundant in the mountains near Madrid, made the place his residence during. the hunting-season. Charles V. occasionally lived in it, and it was at last made the capital of the Spanish dominions by his son Philip II., in opposition to the opinion of his ministers, who strongly advised him to fix his court at Lisbon. Madrid is more than two thousand English feet above the level of the sea, a cir- cumstance which accounts for the coldness of its winters. In summer the heat is excessive, in some measure owing to the want of trees in the neighborhood. The thermometer in 1837 rose to one hundred and seventeen degrees of Fahrenheit in the open air. In winter the same thermometer sometimes descends as low as eighteen degrees. Madrid is on the left bank of the Manzanares, a small rivulet which has its rise in the mountains of Guadarrama, about thirty-six miles from the capital, and which, after flowing under the walls of Madrid, joins the Xarama, a considerable stream, at some distance from the capital. Two majestic bridges, called Puente de Toledo and Puente de Segovia, are thrown over the Manzanares ; but such is the contrast between the imposing grandeur of these bridges and the scanty stream which flows beneath them, that it has given rise to the witty saying " that the kings of Spain ought to sell the bridges, and purchase water with the money." In winter, however, the heavy rains, and in spring the sudden melting of the snow on the neighboring mountains, sometimes swell the Manzanares into an impetuous torrent. Madrid is surrounded by a brick wall twenty feet high, which contains fifteen gates, mostly built of coarse gray granite. Among these the gate of Alcala and that of San Vicente, built in the reign of Charles III., and that of Toledo, erected in the reign of Ferdinand VII., are characterized by purity of design and solidity of structure. During the present civil war, some slight fortifications have been erected on the prin- cipal points leading to the city. The general aspect of Madrid from all the approaches is anything but inviting. The numerous fantastic spires of churches and convents, the tiled roofs of the houses, the sterility of the neighborhood, and the total absence of good houses, pleasure- gardens, or other buildings which indicate the approach to a great city, give to the capital of Spain the gloomy and forbidding appearance. The interior, however, is not devoid of beauty. The wide and well-paved streets, the extensive and well-planted public promenades in and near the city, with the fountains in many of the squares, the gorgeous churches, and handsome buildings, remind the traveller that he is in the capital of Philip II. The houses are well constructed : the foundations and some of the ornamental parts are of granite, and the rest of red brick, stuccoed and generally painted. Each house is four or five, and frequently six stories high, and contains, as in Paris, several families. The principal streets, with few exceptions, are moderately wide and handsome : that of Alcala, for instance, is wider than Portland-place in London, and contains many splendid build- ings. The Calle Mayor, Carrera de San Geronimo, Calle de Atocha, &c., would be ornaments to any capital ; the rest of the streets are generally narrow and crooked. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 205 I !>iiii;h|!i| m I Mil' 206 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN There are forty-two squares, of which the principal are — tliat of the Royal Palace ; that of Santa Catalina, where a beautiful bronze statue of Cervantes has been lately placed ; the Puerta del Sol, where the five principal streets of Madrid meet, and which is a place of resort both for the idle and the busy, being the spot where, owing to the proximity of the Exchange, or Bolsa, all commercial transactions are con- ducted in the open air ; the Plaza de la Cevada, where criminals were formerly exe- cuted ; and lastly, the Plaza Mayor, which is the finest of all. This square is now used as the rallying-point for the garrison of Madrid in case of alarm, on account of the strength and solidity of the buildings and the difficulty of approaching it through the narrow crooked streets. Its form is quadrilateral, four hundred and thirty-four feet by three hundred and thirty-four, and it is surrounded with stone buildings six stories high, ornamented with pillars of gray granite, which form a fine piazza all round. The population of Madrid, as to which no official returns have been published since 1807, was stated by Minano to be 201,344 in 1826, but this number is generally sup- posed to be too great for that time, although it may at present be nearly correct. The circumference at Madrid is not above five miles ; and there are no suburbs. The Eoyal Palace of Madrid. The royal palace of Madrid, though unfinished, is one of the finest royal residences in Europe. The interior is decorated in a style of costly magnificence. It stands on the site of the old Alcazar, or palace, inhabited by Philip II., which was burnt to the ground in 1734. Philip V. began the building, which was continued by his succes- sors. It has four fronts, four hundred and seventy feet in length, and one hundred feet high. The customhouse, a noble building, erected by Charles III., to whom Madrid is chiefly indebted for its embellishments ; the Casa de Correos (postoffice) in the Puerta del Sol ; the palace called de Buena Vista, formerly belonging to the dukes of Alba, now converted into an artillery museum ; the royal printingoffice, in the street of Carretas, and the palace of the duke of Berwick, are among the public and private buildings which adorn the capital. Among the numerous churches and convents which fill the streets of Madrid, scarcely one can be mentioned as a speci- men of a pure style of architecture. That of San Isidro, formerly belonging to the Jesuits, has a very fine portal ; the convent of the Saleras, founded by Ferdinand YI. and his wife Barbara, is likewise a fine building, and the interior of the church is ornamented with the richest marbles. The convent of San Francesco el Grande, built in 1777, is justly admired for the severity and correctness of the design, its beautiful proportions, and a dome built in imitation of that of Saint Peter's at Rome. There are sixty-seven churches in Madrid, exclusive of private chapels. Before the year 1834 there were sixty-six convents, thirty-four for men and thirty-two for women. Some of them have been recently pulled down, either to widen the streets or to form squares ; others have been converted into barracks, hospitals, magazines, and government offices. Public promenades abound in Madrid. That which is most resorted to is the Prado, which consists of various alleys lined with double rows of trees, and orna- mented with beautiful marble fountains. Adjoining to it is the Retire, an extensive and beautiful garden. The garden suffered greatly, both from friends and foes, dur- ing the peninsular war, but was restored by the late king, who added to it an ex- tensive menagerie. Another favorite promenade is a vast plantation outside the CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 207 gate of Atocha, called Las Delicias, leading to a canal known by the name of Canal de Manzanares. This canal which extends only six miles from Madrid, was intended to unite the capital with the river Tajo at Toledo, by means of the Xarama. The literary and scientific establishments are generally of old date, and insufficient to meet the v/ants of the present day. Minano mentions one hundred and si:;ty-six primary schools as existing in 1826, besides two colleges, both conducted by ecclesi- astics. This number, however, has recently diminished. There are two extensive libraries open to the public ; one founded by Philip V. in 1712, which contains one hundred and fifty thousand volumes, besides a very large collection of manuscripts, chiefly Greek, which have been described by J, Iriarte, and a museum of medals and antiquities. The library of San Isidro belonged formerly to the Jesuits. Both have been considerably increased of late by the addition of the libraries of the suppressed convents within the capital. There are also four academies: 1. "La Academia de la Lengua," founded in 1724, in imitation of the Academie Franpaise, confi.nes its labors to the publication of Avorks in the Spanish language, such as grammars and dictionaries, and to editions of the best Spanish writers. 2. The Academy of History originated in a society of individuals whose first object was the preservation of historical records. It was confirmed by Philip V., who, in 1738, granted the present statutes. The labors of this body have been far more useful than those of its sister institution : and the nine volumes in quarto already published by them form a valuable addition to the history of Spain. 3. The Academy of the Fine Arts, instituted in 1738, holds weekly meetings at its rooms in the street of Alcala, but it has hitherto done little or nothing : lastly, the Academy of Medicine. A fine botanical garden, well stocked with exotic plants, forms a delightful spot in the spring, when it is much frequented : attached to the establishment are various professions, who lecture upon botany, agriculture, and geology. The museum of Natural History, in the Calle de Alcala, is not worthy of the praise bestowed upon it by travellers : it cer- tainly contains a splendid collection of minerals from the Spanish dominions in America, but they are badly arranged and worse kept. It contains, however, the interesting skeleton of the megatherium described by Cuvier. Along the east side of the prado is the national gallery, a noble building of colossal dimensions, with a beautiful Tuscan portico and Doric colonnades. The collection of paintings which it contains has been lately pronounced by competent judges to possess a greater number of good pictures, with fewer bad ones, than any other gal- lery in Europe. The Armory, a fine building of the time of Philip II., contains some of the most beautiful specimens of armor in Europe, especially of the Cinque Cento, or the fine times of Benvenuto Cellini. There are several complete suits of armor, which formerly belonged to Ferdinand V., Charles V., the Great Captain, John of Austria, Garcia de Paredes, and other illustrious Spaniards. The most interesting of all perhaps is a coat of mail with the name and the arms of Isabella upon it, which she is said to have worn in her campaigns against the Moors. An account of 'this collection, with drawings of the best pieces of armor, is now in course of publication. Madrid has two small theatres, " La Cruz" and "Principe," both managed by the AyuniamieiUo, or municipal corporation, where Italian operas and Spanish plays are alieroately acted. Another, of much larger dimensions, called the " Teatr'o de Orienie," has been lately built in the centre of the square opposite to the royal palace, but is still unfinished for want of funds. The inhabitants of Madrid repair, every Monday during the season, to a vast ampliitheatre outside of the gate of Alcala, where the favorite spectacle of bullfights is exhibited. The police of Madrid is not good. The streets are generally dirty, and the ap- proaches to the city sometimes blocked up by heaps of rubbish. The city has no common sewers. Notwithstanding the great number of fountains, the want of good water is severely fell in summer. The city itself is considered to be extremely un- healthy ; and if Philip II. chose it for his residence on account of the purity of the air and the quality of its waters, as we are told, Madrid must have undergone a complete change since that time. The sharp winds which blow from theGuadarrama mountains in winter produce the endemic pulmonia or pneumonia,. which often proves fatal in a few hours. A sort of colic, caused by the dryness of the atmosphere, is likewise a prevalent complaint in summer. Charitable and benevolent institutions are numerous, and some are amply provided 208 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN with funds; but the management having always been in the hands of the clergy, the funds have been spent in building nnonasteries and churches, rather than applied to the charitable purposes intended by the donors. An institution, supported by voluntary contributions and patronized by the government, has recenily been estab- lished outside of the city, for the reception of beggars, who were formerly objects of horror and disgust in the streets of Madrid. Madrid has littlemanufacturing industry. A manufacture of porcelain and another of tapestry are both the property of the crown. Badajoz is situated on an eminence, which, gradually sloping upward from the plain, terminates rather precipitously at the castle. This hill terminates the range of the mountains of Toledo, although separated from the chain by the " dark Guadi- ana," whose waters flow beneath the city walls." Fort St. Christobal, a strong fort on the Portuguese side of the river, and completely commanding the town, is, more properly speaking, the last of the Toledo mountains, as the eminence on which the city stands does not deserve so dignified a name. Eadajoz is completely surrounded on three sides by a vast plain, and on the fourth by the river. This plain was once covered with the vine and the olive, and the picturesque Casas del Campo of the more wealthy inhabitants ; but now it presents but a wide ^nd dreary desert ; war, with its desolating blasts, has swept cultivation from the soil, has converted the sickle into the sword, and the ploughshare into a spear. The bridge of Badajoz is a beautiful piece of Roman architecture, and its perfect and solid masonry attests the greatness of that surprising people, in their works of art. Much is added to its appearance by the Tete de Pont, on the Campo si-de, and the fine towers of the Puerta de los Palmas, on the city side. In the centre, a fountain of living water casts its refreshing showers high into the sultry air, and the beauty of the prospect on every hand renders the Ponte de Badajoz a pleasant prom- enade for the fair or idle. The river beneath is so shallow in the summer months as to be fordable almost at every part ; but in the winter it becomes a mighty stream, pouring its waters along with resistless rapidity, and entirely filling the wide chan- nel cut in the loose soil by its ceaseless flow. Navigation, therefore, is not to be thought of, and the only vessels to be seen are a few small boats for pleasure or for fishing. The Palmer's gate is well worthy of notice, on account of its extreme beauty ; the two round towers which stand on either hand are perfectly symmetrical ; and the golden hue of age thrown over the white marble of which they are built, by the fine, pure atmosphere of a southern climate, increases the beauty of their appear- ance by lending the charms of color to those of form. This gate, which is also Roman, was repaired by Philip II., the husband of Queen Mary, of England, in the year 1551, as appears by the inscription, since which time the hand of the workman has not touched it. The bridge, however, of which this gate forms the terminntion, has been thoroughly repaired and paved. The interior of the town presents nothing remarkable, although extremely clean without the aid of whitewash, so much used in Portugal to give an air of cleanliness to the antiquated and miserable streets. The houses are, for the most part, large and comraoditius, and the inn, or Fonda de los Cuatra Naciones, is superlative in its accommodation and comfort ; indeed, it is surprising to find so splendid an establishment in Badajoz, after becoming accustomed to the wretched, comfortless, and dirty inns, hotels, hospederios, or whatever they may call them, in Portugal. The market-place near the castle is a fine square, and contains the government offices, &c. ; the buildings are extremely picturesque, and are overlooked by some old towers and ruins, forming an interesting background. The street which leads from this place to the cathedral is filled Avith the houses of the gentry, and its termination forms the Rambla, or public walk, where the belles of the place display themselves in the evening air. The cathedral, whose Gothic arches and massive towers overlook this promenade, is a plain and ugly building externally, but every art and expense have been lavished, to render its interior mag- nificent and glittering. The numerous chapels which surround its broad and gloomy aisles, are covered with carvings and gilt-work ; the altars are enriched by embroid- ery of the most costly workmanship, and resplendent with silver candlesticks and wax candles, kept constantly lighted ; and the grand altar displays all the art and splendor of the catholic worship. Barcelona is a regularly-fortified city, with a citadel and detached fort, and, nexl to Elvas, is, perhaps, one of the strongest fortifications in the peninsula. Tlie cita- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 209 210 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN del, which is situated on the side next the plain, is a perfect model of its kind. It consists of a fortified heptagon, with ravelins and cavaliers ; the bastions have re- tired orillon flanks; the tower which stands near the ramparts is singularly beauti- ful, and forms a cross, with an open lantern on the top. This tower, combined with the domes of the governor's house and the barracks in the square, gives a graceful and pleasing appearance to an object, at the best of an uninteresting character, ex- cept to the scientific observer. The esplanade, in front of the citadel, and within the city wslls, forms a pleasant walk during the delightful summer evenings. It is traversed by a quadruple row of stately elms, whose thick foliage forms a grateful protection from the heat of the sun, which in the summer is excessive.. The centre is ornamented by grottoes and by fountains, whose refreshing showers tend still fur- ther to cool the air, and though the sculptures do not exhibit the perfections of classic art, they are sufficiently well executed to be agreeable and pleasing ornaments to the walk. The public garden is situated at one end of the esplanade ; it is neither ex- tensive nor beautiful, but contains a large collection of small singing-birds. As all executions take place in the esplanade, it is not much frequented by the inhabitants, and the Rambla, though neither possessed of fountains nor so many trees, is pre- ferred by them. This promenade is situated in the heart of the city, and divides it into two unequal parts. The market is held at one end, while the other is reserved for the display of fashion and beauty. The excessive heat in the summer prevents the indulgence of the exercise of walking in the daytime, but the Rambla is crowded in the evening. The opera-house also is situated in this walk ; and as all the wealthy families have a box of their own, they pass the evening between the theatre and the Rambla ; the purity of the atmosphere and mildness of the night air prevents their experiencing any injurious consequences arising from the transition from the heated opera-house to the open air, even when only protected by the addi- tion of a mantilla, or lace veil, thrown gracefully over the head and shoulders of the ladies. The Rambla also contains many houses of refreshment, to which the ladies resort in order to partake of ices, sweetmeats, or coffee, &c. Let no one be sur- prised at this: inebriety is a vice unknown among the Spanish gentlemen and, indeed, among all classes ; the temperate Spaniard, though living in a wine country and thirsty climate, rarely slakes his thirst, except at meal-time, with anything but water, flavored with the milk of almonds and a little sugar. Such being the gen- eral habits of the people, ladies may enter these places without being afraid of wit- nessing any impropriety in the conduct of the company assembled. The building of the Casa de Lonja is extremely handsome, and is a fine specimen of the Doric order ; the staircase is truly magnificent, each step being composed of one large slab of marble, and each landing-place of only two. The upper part of the building is entirely devoted to education ; and class-rooms are established for the study of design, the classics, the English, French, Italian, and German languages, writing, and mathematics ; in short, every branch of a liberal education. The Casa de Lonja stands in the great square, or Plaza del Palacio. The entrance to Barce- lona by this square is exceedingly fine : the customhouse, built entirely of white marble, and covered with ornament, the ducal palace, the beautiful palaces of the nobility, the exchange, and the varied style of domestic architecture, with the fine towers of the old church of " Our Lady of the Sea," are all objects of admiration to a stranger. The palace represented in our engraving is less interesting as a work of art than for its historical associations. It was from the windows in the corner that Philip V, acknowledged the rights and privileges of the Catalans after he had gained possession of the smoking ruins of their capital ; it was here that Ferdinand halted on his way to Bayonne ; it was here that the constitution was proclaimed in 1812 ; it was here that Colonel Bassa met his fate ; and it was here that General Mina, the great Guerrilla chief, witnessed the proclamation of the constitution in 1836, and here, also, that he breathed his last. The circumstance of Mina's having lived and died in this palace, is sufficient to give interest to the spot, for though his character as a man may be charged with cruelty and severity, it can not be denied that the peculiar organization of the Guerrilla bands, their persevering courage and devoted patriotism, may be traced to his effective and incessant exertions. The college and church of Belem are also situated in the Rambla, as well as the convent of Santa Clara. This building is now, like most of the monastic edifices, converted into a barrack, and is occupied by a battalion of the national guard. The CONTINENTAL EUROPE— SPAIN. 211 212 CENES AND SKETCHES IN college was for a long time closed, except to persons educating for the church, gen- eral education being discouraged. The present government have more enlightened views, and consider education a national benefit ; they have therefore again opened the colleges to all classes of persons. Besides the college of Belem, there is a mer- cantile establishment at the Casa de Lonja, or exchange; this establishment was founded by the merchants of Barcelona, for the improvement and education of per- sons connected with commerce or the arts. The school of design, chiefly for mer- cantile purposes, is Avell calculated to improve trade by introducing taste and elegance into every branch, while, by cultivating native talent, a premium is offered for improvement. The school of design is lighted by gas, the only establishment which has attained to that improved method of lighting, the theatres and all other public places being illuminated with wax candles or oil, as in England some years back. The fortifications of Barcelona on this side are incomplete, but workmen are now actively employed in their erection. It is purposed to form an entrance into the square by two splendid gates, whose majestic appearance will considerably heighten the effect. The quays which run around the entire harbor are magnificent, and the mole on which the lighthouses are erected is a work of herculean magnitude; in- deed, the entire effect of the entrance to Barcelona from the sea is strikingly beauti- ful ; the caslle-crowned Monjuic, the harbor, the city, and the surrounding country, are of the most pleasing character. The position of Barcelona is extremely fine : it lies at the foot of a steep and strongly-fortified hill, on the shores of a small bay of the Mediterranean, and surrounded at a little distance by a semicircle of beautiful and picturesque hills, which close it in on every side. The country around is crowded by the quintas, or country-houses, of the gentry, and covered with their gardens and orchards ; numbers of fine convents enliven, with their white walls and belfries, the slopes of the hills, and some of the highest peaks are crowned by religious edifices of various dimensions and for various purposes. Convents, monasteries, nunneries, and hermitages, are scattered over the face of the country in every direction, and in the most conspicuous situations ; some overhanging vast precipices, others crowning almost inaccessible mountains, others almost buried in the valleys, yet all uniting to excite the surprise or admiration of the traveller. The church of Santa Maria del Mar, or our Lady of the Sea, the back of which is seen in our engraving, is one of the principal in the city of Barcelona, after the cathedral. It stands in a small square, leading out of the Plaza del Palapio ; arid though, like most of the churches in this part of the peninsula, it possesses little external beauty, it has a solemnity of aspect which commands attention. The front consists of two towers, the space between being occupied by the doorway and a cir- cular window. The lightness and beauty of the towers are remarkable. They are octagonal, extremely plain till they rise above the body of the building, when they become arched, having a pointed window in each face. There are two stories thus arched, and a lantern of the same character, but of smaller dimensions, crowns the whole. Only one of the towers is finished, the other being surmounted by an iron framework, which supports two small bells. The body of the building is an oblong, rounded at one end, somewhat of the figure of a tombstone, and not cruciform, as most of the catholic churches are ; while another peculiarity is, that the front faces the south. The want of ornament on the exterior is amply compensated within; and though stripped of much of its splendor in the decorations of the varioustchap- els and altars, it retains enough to impress the visiter with the pomp and magnifi- cence displayed in the Roman ritual. The arched roof is supported upon a double row of octagonal columns, and it is surprising how pillars of so small a diameter should be able to support such an immense mass of roof. The principal altar, which occupies the half circle, was once of silver, and richly carved ; but the devas- tating wars, which have nearly ruined the country, have not spared the shrines of religion. All that could conveniently be removed, has either been carried off by the rapacity of the military, or been buried in the earth for a chance of safety. Enough, however, remains, to give some idea of the form of this altar. It was triangular, rising from the floor to the roof in a succession of steps, which, on the great festi- vals of the church, were crowded with silver candlesticks, bearing wax candles, and decorated with flowers,' Sec. The table itself is covered with white or crimson satin, according to the ceremonies to be performed, embroidered with gold in the most costly manner. It has been stated by the monks of the collegiate church of CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 213 214 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Estretnoz, in Portugal, that the embroidery of the front alone of the great altar cost them fifteen thousand dollars, and the other decorations are proportionately expen sive. The robes, also, of the officiating priest are embroidered in the most profuse manner, and are made of a silk of extraordinary thickness. Behind this church, the street leading to the Esplanade is occupied by a market for all descriptions of goods. As in all fortified towns, the streets of Barcelona are narrow and confined ; the height of the houses on either side obstructing the light, gives them rather a gloomy appearance ; the shops, likewise, have a sombre look ; the goods are not exposed in windows, whose immense squares of glass cost as much as the stock within ; neither do we find them " selling off' at immense sacrifices ;" but a well-assorted display, particularly of jewelry, is exposed on eai^h side of tlie doorway, in neat frames, with glass doors. ' The street leading from Santa Maria to the cathedral is occupied almost entirely by jewelers and gold-workers; and a neat device is painted over each door, to invite an inspection of the goods within. Before arriving at the cathedral, however, we come to the convent of Santa Clara, in which there is little remarkable but the beauliful tower, formed of a succession of arched galleries, one above the other, to the top ; and the view of the city, the harbor, and the sea, as seen from them, is truly charming. The convent is connected with the cathedral by flying buttresses. One of these was hollow, and contained a concealed communication with the church, which has since been filled up. In one of the rooms, the large crucifix taken from the now-destroyed buildings of the Inquisition is preserved. The figure is as large as life, and painted to imitate nature ; the coun- tenance is expressive of the character of the tribunal in which it stood, and resem- bles more the features of one of those severe judges who presided at the council, than the meekness of the great founder of Christianity. A few heaps of rubbish are all that are preserved of that once-dreaded institution. The forms of the cells are still visible. They are long and narrow in their proportions, being about eight feet long by about four broad. The door is extremely narrow, so much so as to ad- mit a person, not absolutely with difficulty, but without any room to spare; and no trace whatever of windows or holes, to admit air and light, is discoverable. The roofs are broken down, so that it is impossible to sav whether there was or was not some method of ventilation ; it may be presumed, however, that there was none, for the hall of the inquisitors being immediately above these dungeons, and level with the street, it is not likely that they would have their deliberations disturbed by the cries or groans of their victims, which must have ascended with awful distinctness, had any ventilator been constructed in the roof. But let us turn from this unpleasing subject to the cathedral. This fine pile of building is still unfinished ; the front is a mere plain wall, with arches painted over the door and windows. Near the eastern end are two beautiful towers, richly orna- mi'Uted. The figure of this church is the same as that of Santa Maria del Mar, bu', it possesses more external ornament; the buttresses are exceedingly graceful and ornamental, and the spaces between are occupied by arched windows, of the pointed kind. The cloisters, also, are exceedingly beauliful, and contain a fine fountain. The interior is remarkably grand ; the massive roof is supported on fluted columns of a great height, which divide the church into a nave and two aisles ; the choir is in the nave, and formed of mahogany, beautifully carved, and some beauti- ful bas-reliefs of the sufferings of the martyrs, in white marble, let into the wood- work, give it a peculiar and striking appearance. The grand altar is plain but ele- gant, and the organ extremely fine. This church is completely surrounded by chap- els or shrines of the different saints, which vie with each other in the splendor and gaudiness of their ornaments. There are one or two good altar-pieces in this church, though, from the extreme gloominess, all the windoAvs being darkened, they are not seen to advantasre. The bishop's palace joins the cathedral, and was formerly connected by a gate, the towers of which, only remain. In several of the streets, the remains of the Roman walls may be traced, though too few and isolated to enable one to determine the ex- act size of the ancient city, or even the form. These ruins can only be discovered by a close inspection, being, for the most part, covered by or built into the walls of the modern houses. The private houses of Barcelona are constructed on the same plan as in Scotland — that is, in flats or floors, each floor forming a distinct resi- dence ; a common staircase leading up to these different tenements. The rooms are generally large and lofty, and totally devoid of the comforts of home. The hand- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 215 somely-painted roofs can not supply the want of warmth ; the windows, the doors, and indeed every part, admit the wind, not in gentle streams, but in chilling blasts. In summer, when the excessive heat renders this coolness desirable, the houses are not unpleasant ; but in winter, when the mornings and evenings are extremely cold, a little more attention to the fitting of joints would be desirable, particularly as they have no coal to create a sufficient artificial heat. The country-towns are worse, in this respect than the large cities, as, except in the houses of the wealthy, glass is not used. The windows are supplied with clumsy wooden shutters, with a smaller one in the centre, so that the light shall not be completely excluded when the window is closed. Charcoal and wood are the only fuel ; the former is burned in a brass basin, inserted into a large wooden frame, and elevated about a foot from the floor, which is invariably of tiles. The inhabitants sit round these warming-pans, or brazieras, as they are called, with their feet on the wooden frame. The gas arising from the charcoal is extremely injurious, and causes violent pains in the head, and difficulty of respiration ; so that, to enjoy this comfort without danger, the door, at least, must be opened. As we have before remarked of Portugal, the houses are built, for the most part, on the old Moorish plan, with flat roofs, or verandas, as they are called. The outsides are also finely ornamented with paintings in fresco, or figures executed in the plaster with which they are faced. The effect of this latter mode is pleasing in the extreme ; the groundwork is wrought with rough-cast, and the figures laid on smoothly, being outlined with lines, and shaded in the same manner. The entrances to Barcelona are extremely fine ; the roads are good, and shaded by fine trees, with fountains occurring occasionally. The fondness of the Spaniards for fountains is doubtless a relic of Moorish manners, and these erections are often dedicated to some saint, whose image is affixed in a niche, before which, near a town, a lamp is kept burning at night. Besides the buildings we have mentioned, there are others worthy of note, one of which is the hospital. There are two hospitals for the sick in Barcelona ; one is en- tirely devoted to military patients, the other to all persons born in the city. Found- lings, as at Bel em in Portugal, are also received and educated ; and the females, when of age, are paraded through the streets once a year, when any person taking a fancy to one of them, throws a handkerchief to her, which she preserves till the owner calls at the hospital. Here he has to produce certificates of his respectability, and ability to support a wife, when the bride is produced, the dowry paid, and the happy couple married on the spot. No disgrace whatever is attached to marriages of this kind ; on the contrary, the nobles, proud as they are deemed, frequently condescend thus to select a partner for life. Besides the establishment for foundlings, the hospital con- tains every convenience for the sick, an asylum for lunatics, and a daily allowance of provisions for the poor. This immense establishment is entirely supported by voluntary donations. CoRTJNNA is a seaport town of Spain, in the province of Gallicia. It is situated on a peninsula, at the entrance of the bay of Betanzos. The town is divided into the upper and lower town. The former, which lies on the declivity of a hill, is sur- rounded by a wall, and defended by a citadel. The harbor is large and secure : it is in the form of a crescent, and is provided with a handsome quay. The entrance is protected by the two castles of St. Martin and Santa Cruz, and also by two strong forts, one of which is placed on a rock which commands the port, and part of the road. On the 16th of January, 1809, the retreating British army, under Sir John Moore, was attacked by the French under General Soult, near Corunna. The action was obstinate, but the British succeeded in driving back the enemy. We add a full ac- count of this celebrated battle, as it formed an era of considerable importance in the Spanish war. General Laborde's division being come up, the French force could not be less than 20,000 men ; and the duke of Dalmatia, having made his arrangements, did not lose any time in idle evolutions, but, distributing his lighter guns along the front of his position, opened a heavy fire from the battery on his left, and instantly descended with three solid masses to the assault. A cloud of skirmishers led the way, and the British pickets being driven back in disorder, the village of Elvina was carried by the first column, which afterward dividing, one half pushed on against Baird's front, the other turned his right by the valley. The second column made for the centre. The third engaged the left by the village of Palavia Abaxo. The weight of the 216 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Plan of the Battle of Cornnna. French guns overmatched the English six-pounders, and their shot swept the position to the centre. Sir John Moore, observing that, according to his expectations, the enemy did not show anybody of infantry beyond that which, moving up the valley, outflanked Baird's right, ordered General Paget to carry the reserve to where the detached regi- ment was posted, and, as he had before arranged with him, to turn the left of the French attack, and menace the great battery. Then directing Frazer's division to support Paget, he threw back the fourth regiment, which formed tlie right of Baird's division, opened a heavy fire upon the flank of the troops penetrating up the valley, and with the fiftieth and forty-second regiments met those breaking through Elvina. The ground about that village was intersected by stone walls and hollow roads ; a severe, scrambling fight ensued, but in half an hour the French were borne back with great loss. The fiftieth regiment entered the village with them, and, after a second struggle, drove them for some distance beyond it. Meanwhile the general, bringing up a battalion of the brigade of guards to fill the space in the line left va- cant by those two regiments, the forty-second mistook his intention, and retired, and at that moment the enemy, being reinforced, renewed the fight beyond the village, the officer commanding the fiftieth was wounded and taken prisoner, and Elvina became the scene of a second struggle ; this being observed by the commander-in- chief, who directed in person the operations of Baird's division, he addressed a few animating words to the forty-second, and caused it to return to the attack. General Paget, with the reserve, now descended into the valley, and the line of skirmishers CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 217 being thus supported, vigorously checked the advance of the enemy's troops in that quarter, while the fourth regiment galled their flank. At the same time the centre and left of the army also became engaged : Sir David Baird was severely wounded, and a furious action ensued along the line, in the valley, and on the hills. Sir John Moore, while earnestly watching the result of the fight about the village of Elvina, was mortally wounded on the left breast by a cannon shot, from the eflFects of which he expired before the battle was concluded. During this time the army was rapidly gaining ground. The reserve, overthrow- ing everything in the valley, and obliging La Houssaye's dragoons (who had dis- mounted) to retire, turned the enemy's left, and even approached the eminence on which the great battery was posted. On the left, Colonel NichoUs, at the head of some companies of the fourteenth, carried Palavia Abaxo (which General Foy de- fended but feebly), and in the centre the obstinate dispute for Elvina terminated in favor of the British, so thai when the night set in their line was considerable ad- vanced beyond the original position of the morning, and the French were falling back in confusion. The disorder into which the French were thrown offered a very ftivor- able opportunity for embarking, which was the original plan, and which was by Sir John Hope, on whom the command of the army had devolved, deemed prudent to effect without delay, the arrangements being so complete that neither confusion nor difficulty occurred. The English got on board the ships with little or no in- terruption, and thus ended the retreat to Corunna, but with the loss of their com- manders. " Sir John Moore," says Colonel Napier, in his history of the peninsular war, pub- lished by J. S. Redfield, New York, "while earnestly watching the result of the fight about the village of Elvina, was struck on the left breast by a cannon shot; the shock threw him from his horse with violence ; he rose again in a sitting posture ; his countenance unchanged, and his steadfast eye still fixed upon the regiments engaged in his front ; no sigh betrayed a sensation of pain ; but, in a few moments, when he was satisfied that the troops were gaining ground, his countenance brighten- ed, and he suffered himself to be taken to the rear. Then was seen the dreadful nature of his hurt ; the shoulder was shattered to pieces, the arm was hanging by a piece of skin, the ribs over the heart broken and bared of flesh, and the muscles of the breast torn into long strips, which were interlaced by their recoil from the drag- ging of the shot. As the soldiers placed him in a blanket his sword got entangled, and the hilt entered the wound. Captain Hardinge, a staff officer, who was near, attempted to take it off, but the dying man stopped him, saying, ' It is as well as it is. I had rather it should go out of the field with me.' And in that manner, so becoming a soldier, Moore was borne from the fight. * * * The blood flowed fast, and the torture of his wound increased ; but such was the unshaken firmness of his mind, that those about him, judging from the resolution of his countenance that his hurt was not mortal, expressed a hope of his recovery. Hearing this, he looked steadfastly at the injury for a moment, and then said, ' No ; I feel that to be impos- sible.' Several times he caused his attendants to stop and turn him round, that he might behold the field of battle; and when the firing indicated the advance of the British, he discovered his satisfaction, and permitted the bearers to proceed. Being brought to his lodgings the surgeons examined his wound, but there was no hope ; the pain increased, and he spoke with great difficulty. At intervals he asked if the French were beaten, and, addressing his old friend Colonel Anderson, he said, ' You know that I always wished to die this way.' Again he asked if the enemy were defeated, and being told they were, observed, ' It is a great satisfaction to me to know we have beaten the French.' His countenance continued firm, and his thoughts clear ; once only when he spoke of his mother, he became agitated. He inquired after the safety of his friends and the officers of his staff"; and he did not even in this moment forget to recommend those whose merit had given them claims to promo- tion. His strength was failing fast, and life was just extinct, when, with an un- subdued spirit, as if anticipating the baseness of his posthumous calumniators, he exclaimed, ' I hope the people of England will be satisfied. I hope my country will do me justice.' The battle was scarcely ended when his corpse, wrapped in a military cloak, w^as interred by the officers of his staff in the citadel of Corunna. The guns of the enemy paid his funeral honors, and Soult, with a noble feeling of respect for his valor, raised a monument to his memory." The death of Sir John Moore has furnished the subject of a poem of extraordinary 218 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN beauty, the author of which was long unknown. It is now ascertained to be the production of one whose compositions were few, and who died young — Wolfe: — " Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, As his corse to the rampart ■we hurried ; Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot O'er the grave where our hero we buried. " We buried him darkly at dead of night. The sods with our bayonets turning, By the struggling moonbeam's misty light, And the lantern dimly burning. " No useless cofBn enclosed his breast, Not in sheet or in shroud we wound him ; But he lay like a warrior taking his rest, With his martial cloak around him. " Few and short were the prayers we said. And we spoke not a word of sorrow ; But we steadfastly gazed on the face that was dead, And we bitterly thought of the morrow. " We thought, as we hollowed his narrow bed, And smoothed down his lonely pillow. That the foe and the stranger would tread o'er his head. And we far away on the billow ! " Lightly they'll talk of the spirit that's gone, And o'er his cold ashes upbraid him — But little he'll reck, if they let him sleep on ' In the grave where a Briton has laid him. " But half of our heavy task was done. When the clock struck the hour for retiring; And we beard the distant and random gun That the foe was sullenly firing. " Slowly and sadly we laid him down, From the field of his fame fresh and gory ; We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone — But we left him alone with his glory !" The village of Villa Vellid, in Old Castile, represented in the engraving, is situ- ated about half way between Medina de Rio Seco and the city of Toro. It may be taken as a fair specimen of the hundreds of similar little villages in this prov- ince, and in the southern parts of Leon, all of which bear the same characteristic features, being constructed of similar materials, and on the same plan. They con- tain usually from one hundred to three hundred, and even four hundred houses ; which, according to the Spanish rate of calculation, will give about five times as many inhabitants. There are no instances, in this part of Spain, of detached farmhouses in the coun- try, as in the other provinces, and in this country ; all are collected together in groups or villages, at distances of about two or three miles from each other, which gives the country, generally, a very monotonous appearance, being quite unbroken by any of those picturesque objects so common in most other countries, in the shape of trees, houses, and agricultural buildings of various descriptions. The prospect shown in the engraving embraces an extent of some forty or fifty miles, yet, on that immense plain, only seven or eight trees of any kind can be discovered, if we except a small tract of land covered by the short and shrub-like evergreen oak, or " Encina," which supplies the inhabitants with charcoal. This want of foliage, together with the unbroken nature of the ground, and the mean appearance of the villages, which seem (excepting their churches) mere collections of tiled mud-huts, render Castile the very reverse of picturesque, and (especially in winter and autumn, when the green corn-leaf is unseen) give it the appearance of a desert rather than of a culti- vated province. The houses are very small, and seldom higher than one story. The interior is usually whitewashed, the floor paved with bricks placed sidewise, and the walls or- namented with some gaudily-colored French engravings of saints and martyrs ; with the addition, now and then, of an " indulgence," purchased from the nearest monas- tery, or an ornamented metal crucifix. The one solitary window is very small, and CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 219 220 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN rarely glazed ; having a shutter, or a piece of oiled paper, sometimes fixed to it, to keep out the cold wind's of winter. The walls outside retain the natural color of the clayey soil of which they are formed, excepting a space of a few feet on each side of the door, which is ornamented or disfigured by rude representations of flowers, or men painted in red on a whitewashed ground — a remnant of an ancient Moorish cus- tom. The walls are formed of huge bricks, or masses of unbaked clay, of nearly three feet in length by about twelve to eighteen inches in breadth, and of equal depth. They are usually supported within a few feet from the ground by two or three layers of large, square stones. At the door, which is usually divided into two parts, and thickly studded with large, round-headed nails, are two or three large blocks of stone, on which the good women sit down and spin during the greater part of the fine days. The narrow streets which divide the rows of houses resemble the dry beds of mountain torrents, and in the rainy season the simile might be carried much further. The churches form a surprising contrast to their lowly neighbors, being strongly-built edifices, with towers of proportionate size ; having always one or more bells slung across the windows or apertures near the top, which are pealed by being spun around their pivots. The interiors are very neatly finished — often highly ornamented ; the altars particularly shine forth in no little splendor, and the favorite Virgin, or " Senora," is dressed up at an expense which would probably clothe all the inhabitants of the village. Villa Vellid contains between four and five hundred inhabitants, and about ninety houses ; yet this small and poor population contrives to support two large churches and their three attendant clergymen, or " curas ;" and so far are they from thinking this expense and establishment exorbitant, that I have very little doubt one half of them would think their very salvation compromised by any attempt to re- move either one of their churches or its priest. The " curas" are generally frank and urbane in their manners ; mixing freely in the sports of their parishioners, and joining familiarly in their conversation. Strange as it may sound to an American ear, I have seen " curas" regularly join the villagers in a game or two at " calvo" (a sort of duckstone) for an hour or so after service on Sunday, and in the evening ad- journ to the house of one of the favored, with six or eight companions, to pass the rest of the sabbath at cards. There are no gay shops exhibiting their wares in the windows or outside the doors ; there are only two houses of sale, the tavern and the tobacco-shop, this last being a government monopoly. The surgeon officiates also as barber ; he is paid at the rate of about a bushel of wheat per annum per family in his first capacity (on the condition that he pay a weekly visit, at least, to each), and about half as much in the latter, if the folks are shaved at his own house ; should any luxurious inhab- itant wish to be shaved at home, he must double his quota of corn. The apothecary, a distinct functionary, is remunerated in the same manner, but less munificently, as holding an inferior occupation to that of the barber-surgeon. A tailor makes a jour- ney regularly, once or twice a year, like a wandering fiddler, through a certain dis- trict, and is paid partly by his maintenance, and partly by means of coin ; this arti- cle is, however, somewhat scarce, and not often used among these primitive people, their transactions being usually conducted on the principle of barter. Many of the families are sufficiently affluent to consume chocolate and sugar, which are procured at a depot, perhaps eight or ten miles distant. In summer one butcher supplies meat for the " puchero" of a dozen neighboring villages ; in winter, they seldom consume other animal food than the dried flesh of kids, called " cecina," which is excellent, and might be eaten as a dainty where less common. Corn and wine are so abundant as to exceed the wants of the inhabitants, but the markets for their sale are so distant, and so expensive of access, that it scarcely pays to transport to them the superfluous produce ; the natural consequence of which is, that the people are in a great measure deprived of other articles of comfort which they might receive in exchange for their corn, and exhibit a strange melange of pov- erty and affluence ; for instance, groups of men are often met with, basking in the sunshine during half the day, in the villages, strong and well-fed, and perhaps even then quaffing at intervals their good " vino tinto ;" and at the same time clothed, or rather half-clothed, by a cloak transmitted to them from their grandfather, at least, and which is so patched up, ragged, and mended again, that no one piece can be found in it larger than one's hand. The " curas" of the villages possess great influence over their parishioners, and CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 221 are generally much respected ; often, as is vouched from experience, men of good moral principle, and conducting themselves in a most praiseworthy manner tovirard the people of their cure. There are some, no doubt, who make an evil use of their unlimited power over the minds of the people, and extort from them, under pretence of religious motives, their little wealth, and otherwise abuse the confidence of the ignorant and unsuspecting ; but this betrayal of trust is not carried commonly to any extent, as too often represented. The monks and friars, who are continually visiting these little communities, are by no means so much liked as the secular clergy, and bear a reputation much more unfavorable, and more deservedly so. The castle represented in the engraving is an old Moorish fortress, perfectly sim- ple, and extremely massive in its construction, having only one entrance, a low Moorish archway, and a few narrow slits on two sides, for the defenders. It is built of a hard kind of stone, cemented and knit together in a very firm and enduring manner. It is one of the hundreds that are scattered about this part of Spain, every fifth or sixth village being thus now adorned, as it was once protected. The cross in the foreground is a speaking witness of the state, or rather the non- existence, of efficient police regulations in this misgoverned country. Such are often met with on the sides of the roads, in desert or sequestered places; they are the only memorials of men found there, at some time or other, dying, or slain by the hand of the assassin ; the murderer, perhaps, before the deed be discovered, already in some distant province, defies the feeble inquiry and pursuit, which is sometimes not even attempted. The charitable inhabitants of the nearest village erect this simple monument over his unconsecrated grave ; and what could be devised more beautiful and pathetic than its simple epitaph, " Adios, pobre !" which translated, is, " Farewell, poor fellow !" Alcantara is a small frontier city of great strength in Spanish Estremadura, upon the banks of the Tagus. The town was originally built by the Moors, on account of the convenience of a fine stone bridge which, as recorded in an inscription over one of the arches, was built in the reign of the emperor Trajan by the people of Lu- sitania, who were assessed to pay the expenses. It was thus that the Moors gave to the town the name of Al-Cantara, which in their language signifies the bridge. This bridge is thrown across the river at a place where it flows in a deep channel between two high and steep rocks. It is elevated 211 feet 10 inches above the level of the water, although it consists but of six arches, is 568 feet in length, and 27 feet 6 inches in breadth. Of the six arches, the two in the centre are 94 feet wide. A triumphal arch in honor of Trajan rises in the centre, and a mausoleum constructed by the Ro- man architect (Lacer) stands at the extremity toward the town. This mausoleum, which owes its preservation to the enormous stones with which it is constructed, has been changed into a chapel dedicated to St. Julian, and is now an object of venera- tion to both the townspeople and peasantry. There is nothing else remarkable about the town, except the strong walls, bastions, and other works, with which its situation on the borders of Portugal has caused it to be fortified. There are about 3,000 inhab- itants, who carry on some trade in wool and cloth. When the town was taken from the Moors by Alphonso IX., king of Castile, in the year 1212, it was in the first instance committed to the charge of the knights of .Calatrava ; but, two years afterward, it was transferred to the knights of St. Julian del Parero, or St. Julian of the Pear-tree, an order instituted in 1170, and which soon relinquished this odd denomination for that of Alcantara, at the same time assuming a green color for the cross fleur-de-lys which they bore over their large white cloaks. This was apparently intended for the purpose of a distinction between their order and that of Calatrava. When the town of Alcantara was surrendered to the knights of the Pear-tree, it was stipulated that there should be a confraternity between the two orders, with the same practices and observances in both, and that the Alcantara order should be subject to be visited by the grandmaster of Calatrava. The Alcantara knights soon, however, became dissatisfied with this engagement, and released them- selves from it, on the pretence that their grandmaster had not been called, according to one of the stipulations, to the election of the grandmaster of the Calatrava order. The knights make a considerable figure in the history of the expedition against the Moors, war against them being one of the grounds on which the order was instituted. They were, in fact, military monks, under the same vows as the Benedictines. After the expulsion of the Moors and the taking of Granada, the sovereignty of both the orders of Alcantara and Calatrava was settled upon the crown of Castile, in the reign 222 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN ■%> CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. g2S of Ferdinand and Isabella, when the order transferred the town to the general gov- ernment. The order of Alcantara was very wealthy. After it had become compara- tively poor, it still possessed thirty-three commanderies, four alcaydies, and four pri- ories, producing an annual revenue of eighty thousand ducats. It has probably since undergone further diminution, but to what extent we are not informed. CHAPTER X.— SPAIN. Granada, is an extensive maritime province in the south of Spain, nearly two hundred miles in length, and varying from forty to seventy in breadth. Its length is nearly from east to west, having on the south the Mediterranean, on' the north a part of Andalusia ; its southwest extremity approaches Gibraltar. Among the mountains, a calcareous soil, in many places unproductive, is prevalent ; but the valleys contain a rich and fertile mould. The Vega (orchard) de Granada, where the capital is situated, is one of the richest and most delightful spots in the world. This fertility is principally owing to the copious streams that flow from the mountains in summer, on the melting of the snow. The present population of Granada amounts to nearly 100,000 persons ; and, being situated so far south, it admits of many tropical plants and fruits being cultivated, large quantities of which are annually exported. Along the coast are raised indigo, coffee, and sugar. The last article is most abundant in the neighborhood of Malaga: the expenses attendant on its cultivation and prepara- tion are said to be moderate. The other productions of Granada are fruit, particular- ly pomegranates, lemons, oranges, olives, figs, almonds, capers, honey, and wax. Raisins form an article of export of considerable importance. In this province there are also salt springs, and in the mountains marble, with a rich store of minerals and ores. The province of Granada was the last stronghold of the Moors in Spain, when every other part of their fruitful kingdom had been subdued by the victorious arms of Ferdinand and Isabella ; and so highly did they esteem this portion of Andalusia, that they considered the Mahometan paradise to be situated immediately above it. The features of this people, who flourished like a brilliant exotic for so many cen- turies in the south of Spain, may still be traced among its inhabitants to the present day. The capital city of this province has the same name, it is situated in a romantic valley, near the extremity of the Vega de Granada, an extensive plan, which is sur- rounded by high mountains. Granada presents a very imposing appearance at a distance; its form nearly resembling that of a half-moon. The streets are built in terraces one above the other ; the whole being crowned by the ancient Moorish palace of the Alhambra, which is brought out into very strong relief by the lofty chain of the Sierra de Nevada in the background. The buildings of the Alhambra are very extensive ; we subjoin a description of a visit to it made by " a young American." The tower of the Tribunal, under which is the principal entrance to tke Alhambra, has an arched gateway, making right angles to mask the opening on the interior. The gate is placed at the second angle, so that it can not be assailed by missiles or battering-rams from without, and could only be attacked from the middle of the tower, where the assailant would be exposed to the spears and missiles of the gar- rison, wielded in perfect security through the perpendicular opening overhead. The arches that surmount the entrance, and the angles of the passages, are of horseshoe form, a distinctive character of Saracenic architecture, being so constructed that the parts of the arch corresponding to the ends of the horseshoe project a little be- yond the wall which sustains them, which, while it gives them an air of lightness, conveys also the idea of insecurity. Nor is this insecurity only apparent ; for we fre- quently saw brick arches of this form in Andalusia, which had lost the end bricks, forming the projections of the horseshoe, by which those that were above should have been sustained; though stone arches of this form are less liable to destruction, from the greater size of the component pans. There are several Arabic inscriptions which surmount these different arches and follow their curves, and which, like those within the palace, are mostly in praise of the Deity, of the prophet, or of the king who erected the tower. One of them is thus translated : " The praise of God. 224 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN There is no god but God, and Mahomet is his prophet. There is no strength but in God." There are two objects, however, which antiquaries have been more puzzled to explain ; these are representations of the arm and closed hand of a man, and of a key, sculptured above the arches. It is said that the Arabs borrowed the emblem of the human arm from the ancient Egyptians, among whom it was the symbol of strength, and therefore an appropriate ornament for so formidable a tower. It had, moreover, a religious signification among the followers of Mahomet ; it represented the hand of God diriplayed in his superintending providence, and was besides emblematic of the principal dogmas of their creed ; for, as the hand has five fingers, in like manner the Mahometan religion establishes five fundamental precepts : to believe in God and in his prophet ; to call upon God in prayer ; to succor the poor ; to fast during the month of Ramadan : and to visit the temples of Mecca and Medina. In conse- quence of their faith being represented by the hand, the Saracens believed that it formed a powerful defence against the arms and wiles of infidels, and therefore used it as a charm, though it would have been idolatry thus to copy the whole body ; in the form of a clenched fist it was believed to weaken the power of an enemy ; and with the thumb passed between the fingers, it had the virtue of breaking a charm, and averting the blighting eff'ects of the evil eye, or of being looked on with desire by the possessor of the fatal, though involuntary power of fascination. Ivory repre- sentations of the hand in this last form were hung round the neck of an infant, and the throat-latch of a favorite horse, or on the cage of a nightingale. It was this charm, as we have already seen, that the Moriscoes were accused of making under their cloaks, when compelled to attend mass by the priests who counselled their expulsion, and it is still used among the lower classes in Spain to convey insults. The keys sculptured over the inner arch of the portal was likewise a mysterious symbol among the Saracens ; for it indicated the power claimed by the prophet, and which is also successfully used by the preachers of other faiths, of opening and shut- ting the gates of heaven. The key is, however, said to have been especially a favorite emblem with the Andalusians who first invaded Spain, and opened the door of con- quest to their young countrymen. These and their descendants wore it vauntingly in their standards. The entrance of the Tower of Tribunal remains unchanged since the days of Boabdil, with the single exception that we found a small chapel, under the invocation of the Virgin, constructed against the wall of .the passage, and fronting the interior of the Alhambra. The principal ornament over the rude altar of this little oratory, where the devout may make a flying invocation as they pass, is a small oil painting of the Virgin, with the infant Jesus in her arms. It appears from the adjoining table of indulgences granted to those who worship at this shrine, that this is the second portrait which St. Luke took in person of our blessed lady. Time, which would have left no traces of a heathen production, though Apelles had been the painter, has breathed kindly upon this precious relic. It is a singular religious coincidence thus to find a chapel, where more than divine adoration is offered to the Virgin, existing in the presence of such contradictory inscriptions, and, in fact, sur- mounted by the motto — " There is no god but God !" Having reached the interior of the citadel, our first care was to seek out the com- mander of the invalids who had so kindly offered to be our guide to the antiquities of the Alhambra. We readily found him, snugly domesticated in the superior story of that Tower of Tribunal through which we had entered, and though the place looked forbidding and cheerless without, there was no want of comforts within ; and when the old soldier, in showing us through his antique and characteristic habitation, had led us to the flat terrace that surmounts it, once the noisy arena of the lombard and the arquebuse, now the most peaceful as well as most beautiful of belvideres, we were again delighted with the display of the surrounding scenery ; the mountain of Alhambra, the ravine of the Daro, and the snowclad Sierra, are rich enough in mere picturesque attractions ; but the Vega is, after all, the object of which the eye never tires. The little sitting-room of the invalid had one window toward the south, and a second, which, instead of looking to the open air, is so covered by the front of the tower, that it only commands the portion of the gateway lying immediately below. We had noticed this in entering, and thought it so arranged merely as a station whence archers might defend the entrance without the risk of annoyance ; but we were now told that it was also connected with an oriental custom, and that in this secure situation, like the Turkish sultans in their Sublime Porte, the kings of Granada CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 225 226 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN were wont to hear the complaints of their subjects, and to administer summary- justice in person and upon the spot. Hence the name of the Tower of Tribunal. After a short repose we went to see the remains of the Moorish palace, passing on the way through the open place of arms, called now Plaza de los Algibes, from the immense reservoir for water which lies below. On the east stands the magnifi- cent palace of Charles V., and the other sides are flanked by towers and apartments of the old palace, or by the modern buildings which have sprung up within the walls ; for the Alhambra, besides its garrison of invalids, has a population of a thou- sand souls or more, attracted to the spot for the enjoyment of immunities which are not common to Granada, and which frequently render it a temporary refuge to criminals fleeing from the city. The reservoir in question occupies subterraneously an extent nearly equal to the whole Plaza, to which it gives its name, and is kept constantly filled by an aqueduct connected with the Daro, thus supplying water not only to the Alhambra, but also to many inhabitants of the city, among whom it is in great repute. In the spring it is emptied and carefully cleansed, then refilled and allowed to settle, and afterward refilled from time to time. The great depth of the reservoir maintains the water in a clear state, and of an equal temperature, warmer than the air in winter, and in summer as cool as one could desire. It is said to have contained sufficient water to supply the Granadian court, with a garrison of several thousands, for years, in the event of a siege and the exterior communication being interrupted by the destruction of the pipes. As we passed the curb of this mammoth cistern we found a number of watermen, who had come with asses from the city, to fill the jars hung on each side of their animals, and covered with leaves freshly culled from the grove of the Alhambra, and which, beiug wet, cool the water by constant evaporation. These people live by retailing the water in the streets and places of Granada, where they receive an ochavo for each glass, furnishing, as a bonus, two sugarplums of arise, which are eaten before swallowing the water. A young waterman, whose good taste had interspersed a few rich flowers with the leaves that surrounded his kegs, hastened to offer us a huge tumbler of pure and sparkling water, while with the other hand he opened the tin-box at his girdle, that we might supply ourselves with sugarplums. The temptation was not to be resisted ; and we drank long and freely of the best, and, to the unperverted taste of those who drink to supply a want of nature, most luxurious of beverages. The Moorish palace extends along the north side of the Alhambra, overlooking the ravine of the Daro. It is not easy, amid the existing ruins of the famous pile, to (determine what was its extent and form, when the abode of the powerful kings of iGranada. Part of the ancient constructions have yielded to their own frailty, part iave been overrun by the patched rookeries of the present inhabitants, and part re- moved to make room for the proud palace of the Cesar. It is believed, however, that when perfect it formed an extensive quadrangle, about four hundred feet long and two hundred feet wide, containing five enclosed courts, the largest of which stood in the centre, and was one hundred and fifty feet in length, by eighty in breadth ; the other four were placed at the four angles, and were of somewhat smaller size. The first exists at present, under the name of the court of the Myrtles, but of the smaller ones, the thrice-famed court of Lions alone remains. Although this may have been the general form of the edifice, it is not likely that its plan was rigorously uniform ; for in what remains it is difficult to trace anything like unity of design. The period of construction is evidently various, and there is a bewildering connexion of apartments, courts, galleries, and towers, that not only baffles description, but renders it difficult even for the person Avho sees it to form a clear idea of its figure. The royal apartments being in the towers that overlook the Daro, are of solid hewn stone ; the rest is frailly built of tapias, coated externally with a rough plaster, and within such a surface of stucco, impressed by means of wooden moulds, with a pro- fusion of elaborate figures, interwoven with inscriptions. The quadrangle through which we first passed was enclosed by a gallery, formed by the walls and by a range of light marble columns connected by arches. In the centre was a large sheet of water, constantly renewed by two crystal jets at the ex- tremities of the court, and which, running in canals from their overflowing basins, at length emptied themselves into the central reservoir, which was filled with gold and silver fishes, while the surrounding banks were formed into parterres. In the days of the Saracens it was dedicated to a different use ; it served for the legal purifica- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 227 tions prescribed by. the Koran to the faithful who were about to assist in the devotions at the royal mosque, which stood adjoining. Besides this court stands the Tower of Comares, which forms an angle of the fortress, overlooking the Daro and Albaycin to the north, while the western windows command a view of Granada and the Vega. This Saloon of Comares, also called of the Ambassadors, is the largest and most magnificent of the royal apartments, being about forty feet square, with the lofty dome-like ceiling, the apex rising to the height of sixty feet. The pavement is of earthen tiles, alternated with others of blue and white porcelain, symmetrically disposed. The wainscot is lined Avith the same species of mosaic ; and above it the walls are covered with stucco, impressed by means of models, with a variety of regular figures, very exactly executed, and en.- closing small medallions for inscriptions, which are entwined with garlands of leaves, fruits, and flowers. At the junction of the walls and ceiling is a narrow riband running round the whole apartment, and closely written with Arabic charac- ters. Each side of the room has five window-places, three of which are open and two false, exceot on the side of the entrance, where all are closed. These windows are ornamentea with small columns sustaining arches, which are stuccoed to repre- sent leaves and flowers ; the false ones have long inscriptions on the interior of the arches. The cornice projects far from the walls, and is most elaborately decorated with a variety of minute ornament, fretted into the stucco. The ceiling leaves of the cornice at half a right angle, making upward in four sides, corresponding to the walls of the room until they terminate in a cupola. The whole of this lofty dome is lined with wood in small pieces of various colors placed in regular figures, and alternated with gilt and silver ; the whole forming a checkered mosaic, rudely repre- senting crowns, stars, and crescents. The roof is meant to imitate the splendors of the firmament : and however abortive the imitation, it does not want a certain grace. The inscriptions are said to be chiefly ejaculatory expressions in praise of the Deity, much in use among the followers of Mahomet, as, " God ! to thee let perpetual praise be given ! to thee thanksgiving for evermore ! For God is our aid in every affliction ; no creature has for excellence the attribute of mercy ; this is the preroga- tive of God alone. Glory to God !" Again, " There is no other god than God, the only, the absolute, the potent over the powerful !" There are others in praise of the building, and of the king who ordered its erection, " Oh thou, who art the son of a king, and the descendant of many kings ! it was thou who didst build and dec- orate this marvellous palace, which is of such singular beauty and in which the wondrous excellences of thy reign are demonstrated. Yes! the king Nasere is the powerful and the valiant, causing dread to all nations! If he should place himself in the heavens, the stars would lose their glory !" There is no inscription, however, which occurs so frequently in the Alhambra as that of " God alone is the conqueror !" This was the watchword of the Granadians, and was even stamped upon their coin. It originated with Muhamad Aharaar, the founder of the kingdom and builder of the Alhambra, who, being praised as the most valiant and successful of warriors, with the pious modesty of a brave man, disclaimed the honor, and, like the Templars in the better days of their order, placed upon his shield the humble motto, " Conqueror through God !" This Saloon of Comares formerly displayed in its walls a brilliant variety of colors, among which red, blue, and green, were the most conspicuous, while the multiplied inscriptions were brought into a relief of gold and silver. Time, neglect, and deso- lation, have dealt roughly with the Alhambra ; and the gorgeous coloring, the gold, the silver, and the enamel, are now covered with whitewash, filling up the inter- stices of the fretwork, and rounding all into uniformity. And yet the Saloon of Co- mares, with its fretted walls, its lofty roof, and numerous windows, overlooking one of nature's fairest pictures, can not even now be contemplated with indiff'erence. What, then, must it not have appeared to an age of inferior civilization, when all the splendor of contrasted coloring enlivened the present monotony ; when those myste- rious characters, which now baffle the curiosity of the unlearned, spoke in golden poetry to the beholders ; and when this naked and solitary apartment was provided with the luxurious conveniences of an oriental people, thronged by obsequious court- iers, and hallowed by the presence of royalty ! Returning from the Saloon of Comares to the principal quadrangle, we passed thence into the famous Court of Lions, which is enclosed by a gallery connected with the wall and the adjacent apartments, and sustained toward the court by high Ara- 228 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN bic arches, standing on no fewer than one hundred and twenty-eight marble col- umns. The columns are about eight feet high, and as many inches in diameter, standing singly or grouped at the angles. The walls that enclose the court and gal- lery are plastered in stucco, and impressed with the same variety of ornaments and inscriptions that abound in the Saloon of Comares ; the pavement is of white marble. At each end of the court is a beautiful pavilion, connected with the gallery, but pro- jecting within the quadrangle ; columns similar to those of the gallery, in groups of three, sustain light horseshoe arches, ornamented profusely with garlands, upon whicli rests a miniature dome, whose cavity is ornamented with a fretwork of rich woods. A fountain, placed under each of these pavilions, throws a jet of water aloft into the obscurity of each cupola, whence it falls back in spray. Between these two pavilions stands the Fountain of Lions, consisting of a large marble basin, ten feet in diameter, yet of a single piece, supported on the haunches- of twelve lions, drawn up in a circle, with their heads outward. This basin is sur- mounted by a smaller one, into which the water, bursting from a jet at its centre, falls back, thence running over on every side in a continuous sheet, resembling a glass cylinder as it descends to the lower basin, where it is augmAited by twelve streams spouted backward from the mouths of the lions. It is said that this fountain was consecrated in imitation of the brazen sea of Solomon, described in the book of Chronicles, where we read that there were twelve moulten oxen, "and the sea was set above upon them, and all their hinder parts were inward." Even the garlands sculptured round the brim are repeated in the Fountain of Lions. An identity of de- sign will appear nowise incredible, when we consider .the number of Jews living^ in Granada from the earliest times, and the great favor which they enjoyed among the Saracens, from their common oriental origin, from the assistance they had lent at the time of the conquest, and from their we'alth, learning, and refinement, so superior to the age of warfare in which they lived. The lions are rudely formed, as might be expected among a people to whom the imitation of animate forms was interdicted, and who in this case acted by exception. We may see, however, in these figures, round the Fountain of Lions, an effort on the part of the Granadians to release them- selves from an ordinance of their religion, which effectually checked their progress in the arts. The walls that encircle the court, the arches, and the fountains, are profusely covered with inscriptions, telling the beholder, in the language of song, the admiration this place excited among the poets of Granada. Some of them are trans- lated as follows : " Blessed is he who gave unto the prince Muhamad a habitation, which for beauty excels all others. Oh ! heir of the Naseritan blood ! there is no glory equal to that of inheriting such power and greatness ! The peace of God be with thee for ever! causing thee to keep thy subjects in obedience, and to subdue thine enemies. Dost thou not see in what confusion the waters run ; and yet, other currents are constantly falling ? It is like unto a lover bathed in tears, and who carefully conceals them from the object of her passion. And, perhaps, it is in reality but a crystal cloud spreading itself over the lions." There is another, which fur- nishes the beholder with a very gratuitous piece of encouragement : " thou who lookesl upon these lions, fear not ! they have not life to harm thee." In addition to the three principal fountains of the interior, there are twelve smaller jets in the sur- rounding gallery, the waters of which, after falling back into their respective basins, run in marble canals until they meet at the central reservoir under the Fountain of the Lions. The number of currents constantly running within this small area is still further increased by the jets from the neighboring apartments, which empty at the common centre, imparting to the whole scene a magical animation, while, to com- plete the attractions of the place, the v/hole vacant portion of the quadrangle is laid out as a flower-garden, and planted with cypresses. The Court of the Lions is the most pleasing monument left by the Saracens in, Spain, to testify that the story of their brilliant and meteor-like domination is indeed no dream of the fancy. It was on the feast of Corpus Christi that we visited it ; the waters were all playing in honor of the day, and the whole quadrangle, with its ad- joining apartments, was thronged with blue-eyed or dark peasant-girls, and well- made mountaineers, all decked in picturesque costume, who had come to assist in the festivities of Granada, and chiefly to gain indulgences by hearing the grand mass to be that day celebrated in the Metropolitan, with archiepiscopal pomp, and the exposition of the most precious relics, and to receive pleasure I'rom seeing the con- cluding bullfight in the amphitheatre. The moment of our visit was, therefore, most CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 229 230 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN auspicious. The finest specimens of the human form mingled amid the low arches, the fpuntless columns, the foliage, and the water ; and we could not but admit, that, though shorn of its gay coloring, its enameled silver, and gilded illuminations, the Court of the Lions was still a place of no ordinary attraction. Adjoining the Court of Lions, and standing open toward it, are three rooms, among the most richly decorated of the Alhambra. One of them is now called the Chamber ofi'Justice, because romantic tradition points to it as the scene of the trial of Boabdil's sultana, under a false charge of infidelity with Abenhamet Abencerrage. Among its ornaments are some human figures in Eastern costume, rudely painted on the wall. They are too badly done to belong to the period of the conquest, which was also the age of Raphael; and therefore must rather be referred to an earlier period, having probably been executed by some Christian captive, for their faith forbade the Sara- cens most strictly from all imitations of the human form, as idolatrous. Lideed, when they entered Spain as conquerors, they everywhere destroyed the objects of art that came in their way, grinding into powder every statue, however beautiful and beyond all price, and converting it into cement and stucco for the building of their cities. And thus it may well be, that many of the proudest productions of the Roman or Grecian chisel, after having delighted the eyes of many succeeding generations, may now crumble undistinguished amid the ruins of the Alhambra. Another of the rooms which open upon the Court of Lions is called the Hall of Abencerrages, and has in its centre a marble fountain, which tradition has connected with a melancholy tale. It is here, we are told in the romances, that Boabdil, insti- gated by the treacherous Zegris, who had invented the tale of the sultana's guilt, enticed the Abencerrages one by one, and, as they reached the Court of Lions, caused them to be decapitated, after allowing each to contemplate a while the bloody tragedy which had been wrought upon his companions. The hall itself and the neighboring court were strewed with headless trunks, while the marble basin was piled high with the ghastly visages of those once light-hearted cavaliers, and the best blood of Granada filled the narrow canal, and sought an outlet at the feet of the lions. The red veins that still streak the marble were shown us as the traces of that ensanguined current, and the tender-hearted damsels from the mountains, who had oft wepl over the plaintive romance in which the treachery is alone recorded, sighed and grew tearful as they remembered how — " En las Torres de Alhambra Sonaba gran voceria, Y en la ciudad de Granada Grande llanto se hacia, Porque sin razon el Rey Hizo degollar un dia Treinta y seis Abencerrages Nobles de grande valia, A quien Zegries y Gomeles Acusan de alebosia : Q,ue exi perder tales varonea Es mucho lo que perdia. Lloraban tod as las Damas duantas en Granada habia Por las callea y ventanas Mucho luto parecia." Nothing is more cruel than to be aroused from a cherished day-dream to the dull realities of waking existence, and it is but an ungrateful task to be called upon to disturb these old associations, which cling, like their own cobwebs, to the walls of the Alhambra; for what will remain to Granada in the eye of poetry, if you take away its Zulemas, its Zaydes, its Zegries, and its Abencerrages? Even an attempt to save the livesof thirty-six Abencerrages will, we fear, be received as anything but an act of kindness. _ Nevertheless, it may be but fair to state, that all we have^been accustomed to read in romances of the trial of the queen, of her defence by the four Christian cavaliers, and this slaughter of the Abencerrages, is nowhere to be met with upon the page of history. These stories re-t upon the authority of a work called "The Civil Wars of Granada," written toward the close of the sixteenth century, by one Gines Perez de Hita, who professes to have translated it from an Arabic manuscript. This work, though it pretends to be a history, has not even the usual quantity of truth with which writers of fiction are accustomed to cast a shade of CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAI ''. 231 probability over their inventions. It was probably written to embody the Moorish and Castilian romances, which we find plentifully scattered throughout the work, and which either grew up around the chivalry of the two nations, or were afterward composed, when the lapse of time began to leave room for the embellishments of fancy. The " Civil Wars" is not, however, without merit, as a mere' work of fiction ; it gives an insight into the chivalrous usages of the Saracens of Granada, and the bull- feasts, cane-tilts, and tournaments, are described with vivid simplicity. It is from this work that the chief incidents of Elorian's beautiful romance have been taken , and even an identity of scenes and names is observable in the Gonsalve de Gordouc. The sleeping and feasting apartments, and baths, are found in a lower story of the palace, and are subterranean, except on the side of the precipice. In the chambers are large alcoves for beds, raised a little above the level of the floor, and paved with tiles of various colors, the entrance being flanked by columns sustaining horseshoe arches. In the centre of the chambers are jets, to cool the air or lull the senses of the sleeper. The feasting-hall has no windows, and was therefore doubtless lighted artificially, to give effect to Asiatic luxury. Near its ceiling is a gallery, where mu- sicians remained in waiting to attune their melodies to the mood of those who feasted, bathed, or sought sleep, in the adjoining apartments. The first of the bathing-rooms contains small marble baths of the size in use among us, and which are said to have been set apart for children. Further on is the principal room, whose destination is sufficiently shown by the niches without the door, similar to those of the other state apartments, to receive the slippers of those who approached the royal presence. For the Asiatics uncover the feet instead of the head, in token of deference. The baths here, two in number, are formed of large slabs of white marble, and are of uncom- mon size, being quite large enough for swimming. The floor is paved with marble slabs, and the walls are of stucco, richly impressed and illuminated, while the ceil- ing forms an arched vault of bold and beautiful execution. Apertures cut through it, in the form of stars, allowed the vapor to escape, and admitted the only external light that reached this spot, destined to the exercise of a religious observance and to luxury. As we grouped through these ruined apartments, reconnoitring their dark and untenanted recesses, with no other sound than that of our own resounding foot- fall, treading heedless through the once secret and hallowed precincts of the harem, it was curious and melancholy to turn, in fancy, from the present to the past, and conjure up the far different spectacle which the place must have presented ere the evil day of Granada had arrived. Having seen the baths, we reascended toward the Queen's Toilet, and on our way passed through some apartments of the time of Charles V. One of these stands on a small courtyard, and has a gallery round the interior, which is strongly wickered with rods of iron. We are told that here the sultana was imprisoned after the accu- sation of the Zegries ; for romance has here lent another tradition to the modern ten- ants of the Alhambra. It is said, with more probability, that Queen Joanna, becoming foolish with grief upon the death of her husband, Philip the Handsome, was confined for a time in the apartments adjoining this cage, which was constructed for her recep- tion. This, though disputed, receives some coloring of possibility from the fact that the apartment bears the initials of Charles V., her son, and from the notorious imbe- cility of Joanna, who used to spend most of her time in the company of her dead hus- band, and even carry his body with heron her journeys, thereby acquiring for herself the surname of " The Foolish." The Alhambra, in its day of adversity, is still the prison of a maniac. We saw in a lower cell of one of the towers, overlooking the precipice of the Daro, an emaciated and squalid wretch, sitting in the sill of a grated window, and gazing with haggard and vacant, yet steadfast eye, upon the narrow portion of the Vega thence visible. His hands grasped two of the window-bars, and his meager and bloodless face, rendered still more ashy by the blackness of his mat- ted hair and beard, was forced between the irons, as if there were a satisfaction in approaching a little nearer to the scenes upon which he gazed so wistfully. We thought at first that he was a state prisoner, of whom we had already seen several taking the air on the tower of La Vela, but learned, on inquiring, that he was a maniac, brother to the woman who had the keys of this portion of the palace. Sakagossa is a large and celebrated Spanish city, and the capital of Aragon. It stands in a fertile plain on the banks of the river Ebro, on the site of the ancient Koman colony, Csesar Augustus, of which the present name is a corruption. This 232 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN city still possesses many attractions, in an architectural point of view, and before the terrible sieges which it had to sustain against the French, boasted many more. One of the most singular edifices which it conlains, is the leaning tower, which, in point of inclination, may be said to rival that of Pisa. It has stood since 1594, and its present use is that of a belfry. The ascent is by two hundred and eighty steps, and from the upper balcony a noble prospect is gained. The style of its architecture is pretty and ornamental ; and the material employed in its construction is brick. "At first sight of this curious edifice," says Mr. Locker, " the question 'How came it so ?' instantly occurred to us ; but we found it not so easy to obtain a solution, for the critics of Saragossa seem as much divided in opinion as those of Pisa ; and though their tower is not so old, by four centuries, the cause of its declination is involved in equal perplexity. It is not improbable that the foundation may have sunk during its erection, and that the architect may have carried up the remainder of his work as a triumph of his art, counterbalancing the inferior side, in order to prevent the fabric from oversetting, in the same manner as the antiquaries profess to have discovered, in the construction of the Pisan tower." Saragossa has gained celebrity by the two sieges which it sustained in 1808 and 1809. The adjoining provinces of Catalonia and Navarre were overrun by the French troops ; Saragossa, which was garrisoned by not more than two hundred and twenty regulars, was unfortified, and the public treasury was empty. When the people were seeking for a leader, the rank of Palafox, and the favor which he was known to have enjoyed with Ferdinand, directed their choice to him, and accordingly, on the 26th of May, 1808, he was proclaimed by them governor of Saragossa, and^' of all the kingdom of Aragon. He was then in his eight-and-twentieth year, and had but a scanty portion of military knowledge. He immediately called into service all the halfpay officers, formed several corps, composed, in part, of the students of the university, took other measures to sustain a siege, and declared war against the French, in a proclamation remarkable for its energy. This paper was hardly issued, before a French corps of eight thousand men marched to attack Saragossa. The French were, however, met by the Spaniards, and after a hard struggle, compelled to retire. Palafox took advantage of this to quit the city for a while, in order to collect troops, and organize the defence of the rest of the province. He returned with about fifteen hundred men, who had retreated from Madrid, and was soon invested by the French, who had received powerful reinforcements, and a train of artillery. The besiegers carried the post of Torrero and some other exterior works, though not without great loss, pushed forward their attacks against the gates of El Carman and El Portillo, began to bombard the city, and forcing their way into the place by the gate of Santa Engracia, at length made themselves masters of nearly half of Saragossa. The French general now summoned Palafox to surrender. His sum- mons was contained in ihe following laconic sentence: "Headquarters, St. Engra- cia : capitulation." With equal Spartan brevity, Palafox instantly replied, "Head- quarters, Saragossa : war at the point of the knife." A council of war was now held, in which it was resolved that the remaining quarters of the city should be contested, inch by inch, and that, should they be lost, the people should retire across the Ebro into the suburbs, destroy the bridge, and de- fend the suburbs to the last man. The resolution was unanimously applauded by the Saragossans. They did not, however, content themselves with resting on the defensive. They fell upon the besiegers with unequalled and irresistible fury. The struggle continued for eleven days, almost without intermission. Every day the peo- ple gained ground, till, at last, the enemy held only a narrow space within the walls. Convinced that there was no longer any hope of success, the French general aban- doned the siege, which had lasted sixty-one days, and cost him several thousand men. Palafox availed himself of the breathing-time thus obtained, to increase his force, and construct additional works. He was not allowed a long respite. To re- duce Saragossa to submission, was, on many accounts, an object of great importance to the French. In November, therefore, a large army, under Marshals Mortier and Moncey, marched to recommence the siege. Palafox was defeated at Tudela, and again under the walls of Saragossa, and the place was invested. Being summoned to surrender, he replied and acted with the same energy as before. The approaches were vigorously carried on by the French, and a furious bombardment was inces- santly kept up. Almost hourly combats took place between the besiegers and the CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 233 234 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN besieged, in which the latter displayed a desperate valor. At length, January 27, a general assault was made, and the French established themselves on the breaches. Once more they penetroted, by degrees, into the city, and once more they met with the most obstinate and sanguinary resistance. Old men, Avomen, and children, all took a part in endeavoring to stop the progress of the besiegers. Not only street by street, but house by house, and even room by room, was contended for, like the out- works of a fortress, and frequently lost and recovered. The besiegers finally resorted to mining, to win their way, their progress by open force being bought at too dear a rate. In this way, they became masters of about one fourth of the surface of the city. Saragossa, however, would long have resisted all their efforts, had it not been assailed by a force more terrible than the besiegers. An epidemic fever raged in the place, and spread destruction among the Saragossans, and there were neither hos- pitals, nor medicines, nor even shelter for the sick. Palafox himself was attacked by it, and was obliged to give up the comihand to General St. Marc, by whom the capitulation was signed on the following day. At the period of its investment, Sar- agossa was estimated to contain fifty thousand souls. Six thousand Saragossans fell in battle, about thirty thousand by pestilence, while the gallant defenders, reduced to about twelve thousand men, evacuated the city on its being taken possession of by the French. Saragossa has a resident population of forty-seven thousand persons, and it is one hundred and seventy-five miles east-northeast of "Madrid. Spain was long known as that country where the inquisition existed in all its terri- ble power. The immediate cause of the erection of the tribunals of faith, was the rapid spread of the sect of Albigenses, the prosecution of whom, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, made the south of France a scene of bloodshed and violence. The project of extirpating the rebellious members of the church, and of extending the papal power at the expense of the bishops, by means of the inquisition, was conceived by Pope Innocent III., who ascended the papal chair in 1198, and was completed by his immediate successors. This tribunal, called the holy office, was under the immediate direction of the papal chair; it was to seek out heretics and adherents of false doctrines, and to pronounce its dreadful sentence against their fortunes, their honor, and their lives, without appeal. The process of this tribunal differed entirely from that of the civil courts. The informer was not only concealed, but rewarded by the inquisition. The accused was obliged to be his own accuser ; suspected persons were secretly seized and thrown into prison. No better instruments could be found for inquisitors, than the mendicant orders of monks, particularly the Franciscans and Dominicans, whom the pope employed to destroy the heretics, and inquire into the conduct of bishops. Pope Gregory IX., in 1233, completed the design of his predecessors, and, as they had succeeded in giving these inquisitorial monks, who were wholly dependent on the pope, an unlimited power, and in rendering the interference of the temporal magistrates only nominal, the inquisition was successively introduced into several parts of Italy, and into some provinces of France ; its power in the latter country being more limited than in the former. The tribunals of faith were admitted into Spain in the middle of the thirteenth century, but a firm opposition was made to them, particularly in Castile and Leon, and the bishops there maintained their ex- clusive jurisdiction in spiritual matters. But a change afterward took place; and while, in other countries of Europe, the inquisition could never obtain a firm footing, but in some fell entirely into disuse, as in France, and in others, as in Venice, was closely watched by the civil power, an institution grew up in Spain, toward the end of the fifteenth century, which was the most remarkable of all the inquisitorial courts of the middle ages, and differed much from the rest in its objects and organization. Ferdinand of Aragon, and Isabella of Castile, having united their power, made many efforts to break the strength of the nobles, and to render the royal authority absolute. The inquisition was used as a means of effecting their plans. There were three religious parties in Spain, Christians, Jews, and Mohammedans. The Moors still maintained possession of the last remnant of their empire, the kingdom of Granada, which was, however, already threatened by the arms of Ferdinand and Isabella. The Jews had their synagogues, and formed a distinct class in the princi- pal cities of Spain. Commerce was principally in their hands ; they were the lessees of the king and the nobles, and suffered no oppression, being subject only to a moderate capitation tax, which they had been obliged to pay to the clergy. The CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 235 riches which they had amassed by their industry, exposed them to great envy and hatred, which was nourished by the ignorance of the priesthood. The sermons of a fanatical monk, Fernando Martinez Nunez, who preached the persecution of the Jews as a good work, was the principal cause of the popular tumults in many cities, in 1391 and 1392, in which this unhappy people was plundered, robbed, and murdered. Many Jews submitted to baptism to save their lives, and the descendants of these un-. fortunate men were, for about one hundred years, the first victims of inquisitorial zeal. In 1477, when several turbulent nobles had been reduced in the southern part of Spain, Queen Isabella went to Seville with the cardinal Pedro Gonzalez de Menr doza : there this prelate, as archbishop of Seville, made the first attempt to introduce the inquisition. At his command, punishments were publicly and privately inflicted, and it was discovered, among other things, that many citizens of Seville, of Jewish origin, followed in private the manners and customs of their fathers. The cardinal charged some of the clergy privately to enlighten the faith of these people, and to make the hypocrites true sons of the church. These teachers brought back many to the faith ; but many, who persevered in their opposition to the doctrines of the church, were condemned and punished. After this prelude, the design was disclosed of extending the inquisition over the whole country; and Mendoza laid the project before the sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabella. They approved of an institution, which at the same time suited the persecuting spirit of the age, and could be used as a powerful engine of state. The design was, by means of this institution, which was to be entirely dependent on the court, to oppress those who were, either secretly or openly, Jews or Mohammedans (and many Christian noblemen belonged to the party of the Mohammedans, the standing allies of the malcontents), to enrich the royal treasiyy, to which the property of the condemned was confiscated, and to limit the power of the nobles, and even of the clergy. In the assembly of the estates, held at Toledo, in 1480, the erection of the new tribunal was urged by the cardinal. After the superior branches of administration — the supreme council of Castile, the council of state, the board of finance, and the council of Aragon — had been confirmed by the estates, the cardinal declared that it was necessary to establish a permanent tribunal to take cognizance of matters of faith, and to administer the ecclesiastical police. In spite of all opposition, it was determined to establish a tribunal, under the name of the general inquisition, and the new court was opened in Seville in 1481. Thomas de Torquemada, prior of the Dominican convent at Segovia, and father- confessor to the cardinal' Mendoza, had already been appointed by Ferdinand and Isabella the first grand inquisitor, in 1478. He had two hundred familiars, and a guard of fifty horsemen, but he lived in continual fear of poison. The Dominican monastery at Seville soon became insufficient to contain the numerous prisoners, and the king removed the court to the castle in the suburb of Triana. At the first auto dafe, or act of faith, seven apostate Christians were burnt, and the number of peni- tents was much greater. Spanish writers relate, that above 17,000 gave themselves up to the inquisition, more than 2,000 were condemned to the flames the first year, and great numbers fled to the neighboring countries ; and many hundred Jews escaped into Portugal, Africa, and other places. The pope, however, had opposed the estab- lishment of the Spanish inquisition, as the conversion of an ecclesiastical into a secular tribunal. Soon after the appointment of the new inquisitor, he had directed the arch- bishop of Toledo, a warm enemy of Mendoza, to hold a solemn court over a teacher in Salamanca, who was charged with heretical opinions, and the inquisitor-general was repeatedly summoned to Rome. Torquemada, however, did not obey the sum- mons, but sent a friend to defend his cause. The contest between the pope and the Spanish court, was carried on with vigor, until 1483, when Sixtus IV. was obliged to yield, and acknowledge Torquemada as inquisitor-general of Castile and Leon. He was also authorized by the papal bull to establish inferior courts at pleasure, to remove those judges who had been appointed by the pope, and to regulate the manner of proceeding in inquiries respecting matters of faith according to the new plan. A later bull subjected Aragon, Valencia, and Sicily, the hereditary dominions of Ferdi- nand, to the inquisitor-general of Castile ; and thus the inquisition was the first tri- bunal whose jurisdiction extended over the two Spanish kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, the Aragonese estates, at their session at Tarragona, in 1484, being obliged to swear to protect the inquisition. The introduction of the new tribunal was attended with risings and opposition in 236 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN many places, excited by the cruelty of the inquisitors, and encouraged perhaps by the jealously of the bishops ; several places, particularly Saragossa, refused admission to the inquisitors, many of whom lost their lives ; but the people were obliged to yield in the contest, and the kings became the absolute judges in matters of faith ; the honor, the property, and the life, of every subject was in their hands. They named the grand inquisitor, and by them, or under their immediate influence, were his as- sessors appointed, even the secular ones, two of whom were of the supreme council of Castile, laymen being permitted to hold the office. This tribunal was thus wholly dependent on the court, and became a powerful instrument for, establishing the arbi- trary power of the king on the ruins of the national freedom ; for putting down the clergy, who had previously acknowledged only the jurisdiction of the Roman see; for oppressing the bold nobles, and taking away the privileges of the estates. The property of those who were condemned fell to the king ; and although it had been granted to the inquisition, it was still at his disposition. Ferdinand and Isabella, indeed, devoted a part of this property to found convents and hospitals ; but the church, notwithstanding, lost many possessions by m«ans of the inquisition ; and an ordinance, drawn by Torquemada, in 1487, proves that it was a source of revenue to the king, supplying the treasury, which was exhausted by the war ; the inquisitorial chest was, indeed, at that time, drained by so many royal drafts, that the officers could not obtain their salaries. The first ordinance by Torquedama, dedicating the tribunal to the service of God and their majesties, bears date 1484. Among other articles are the following, show- ing the political importance of the institution : In every conqmunity, the grand inquis- itor shall fix a period, from thirty to forty days, within which time heretics, and those who have relapsed from the faith, shall deliver themselves up to the inquisition. Penitent heretics and apostates, although pardoned, could hold no public office ; they could not become lessees, lawyers, physicians, apothecaries, or grocers; they could not wear gold, silver, or precious stones, or ride, or carry arms, during their whole life, under penalty of being declared guilty of a relapse into heresy ; and they were obliged to give up a part of their property for the support of the war against the Moors. Those who did not surrender themselves within the time fixed, were de- prived of their property irrevocably. The absent also, and those who had been long dead, cottld be condemned, provided there was sufficient evidence against them. The bones of those who were condemned after death were dug up, and the property which they had left reverted to the king. Torquemada died in 1493, and was buried in the Dominican convent at Avila, which had been built with the property taken from heretics, and was a monument of his cruel zeal. He had resigned his office two years before, being afflicted with the gout. According to another account, Torque- mada did not retire so quietly from the stage. It is said, that suspecting Ferdinand and Isabella, whom the wars with the Moors had involved in great pecuniary em- barrassments, would be moved, by the great sums which were offered them, to limit the privileges of the inquisition, and, disturbed by this apprehension, he went to the royal palace, with a crucifix, under his mantle. " I know your thoughts," said he boldly lo the sovereigns ; " behold the form of the crucified one, whom the godless Judas sold to his enemies for thirty pieces of silver. If you approve the act, yet sell him dearer. I here lay down my office, and am free from all responsibility ; but you shall give an account to God." He then laid down the cross, and left the palace. At first, the jurisdiction of the inquisition was not accurately defined ; but it re- ceived a more regular organization by the ordinance of 1484, establishing branches in the different provinces of Spain, under the direction of the inquisitor-general. In later times, the supreme tribunal was at Madrid. The inquisitor-general presided. Of the six or seven councillors whom he appointed on the nomination of the king, one, according to an ordination of Philip III., must be a Dominican. He had a fis- cal, two secretaries, a receiver, two relators, and several officials, as they were called, who were appointed by the grand inquisitor, in concurrence with the king. The in- quisitorial council assembled every day, except on holydays, in the royal palace ; on the last three days of the week, two members of the council of Castile were present at the meeting. It was the duty of some of the officers {calificadores) to explain whether any act or opinion was contrary to the doctrines of the church ; others were lawyers, who merely had a deliberative voice. The sentence of the inquisition was definitive. It, was the duty of the fiscal to examine the witnesses, to give informa- tion of criminals, to demand their apprehension, and to accuse them when seized. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 237 He was present at the examination of the witnesses, at the torture, and at the meet- ing of the judges, where the votes were taken. It was the duty of the registers, besides the preparation of the necessary papers, to observe the accuser, the witnes- ses, and the accused, during their legal examination, and to watch closely the slight- est motion by which their feelings might betray themselves. The officials were per- sons sent by the court to arrest the accused. A sequestrador, who was obliged to give sureties to the office, kept an account of the confiscated property. The receiver took the money which came from the sale of sequestered property, and paid the sal- aries and drafts on the treasury. It is computed, that there were in Spain above twenty thousand officers of the in- quisition, called familiars, who served as spies and informers. These places were sought even by persons of rank, on account of the great privileges connected with them. As soon as an accuser appeared, and the fiscal had called upon the court to exercise their authority, an order was issued to seize the accused. In an ordinance of 1732, it was made the duty of all believers to inform the inquisition if they knew any one, living or dead, present or absent, who had wandered from the faith, who did observe, or had observed, the law of Moses, 'or even spoken favorably of it ; if they knew any one who followed, or had followed, the doctrines of Luther ; any one who had concluded an alliance with the devil, either expressly, or virtually ; any one who had possessed any heretical book, or the Koran, or the Bible in the Spanish tongue ; or in fine, if they knew any one who had harbored, received, or favored heretics. If the accused did not appear at the third summons, he was excommuni- cated. From the moment that the prisoner was in the power of the court, he was cut off from the world. The prisons, called holy houses, consisted of vaulted apartments, each divided into several square cells, which were about ten feet high, and stood in two rows, one over the other. In the upper cells, a dim ray of light fell through a grate ; the lower were smaller and darker. Each dungeon had two doors. The inner, which Avas bound with iron, had a grate through which food was introduced for the prisoner. The other door was opened, early in the morning, to air the cell. The prisoner, was allowed no visits from his friends or relations ; no book of devotion was given him ; he was compelled to sit motionless and silent, in his dark cell, and if his feelings found vent in a tone of complaint, or even in a pious hymn, the ever-watchful keeper warned him to be silent. Only one captive was usually placed in each cell, unless for the purpose of making discoveries. At the first hearing, the accused was called upon to confess his guilt. If he confessed the crime of which he was accused, he pronounced his own sentence, and his property was confiscated. If he declared him- self innocent, contrary to the testimony of the witnesses, he was threatened with torture. The advocate who was appointed to defend him, could not speak to him except in the presence of the inquisitors. The accused was not confronted with the accuser, nor the witnesses before the court, neither were they made known to him ; and he was often subjected to the torture, to extort a confession, or to explain circum- stances which had not been fully explained by the witnesses. Those Avho escaped death by repentance and confessions, were obliged to abjure their errors, and to swear to submit to all the pains and penalties which the court ordered. Imprisonment, often for life, scourging, and the loss of property, were the punishments to which the penitent was subjected. He was made infamous, as well as his children and grandchildren. Wearing the san-benito, the blessed vest of penitence, a sort of coarse, yellow tunic, with a cross on the breast and back, and painted over with devils, was a common method of punishment. An accused person, who was fortu- nate enough to escape before the officers of the inquisition could seize him, was treated as an obstinate heretic. Summonses were posted up in all the public places, calling on him to appear. If he did not do this within a certain time, and if the evidence of the witnesses proved the charges, he was delivered over to the secular power, and burnt in effigy. Persons who had been dead more than forty year;!, were condemned, and though their children retained possession of the property they inher- ited, yet they were dishonored, and rendered incapable of holding any public office. When sentence of death was pronounced against the accused, the holy auto da fe was ordered. This usually took place on a Sunday, between Trinity Sunday and Advent. At daybreak, the solemn sound of the great bell of the cathedral called the faithful to the dreadful spectacle. Men of high rank pressed forward, to offer their services in accompanying the condemned, and grandees were often seen acting 238 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN as familiars to the inquisition. The condemned appeared barefooted, clothed in a pe- culiar dress, with a conical cap [caroza) on their heads. The accompanying engra- ving shows one attired in this costume, while at his side is one who has recanted. Costumes of Prisoners of the Inquisition. The Dominicans, with the banner of the inquisition, led the way. Then came the penitents, who were to be punished by fines, &c., and after the cross, which was borne behind the periitents, walked the unfortunate wretches who were condemned to death. The effigies of those who had fled, and the bones of the dead who had been condemned, appeared in black coffins, painted over with flames and fiendish forms ; and the dreadful procession was closed by monks and priests. It proceeded through the principal streets of the city to the church, where a sermon was preached, and the sentence then pronounced. The convicted stood, during this act, before a crucifix, with an extinguished taper in their hands. As " the church never pollutes herself with blood," a servant of the inquisition, when the ceremony was finished, gave each of those who had been sentenced, a blow with the hand, to signify that the inquisition had no longer any power over them, and that the victims were aban- doned to the secular arm. A civil officer, who was affectionately charged " to treat them kindly and mercifully," now received the condemned, bound them with chains, and led them to the place of execution. They were then asked in what faith they would die. Those who answered catholic, were first strangled ; the rest were burnt alive. The aucos da fe were spectacles to which the people thronged as eagerly as to the celebration of a victory. Even the kings considered it a meritorious act to be present, with tbeir courts, and to witness the agonies of the victims. In this manner did the inquisition proceed, in the times of its most dreadful ac- tivity. The Spaniards found their personal freedom so much restrained, even in the early period of the existence of this office, that one of the principal requests of the disaffected, in the reign of Charles I., was, that the king should compel the inquisi- tion to act according to the principles of justice. But the important influence which this court had, in the course of the following century, both on the state and on the moral character of tlie Spaniards, could not, at that time, have been anticipated. This noble and high-spirited people were more debased by the dark power of the in- quisition than by any other instrument of arbitrary government, and the stagnation of intellectual action which followed the discovery of America, concurred, with other fatal causes, to diminish the industry of the people, to weaken the power of the slate, and to prevent, for a long time, any attempt at attaining a higher degree of moral and intellectual improvement. In more modern times, when the spirit of ' CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— SPAIN. 239 persecution was restrained in almost all other countries of Europe, the original or- ganization of the inquisition was but little changed ; but the dread of this dark court gradually diminished. The horrible spectacle of an auto da fe wzs seldom witnessed during the last century, and the punishments of the inquisition were con- fined, in a considerable degree, to those men who had become obnoxious to justice. In 1762, the grand inquisitor having, contrary to the express will of the king, pub- lished a bull, excommunicating a French book, was exiled to a monastery at a dis- tance from Madrid. A royal decree forbade the inquisition to issue any commands without the consent of the king, and required the grand inquisitor, in the condemna- tion of books, to conform to the laws of the land, and to make known his prohibi- tion only by virtue of the power given him by his office, and not with the citation of bulls. The decree also ordered that, before prohibiting any book, the author should be cited, that his defence might be heard. In 1670, during the administration of Aranda, the power of the inquisition was limited to the punishment of obstinate her- etics and apostates, and it was forbidden to imprison any of the king's subjects, without first fully proving their guilt. In 1784, it was determined that, if the inqui- sition instituted a process against a grandee, a minister, or, in short, against any officer of rank, its acts must be subjected to the royal inspection. If we consider the principal acts of the inquisition during the eighteenth century, we shall see that, notwithstanding the restraint exercised over it, it still remained an instrument which, under favorable circumstances, might exert a terrible influence. There were sixteen provincial inquisitions in Spain and the colonies, all subject to the supreme tribunal. As late as 1763, we find that, at an auto dafe at Llerena, some obstinate heretics were committed to the flames, and in 1777, the inquisition armed itself with all its terrors against a man who was guilty of nothing more than imprudence — the cele- brated Olavides ; and in 1780, a poor woman of Seville was declared guilty of witchcraft, and was burnt alive at the stake. With all the limits which had been set to its power, and with all the mildness of the tribunal, whose principal officers, under the preceding reigns, had been mostly men of intelligence and moderation, still the odious spirit of the institution, and the unjust form of proceedure, survived ; and until the moment when it was abolished by Napoleon, on the 4ih of December, 1808, the inquisition continued to be a powerful obstacle to the progress of the human intellect. The inquisition published annually a catalogue of prohibited books, in which, among some infidel and immoral works, many excellent or innocent books were included. All the attempts of enlightened men toward effecting the destruction of this antiquated instrument of a dark policy during the two previous reigns were without connexion, and therefore without eff'ect, and they sunk under the artifices which an all-powerful favorite, the clergy and the inquisition, employed for their common advantage. The process, concluded as late as 1806, against two learned and excellent canons, Antonio and Geronimo Cuesta, whose destruction their unworthy bishop, under the protection of the prince of peace, had striven to effect, was the last sign of life in this terrible court, and plainly shows that intrigue, when united with the secret power of the inquisition, had great influ- ence in Spain, even in recent times; and the decision of the king, which declared the accused innocent, and condemned the proceedings of the inquisition as contrary to law, was yet tender toward the inquisitors, and confirmed the general opmion, which punished those who had fallen into the power of the inquisition with the loss of public esteem. According to the estimate of Llorente, the number of victims of the Spanish inquisition, from 1481 to 1808, amounted to 341,027. Of these, 31,912 were burnt, 17,659 burnt in effigy, and 291,456 were subjected to severe penance. Ferdinand VII. re-established, in 1814, the inquisition, which had been abolished during the French rule in Spain ; but, on the adoption of the constitution of the cor- tes in 1820, it was again abolished, and was not revived in 1823, by the advice of the European powers. In Portugal, the inquisition was established, after a long contest, in 1557. The supreme tribunal was in Lisbon ; inferior courts, established in the other cities, were subject to this. The grand inquisitor was nominated by the king, and confirmed by the pope. John of Braganza, after the delivery of the country from the Spanish yoke, wished to destroy the inquisition. But he succeeded only in depriving it of the right of confiscating the property of the condemned. On this account he was excommu- nicated after his death, and his wife was obliged to permit his body to receive abso- lution. As the Spaniards took the inquisition with them to America, so the Poriu- 240 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN guese carried it to India, and established it at Goa ; and in the accompanying engra- ving a view is given of the procession of the members of this tribunal, from the church of St. Augustine in this city. It is considered the finest specimen of European architecture in any part of India. Procession of the Inquisition. In the eighteenth century, the power of the inquisition in Portugal was restrained by the ordinance whiclt commanded that the accuser of the court should furnish the accused with the heads of the accusation and the names of the witnesses, that the accused should be allowed to have the aid of counsel, and that no sentence of the inquisition should be executed until confirmed by the royal council. The late king abolished the inquisition, not only in Portugal, but also in Brazil and the East Indies, and caused all its records at Goa to be burnt. The inquisition restored in Rome by Pius VII. has jurisdiction only over the clergy, and is not therefore dangerous to those who are not catholics. In 1826 it condemned to death Caschiur, a pupil of the propaganda, who was appointed patriarch of Memphis, but not accepted by the viceroy of Egypt. The pope changed the punishment into imprisonment for life, and the nature of his crime is unknown. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 241 CHAPTER XL— ITALY. This fertile portion of Europe was once the seat of universal empire, but since the overthrow of the Roman power it has never formed an independent whole. The pride of its inhabitants and the admiration of foreigners, on account of its delicious climate and former celebrity, is a narrow peninsula, extending from the Alps into the Mediterranean sea, which, on the east side of Italy, is called the Adriatic, on the west the Tuscan sea. The Apennines, rising near the maritime Alps, are the prin- cipal chain of mountains, and stretch through the country, dividing Lombardy from the Genoese territories and Tuscany, and Tuscany from Romagna, intersecting the States of the Church, and running through the kingdom of Naples to the straits of Messina. Upper Italy is remarkably well watered. The Po, which receives a great number of rivers from the large lakes at the foot of the Alps (Lago Maggiore, di Lugano, di Como, d'lseo, and di Garda), and the Adige, are the principal rivers. They both rise in the Alps, and flow into the Adriatic sea. In Middle Italy are the Arno and the Tiber, which rise in the Apennines, and flow into the Tuscan sea. In Lower Italy, or Naples, there are no large rivers, on account of the shormess of the courses of the streams from the mountains to the sea : the Garigliano is the principal. The climate is warm without excessive heat, and generally salubrious. The winter, even in Upper Italy, is very mild,. and in Naples snow is seldom seen. The abundance and excellence of the productions of the soil correspond with the beauty of the cli- mate. In many places, both of the north and south, there are two, and even three, crops a year. The volcanic character of the coasts of Lower Italy is particularly remarkable in a geological point of view, especially in the region of Puzzuoli and Vesuvius. The neighboring islands of the Mediterranean are distinguished by the same peculiarity. The national character of the Italians, naturally cheerful, but always marked by strong passions, has been rendered by continued oppression dissembling and selfish. The Italian, moreover, possesses a certain acuteness and versatility, as well as a love of money, which stamp him for a merchant. In the middle ages, Venice, Genoa,. Florence, and Pisa, were the chief marts of the European commerce with the East. Indies ; and Italians (then called Lombards, without distinction, in Germany, France,, and England) were scattered all over Europe for the purposes of trade. The discov- ery of a passage by sea deprived them of the Indian trade, and the prosperity of those republics declined. The Italian, restricted almost solely to traffic in the productions of his own country, has nevertheless always remained an active merchant. Before Rome had absorbed all the vital power of Italy, this country was thickly inhabited, and for the most part by civilized nations. In the north of Italy alone,, which offered the longest resistance to the Romans, dwelt the Gauls. Further south, on the Arno and the Tiber, a number of small tribes, such as the Etrusci, the Sam- mies, and Latins, endeavored to find safety by forming confederacies. Less closely united, and often hostile to each other, were the Greek colonies of Lower Italy,, called Magna Graecia. The story of the subjection of these nations to the Roman ambition belongs to the history of Rome. Italy, in the middle ages, was divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Italy. The first division comprehended all the states situated in the basin of the Po ; the second extended between the former and the kingdom of Naples, which formed the third. At present it is divided into the following independent states, which are not connected with each other by any political tie: 1, the kingdom of Sardinia ; 2, Lombardy, or Austrian Italy (including Milan and Venice) ; 3, the duchy of Parma; 4, the duchy of Modena (including Massa) ; 5, the grandduchy of Tuscany ; 6, the duchy of Luc- ca ; 7, the republic of San Marino ; 8, the papal dominions ; 9, the kingdom of Na- ples or the Two Sicilies. Italia did not become the general name of this country until the age of Augustus. It had been early imperfectly known to the Greeks under the name of Hesperia. Ausonia, Saturnia, and CEnotria, were also names applied by them to the southern part, with which alone they were at first acquainted. The name Italia was at first 16 242 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN merely a partial name for the southern extremity, until it was gradually extended to the whole country. Italy depends almost solely on its agriculture for subsistence; the sources from which it formerly drew its support, the arts, manufactures, and commerce, being al- most dried up. Commerce with foreign countries, which, in Naples especially, is altogether stagnant, is for the most part, in the hands of foreigners, and, in a great measure, dependent on the British ; thence the universal want of specie, the finan- cial embarrassments of the governments, and the loans negotiated with Rothschild. Italy no longer lives, as formerly, on her cities, but on her soil. And even this source of prosperity maintains but a feeble existence, while taxes and tariffs impede the exportation of the staple production to foreign countries, or bands of banditti, and the want of good roads, obstruct internal intercourse, as in Sicily and Calabria, ■^he natural advantages of Italy entitle her to the highest rank in agriculture, com- merce, and the arts ; but all branches of industry groan under political oppression. The government and people look on each other with jealousy and hate, and the ec- clesiastical establishment poisons the springs of national activity. A political ex citement is continually kept up by means of secret societies, which are found, also, in Spain and Switzerland, under different appellations. The celebrated count La Maistre was, for a long time, in Piedmont, the head of these malcontents who sought to accomplish desperate, ambitious plans, while apparently zealous in the cause of religion or morality. Even the Calderari, in Naples, whose head was the ex-minister of the police. Prince Canosa, have become one with the Sanfedists, who were connected with the gouvernemente occulte (as it was denominated} of France. These ultras hate even Austria, because it seems to act with too great moderation. The grand-duke of Tuscany is a man of lenient principles, and in that country, not a single Tuscan has been brought to account for political transgressions. The present political divisions of Italy, and the amount of population in 1827, are given in the accompanying table. "We have selected the population of that period, as it is the latest which has the stamp of authenticity. Political Divisions. Square miles —60 to deg. Population in 1827. Army in 1827. Independent Italy Kingdom of the Two Sicilies .... Kingdom of Sardinia States of the Church . Grand Duchy of Tuscany . . . , . Duchy of Parma Duchy of Modena, with Massa and Carrara 72,902 31,800 18,180 13,000 6,324 1,660 1,571 312 17 38 22,030 17,800 2,852 1,250 128 16,060,500 7,420,000 3,800,000 2,590,000 1,275,000 440,000 379,000 r43,000 7,000 6,500 5,337,000 4,930,000 185,000 126,000 96,000 66,940 30,000 23,000 6,000 4,000 1,320 1,780 800 40 52,120 50,000 2,120 Duchy of Lucca Republic of San Marino ..... Principality of Monaco ...... Italy subject to Foreign Powers . . . Austrian Italy (the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, Italian Tyrol, and part of the government of Trieste) .... French Italy (island of Corsica) . . . Swiss Italy (canton of Tessin, some parts of the Grisons, and of the Va- lais) English Italy (the group of Malta) . . Total 94,932 21,397,500 119,060 The boundaries of the Italian language can not be given with precision. In the north, toward Switzerland, Tyrol, and the other neighboring countries, the A^alleys in which German, Italian, and dialects of the ancient Roman language, are spoken. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY, 243 they alternate with each other. Even the sea is not a definite limit. On account of the early extension of the Italians over the islands of the Mediterranean, including those of Greece and the coasts of the Grecian mainland, it is not easy to determine where the last Italian sound is heard. It is spoken, more or less corrupted, in all the ports of the Mediterranean, Christian and Turkish. Of late, hoAvever, the Italian language has lost ground on many islands, as, for instance, on the Ionian islands. The origin of this beautiful and most harmonious tongue, is also lost in obscurity. The general opinion, that the Italian originated from a mixture of the classical Latin with the languages of the barbarians who overran Italy, is erroneous. The Roman literary language, which the scholar learns from Horace and Cicero, was not the dia- lect of the common people. That the former could not have been corrupted by the mixture of the barbarous languages, is proved by the fact, that Latin was written in the beginning of the middle ages, long before the revival of learning, with a surpri- sing purity, considering the circumstances. After the language of common life had been entirely changed by the invasion of the northern tribes, in its whole spirit rather than by the mere admixture of foreign words, then a new language of literature was formed, though the classical Roman still continued to be used. The new language was opposed to the variety of dialects which had grown out of common life ; the formation of it, however, was slow, because the learned and the poets, from whom ii; was necessary to receive its stamp and development, despised it as an intruder on the Latin, which was venerable, as well by its age and the treasures handed down in it, as on account of the recollections of former greatness, with which the suffering Italians were fond of flattering themselves. Even down to the present day, that idiom, the melody of which carries us away in the most unimportant author, is not to be found as the common idiom of the people in any part of Italy. It is a mistake to suppose that Boccaccio's language is to be heard from the lips of Tuscan peasant- girls or Florentine porters. Even the Tuscan and Florentine dialect differs from the pure language, which, during the first centuries of Italian literature, is found purer in the poets of Sicily and Naples than in the contemporary writers of Tuscany. The circumstance, that the most distinguished Italian poets and prose-writers were born in Florence,, and the authority assumed by later Tuscan academies, particularly the Crusca, are the causes why the Tuscan dialect, in spite of its rough gutturals, which are intolerable to the other Italians, became predominant in the language of litera- ture. Dante, the creator, as it were, of Italian prose and poetry, and whose works are full of peculiarities of different dialects, distinctly maintains, in a treatise, " De vulgari Eloquentia,'''' that it is inadmissible to attempt to raise a dialect to a literary language. Dante, indeed, distinguishes in the lingua volgare (so the language was called which originated after the invasion of the barbarians) a volgare illustre, car- Boccaccio. Dante. Tasso. Ariosto. Petrarch. Tassoni. Galileo. Machiavelli. Pulci. MarinL Guarini. 244 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN dmale aulicum, curiale ; but this sufficiently proves that he held the opinion above stated. Fernow mentions fifteen chief dialects, of which the Tuscan has six subdi- visions. Those dialects in which no literary productions exist, are not enumerated. The Italian, as we find it at present, in literature and with the well-educated, is es- sentially a Latin dialect. Its stock is Latin, changed, to be sure, in its grammar and construction, by the infusion of the modern spirit into the antique, as the character of the people underwent the same change. A number of Latin forms of words, which, even in the time of the Ramans, existed in common language, have been, by the course of time and revolutions in literature, elevated to a grammatical rank ; and the same is very probably true of forms of phraseology. In many instances, the Italian exhibits changes in the Latin forms, which have evidently taken place in the same way in which common people, in our days, corrupt the correct modes of speech by a rapid, or slurred, or mistaken pronunciation. Genoa is a maritime city in Italy, and the capital of a province in the Sardinian states. On the land side the city is surrounded by a double line of fortifications ; the outer ones are extended beyond the hills which overlook the city. The harbor is enclosed and made secure by two moles, and the city lies in a semicircular form around it. This city has been frequently styled the magnificent, partly because of the beauty of its situation, and partly on account of the splendid palaces of the wealthy nobility. From the sea Genoa presents a very imposing appearance ; but, notwith- standing its numerous palaces, it can scarcely be pronounced really beautiful, for, in consequence of its confined site, and of its being built on a declivity, the streets are frequently narrow, and so steep, that but ievr of them can be passed in carriages or on horseback. There are, however, several remarkable exceptions, as, for instance, the Strada Nuovissima, the Strada Balbi, and the Strada Nuova. These streets pos- sess both regularity and beauty : the edifices, or rather palaces, are built of fine mar- ble (which is obtained in large quantities from the neighboring quarries), and display not only the attractions of architecture, but the interiors are richly ornamented with paintings and sculptures by the first masters. The principal of these palaces are the Durazzo, Doria, Sera, Lercari, Carrega, and Balbi. The palazzo della Signora was the ancient palace of the doge. The arsenal is situated in its immediate vicinity, and its neighborhood contains many ancient military and naval trophies, the most celebrated of which is the ros- trum of an ancient galley. It is placed over the principal gate, and is supposed to be the only complete one now extant. Its length is about three spans, and its greatest thickness, two thirds of a foot. It was discovered in 1597, while cleaning the har- bor. In the accompanying engraving is given a view of this interesting specimen of ancient naval architecture. Rostrum of au Ancient Galley. The cathedral, dedicated to St. Lorenzo, is a Gothic structure, incrusted and paved with marble, and adorned with a crucifixion by Barocchio. The bones of St. John Baptist are said to be deposited in one of the chapels in an iron urn, and in the sa- cristie is still preserved the vase of emerald said to have been given to Solomon by the queen of Sheba. The Annunziata, though built at the sole expense of the Lomellino family, is one of the most costly churches in Genoa, and contains a fine picture of the LastSupper, by G. C. Procaccino. St. Maria in Carignano, built in obedience to the will of Bendinelli Sauli, a noble Genoese, is an elegant piece of architecture ; and the magnificent bridge, leading to it, was erected by a son of the abovenamed nobleman. This bridge contains seven arches, and is so lofty that from it you look down on houses seven stories high. The church contains a statue of St. Sebastiano, by Puget ; another of the beatified Ales- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 245 246 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN sandro Sauli, by the same artist ; and an interesting picture of St. Peter and St. John curing the Paralytic, by D. Pick. St. Ambroggio is adorned with three celebrated pictures, namely, the Assumption, by Guido ; St. Ignatius exorcising a demoniac, and raising the dead, by Rubens ; and the Circumcision, by the same master. St. Domenico contains a picture of the Circumcision, by Procaccino ; and the ceil- ing of the sanctuary is by Cappuccino. St. Filippo Neri is a handsome church, the ceiling of which was painted by Fran- ceschini, and in the oratory is a statue of the Madonna, by Puget. St. Matteo, built by the Doria family, contains sepulchral monuments by Mont- Orsoli ; a high-altar of Florentine work ; and, behind it, a much-admired Piela. St. G-iovanni in Vecchio is adorned with a picture by Vandyck. St. Francesco di Castelleto contains a. celebrated picture by Tintoretto, together with bronze statues and bassi-relievi by Giovanni di Bologna. St. Stefano alle Pone contains a picture representing the martyrdom of St. Stephen, the upper part painted by Giulio Romano, the lower part by Raphael. The Palazzo-Durazzo, Strada-Balbi, contains noble rooms, splendidly furnished, and a large collection of pictures, among which are celebrated works of Vandyck and Rubens, and the Magdalene at our Savior's feet, by Paolo Veronese. The University is a fine building, and contains in its vestibule two lions of marble, which are much admired. The Palazzo-Doria, Strada-Nuova, is a magnificent edifice in point of architecture. The Palazzo-Rosso contains fine pictures, among which are three portraits by Van- dyck ; Judith putting the head of Holofernes in a bag, by Paolo Veronese ; an Old Man Reading, by Spagnoletto ; the Madonna, by Cappuccino; the Adoration of the Shepherds, by Bassano ; our Savior in the Garden of Olives, by the same ; Clorinda delivering the Christians, by Caravaggio ; the Resurrection of Lazarus, by the same ; Cleopatra, by Guercino ; and several works, both in painting and sculpture, by Parodi. The Palazzo-Brignole, opposite to the Palazzo-Rosso, contains fine pictures ; and the Palazzo-Serra boasts a saloon deemed one of the most sumptuous apartments in Europe. It cost a million, and is all marble, gold, and mirrors. The Palazzo-Carega was built after the design of Buonaroti; as was the Palazzo^ Pallavicino, at Zerbino. The Great Hospital is a noble establishment for the sick of all nations ; and like- wise for foundlings, the boys remaining till they are able to work, the girls still longer. The number of sick received into this hospital has frequently exceeded one thousand, and the number of foundlings three thousand. The Hospital of Incurables likewise is a noble establishment. The Albergo dei Poveri, perhaps the most magnificent hospital in Europe, stands upon a lofty eminence, and was founded by a nobleman of the Brignoli family, to serve as an asylum for upward of a thousand persons, from age and other causes, re- duced to want. The chapel is handsome, and contains a basso-relievo, by Buona- roti, of the Madonna contemplating the dead body of our Savior ; and here, likewise, is an Assumption, in marble, by Puget. The Theatre of St. Agostino is much admired with respect to its architecture, as indeed are a considerable number of buildings which are not enumerated ; but, though no city of Italy boasts so many splendid edifices as Genoa, though all these edifices are built of marble, and though the Strada-Nuova, the Strada-Nuovissima, and the Strada-Balbi, are strikingly magnificent, the narrowness of the other streets, and the want of spacious squares, gives an air of melancholy to the town in general : its environs, however, are exempt from this defect, and display a delightful union of grandeur and cheerfulness, the whole road to Sestri, a distance of six miles, exhibit- ing one continued line of villas, nearly equal, in size and elegance, to the palaces v/ithin the city. Genoa contains good hotels ; and its population, including the inhabitants of San Pietro d'Arena, is supposed to amount to eighty thousand. An Italian proverb says of this city, " that it has sea without fish, land without trees, and men without faith :" the provisions, however, not excepting fish, are ex- cellent, but the wine is bad, and the climate by no means a good one. The country, though, like.Italy in general, thinly wooded, is in some parts romantic and beautiful ; but as to the people, they certainly vie in faith with their Ligurian ancestors. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 247 The nobles are ill-educated, and seldom fond of literature. They rarely inhabit the best apartments of their superb palaces, but are said to like a splendid table ; though their chief gratification has always consisted in amassing wealth, for the laudable purpose of expending it on public works and public charities. The common people are active and industrious ; and the velvets, damasks, and ar- tificial flowers, of Genoa, have long been celebrated. The harbor of Genoa is in the form of a semicircle, whose diameter is about one thousand fathoms. It is enclosed by two strong moles, II Molo Vecchio on the east side, and II Molo Nuovo on the west. The water is deepest at the new mole, and can admit ships of eighty guns. The mouth of the harbor, or the opening between the two moles, is three hundred and fifty fathoms in width, but the entrance is diffi- cult, and the direction from east to west must be taken with great care. The harbor is also inadequately protected from the southwest wind. In the centre of the large harbor is a smaller one called Darsena, used for refitting and preserving the national galleys. Two towers are erected on the moles, one as a lighthouse, the other for the defence of the harbor. A thick wall runs along the quays between the houses and the harbor, which entirely conceals the latter from view. The new mole adjoins St. Pietro d'Arena, an elegant suburb of the city. The principal public walks are the quay, the square of Aqua Verde, the walls of the harbor, and the alleys of Aqua Sola. A favorite amusement of the inhabitants is that of sailing out of the harbor of Genoa about two or three miles, and enjoying from the water the magnificent view of the city and its environs. Genoa still retains a considerable degree of commercial activity, though less than what it possessed in the middle ages. It exports the produce of the adjacent country, as olive oil, grain, and various sorts of fruit. The manufactures are of some impor- tance, particularly the black stuffs, velvet, damask, and stockings, which employ about fifteen hundred looms ; also of cloth, cotton hose, hats, maccaroni, candied fruits, chocolate, whitelead, fee. The silk is obtained partly in the province itself, and is also brought from the rest of Italy, especially Calabria, Sicily, the island of Cyprus, and the Levant. Genoa is now the seat of an archbishop, and possesses a senate, a high court, and a commercial tribunal. This city is 77 miles southeast of Turin, and 450 southeast of Paris. Pisa is one of the most ancient and beautiful cities of Italy, in the grand-duchy of Tuscany, and stands in a fertile plain, about eight miles from the entrance of the Arno into the sea. The air is tolerably healthy and mild. Instead of the 150,000 inhabitants which it formerly contained, the city now numbers scarcely 17,000. Silence and solitude reign here as in the other great cities of Italy which have fin- ished their part in history. The Arno divides the city into two nearly equal parts, connected by three bridges, and the two great quays are adorned with edifices in the noblest style, whose fortified appearance recalls the warlike days of the republic. The streets are mostly wide, straight, and well-paved ; but the grass, growing be- tween the stones, is a melancholy mark of depopulation. " The object," says a distinguished traveller, " which attracts the eye on entering Pisa, is that wonder of the world, the leaning tower; by far the most curious and interesting of the famous towers of Italy. It is a round structure, nearly one hun- dred and ninety feet high, and it leans thirteen feet. It is eight stories high ; each story is supported by columns, of which there are two hundred and eight in all, of every variety of material, of granite, and of every kind of marble, of every order of architecture, Doric, Grecian, Ionic, Corinthian, Composite, &c., probably taken from ancient buildings, affording a rich treat to the architect and antiquary. The construction is curious ; it was built at three different periods, having been com- menced about the year 1174. The stories do not all lean equally ; the fourth leans in a greater degree than the others, while the eighth, if not perfectly erect, inclines a little to the other side. By far the most interesting question arising with regard to I this tower, is, was it built leaning ? or is this the effect of natural causes ? Rejecting the supposition that an earthquake caused it to fall into this position (because the shock of an earthquake necessary to produce this effect, would have produced more than the leaning), I think that the ground has sunk, for the following reasons : 1st, the laws of gravity were not then known, consequently the architect can not be pre- sumed to have been acquainted with them ; if he built this totver leaning, he ought certainly to have presumed it would /a//; 2d, the steps are not erect, they also lean 248 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN surely these would have been erect, if the tower was built leaning ; besides, excava- tions have discovered that the steps extend all around, which would be useless if the tower was built as it now exists ; 3d, in a picture of the tower in the Campo Santo, it is perfectly erect, but with seven stories only ; and 4th, this declination from the per- pendicular exists not only with regard to the tower, but is found, also, in regard to the Duomo and Baptistery, which stand at the side. Be that as it may, however, this white marble tower is very curious, and the view from the top, fine. " Near this is the cathedral, built in the Gothic style, very rich in the profusion of marbles with which it is adorned in columns and blocks. One front is built with an immense number, among which are some that are twisted ; others are of porphyry ; six, which support the frame of the doors, are of white marble, worked very much, and thought to be ancient. The doors themselves are of bronze, curiously worked in relief, exhibiting the facts related with regard to the Madonna, &c. The church inside is ornamented with seventy-four columns, very lofty, sixty-two of granite, the others of rare marble. The altars are richly ornamented with lapis lazuli, agate, &c. The roof is formed in mosaic, while every occasion is taken to dispose of an immense number of small columns of verde antique, and the richest kind of por- phyry. This church is called magnificent ; its splendor consists in the profusion and variety of the marbles ; yet to me, it did not appear worthy of the praise bestowed upon it, for I could see little beauty in the want of uniformity seen there ; thus, of three pillars, one would be twisted, the two others straight ; one of white, a second of yellow, a third of green marble ; one would be worked, the two others plain ; so with all. " Continuing your walk, within a stone's throw of the cathedral is another build- ing of white marble, octagonal, in the German-Gothic style, erected about the twelfth century, called the Baptistery, built in the time of the prosperity of the city, at the expense of the inhabitants, who each paid a florin toward it. The inside is built like one of the ancient temples ; eight large columns of granite support twelve arches, while the cupola, which is very handsome, is supported by four pilasters of white marble. The pulpit is handsome, and is sustained by eight pillars of rare marble ; the body of the pulpit is of white marble and oriental alabaster, beauti- fully carved, and representing the birth of the Savior, the adoration of the magi, his presentation in the temple, his crucifixion, and the last judgment, which is exceed- ingly curious. In the centre of the building is the font, containing four places for the immersion of infants, Avhile that in the centre is for adults ; but I believe this prac- tice is now discontinued. " In the rear of the Duomo, or cathedral, is the most curious edifice upon this square, viz., Campo Santo, which is rectangular. Some earth, which was brought from the holy land, is surrounded by sixty-two arcades, in the Gothic style, of white marble, while this walk is paved with large stones of the same material. In these arcades, the walls are painted in fresco, and as it was built in the years 1218,-'S3, these paintings were executed before this art had reached the perfection it afterward at- tained. These paintings a,re by far the most curious one meets with in Italy, and such absurdity, such want of all knowledge of anatomy, perspective, everything ! God himself is represented as rather an ugly man, pulling Eve, a large, masculine- looking figure, out of a cut in Adani's side. The last judgment, however, displays a deal of imagination, and the tortures in which he has represented the wicked are truly damnable. One fellow has a large spit through him, &c. Independent of the pictures, this place presents an attraction to the antiquarian, as several sarcophagi, vases, &:c., are preserved, on which it is easy to trace the progress of the ancients in sculpture ; an ancient Roman milestone, the griffin, thought to be Egyptian, for- merly placed on the Duomo, &c., are also seen here. In this place it is said there are five hundred nobles buried. "With the exception of these four remarkable buildings, there is little to detain the stranger at Pisa. There are numerous churches ; thus ' Delia Spina' attracts, by its Gothic exterior. It was built by a beggar. The others contain the usual as- sortment of ' pieces of the true cross,' finger and toe-bones of the different saints set' in gold, fine pictures and statues. That of St. Stefano contains an organ, said to be the finest in Europe. The walls are decorated with trophies, standards, and cres- cents, taken from the Mohammedans, while in a sarcophagus of porphyry rest the bones of St. Stephen. Among the palaces we notice that inhabited by Lord Byron. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 249 250 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Pisa also contains antiquities ; the most remarkable is a brick building, said to liave been used as a vapor bath ; now, however, the floor was covered with oranges." Several palaces, and the Loggia de' Mercanti, are worthy of notice. An edifice is still shown as the tower of famine, in which Ugolino della Gherardesca perished, in 1283, with his children. The original tower, however, no longer exists, but the fam- ily of Gherardesca was extant at Pisa in 1798. The university is old, and has al- ways possessed celebrated professors. The observatory and the garden are in the best condition. There are in the city an academia Italiana, a physico-medical col- lege, cabinets of art, and, in the vicinity, an agricultural establishment. The refine- ment and kindness of the inhabitants make a residence in Pisa delightful to a stranger. At a little distance from the city, at the foot of Monte S. Giuliano, and named after this mountain, are the Pisan baths. Twelve warm sulphur springs are enclosed in large, convenient buildings, in which provision is made for all the wants of the visiters. The baths are not, however, in so high repute as they were in the middle of the last century. The splendid Carthusian monastery near Pisa is also worth seeing. The trade and manufactures of the place are of little importance. Large quantities of oil, which is but little inferior in quality to the oil of Lucca, is made here ; the fields and hills are well cultivated, and the marble quarries in the neighborhood are among the finest in Italy. Pisa was a flourishing republic in the middle ages, and owed its prosperity to the great love of liberty, and the active commercial spirit, which distinguished its citi- zens. From the Saracens the republic conquered Sardinia, Corsica, and the Beieares, and was styled the queen of the seas. Its territory on the Tyrrhene shore compre- hended the Maremma from Lerici to Piombino, which was at that time cultivated and very fruitful. By sea the rival of Venice and Genoa, she founded colonies in the Levant, and sent forty ships to aid the king of Jerusalem. Faithful as a zealous Gibeline to the emperor, involved in a bloody struggle with the Guelfic Florence, with Lucca and Sienna, which adhered to the pope, an object of jealousy to all her neighbors, overcome by Genoa in a bloody naval battle, and torn by the internal dis- sensions of powerful families, she finally sunk under the jealousy and hatred of Florence. Ugolino, however, reigned but a short time over the city, which had been stripped of her fortresses. The courage with which 11,000 Pisans preferred to suffer sixteen years of severe imprisonment rather than surrender a fortified place to the enemy, sustained for a time the spirit of the republic, which, with its own arms, defeated the army of the Guelfs of all Italy. But, being exhausted, it finally put itself under the protection of Milan, and was soon after sold to Duke Galeazzo Visconti, from whose successors Florence obtained it by purchase, in 1406. The city was compelled to surrender by famine ; and those disposed to resist were kept in obedience by force. The larger part of the citizens emigrated. But after eighty- eight years of oppression, when Charles VIII. of France made an expedition into Italy, the ancient pride of Pisa was aroused, and, for fifteen years, she fought glori- ously for her liberty. Simon Orlandi called his fellow-citizens to arms, and the peo- ple, under the protection of Charles VIII., who took possession of Pisa by a treaty with Florence, adopted a constitution of their own. Then began an obstinate war between Florence and Pisa. The inhabitants of the latter city, with the aid of the French garrison, reconquered the ancient territory, and defeated the Florentine mer- cenaries. Their courage foiled every effort of their former sovereigns. "When the French garrison departed, they took the oath of allegiance to the French king as their protector. Pisa now became a place of importance. Princes and republics ne- gotiated, some for, some against the continuance of the revived republic. Abandoned at last by all, the Pisans swore to perish rather than submit to their hereditary ene- my. Florence had already made itself master of the Pisan territory, and, on the last of July, 1499, the siege of the city was commenced with such ardor, that, in a fort- night, the Florentines hoped to have it in their power. But the females of Pisa worked day and night to repair the walls; and the enemy having taken a castle by storm, they exhorted their disheartened citizens to die rather than become the slaves of the Florentines. By this spirit the city was saved, and the enemy, after great loss, raised the siege. The Pisans now changed their city into a formidable fortress. Even an army sent by Louis XII., king of France (who wished to subjugate Pisa for the Florentines), besieged it in vain. In 1504, the Florentines resumed the siege of Pisa. They attempted to dam up the Arno above the city, but had to relinquish the plan after great expense. A third siege, in 1505, was equally unavailing. The city CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 251 was finally (June 8, 1509) reduced by famine, and submitted to the Florentines, with an amnesty for the past. Thus Pisa, having frustrated four attacks, and asserted its freedom for fifteen years, fell into the power of the Florentines, and ceased for ever to be independent. On its ruins was founded the power of Tuscany. Among the distinguished men born at Pisa was the celebrated Galileo Galilei, who was born in 1564. His family, which, till the middle of the fourteenth century, had borne the name of Bonajuti, was ancient and noble, but not wealthy ; and his father, Vincenzo Galilei, appears to have been a person of very superior talents and accomplishments. He is the author of several treatises upon music, which show him to have been master both of the theory and practice of that art. Galileo was the eldest of a family of six children, three sons and three daughters. His boyhood, like that of Newton, and of many other distinguished cultivators of matheniaiical and physical science, evinced the natural bent of his genius by various mechanical contrivances which he produced ; and he also showed a strong predilection and de- cided talent both for music and painting. It was resolved, however, that he should be educated for the medical profession : and with that view he was, in 1581, entered at the university of his native town. He appears to have applied himself, for some time, to the study of medicine. We have an interesting evidence of the degree in which his mind was divided between this new pursuit and its original turn for me- chanical observation and invention, in the history of his first great discovery, that of the isochronism (or equal-tiraedness, as it might be translated) of the vibrations of the pendulum. The suspicion of this curious and most important fact was first sug- gested to Galileo while he was attending college, by the motions of a lamp swinging from the roof of the cathedral. It immediately occurred to him that here was an ex- cellent means of ascertaining the rate of the pulse ; and, accordingly, after he had verified the matter by experiment, this was the first, and for a long time the only, application which he made„of his discovery. He contrived several little instruments for counting the pulse by the vibrations of a pendulum, which soon came into general use, under the name of pulsilogies ; and it was not till after many years that it was employed as a general measure of time. It was probably after this discovery tha Galileo began the study of mathematics. From that instant he seemed to have found his true field. So fascinated was he with the beautiful truths of geometry, that his medical books henceforth remained unopened, or were only spread out over his Euclid to hide it from his father, who was at first so much grieved by his son's absorption in his new study, that he positively prohibited him from any longer in- dulging in it. After some lime, however, seeing that his injunctions were insufficient to overcome the strong bias of nature, he yielded the point, and Galileo was permit- ted to take his own way. Having mastered Euclid, he now proceeded to read the Hydrostatics of Archimedes ; after studying which he produced his first mathemati- cal Avork, an Essay on the Hydrostatical Balance. His reputation soon spread itself abroad ; and he was introduced to one of the ablest of the Italian mathematicians of that day, Guido Ubaldi, who, struck with his extraordinary knowledge and talents, recommended him to the good offices of his brother, the Cardinal del Monte ; and by the latter he was made known to the then Grand-Duke Ferdinand. The road to distinction was now open to him. In 1589 he was appointed to the office of lecturer on mathematics in the university of Pisa ; and this situation he retained till 1592, when he was nominated by the republic of Venice to be professor of mathematics for six years in their university of Padua. From the moment at which he received the first of these appointments, Galileo gave himself up entirely to science ; and, ^al- though his salary at first was not large, and he was consequently, in order to eke out his income, obliged to devote a great part of his time to private teaching, in addition to that consumed by his public duties, his incessant activity enabled him to accom- plish infinitely more than most other men would have been able to overtake in a life of uninterrupted leisure. The whole range of natural philosophy, as then existing, engaged his attention ; and besides reading, observation, and experiment, the compo- sition of numerous dissertations on his favorite subjects occupied his laborious days and nights. In 1598 he was reappointed to his professorship, with an increased salary ; and in 1606 he was nominated for the third time, with an additional augmentation. By this time he was so popular as a lecturer, and was attended by such throngs of auditors, that it is said he was frequently obliged to adjourn from the largest hall in the university, which held a thousand persons, to the open air. Among the services which he had already rendered lo science may be mentioned his contrivance of an 252 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Portrait of Galileo. instrument for finding proportional lines, similar to Gunter's scale, and his rediscov- ery of the thermometer, which seems to have been known to some of the ancient philosophers, but had long been entirely forgotten. But the year 1609 was the most momentous in the career of Galileo as an enlarger of the bounds of natural philoso- phy. It was in this year that he made his grand discovery of the telescopes-having been induced to turn his attention to the eflFect of a combination of magnifymg-glasses, by a report which was brought to him, while on a visit at Venice, of a wonderful in- strument constructed on some such principle, which had been sent to Italy from Hol- land. In point of fact, it appears that a rude species of telescope had been previously fabricated in that country ; but Galileo, who had never seen this contrivance, was undoubtedly the true and sole inventor of the instrument in that form in which alone it could be applied to any scientific use. The interest excited by this discovery trans- cended all that has ever been inspired by any of the other wonders of science. After having exhibited his new instrument for a few days, Galileo presented it to the sen- ate of Venice, who immediately re-elected him to his professorship for life, and doubled his salary, making it now one thousand florins. He then constructed another telescope for himself, and with that proceeded to examine the heavens. He had not long directed it to this, the field which has ever since been its principal domain, be- fore he was rewarded with a succession of brilliant discoveries. The four satellites or attendant moons of Jupiter revealed themselves for the first time to the human eye. Other stars unseen before met him in every quarter of the heavens to which he turned. Saturn showed his singular encompassing ring. The moon unveiled her seas and her mountains. The sun himself discovered spots of dark lying in the midst of his brightness. All these wonders were announced lo the world by Galileo in the successive numbers of a publication which he entitled the "■ Nuncius Siderevs, or In- telligence of the Heavens," a newspaper undoubtedly unrivalled for extraordinary tidings by any other that has ever appeared. In 1610 he was induced to resign his professorship at Padua, on the invitation of the grand-duke of Tuscany to accept of the appointment of his first mathematician and philosopher at Pisa. Soon after his removal thither, Galileo appears to have for the first time ventured upon openly teaching the Copernican system of the world, of the truth of which he had been CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 253 many years before convinced. This bold step drew down upon the great philosopher a cruel and disgraceful persecution which terminated only with his life. An outcry was raised by the ignorant bigotry of the time, on the ground that in maintaining the doctrme of the earth's motion round the sun he was contradicting the language of scripture, where, it was said, the earth was constantly spoken of as at rest. The day is gone by when it would have been necessary to attempt any formal refutation of this absurd notion, founded as it is upon a total misapprehension of what the object of the Scriptures is,.which are intended to teach men morality and religion only, not matnematics or astronomy, and which would not have been even intelligible to those to whom they were first addressed, unless their language in regard to this and vari- ous other matters had been accommodated to the then universally prevailing opin- ions. In Galileo's day, however, the church of Rome had not learned to admit this very obvious consideration. In 1616, G-alileo, having gone to Rome on learnino- the hostility which was gathering against him, was graciously received by the pope, but was commanded to abstain in future from teaching the doctrines of Copernicus. For some years the matter was allowed to sleep, till in 1632 the philosopher published his celebrated Dialogue on the two Sj^stems of the World, the Ptolemaic and the Copernican, in which he took but little pains to disguise his thorough conviction of the truth of the latter. The rage of his enemies, who had been so long nearly silent now burst upon him in a terrific storm. The book was consigned to the inquisition^ before which formidable tribunal the author was forthwith summoned to appear' He arrived at Rome on the 14th of February, 1633. We have not space to relate the history of the process. It is doubtful whether or not Galileo was actually put to the torture, but it is certain that on the 21st of June he was found guilty of heresy, and condemned to abjuration and imprisonment. His actual confinement in the dun- geons of the Holy Office lasted only a few days ; and after some months he was allowed to return to his country-seat at Arcetri, near Florence, with a prohibition, however, against quitting that retirement, or even admitting the.visits of his friends. Galileo survived this treatment for several years, during which lie continued the ac- tive pursuit of his philosophical studies, and even sent to the press another important work, his Dialogues on the Laws of Motion. The rigor of his confinement, too, was alter some time much relaxed ; and although he never again left Arcetri (except once ior a few months), he was permitted to enjoy the society of his friends in his own house. But other misfortunes now crowded upon his old age. His health had long been bad, and his fits of illness were now more frequent and painful than ever. In 1639 he was struck with total blindness. A few years before, the tie that bound him most strongly to life had been snapped by the death of his favorite daughter ; weighed down by these accumulated sorrows, on the 8th of January, 1642, the old man breathed his last at the advanced age of seventy-eight. Leghorn is a seaport town on the western coast of Italy, in the grand duchy of Tuscany. This town was almost entirely built by Ferdinand I., and afterward o-reatly improved by Cosmo IL The activity and bustle of this small place (which is not above two miles in circumference) are amazing. The streets, especially La Via Grande, are generally so crowded that travellers can with difficulty pass through them ; and Jews, Turks, Armenians, &c., are everywhere seen in collision with each other. A large canal unites Leghorn with the city of Pisa, which greatly facilitates the commercial affairs of the inhabitants. The principal object that merits attention in_ regard to sculpture is the celebrated pedestrian statue of Ferdinand I., in marble, with the four Turkish slaves in bronze chained to the pedestal, who attempting to steal a Tuscan vessel, were executed by order of this prince : they are all larger than life, and remarkably well done, particularly the slaves, whose countenances are marked with a savage ferocity. The harbor of Leghorn is not so good as that of Genoa or of Marseilles, but is capable of containing vessels of three hundred tons burden. There is an outer and inner harbor ; on the right is La Fontarezza Vecchia, in which the galley slaves are lodged ; these men are employed in the harbor or on shore, as occasion reqmres, with a chain to their legs, and sometimes two are chain- ed together ; when their crimes are heinous they are chained to the vessel in which they work. The church of the Dominicans has a large dome and cupola in the centre, formerly painted but now plain. Over the high altar is the history of St. Catherine, painted by a Livornese. In a chapel on the left is a curious recess, containing a representa- tion of the stable in which Christ was born, with the Virgin and many figures ; in 254 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN the stable are cows, &c., and the whole has a very natural appearance. There are also in this church a number of recesses, each containing a figure of the Redeemer in various stages of his Passion. The next place which particularly demands attention is the English burying- ground.' This spot is about half a mile from the town, and enclosed with a handsome balustrade and railing, and no spot of its size can contain a greater number of elegant monuments and tombstones with inscriptions in various languages, as the subjects are of various nations, English, German, Swedes, Danes, &c., so that it may with more propriety be called the protestant, than the English burying-ground : among other inscriptions, is one in Italian, on Margaret Rolle, countess of Orford and baroness of Clinton ; this illustrious female died at Pisa, January 13, 1781. Here, in short, are confounded in one common mass, the nobleman and the merchant, mechanic and artist, husband and wife, father and child, especially the inhabitants of Smyrna, Aleppo, Constantinople, &c., arrested in their trading career by the cold and unsparing hand of death. Among the useful works at Leghorn, the aqueduct may be reckoned the first, which brings from the mountain Colognole, distant twelve miles, an excellent supply of good water. The aqueduct is about three miles from Leghorn, and that from the water is conducted under ground, covered over with arched brickwork. The new baths of Leghorn are finished with marble, at a great expense, and are well worth seeing ; they are between twenty and thirty in number. Near ihem is the gate of St. Mark, which is very handsome. The Greek protestant church consists of a nave and small choir enclosed as in that of Grseci Uniti. The roof is ornamented, and there is a considerable amount of gilding in various parts of this church. The sacramental vessels are very rich. Florence is the capital of the grand duchy of Tuscany, and one of the most cele- brated cities of Europe. It owes much to the beauty of its situation, combined with the treasures of art which it contains, particularly in the departments of architecture and painting, aided*by the remarkable historical events of which it has been the theatre. In viewing this far-famed city, with its magnificent edifices, fine architec- ture, and antique buildings, rising in dark and imposing beauty, its bridges, and its noble river, watering, as far as the eye can reach, the vale of the lovely Arno, the mind insensibly wanders back, and recals the days when turbulence and bloody feuds raged within its walls ; when, on the surrounding amphitheatre of hills, now luxuriant v/ith the olive and the vine, and richly studded with peaceful dwellings, stood proudly frowning the castellated towers of the feudal chiefs, who were at once the terror and protection of the city. Of these towers scarcely a trace now remains ; but to this day Florence bears the aspect of a city filled with nobles — a city of churches and palaces. Florence is divided into two unequal parts by the Arno, over which there are four bridges, one of which, the Trinity, is entirely built of white marble, and is much admired for the lightness and beauty of its appearance. The quay, with the build- ings on each side, and the bridges through which the river flows, renders that part of the city by far the most attractive. Among its numerous palaces is the Palazzo Vecchio, which is adorned with a tower so lofty that it is deemed a chef-d'oeuvre of architecture. It was built by Arnolfo, the disciple of Cimabue : and, before the en- trance to this palace, is a statue in marble, of David, supposed to be in the act of slaying Goliath, by Buonaroti ; and a group, likewise, in marble, of Hercules slaying Cacus, by Bandinelli. On the ceiling and walls of the great hall are frescoes of the most celebrated actions of the Florentine Republic and the house of Medicis, all by Vasari ; except four pictures in oil, one representing the coronation of Cosimo I., by Ligozzi; another, the twelve Florentines, at the same time ambassadors from dif- ferent states to Boniface VIII., by Ligozzi; a third, the election of Cosimo I., by Cigoli ; and, a fourth, the institution of the order of San Stefano, by Passignano. In this hall, likewise, is a group of Victory with a prisoner at her feet, by Buonaroti ; and another group of Virtue triumphing over Vice, by Giovanni di Bologna. The exploits of Furius Caraillus are painted in tempera, by Salviati, in the Sala dell' Udienza Vecchia. The Loggia of the Palazzo Vecchio was built after the design of Andrea Arcagna ; and is adorned with a group, in bronze, called Judith and Holofernes, by Donaiello - — Perseus with Medusa's head, in bronze, by Cellini (the basso-relievo on the pedestal which supports this group is much admired), a group in marble, of a young Roman CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 255 Palazzo Vecchio. warrior carrying off a Sabine virgin, and her father prostrate at his feet, with the rape of the Sabines in basso-relievo on the pedestal, by Giovanni di Bologna — two lions, in marble, brought from the Villa Medici, at Rome — and six antique statues of Sabine priestesses. The Piazza del Granduca contains a noble fountain, erected by Cosimo L, after the design of Ammannati — and an equestrian statue of Cosimo I., in bronze, by Giovanni di Bologna, to whom the sea-nymphs and tritons, which surround the fountain, are likewise attributed. The Fabbrica degli Ufizi, which comprehends the royal gallery, was built by Vasari : the exterior part of the edifice is ornamented with Doric columns, forming two magnificent porticoes, united at one end by an arch, which supports the apart- ments occupied by courts of justice ; and, over this arch, is a statue of Cosimo I., by Giovanni di Bologna; together v/ith recumbent figures of Equity and Rigor, by Vincenzo Danti. The Magliabechiana library, rich in manuscripts and printed books of the fifteenth century (and where the Florentine academy meet), is under the same roof with the Royal Gallery. It contains an immense library of valuable books and rare MSS., all of which are submitted to the public with the utmost liberality. In the first corriJor, the ceiling of this immense gallery is adorned with arabesques : round the walls, near the ceiling, are portraits of the most renowned characters of antiquity; comprehending generals, statesmen, princes, and literati; and, on the wall to the left, below the portraits, are paintings of the Florentine school. Here, likewise, is a most valuable collection of busts of the Roman emperors, and many of their relatives, which go round the three corridors. The first corridor contaiiis several curious sarcophagi ; one of which, in the centre of this apartment, near the entrance door, is particularly admired. On the left side are statues of a Wrestler, Mercury, and Apollo, all especially worth notice; as are the statues of Apollo, Urania, and Pan, with the young Olyntus, on the right side ; and the two seated figures of Ptoman matrons, one of which is supposed to represent Agrippina, the mother of Nero, and the group of Hercules killing the Centaur Nessus, at the end. Second Corridor.— On each side near the ceiling, is a continuation of the portraits of the most renowned characters of antiquity; here, likewise, are paintings con- taining the history of St. Maria, Maddalena, together with several pieces of sculpture, namely, Cupid; Bacchus and Ampelos; a Bacchante; Mercury; Leda ; Venus rising from the bath; Minerva; or, Falhs-Athenas ; a round altar supposed to be the work of Cleomenas; a tripod, dedicated to Mars; a Faun ; Ganymede with the eagle: a torso of a Faun, &c. Third Corridor. — Theceilingof this immense gallery is adorned with pain tings, rep- resenting the revival of the arts and sciences, with other historical subjects ; in which 256 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN are introduced portraits of all the most eminent characters among the Florentines. On each side, near the ceiling, is a continuation of the portraits of the most renowned characters of antiquity ; and, on the left side, below the portraits, are paintings of the Neapolitan, and other schools. Here, likewise is a large number of statues; among which are Marsyas — Bacchus, by Buonaroti — St. John, by Donatello — and a copy of the Laocoon, by Bandinelli — an antique recumbent statue, in black marble, supposed to represent Morpheus — David, by Donatello — Bacchus, by Sansovino — Apollo seated — a wounded Soldier — a Discobolus, attributed to Myron ; and a Thetis on a sea- horse. This apartment also contains a fine picture of St. Peter healing the lame man at the gate of the temple, by Cosimo Gamberucci ; another of the transfigura- tion, by Luca Giordano; and another of the Madonna, our Savior, and St. John, copied,, by Empoli, from a celebrated fresco, which was painted by Andrea del Sarto, and is now destroyed. Among the most striking busts in the corridors are those of Nero, Otho, Titus Vespasian, and Antoninus Pius. The cabinet of antique bronzeg is enclosed in fourteen glass cases — the first of which contains. Apis, Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, and a remarkable head of Saturn ; Juno, with Etruscan characters on her hip ; a Grecian bust of Minerva, &c. Second case. — Venus with her attributes — a celestial Venus — a triumphant Venus — an Her- maphrodite — an Amazon — Mars armed, &c. Third case. — Hercules, Bacchus, and Bacchantes — a Fauu playing the Doric flute — the labors of Hercules represented by a multitude of small statues — a Genius giving ambrosia to Bacchus. Fourth case. — Victory, Fortune, Genii, Egyptian divinities; among which is a beautiful Serapis, and Isis, crowned with a disk, holding Horus on her lap. Fifth case. — Etruscan divinities; a very fine collection. Sixth case. — Portraits of men and women ; frag- ments of statues, beautifully executed ; and a small skeleton. Seventh case. — Animals of various kinds, which served for votive offerings ; symbols, and military ensigns , a hippogriflf, a Chimsera ; a bull with a man's head ; a Roman eagle, which belonged to the twenty-fourth legion — and an open hand, called by the Romans- Manipulus. Eighth case. — Sacrificial instruments, altars, and tripods ; a curious sistrum ; a mural crown, &c. Ninth case. — Candelabra and lamps. Tenth case. — Helmets, spurs, bits, etc., for horses ; rings, bracelets, ear-rings, all made of gold ; mirrors of white metal; and needles made of hair. Eleventh case. — Ancient inscriptions graven on bronze — a manuscript, on wax, nearly efiaced — Roman scales and weights, etc. Twelfth and thirteenth cases. — Kitchen utensils — a silver disk ; on which is represented Flavius Ardaburius, who was consul of Rome in 342. Fourteenth case. — Locks, keys, and some monuments of the primitive Christians ; among which is a lamp in the shape of a boat, with a figure of St. Peter at the stern. Middle of the cabinet. — The head of a horse ! An orator, with Etruscan characters engraved on his robe — this fine statue was found near the lake of Perugia — a Chimsera, with Etruscan characters engraved on one of the legs, it was found near Arezzo — an Etruscan statue of a Genius, or perhaps a Bacchus, found at Pesaro. Winckelmann seepis to have thought this fine statue the work of a Grecian artist ; especially as Pesaro was a Grecian colony. A Minerva, injured by fire, but very beautiful ; on the helmet is a dragon, the symbol of viligance and prudence. This statue was found near Arezzo, and one arm has been restored. Behind the Chimsera is a torso ; and, before it, a tripod ; supposed to have belonged to a temple of Apollo. This cabinet likewise contains four busts, found in the sea, near Leghorn ; they appear to be Grecian sculpture, and one of them resembles Homer. The Etruscan bronzes of the Florentine gallery are supposed to have been execu- ted at a period when sculpture of this sort had reached its zenith of perfection in Etruria, where, according to Pausanias, bronze statues existed much earlier than in Greece. We are told that Romulus had his statue made of bronze, probably by an Etruscan artist ; we are likewise told that this event occurred about the eighth Olym- piad ; and it does not appear that the Greeks worked in bronze till about the sixtieth Olympiad. During the infancy of bronze sculpture, the component parts of statues were fastened together with nails. This is exemplified by six female figures of bronze, found in Herculaneum. Hall of Niobe. — At the upper end of this magnificent apartment is the celebrated group of Niobe and her youngest child, supposed to have been done by Scopas, and generally considered as the most interesting efi'ort of the Grecian chisel Italy can boast. It is not, however, perfect, as one of the mother's hands and one of the child's feet have been restored. CONTINENTAL EURO"PE.— ITALY. 257 17 258 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Niobe, the daughter of Tantalus, according to the ancient story, was blessed with seven sons and as many daughters. In the pride of her heart she dared to triumph 'over the goddess Leto, or Latona, who had only two children, Apollo and Artemis, the latter called by the Romans Diana. To punish Niobe for her insolence, Apollo and Diana destroyed all her children with their arrows; and, according to some sto- ries, the wretched mother was turned into stone through grief, and even the solid rock still continued to shed tears. Pausanias, a Greek writer of the second century of our era, who was fond of old marvellous tales, tells us that on Sipylus, a mountain of Asia Minor, he saw this Niobe of stone. "When you are near it," says he, "it is nothing but a steep rock, bearing no resemblance at all to a woman, much less to one weeping ; but when you are at some distance, you might imagine it to be the figure of a female weeping and in great distress." The story of Nibbe became a favorite subject for sculptors, and it is not improba- ble that there were once several groups representing the mother and her children. Pliny speaks of one being in a temple of Apollo, at Rome, in his time: "It is doubt- ful whether Scopas or Praxiteles made the dying Niobe and her children." There is now extant a very large number of short Greek pieces in verse, commonly called epigrams, though they do not properly mean epigrams in our sense of the word. They are rather short pieces, such as would be appropriate for inscriptions on temples, statues, &c., or merely such lines as we often see written in albums, or to commemorate briefly some particular event, or to express concisely some senti- ment ; and they do not necessarily terminate with any pointed saying or witticism. Several of these epigrams refer to some figure or figures representing Niobe, or Niobe and her children. One of them, in two lines, runs thus : — " The gods turned me while living into stone, but out of stone Praxiteles has re- stored me to life." This was evidently intended to express the writer's admiration of some piece of sculpture to which the chisel of Praxiteles had given a living and breathing form. But there is another longer inscription, which alludes more particularly to some group of which the Niobe, now at Rome, seems to have been a part ; or at least there can be little doubt that the following lines refer to a similar group : — " Daughter of Tantalus, Niobe, hear my words which are the messengers of woe ! listen to the piteous tale of thy sorrows ! Loose the bindings of thy hair, mother of a race of youths who have fallen beneath the deadly arrows of Phoebus. Thy sons no longer live ! But what is this ? I see something more. The blood of thy daugh- ters, too, is streaming around ! One lies at her mother's knees ; another in her lap ; a third on the earth ; and one clings to the breast : one gazes stupified at the coming blow, and one crouches down to avoid the arrow, while another still lives. But the mother, whose tongue once knew no restraint, stands like a statue, hardened into stone!" Among the various figures still extant, which are supposed to belong to the group of the Niobe, it is not easy to say which are genuine parts of the whole, and which are not. It seems probable that the mother with one of her daughters formed the centre, and that other figures were arranged on each side. It has further been con- jectured that the whole occupied the tympanum or pediment of a temple, as the great figures of the Theseus, Ilissus, &c., in the Elgin collection, decorated the pedi- ment of Minerva's temple, at Athens. One critic has gone so far as to deny the possibility of the group of Niobe and her daughters having been placed in the pedi- ment of a temple, because there would be no room for the angry deities whose arrows are piercing the children of Niobe ; as if the whole impression produced was not infinitely greater, because the angry deities are unseen. The fact is, that to any one who knew the story of Niobe, the mere sight of the complete group would tell the tale at once : " That they are the sons and daughters of Niobe, who, in the bosom of their mother, or near her, sink beneath the arrows of the deities, or try to escape from them, we see by a single glance at this group of figures, who are in various at- titudes, fallen, falling, flying, or trying to hide themselves, full of anguish and de- spair, while the colossal figure of the mother stands in the midst, expressive of the deepest agony." Round the apartment are statues of the other children of Niobe, which seem the work of various artists. The daughter, next to Niobe, on the left, is admirably exe- cuted ; the opposite statue, on the right, has great merit ; the dead son is wonder- :fully fine, but, considering the fable, it appears extraordinary that the sculptor should CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 259 have placed him on a cushion. The two daughters on each side of Poedagogus, and the third statue, on the left oJ' the entrance door, have great merit. It is extremely to be regretted that these chefs- dfauvre of art are not disposed in such a manner as to accord with the subject. The second statue on the left of the entrance door is a Psyche, and has nothing to do with the tragedy of Niobe, but was introduced merely to adorn the apartment, as likewise was the statue of a youih kneeling, and apparently wounded. In the Cabinet of Portraits of Painters (chiefly done by themselves), in the centre of the apartment, is the celebrated Vase of the Villa Medicis, adorned with bassi- relievi representing the sacrifice of Iphigenia. The ceiling is painted by Pietro Dan- diai, and round the walls are portraits of Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Buonaroli, Titian, the Caracci family, Domenichino, Albano, Guercino, Guido, Vandyck, Ve- lasques, Rembrandt, Charles Le Brun, Vander-Werf, &c., &c. The apartment which communicates with this, likewise contains portraits of painters ; the ceiling is painted by Bimbacci, and in the cenlre of the room is a magnificent table of Florentine mo- saic work, called Opera di Commessn, which consists of sparks of gems, and minute pieces of the finest marble, so placed as to imitate flowers, insects, and paintings of every description. Round the walls are portraits of Mengs, Batoni, Reynolds, An- gelica Kaufman, and Madame Lebrun ; and here also is a marble bust of Mrs. Da- rner, done by herself. The apartment containing gems, &c., is ornamented with fine columns of oriental alabaster and verde antique, and contains a most valuable collection of medals, gems, kc, together with a table of Florentine mosaic work, executed when the manufac- ture was in its infancy, and representing the ancient port of Leghorn. But the apartment in this palace which attracts the most notice, is that called the Tribune. This elegant apartment is built after the design of Buontalenti. It is paved with precious marbles, and the roof is vaulted, and covered with mother-of- pearl. It contains admirable specimens of sculpture and painting. Here is the Venus de Medici, found in Adrian's villa, and supposed to have been done by Prax- i'e'es; the Apollo (called ApoUino), atiributed to the same great artist; the Dancing Faun, evidently a production of the best age of ancient sculpture, and excellently ref^tored byBuonaroti; the Arrotino, found at Rome, and supposed to represent the Scy hian slave, when commanded to flay Marsyas ; and the group of the Lottatori, or Wrestlers, found with the Niobe. (Winckelmann thought this work not unworthy either of Cephissodorus, who made the Symplegma at Ephesus, or of Heliodorus, who executed a similar group. These artists were the sons of Praxiteles.) The Veaus de Medici is about five English feet in height ; the hands are modern ; indeed, the statue, when first discovered, was broken in thirteen places. Pliny mentions six famous Venuses; one, by Phidias, which stood under the portico of Octavia, at Rome ; another, finished by Phidias, but begun by his pupil, and this stood just without the town of Athens ; another, at Rome, in the temple of Brutus Callaicus; and a fouith, by an unknown artist, which was placed in the Temple of Peace ; another, made by Praxiteles, and veiled, was purchased by the people of Cos ; and the six'h, an undraped figure, was sent to Gnidus ; but this latter, the more excellent Avork of the two, is supposed to have been destroyed at Constantinople, as was the Olympian Jupiter of Phidias, the Juno of Samos, &c. It seems, therefore, impos- sible to discover, from the author just quoted, whether the modest and beautiful Venus de Medici be, or be not, the child of Praxiteles. Among the pictures of the Tribune are, the Epiphany, by Albert Durer ; Endymion Sleeping, by Guercino ; a Sibyl, by the some magic pencil : a Holy Father, by Buonaroti ; Venus, with a Love behind her, by Titian ; another Venus, wiih flowers in her right hand, and at her feet a dog, also by Titian ; a portrait of the prelate, Beccadelli, by the same master; a Holy Family, with the Magdalene, and the Prophet Isaiah, by Parmigiano ; three pictures, namely, the Circumcision, the Adoration of the Magi, and the Resurrec- tion, by Mantegna ; the Madonna, Our Savior, St. Francesco, and St. John the Evan- gelist, by Andrea del ^arto ; the Madonna in Contemplation, by Guido; the Mas- sacre of the Innocents, by Daniello da Vol terra ; the portrait of Cardinal Aguechia, by Domenichino ; the Holy Family and St. Catherine, by Paolo Veronese ; a Bac- chante and a Satyr, by Annibale Caracci ; St. Jerome, by Spagnoletto ; the Madonna, Our Sa!vior, St. John, and St. Sebastiano, the two former seated, tlie two latter 'stand- ing, by Pietro Perugino; six pictures by Raphael, namely, a portrait of Maddelena Doni, a Florentine lady, in his first style, two Holy Families, in an improved style, 260 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN though still partaking of the Perugino school, St. John in the Wilderness, a portrait of Pope Giulio II., and another of La Fornarina, who was celebrated for her attach- ment to Raphael, all three painted in his last and best style ; a portrait, by Vandyck, supposed to represent Jean de Montford, and another, representing Charles V. on horseback ; a Holy Family, by Schidone; Job and Isaiah, by Fra Bartolomeo della Porta ; the Flightinto Egypt, the Virgin adoring the Infant Jesus, and the Decapita- tion of St. John, by Correggio ; Herodias receiving the head of St. John, by Leon- ardo da Vmci ; a Madonna and Child, by Giulio Romano ; Hercules between Vice and Virtue, by Rubens. We have been thus particular in naming these splendid woiks of art, that our readers may form some idea of the immense treasures grouped in this chamber. The Palazzo Pitti, where the grand-duke of Tuscany usually resides, was begun after the design of Filippo di Ser Brunellesco, the most celebrated architect of the fifteenth century, and finished by Ammannati. In the quadrangle is the basso-relievo of a mule, who constantly drew a sledge which contained the materials employed in the building ; and over this basso-relievo is a statue of Hercules, attributed to Lysip- pas. On the ground-floor is a chapel, which contains a beautiful altar, of Florentine work, with the Last Supper, executed in pietri duri, in its centre ; the ceiling and walls are adorned with frescoes, of which that representing the Crucifixion seems the best. The ground-floor likewise contains fine frescoes by Sebastiano Ricci, Giovanni da San Giovanni, &c. The first room up stairs contains ten statues, taken from the Villa Medicis ; and the best of these is a Minerva. The second room contains busts of Roman emperors, and other sculpture, likewise taken from the Villa Medicis, and in another apartment is the world-renowned Madonna della Seggiola, a picture so full of beauty and sweetness, that its original must have existed only in the imagi- nation of the painter. The beautiful Giardino di Boboliisvery large, and contains several pieces of sculp- ture, the most remarkable of which are two Dacian prisoners, in oriental porphyry, at the entrance; a colossal Ceres; the fountain at the end of the principal walk, decorated with a colossal Neptune, standing on a granite basin above twenty feet in diameter, with the Ganges, Nile, and Euphrates, beneath, all by Giovanni di Bo- logna ; Neptune, in bronze, surrounded with sea-monsters, by Lorenzi ; and four un- finished statues by Buonaroti. The Museo d'lstoria Naturale, collected by the Grand Duke Leopoldo, is said to be the finest museum existing, with respect to the anatomical preparations in wax and wood, the petrifactions and minerals, and the thick-leaved, milky, and spongy plants, which can not be preserved in the common way, and are therefore beauti- fully represented in wax, to complete the botanical part of this princely collection. All the anatomical preparations, in wax and wood, were executed under the orders of Cav. F. Fontana, except the famous representation of the plague, which was done by the Abate Lumbo in the days of the Medici, and is so painfully fine that few can bear to examine it. This masterly perlbrmance owes its present place to Cav. Giovanni Fabbronni, a gentleman who has not only contributed essentially to the im- provement of the museum, but likewise to that of arts and sciences in general. Below stairs is a laboratory. On the first floor are two rooms filled with large quad- rupeds, fishes, &c, a library, rooms destined to mechanics, hydraulics, electricity, and mathematics, together with a botanic garden ; and on the second floor are twenty rooms, containing the representation of the plague, and anatomical preparations; all of which may be avoided by persons not inclined to see them. In another suite of apartments, on the same floor, are birds, fishes, reptiles, insects, shells, fossils, min- erals, wax-plants, &c. The observatory makes a part^of this museum. The Duomo, or cathedral of Florence, in extent and magnificence, ranks among the first ecclesiastical edifices of Europe. It also derives an interest from its vener- able antiquity, and from its being considered as a new era in the history of architec- ture. Tuscan writers, rather too lavish of their praise, have said a great deal about the bold abandonment of the Gothic style, and the happy adaptation of the ancient Roman style of architecture in this building, which shows an admixture of several styles, though it certainly has more of the ancient Roman than any work that pre- ceded it in the middle ages. Its fine double cupola was the first raised in Europe, and in other respects, the Duomo of Florence served as a model to succeeding archi- tects. This cathedral was begun in 1296. The first architect employed upon it was Arnolfo di Lapo, a scholar of Cimabue, the old painter. In one hundred and fifty- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 261 J62 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN four years, and under successive artists, it was nearly finished. " But," says an old Florentine author, " the grand cupola was the parturition of the marvellous genius of Ser Filippo Brunellesco, an architect who in his days had no equal." It is related of Michael Angelo Buonarotti, that he used to gaze at this proud dome with rapture, and say it never could be surpassed by naortal man. He afterward surpassed it him- self, in his dome of St. Peter's, at Rome ; but spite of his magnificent boast, the cu- pola of Florence was a prototype, and had more to do with St. Peter's than the dome of the Pantheon, which Buonarotti said he would suspend in the air. Brunellesco, the author of the cupola, gave the finishing-hand to the cathedral. In size, materials, and boldness of conception, it is only inferior among Italian churches to St. Peter's. The walls are cased with black and white marble, and both without and within they are adorned with numerous statues, many of which are beautiful as works of art, or interesting as early specimens of Italian sculpture. As in the cathedral of Milan, where there is a complete army of statues, too many of them are placed in positions where they can scarcely be seen. Like other old buildings, the cathedral of Florence has been subjected to the ca- prices of power, and the bad taste of despotism. The facade was almost half in- crusted with beautiful marble, and additionally adorned with many statues and basso- relievoes, executed from designs by the venerable Giotto, one of the fathers of paint- ing — one of the immortal Italians who dug up the fine arts from the grave in which they had been buried for centuries. In 1586, without any visible motive, a grand- duke of the house of Medici demolished this antique front, and began another on a totally different design. This new facade was very slowly executed, and never fin- ished ; and in 1688, another grand-duke, whose taste it did not please, knocked it all down, just as his predecessor had demolished the venerable works of Giotto. For several years, the front of the church presented nothing but bare, unsightly walls , and then, on the occasion of some ducal marriage, the reigning Medici had it shab- bily painted in fresco, and in that condition it remained for a century. The spirited republicans, the merchants and manufacturers of old Florence, with whose money the vast cathedral was originally built, could aflford to lavish costly statues and the most precious marbles; but the population, enterprise, and wealth of the country had suffered a sad blight under the despotic government which succeeded the com- monwealth, and the grand-dukes could only provide a little plaster and paint for a building which was the boast of the city, as it was the glory of the old republicans. The Medici — that family of merchant-princes, whose virtues and abilities went out like lamps lacking oil, almost immediately after their assumption of absolute power — kept their marbles, their " porphyry, jasper, agate, and all hues" to heap upon their own inglorious tomb, in the church of St. Lorenzo ; and even that monument of their vanity and tawdry taste they never finished. Seven great doors, three in front and two on either side, give admittance to the interior of. the Florence cathedral. These doors are richly ornamented. Giovanni di Pisa and Ghirlandaio both employed their genius upon them. The floor of the church is paved with rich variegated marbles, disposed in a beautiful manner. Italian writers, who deserve our love by the fond, minute attention they have paid to such matters, record that the pavement of the great central aisle was laid down by Francesco di San Gallo ; that round the choir by the versatile and great Michael Angelo ; and the rest by Giuliano di Baccio d'Agnolo. The windows are smaller and fewer than «usaal, and the glass being painted with the deep, rich tints common in ancient glass-staining, admits but a subdued light. As Forsyth observes, "Here is just that ' dim, religious light' which pleases poetical and devout minds." This light almost becomes "a darkness visible" in the choir, for the cupola or dome under which it stands, is closed at top, and admits no flood of sunshine, like the dome of St. Peter's. The choir is in itself a blemish. It is of an octagonal form, to correspond with the shape of the cupola, which is not circular but octagonal or eight-sided. It is enclosed by a colonnade which is fine, considered apart and by itself, but its Ionic elevation is at variance, and jars with the rest of the building. Some curious basso-relievoes enrich the choir, and high overhead the interior of the cupola is covered with fresco paintings, the work of Frederico Zuccheri and Giorgio Vasari. The solemn old church is rich is associations and historical recollections. Here are the tombs of Giotto the painter, Brunellesco the architect, and Marsilius Ficinus, the reviver of the Platonic philosophy, and the friend and instructor of Lorenzo the CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 263 Magnificent. Here, on the 26th day of April, 1478, when high mass was perform- ing, and just as the priest held up the host, the blood of Giuliano de Medici was shed by the Pazzi ; and his brother Lorenzo, clinging to the horns of the altar, and afterward flying into the sacristy, escaped with difficulty from those determined con- spirators, who would have restored liberty to their country, but who set about it in a wrong way, and mostly from violent and personal motives, and who, moreover, leagued themselves with the king of Naples, the greatest tyrant in Italy, and with other despots, who hated liberty even more than they hated the Medici. Here, some years before, when Constantinople was trembling at the approach of the Turks, the Greek emperor, half a fugitive, and wholly a mean supplicant and beggar, sat side by side with the pope, consenting to renounce the schisms and heresies of the Greek church, and engaging (without consulting them) to bring all his people into the bo- som of the church <)f Rome, on conditions agreed upon, that the pope should pro- cure him arms, treasures, and the assistance of the catholic princes of Europe. Here the German emperor, Frederic III., forgetting that the holy spirit of the place was one of peace a«d good-will to all men, knighted some scores of the bravest or fiercest of his cut-throat soldiery. A portrait recalls the memory of the greatest of all Florentines, and shows the tardy repentance of his ungrateful countrymen. " An ancient picture by Orcagna, in which is painted the divine poet Dante, is placed here in consequence of an express decree of the Florentine republic ; and this is the only public memorial we possess of that great master of Tusean poetry." Such are the melancholy words of an old Florentine writer, who, like all his countrymen, deplored that the bard should have died in poverty and exile, and have left his strictly-guarded ashes in a foreign state. Next to this picture of Dante is' the portrait of an English soldier of fortune, the renowned and infamous condottiero. Sir John Hawkwood, who betrayed and sold the Pisans, in whose service he was, to their bitter enemies, the Florentines. In another part of the church there is a curious old portrait of Giotto. Brunel- lesco has the honor of a bust, as well as that of a Latin epitaph, on his tomb. This epitaph, which was written by Carlo Marzuppini of Arezzo, " poet and secretary of the republic," is remarkable, as it includes the original idea of the inscription in St. Paul's to the memory of Sir Christopher Wren. The Florentine inscription tells the reader to look at the cupola to form a notion of Brunellesco's excellence in architec- ture. The inscription to "Wren, which is better turned, says, "Reader, if you would behold his monument, look around you." In various parts of the cathedral, there are statues by Baccio Bandanelli, Savino Rovezzano, ,and other early artists. The chapels which shoot off from the side aisles are rich in pictures, sculptures, and relics. The campanile, or belfry, which is the square tower that the reader will see in our engraving, surmounted with a flag, is close to, but wholly detached from, the body of the cathedral. This was a common method in old Italian churches, where the bells were hung, not in the tem- ple, but in a separate tower near to it. Instances of this occur at the celebrated ca- thedral of Pisa, at the church of Santa Chiara in Naples, and in many other places. The campanile of Florence is light and airy. It is coated on the outside with vari- egated marble, and studded, here and there, with statues. Giotto, the painter, drew the designs on which it was erected. And here it is worthy of remark, that nearly every one of these early artists was not a mere painter, or sculptor, or architect, but united in himself the knowledge and practice of all the three arts, besides being skilled in civil engineering, and in most cases, a poet, or an accomplished musician, to boot. They were a wonderful set of men, who suddenly sprung up and flourished, and filled their native cities with beauty, in the midst of a most turbulent liberty, when wars and factions shook the peninsula from one end to the other, and every citizen or burgess of the free states of Tuscany and Lombardy was of necessity a soldier. The impulse they gave lasted some years after the decline of freedom ; but Italy never saw such men in the tranquillity that arose out of confirmed despotism. Opposite to the principal entrance of the cathedral there stands another detached building, which the reader will see in our view. This is the baptistery, which it was also usual not to include in the church, but to erect apart. At Pisa, as here, and in many other places, the baptistery is a separate edifice, rising near the cathedral. This baptistery was not confined to one parish ; all the children born in the city and suburbs used to be christened in it ; and as the population in the thirteenth, four- teenth, and fifteenth centuries, was immense, the baptismal fonts must have pre- 264 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN sented very busy scenes. A notion may be formed of the extent of the population from a fact rdentioned by Machiavelli. He says that the bells of the campanile sounding the tocsin, would, in a few hours, bring together 135,000 well-armed men, and all these from Florence alone, with the adjoining valley of the Arno. The baptistery is an octagonal building, with a low dome, supported by many granite columns. Its interior walls are lined, and the pavement is inlaid with mar- ble. The concave of the dome is covered with mosaic, the work of Andrea Tafi, one of Cimabue's pupils. But the glory and marvel of the baptistery lie in its three great bronze portals, which are wrought into basso-relievoes of exquisite beauty. The most ancient of the three was by Andrea Pisano, and bears the date of 1330. The other two, which are still more excellent in style, and so beautiful that Michael Angelo was accustomed to say they were worthy of being the gates of paradise, were the work of Lorenzo Ghiberti. The figures and groups of the relievoes refer to events in the life of St. John the Baptist. By the sides of the principal entrance there are two porphyry columns, given to the republic by the Pisans in 1117, in grat- itude for the important services rendered by the then friendly Florentines, who had kept watch and ward in Pisa, while its warlike citizens went to the conquest of Ma- jorca and Minorca. Close at hand, as also in some other parts of the city, are some very different memorials. They are links of a massy iron chain, with which, when entire, the Pisans used to shut up and defend their celebrated port. In 1362, the Florentines took the Porto Pisano, carried away the chain, and hung up fragments of it in their own town as trophies of victory. The Church of the S. S. Annunziata contains a fresco of the Annunciation, done by a certain Bartolommeo, who being, it- is said, at a loss how to make the counte- nance of the Madonna properly seraphic, fell asleep while pondering over his work, and, on waking, found it executed in a style he was unable to equal ; upon which he instantly exclaimed, "A miracle! a miracle!" and his countrymen were too fond of miracles hot to believe him, although the Madonna's face is by no means so ex- quisitely painted as to be attributed to a heavenly artist. The open vestibule, lead- ing to the church, is ornamented with several frescoes, namely : A nativity, by Baldo- vinetti ; St. Filippo Benizzi induced to embrace the monastic life in consequence of a vision, by Ptosseli ; St. Filippo covering a naked leper with his own shirt, by An- drea del Sarto ; St. Filippo, while travelling toward Modena, reviled by young men under a tree, which being struck with lightning, two of the revilers are killed — this is by Andrea del Sarto ; as are, St. Filippo delivering a young person from an evil spirit ; a dead child restored to life by touching the garment which covered the corpse of the saint ; women and children kneeling round a friar, who is adorned with the relics of St. Filippo's clothes ; and seven lunettes, on the other side of the vesti- bule. The Marriage of the Madonna is by Francabigio ; the Visit of Mary to Eliz- abeth, by Pontormo ; and the Assumption, by Rossi. This corridor contains a bust of Andrea del Sarto. The church of the Annunziata is loaded with ornaments. It contains, in the cen- tre of the ceiling, an Assumption, by Volterrano, who likewise painted the cupola of the Tribune. In the chapel which encloses the miraculous picture is an altar, adorned with silver bassi-relievi ; two silver candelabra, about six feet high ; two large silver statues of angels; a ciborio, beautifully worked, and embellished with a head of our Savior, by Andrea del Sarto ; a silver cornice, from which hangs a curtain of the same metal ; and an immense number of silver lilies, and lamps, which encircle the altar. The pavement of this chapel is porphyry and Egyptian granite ; and in the adjoining oratory, whose walls are incrusted with agate, jasper, and other precious stones, is a crucifix, by Antonio di San Gallo. To the left of the great door is a pic- ture of the Last Judgment, by Aless. Allori, and another, of the Crucifixion, by Stra- dano: the ceiling and lunettes of the chapel on this side, at the end of the cross, are painted in fresco by Volterrano, and contain a curious old picture, over the altar, of St. Zenobio, and other figures. In front of the high-altar, which is adorned Avith a splendid silver ciborio, are recumbent statues, the one by Francesco da San Gallo, the other by Giovanbatista Foggini ; and behind the altar is a chapel decorated after the designs, and at the expense, of Giovanni di Bologna, who was buried in it ; and whose tomb is adorned with a crucifix and basso-relievo in bronze, executed by him- self for the grand duke, by whom they were thus handsomely and judiciously appro- priated. The chapel contains a picture of the Resurrection, by Ligozzi ; a Pieta, by Passignano ; a Nativity, by Paggi ; and a Cupoletta, by Poccetti. Leading from the CONTINENTAL EUROPE— ITALY. 265 266 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN high-altar, toward the great door in the opposite side of the cross to that already de- scribed, is a chapel painted by Vincenzio Meucci ; and near this is the chapel of Bandinelli, containing a dead Christ in marble, supported by Nicodemus, the latter being a portrait of Bandinelli, by whom this group was executed. The curtain of the organ, representing the canonization of St. Giuliana, is by Romei. In a corridor, on the ihe left side of the church, is the celebrated fresco called La Madonna del Sacco, deemed the master-piece of Andrea del Sarto, and at which Buonaroti and Titian are said to have gazed unceasingly. It is recorded, that the author of this beautiful work did it for a sack of corn in a time of famine. The Chiesa di St. Maria Maddelena dei Pazzi particularly deserves notice, on ac- count of the Neri-chapel, situated on the right side of the court leading to the church. The altar-piece of this chapel is by Passignano, and its cupoletta contains the chef- cfczuvre of Poccetti, representing the mansions of the blessed. In the church is a magnificent Cappella-maggiore, incrusled with rare and beautiful marbles, and adorned with twelve columns of Sicilian jasper, whose capitals and bases are of bronze gilt. Here rest the remains of St. Maria Maddalena dei Pazzi, surrounded with bassi-relievi of bronze gilt (expressing the most memorable actions of her life), and four marble statues, representing her most conspicuous virtues, namely, piety, sweetness, penitence, and religion. Sweetness, with the lamb and dove, and Reli- gion with a veil, are particularly worth notice — especially the latter, the features through the veil being finely expressed. The Chiesa di Santa Croce, built about the year 1294 by Arnolfo, and afterward repaired by Vasari, is a vast edifice, better calculated to promote religious contem- plation than any other church at Florence. Over the middle-door of the facade is a statue, in bronze, by Donatello ; and at the entrance of the church, on the right, is the tomb of Buonarotti, who was born at Chiusi, near Arezzo, in 1474, and died at Rome in 1563 ; but the grand duke of Tuscany, jealous that Rome should have the honor of providing a grave for this great and good man, brdered his body to be re- moved thence, and buried in the church of Santa Croce. The family of Buonarotti was noble, and Michael Angelo's parents were averse to his becoming an artist, which they deemed derogatory to nobility. He, however, by unceasing importuni- ties, at length prevailed upon them to let him follow his natural genius. Sculpture, Painting, and Architecture, are represented, in mournful attitudes, sitting beneath the tomb of their favorite, whose bust rests upon a sarcophagus ; and a small painting, done by Buonarotti, is introduced among the ornaments at the top of the monument. The statue of Sculpture, by Cioli, is ill-done ; Architecture, by Giovanni della Opera, is more happily executed ; and Painting, by G. Batista del Cavaliere, better still: the bust of Buonarotti is by the last-named artist. Buonarotti, when an infant, was put out to nurse at the village of Settignano, about three miles distant from Florence, and where the inhabitants were chiefly stonecutters and sculptors : his nurse's hus- band followed the latter occupation, so that the child's passion for this art seems to have been sucked in with his milk. The second tomb, on this side, is that of Filippo Buonarotti, the antiquary ; the third, that of Pietro Michelli, called by Linnseus, " The lynx of botany ;" the fourth, that of Vittorio Alfieri, by Canova, who has represented Italy mourning over the sar- cophagus of the poet, which is adorned with masks, lyres, laurel-wreaths, and a head of Alfieri, in basso-relievo. The Florentines are not pleased with the shape of this monument, neither do they like the manner in which the figure of Italy is draped and this last circumstance, united with the late public revolutions, gave birth to the following jeu d^esprit : — " Canova questa volta I'ha sbagliata Fe I'ltalia vestita ed 8 spogliata.'" The fifth monument, on this side, is that of Machiavelli, erected two hundred and sixty-six years after his death, at the e;cpense of the literati. The sixth monument is that of Lanzi, near which is an Annunciation, in marble, by Donatello. The eighth monument is that of Leonardo Bruni, Aretino, the historian, which bears a Latin in- scription to this purport : " Since Leonardo died, History mourns. Eloquence is mute, and it is said that neither the Greek nor Latin Muses can refrain from tears." The ninth monument is that of Nardini, a famous musician ; and the tenth that of an equally famous architect, Pio Fantoni, of Fiesole. The Castellani-chapel contains a picture of the Last Supper by Vasari ; a monument to the memory of Cav. Vanni CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 267 Interior of the Chiesa di Santa Croce. and another to that of M. B. Skotnicki, representing Grief as a recumbent female figure, veiled, and lying on a sarcophagus, which exhibits a pallet, brushes, and an unstrung lyre. This monument is by Ricci, now a distinguished artist, but, not long since, a peasant on the Marchese Corsi's estate, near Florence. The Baroncelli- chapel coniains paintings, on the walls, by Taddeo-Gaddi, and over the altar a piqture of the coronation of the Madonna, &c., by Giotto. The Riccardi-chapel contains good paintings by Passignano, Rosselli, and Giovanni di San Giovanni. Behind the high-altar are paintings by Agnolo Gaddi, representing the Invention of the Cross. The history of the Invention of the Cross is as follows: In 356, Saint Helena, the mother of Constantine, being at Jerusalem, ordered the temple of Venus, which pro- faned that sacred spot, to be destroyed ; in doing Avhich, remains of the holy sepul- chre were discovered, and likewise three crosses. It seemed, however, impossible to ascertain which of the three was that whereon our Savior suffered, till a learned prelate took them all to the habitation of a dying lady, placing her first on one, then on another, and then on the third, which she no sooner touched than the illness left her. The Niccolini-chapel, built after the design of Antonio Dosio, and beautifully incrusted with rare marbles, contains fine pictures by Aless. AUori ; statues of Moses and Aaron, by Francavilla ; and a cupola, painted in fresco by Volterrano, the four sibyls in the angles of which are chefs-d'ceuvre. This quarter of the church likewise contains a celebrated crucifix, by Donatello, together with pictures of the Martyrdom of St. Lorenzo, by Ligozzi ; the Trinity, by Cigoli ; and the Descent of the Holy Ghost, by Vasari. Leading toward the great door, and opposite to the monuments already described, are the following : First, the tomb of Cocchio ; the second, that of Carlo Mazzopini ; the third, that of Carlo Marzuppini, Aretino, finely executed by Desiderio da Setlig- nano ; the fourth, that of Lami, by Foggini ; the fifth, that of Pompeio-Josephi Sig- norinio, by Ricci, who has adorned this sarcophagus with a beautiful recumbent figure of Philosophy, whose countenance expresses deep sorrow. Near this tomb is a picture of the Resurrection, by Santi di Tito ; together with the monument of the great and much-injured Galileo, erected by order of Viviani, his pupil. The bust of Galileo is by Foggini. History tells us that Galileo was first interred in the Piazza Santa Croce (which is unconsecrated ground), because he lay under suspicion of heresy on account of his philosophical discoveries ; nay, it is even asserted that the family of Nelli (Viviani's executors) found some difficulty in obtaining leave to re- move his bones into the church, almost a century after his decease. Beyond this tomb is that of Filicajo. At the bottom of the church is a painting of the Resurrec- tion, by Aless. Allori ; and the pulpit merits notice, as it was executed by Benedetto 268 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN da Majano. The sacristy contains curious pictures, in fresco, by Taddeo-Gaddi ; and in the monastery of Santa Croce are paintings by Cimabue and Giotto. The Capeila de' Medici, adjoining to the church of St. Lorenzo, was begun in 1604, by Ferdinando I., after his own design. Three hundred workmen were for a considerable time employed upon this building : but latterly, the number has been lessened ; and we have already seen the ducal family of Medicis extinct: nay, per- haps, may see the dukedom itself annihilated, ere the finishing stroke be given to this magnificent mausoleum of its princes. The building is octangular, and the walls are beautifully incrusted with almost every kind of precious marble. Six sides of the octagon are embellished with sarcophagi of Egyptian and oriental granite, made after the design of Buonarotti,and two of them enriched with cushions of red jasper, which bear regal crowns of great value. Here likewise are two statues in bronze, one of which is by Giovanni di Bologna, and the other by Pietro Tacca. The sar- cophagi are mere ornaments; the bodies of the princes being placed perpendicularly under them, in a subterranean repository. The Libreria Mediceo-Laurenziana, one of the most elegant apartments of its kind in Europe, was built under the direction of Buonarotti, by whom the designs for the pavement also were executed. The windows are beautifully painted' in arabesque by Raphael's scholars ; and the manuscripts which compose this library are well ar- ranged, highly valuable, and several of them finely illuminated. Here are, a Virgil of the third century, written in capitals ; an Old Testament of the twelfth century ; the celebrated Pisan Pandects of the sixth century ; the Psalms of David of the elev- enth century ; a prayer-book beautifully illuminated ; a missal, painted by the school of Pietro Perugino ; a copy of Dante, written only twenty-two years after his death ; a Livy of the fifteenth century, beautifully illuminated ; the geography of Ptolemy, of the fifteenth century ; the " Decamerone" of Bocaccio, written two years before his death ; a Homer of the fifteenth century ; a Horace with Petrarch's own handwriting in it ; a celebrated Syriac manuscript ; the life of Lorenzo de' Medici, &c., &c. The reale Accademia delle belle Arti, founded by the grand-duke Leopoldo, is open to public inspection, and merits notice, not only on account of the liberality of the institution, which gives all possible encouragement to rising genius, but likewise as it contains excellent casts of the baptistery-doors, and most of the fine statues hith- erto discovered in Italy. Here is a noble apartment, fitted up with drawings, &c., for the use of young painters ; other noble apartments, containing every necessary ac- commodation for those who are further advanced ; a gallery, containing paintings and sketches, by celebrated masters, among which is a valuable picture by Angelico, another by Giovanni di San Giovanni, of the Repose in Egypt, and a beautiful head of our Savior, by Carlo Dolci. This academy likewise contains schools for archi- tecture, practical mechanics, &c. ; and here also the Florentine work in pietri duri, called Opera di commesso, is made. The Casa dei Poveri, in Via dei Malcontenti, which owes its establishment to the Emperor Napoleon, is an immense edifice, capable of lodging three thousand per- sons, who, in great measure, maintain themselves by making caps, or rather Phry- gian bonnets, for the Mediterranean mariners, ribands, cloth, carpets, &c., &c. There are workshops of almost every description in the house ; and the present grand-duke of Tuscany, much to his honor, supports and benefits this benevolent and useful institution, which has completely cleared Florence of the innumerable troops of mendicants by whom it was formerly infested. The Spedale di Bonifazio, or great hospital, near the Porta San-Gallo, receives lunatics and persons afflicted with chronic disorders, and is spacious, clean, and airy. The sick appear to be comfortably lodged and well attended, but the funds belonging to this charity are not sufficiently ample to supply convalescent patients with a proper quantity of nourishment. Detached from the rest of the building are excellent apart- ments for lunatics : somewhat less care, however, seems to be taken of these unhappy creatures than of others. The Spedale di Santa Maria Nuova contains upward of a thousand beds, and the patients are extremely well attended. The Spedale degl' Innocent! usually contains three thousand children, who have not, however, a sufficient number of nurses ; and the custom of binding up every newborn infant in swaddling-clothes frequently distorts the limbs, nay, sometimes produces mortification and death. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 269 The column of Saravezza marble, in Via Romana, was erected by Cosimo I., in memory of the battle of Marciano. The granite column, near Ponte Santa Trinita, was taken from Antoninus's bath at Rome, and erected at Florence by Cosimo I., in memory of the conquest of Sienna. There is, on its summit, a figure of Justice, which gave rise to the following proverb: "Justice, at Florence, is too high to be reached." Florence contams three theatres : the Pergola, or opera-house, a beautiful edifice, well secured from fire, and originally built after the design of Pietro Tacca ; the Co- comero, smaller than the Pergola ; and the Teatro Nuovo. The Florentine mosaic-work, and the sculpture in alabaster, of the brothers Pisani, in the Prato, and of Bartolini, in Via della Scala, are much admired. This country is likewise eelebrated for a sort of marble which splits almost like slate, and, when polished, the variations of its yellow and brown veins represent trees, landscapes, and ruins of old walls and castles. Several petrifactions are also found in this neighborhood. A long residence at Florence is deemed injurious to the sight, owing, perhaps, to that glare which proceeds from the reflection of the sun upon white houses, and like- wise to the fogs which prevail here in winter. This city boasts the honor of having given education to Dante, Petrarch, Bocaccio, Gorilla, the celebrated improvisatrice, who was crowned at Rome, Americo Ves- pucci (whose voyages to and discoveries in the New World obtained him the honor of calling America by his own name), Machiavelli, Buonarotti, and a larger number of distinguished artists than any other place in Europe. The Accademia della Crusca, which has, for a length of years, been established at Florence, is too well known to need description ; and this academy is now united with two others, namely, the Fiorentina, and the Apatisti, under the name of Reale Accademia Fiorentina. We can not close our account of this city without mentioning the ceremonies of the Festa di San Giovanni, the patron-saint of Florence, on the vigil of which is the Corsa dei Cocchi, or chariot-race, probably an epitome of the ancient Etruscan games. This exhibition takes place in the piazza of St. Maria Novella. At the up- per and lower end of the piazza are obelisks, to each of which is fastened a cord, Avhose centre is held up by six poles, supported by men clothed in ancient costume. Round the piazza, in an amphitheatrical form, are scaffoldings, ornamented with rough fresco-paintings of urns, &c., which produce, however, a good effect ; at the upper end is the sovereign's box, handsomely decorated: under the scaffoldings are posted horse and foot guards, and round the piazza, above the scaffoldings, are bal- conies, windows, and even housetops, crowded with spectators. Were the chariots made in the ancient form, this exhibition would be far more interesting ; but the car- riages are modern in point of shape, and particularly clumsy, exhibiting nothing like antique costume, except the habit of the charioteers. On the morning of the Festa di San Giovanni, homage used to be paid by all the Tuscan cities to their prince ; but this custom is for the present abandoned, owing to the pageant which represented the several cities having been nearly destroyed by the French. In the afternoon of this day is the Corso dei Barberi, a race performed by horses without riders, and which, from the multitude of spectators, the splendor of the equi- pages, and the gallant appearance of the troops who attend their sovereign, is an extremely gay sight. The horses have fastened to their bodies little spurs, so con- trived that the quicker the animal gallops, the more they run into him. The race- ground is the longest street at Florence, where many of the spectators stand, with- out any defence whatsoever, frequently meeting with accidents by urging the horses on. When these animals reach the goal, they are stopped by a large piece of can- vass, which several men hold up : the sovereign then announces the winning horse, and thus ends this amusement, which is followed by a pretty exhibition of fireworks at the Palazzo Vecchio. The game called Pallone, a favorite exercise at Florence, also merits notice, be- cause it was played by the ancient Romans, who are described as striking the follis with the arm guarded for that purpose by a wooden, shield : the mode of playing con- tinues precisely the same to the present day ; and this game, like most of the ancient exercises, is well calculated to give courage and strength. The environs of Florence are extremely interesting. The usual airing of the up- 270 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 271 per ranks of persons is to the Royal Farms, or Cascini,^which are open to the public at all hours; though it is deemed unwholesome to walk, ride, or drive, in these beautiful farms very early in the morning, and equally prejudicial to remain there after sunset. Careggi de' Medici, about three miles from the Porta San Gallo, was the favorite retreat of Lorenzo il Magnifico ; and in the hall of this villa the Platonic society used to assemble and forns plans for those stately edifices and patriotic institutions by which Lorenzo benefited and embellished his country. The house stands upon an eminence, whence the ground falls gradually almost every way — opening, on one side, to a noble view of Florence ; on another, to a boundless prospect of Vald'Arno ; while, on another, rise mountains, covered with neat farmhouses and magnificent villas; and, on another, vaults Fiesole, dignified with ruins of ancient Greek and Roman splendor ; and, to complete the deliciousness of the situation, cool and refresh- ing breezes almost constantly blow, about noon, from the gulf of Spezia, and make the fortunate inhabitants of Careggi unconscious of oppressive heat, even in the dog- days: no wonder, therefore, that the elegant and wise Lorenzo should have called this his favorite abode. Careggi, like the generality of Tuscan villas, is built upon -I'ches, and consists of an immense ground-floor, with a spacious hall in the centre, and several surrounding rooms, every ceiling being arched, and every apartment cool. Above stairs is another large hall, with a handsome suite of rooms, termina- ted by a terrace ; and round the third story runs a gallery which commands a pros- pect so extensive that it seems to overlook all Tuscany. On the outside of the house are noble porticoes. The water at this villa is peculiarly fine, owing in some meas- ure to the following circumstance: When the great Lorenzo labored under his last illness, a famous physician of Padua was summoned to attend him ; he did so, and exerted his utmost skill, but to no purpose — Lorenzo died ! — when some of his house- hold, frantic with grief, met the unsuccessful physician, and threw him down the well in the quadrangle. The dead body was, of course, drawn up ; and the well so nicely cleaned, that the water has ever since been superexcellent. It is remarkable that the above-named physician, when resident at Padua, had his nativity cast, and was told that he would be drowned : he therefore quitted Padua, whence he Was frequently compelled to go by water to Venice, and came to settle at Florence, as a place where water-carriage was unnecessary : thus furnishing an example — " That human foresia;ht In vaia essays to 'scape th' unerring stroke Of Heaven-directed Destiny !" Poggi Iraperiale, about one mile from the Porta Romana, is a royal villa contain- ing an admired statue of Adonis, by Buonarotti ; and portraits of Petrarch and Laura, by Albert Durer. The prospects from this spot are beautiful ; and not far hence stands the monastery of St. Matteo in Arcetri, near which are vineyards that pro- duce the celebrated wine called Verdea. Pratolino, a royal villa about six miles from the Porta San Gallo, is famous for its garden, which contains Avater-works, and a statue of the Apennine sixty feet in height, by Giovanni di Bologna. On the way to Patrolino is the modern Campo- Santo of Florence. Fiesole, anciently Foesulae, one of the twelve great cities of Etruria, is proudly seated on a summit of the Apennine, in a most enchanting situation, about three and a half miles from the Porta Pinti, by the Majano road. Light carriages may go with perfect ease and safety so far as Majano, which is two thirds of the way ; but thence to the Francescan convent at Fiesole, the best conveyance is a traineau, which the peasants at Majano can always furnish. Between the latter place and Fiesole is the Docia, a monastery built by Buonarotti, and deliciously situated. The ancient Etruscan town of Fiesole is supposed to have been destroyed by ah earthquake, long before the period when Sylla founded a colony there. The walls of this town, how- ever, are in several places discoverable ; and it seems evident, from the manner in which they present themselves, that they w^ere thrown down by some convulsion of nature : they appear to have originally consisted of large stones without cement, like the walls of Pompeii and Passtum. Here likewise are remains of an amphitheatre, built on the side of a hill, as was the Grecian custom ; the shape and size of the edi- fice, some of the staircases, seats, and caves for the wild beasts, together with the 272 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN reservoir of water which belonged to this theatre, may be traced. And here also is an ancient temple, now roofed and made into a church. Fourteen fine columns with Ionic capitals, the pavement, and the altar of the ancient building, still remain, though the altar has been moved from its original situation. This temple is sup- posed to have been dedicated to Bacchus. The walls of the Roman town may in some places be traced, as may the pavement of the streets, which resembles that of Pompeii. The modern town, if it may be so called, contains a cathedral, built in 1028, apparently on the site of an ancient temple, and adorned with sculpture by Mino da Fiesole and Andrea Ferrucci Fiesolano, and likewise with a picture of the martyrdom of St. Thomas by Volterrano. Here, also, are an episcopal palace, a seminary, and a Francescan convent, which last stands on the spot called Rocca dei Fiesolani. Vallombrosa, about fourteen miles distant from Fiesole, is well worth notice ; not only because it has been immortalized by Milton, but likewise on account of the beauty of the country, and the noble Certosa of Vallombrosa, which still contains fine paintings ; though the finest were removed when the convent was suppressed. Vallombrosa itself has suffered very little from being under the dominion of France : but the Certosa is nor yet re-established. Lovers of wild scenery would be gratified by proceeding from Vallombrosa to the abbey of Camaldoli, about thirty-six miles from Florence, and thence to the convent of Lavernia (mons Alvernus), about fourteen miles further. The former of these convents was suppressed by the French ; who cut down much of the fine wood be- longing to it : now, however, this convent is re-established ; though its inhabitants, about thirty in number, are too poor to entertain visiters gratis ; and therefore travel- lers, after eating or sleeping under its roof, usually make a present to the community. The convent of Lavernia never was disturbed by the French, and contains, at present, about sixty Capuchins. The modern Florentines, like their Etrurian ancestors, are fond of learning, arts, and sciences ; and,- what is more estimable and endearing to foreigners, they are, generally speaking, good-humored, warm-hearted, and friendly. The Tuscan peasantry, considered collectively, are pure in their morals and pastoral in their manner of living; and the peculiar comeliness of both sexes is very striking, especially in that tract of country which extends from Florence to Peschia : but it is only among the peasantry that one can form a just idea of Italian beauty ; and perhaps it might be added, it is only among the peasantry one can form a just idea of the Italian character ; inhabitants of populous cities being alike, whether in London, Paris, Vienna, Florence, or Rome. The men are tall, robust, finely proportioned, and endowed with that entire self-possession which inspires respect, and perhaps a more favorable opinion of them than they really deserve. The women are of a middle stature ; and were it not for bad stays, would be well made. They have large, languishing black eyes, accompanied by that expressive brow which constitutes the .most remarkable and captivating part of an Italian countenance. Their manners are uncommonly graceful ; and, instead of courtesying, they gently bow their bodies, and kiss the hand of a superior ; a practice common, indeed, throughout Italy. When two young persons agree to marry, the banns are published three times in a parish church ; after which they receive the nuptial benediction. The bride's portion is paid three days before marriage, one half m wearing apparel, and the other half in money; which the bridegroom usually expends in purchasing jewels for his lady; which consist of a pearl necklace, cross and ear-rings, frequently intermixed with rubies ; and worth from ^150 to $200 : these jewels being considered by the man as the women's exclusive property; indeed, money so invested may be looked upon as placed in a bank ; while the interest received is that high gratification which the woman derives from exhibitmg her ornaments on gala-days; and these ornaments continue in the family for ages, unless the pressing call of necessity compel them to be pawned, or sold. When the xposa is taken in labor, the husband, after procuring medical help, deems it his next duty to get some of what is called the life-giving plant [aleatrice the peasants call it), which he places on her bed ; and without which he believes his child can not be born. This custom is derived from the Greeks. About a fortnight after the birth of the infant, its parents give what they denominate a seaponata, or christening dinner, to their relations ; on which occasion every guest brings a present, as was the practice at Athens ; and the dinner is served dish by dish, likewise an ancient custom. On the husband's demise the eldest son becomes CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 273 heir-at-law ; but is obliged to portion his sisters, and either maintain his mother, or return her dower : all his relations frequently live with him : but the largeness of the family creates no confusion ; there being a superior over the men, and another over the women, who allot, to every person, their business, which is thus kept dis- tinct. A Tuscan farmer shares equally with his lord in the produce of an estate ; and the owner even provides seeds, plants, manure, implements of husbandry, in short, whatever may be requisite for the cultivation of the land. The upper class of farmers usually possess a horse and a market-cart, a wagon, and a pair of large dove-colored oxen, who draw the wagon and the plough, whose color seldom, if ever, varies throughout Italy, and whose beauty is as remarkable as that of their masters. The female peasants, besides working in the vineyards, almost equally hard with the men, often earn money by keeping poultry, and sometimes one or two lambs ; whose fleecy coats the children decorate, on the Festa di San Giovanni, with scarlet ribands tied in fantastic knots : and by the aid of money thus acquired, wearing-apparel, and other necessaries, are purchased. Shoes and stockings are deemed superfluous, and merely ornamental, even by the women ; who carry them in baskets on their heads, till they reach a town ; when these seemingly embarrassing decorations are put on : for the contadina is as vain of her appearance as the dama nohile ; and, no wonder — since the Arcadian dresses and lovely countenances of these peasants arrest every eye, and show them, perhaps too plainly, how strong are their powers of attraction. The phraseology of the Florentine peasants is wonderfully elegant, but the most re- markable quality of these persons is their industry, for during the hottest weather, they toil all day without sleep, and seldom retire early to rest ; yet, notwithstanding this fatigue, they live almost entirely upon bread, fruit, pulse, and the common wine of the country ; however, though their diet is light, and their bodily exertions are almost perpetual, they commonly attain old age, especially in the neighborhood of Fiesole. We quote the following from a traveller: — " About twenty years ago, I spent one summer at Careggi de Medici, and another at Careggi di Riccardi ; and during our residence in the latter villa, we invited all the surrounding peasants to a dance. Our ballroom was a lofty apartment sixty feet by thirty ; and in the centre of the ceiling hung a lustre, composed of such light materials that every puff of wind gave it motion : indeed it had the appearance of being continually turned round by an invisible hand ; this lustre we filled with candles; and the wails, which were adorned with full-length portraits of the Med- ici princes, we likewise decorated with festoons of vines, olive-branches, flowers, and lamps, so that the whole apartment resembled an illuminated arbor. At sunset, on the appointed day, our guests appeared altogether upon a lawn leading to the villa, preceded by their own band of music : and no sooner did this procession reach our hall-door, than the musicians struck up a lively tune, while the dancers as they en- tered, formed a quadrille, which would have been applauded on any opera-stage.. When this dance was finished, the female peasants advanced in couples, to the top of the hall where we were seated, paying their compliments to us with as much ease and elegance as if they had been highly educated, and then commencing another quadrille, different from, but quite as pretty as the first. With a succession of these dances we were amused till supper ; after which our visiters who had been regaled with punch, a liquor they particularly relish, came once more to us ; when the women returned thanks for their entertainment, kissed our hands, and, presenting their own to their partners, bowed and retired." We can not dismiss the subject of Tuscan peasantry, without another quotation from the same writer, which may perhaps serve to show the grateful and delicate turn of mind possessed by these people: — " One day as we were walking near Careggi, we observed a girl, apparently about fourteen years of age, watching a flock of goats, and at the same time spinning with great diligence ; her tattered garments bespoke extreme poverty ; but her air was peculiarly dignified, and her countenance so interesting, that we were irresistibly impelled to present her with a few crazie. Joy and gratitude instantly animated her fine eyes while she exclaimed: 'Never till this moment, was I worth so much money !' Struck by her words and manner, we inquired her name, likewise asking where her parents lived ? ' My name is Teresa,' replied she, ' but, alas ! I have no parents.' — ' No parents ! who then takes care of you V — * The Madonna.' — ' But who brought you up V — ' A peasant in Vallombrosa ; I was her nurse-child, and I have heard her say ray parents delivered me into her care, but that she did not know their 274 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN name. As I grew up she almost starved me ; aad, what was worse, beat me so cruelly, that at length, I ran away from her.' — ' And where do you live now?' — ' Yonder in the plain,' pointing to Val d'Arno, ' I have fortunately met with a mistress who feeds me, and lets me sleep in her barn; this is her flock.' — ' And are you happy now V — * yes ! very happy. At first, to be sure, it was lonesome sleeping in the barn by myself; 'tis so far from the house, but I am used to it now ; and indeed I have not much time for sleep ; being obliged to work at night when I come home ; and I always go out with the goats at daybreak ; however, I do very well, for I get plenty of bread and grapes ; and my mistress never beats me.' — After learning thus much, Ave presented our new acquaintance with a paul — but to describe the ecstasy this gift produced is impossible. ' Now,' cried she (when a flood of tears had enabled her to speak), 'now I can purchase a corona — now I can go to mass, and petition the Madonna to preserve my kind benefactresses !' " On taking leave of this interesting creature, we desired she would sometimes pay us a visit ; our invitation, hoAvever, was only answered by a bow ; and, to our regret, we neither saw nor heard of her again, till the day before our departure from Careggi ; when it appeared that, immediately after her interview with us, she had been attack- ed by the small-pox, and was only just recovered. " During the next summer, although we again resided in the same neighborhood, we for a considerable time, saw nothing of Teresa. One day, however, we observed a beautiful white goat browsing near our house, and on going out, perceived our protege with her whole flock. We now inquired, almost angrily, why she had not visited us before. 'I was fearful of obtruding,' replied the scrupulous girl; 'but I have watched you at a distance, ladies, ever since your return; and I could not forbear coming rather nearer than usual to-day, in the hope that you might no- tice me.' We gave her a scudo, and again desired she would sometimes call upon us. ' No, ladies,' replied she, 'I am not properly dressed to enter your doors ; but, with the scudo you have kindly given me, I shall immediately purchase a stock of flax, and then, should the Madonna bless ixie with health to work hard, I may soon be able, by selling my thread, to buy decent apparel, and wait upon you, clothed with the fruits of your bounty.' And indeed, it was not long ere Ave had the pleasure of seeing her come lo visit us, neatly dressed, and exhibiting a picture of content." Madonna deHa Seggiola, by Raffaelle. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 275 CHAPTER XII.— ITALY. Rome, although visited for a thousand years by various calamities, is still the most majestic of cities. The charm of beauty and dignity still lingers around the ruins of ancient, as well as the splendid structures of modern Rome, and brilliant recollec- tions of past ages are connected with the monuments which meet the passing trav- eller at every step. The characteristics of ancient and modern times are nowhere so distinctly contrasted as within the walls of Rome. Ancient Rome was built upon several hills, which are now scarcely discoverable, on account of the vast quantities of rubbish with which the valleys are filled. The eastern bank of the Tiber was so low as to subject the city to inundations. The extent and population were very different at different times. We speak here of the most flourishing period. Vopiscus, in his life of Aurelian, relates that the circumference of the city, after its last enlargement by that emperor, was 50,000 paces, for which we must probably read 15,000, as Pliny estimates the circumference, just before the reign of Aurelian, at 13,000 paces, and the accounts of modern travellers agree with this statement. The inhabitants at that time may have amounted to about 300,000. The number of inhabitants enjoying the rights of citizenship was never more than 30,000. Romulus surrounded the city with a wall, or rather with an earthern mound. Of the four gates which he built — the Porta Carmentalis, the Pandana or the Saturnia, the Roman gate, and the Mugionia — the Carmentalis alone remains. The wall ran from Mount Palatine, at the foot of Mount Aventine, to the Tiber ; one part of it then extended between the Tiber and the Capitoline hill, and on the other side separated the Palatine from the Coelian, Esquiline, Viminal, and Quirinal hills, and finally terminated at the capitol. ♦ The second, or the Servian wall, was much more extensive, and embraced all the abovementioned hills on the southern and eastern sides; ran round under Mount Aventine to the Tiber ; thence passed to the west side of the river, where, being continued in the form of a triangle, as far as the summit of Janiculum, it separated this from the other hills ; and then, proceeding to the southern end of the island of the Tiber in a direct course, embraced the whole body of the buildings beyond the river. On the north side of the city, the old walls of Romulus were mostly pre- served ; but the old wall terminated at the summit of Quirinalis, while the Servian extended to its eastermost extremity, and then ran round the other hills toward the east. The Pincian hill. Campus Martins, and the Vatican hill, therefore, lay entirely outside of it. The third, or Aurelian wall, likewise included all these parts. It ran from the northeastern extremity of Quirinalis, northwardly ; embraced the Campus Martius, which it separated from the Pincian hill ; extended beyond the latter to the river; enclosed, beyond the river, the Vatican, in a large bend ; and then joined the old wall, which reached to the summit of Janiculum ; so that the island of the Tiber was now contained within the limits of the city. In so large a circuit, the number of gates must have been considerable. Pliny enumerates thirty-seven, of which several yet remain, but under different names. Ancient Rome had several bridges, of which some are still passable. The lowest and oldest bridge Avas the Pons Sublicius, which led from Mount Aventine into the valley below Janiculum, and is no longer standing. The second led from the forum to Janiculum, and was called Pons Senatorius, because the solemn procession of the senate passed over it, when the Sybilline books were to be carried from Janiculum. It was the first stone bridge in Rome, and still exists in i-uins, under the name of Mary's bridge (Ponte Rotto). Two bridges led to the island in the Tiber, one from the east, and the other from the west side ; the former was called Pons Fabricius (now Ponte di Quattro Capi) and the latter Pons Cestius (now Bartholomew's bridge). A fourth bridge. Pons Janiculensis (now Ponte Sisto), led from the Campus Martius, near the theatre of Marcellus, to Janiculum. The ruins of the fifth. Pons Vatica- nus, or Triumphalis, may be seen near the hospital St. Spirito, and led from the Cam- pus Martius to the Vatican. The jElian bridge (Pons ^lius, now the beautiful bridge of St. A^ngelo) led to the Moles Adriani. Beyond the wall, and above the 276 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Pincian hill, was the seventh bridge, Pons Milvius (now Ponte MoUe), built by JEmilius Scaurus, after the time of Sylla. The streets of Rome, even after the city was rebuilt under Nero, were very irreg- ular. The public squares, of which there were a great number, were distinguished into arese, squares in front of the palaces and temples ; campi, open places, covered with grass, which served for popular assemblies, public processions for the exercise of the youth in arms, and for the burning of the dead bodies ; and fora, which were paved, and served either for the assembling of the people for the transaction of pub- lic affairs, or for the sale of goods, or for ornament. The earliest division of Rome was made by Servius TuUius ; he divided it into four quarters, which he called Tribus Urbanse ; they were the Tribus Suburbana, CoUina, Esquilina, and Palatina. This division continued till the reign of Augustus, who divided the city into fourteen re- gions, according to which ancient Rome is generally described: 1st, Porta Capena ; 2d, Coeli Montium ; 3d, Isis et Serapis, or Moneta ; 4th, Via Sacra, afterward Tem- plum Pacis ; 5th Esquilina cum colle et turri Viminali ; 6ih, Alta Semita ; 7th, Via Lata ; 8th, Forum Romanum ; 9th, Circus Flaminius; 10th, Palatium ; 11th, Circus Maximus; 12th, Piscina Publica ; 13th, Aventinus; 14th, Trans Tiberim. The temples, theatres, amphitheatres, circuses, naumachise, porticoes, basilicse, baths, gardens, triumphal arches, columns, sewers, aqueducts, sepulchres, &c., are the prin- cipal public buildings and monuments. The Colosseum forms a very extraordinary monument of the barbaric splendor which characterized ancient Rome. It was commenced by Vespasian, and completed by Titus (A. D. 79). This enormous building occupied only three years in its erec- tion. Cassiodorus affirms that this magnificent monument of folly cost as much as would have been required for the building of a capital city. We have the means of distinctly ascertaining its dimensions and its accommodations from the great mass of wall that still remains entire ; and although the very clamps of iron and brass that held together the ponderous stones of that wonderful edifice, were removed by Gothic plunderers, and succeeding generations have resorted to it as to a quarry for their temples and their palaces? yet the " enormous skeleton" still stands, to mark its original gigantic character. The Colosseum, which is of an oval form, occupies the space of nearly six acres. "Ii may justly be said to have been the most imposing building, from its apparent magnitude, in the world ; the pyramids of Egypt can only be compared with it in the extent of their plan, as they cover nearly the same surface." The greatest length is six hundred and twenty feet ; the greatest breadth, five hundred and thir- teen feet. The outer wall is one hundred and fifty-seven feet high, in its whole ex- tent. The exterior wall is divided into four stories, each ornamented with one of the orders of architecture. The cornice of the upper story is perforated, for the purpose of inserting wooden .masts, which passed also through the architrave and frieze, and descended to a row of corbels immediately above the upper range of windows, on • which are holes to receive the-masts. These masts were for the purpose of attach- ing cords to, for sustaining the awning which defended the spectators from the sua or rain. Two corridors ran all round the building, leading to staircases which as- cended to the several stories ; and the seats which descended toward the arena, sup- ported throughout upon eighty arches, occupied so much of the space that the clear opening of the present inner wall, next the arena, is only two hundred and eighty- seven feet by one hundred and eighty feet. Immediately above and around the arena was the podium, elevated about twelve or fifteen feet, on which were seated the emperor, senators, ambassadors of foreign nations, and other distinguished per- sonages in that city of distinctions. From the podium to the top of the second story were seats of marble for the equestrian order ; above the second story, the seats ap- pear to have been constructed of wood. The order and arrangement of the seats are still visible, and nothing can be more admirably contrived than the vomitories for facilitating the ingress and egress of all classes to and from their respective seats without disorder or confusion. There was, it is thought, an upper gallery for the multitude, of which there are now no' remains. It must, indeed, when filled, have offered a most imposing specta- cle. The very lowest computation allows that it would contain eighty thousand spectators. Such is the last and noblest monument of Roman grandeur and of Roman crime, CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 277 278 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN the scene of the greatest magnificence, and of the greatest barbarity, which the world ever saw — the stupendous fabric " Which on its public shows unpeopled Rome, And held uncrowded nations in its womb." " Never," says an eloquent observer, " did human art present to the eye a fabric so well calculated, from its size and form, to surprise and delight. Let the spectator first place himself to the north, and contemplate that side which depredation, bar- barism, and ages, have spared : he will behold with admiration its wonderful extent, well-proportioned stories, and flying lines, that retire and vanish without break or interruption. Next, let him turn to the south, and examine those stupendous arches which, stripped as they are of their external decorations, still astonish us by their solidity and duration. Then let him enter, range through the lofty arcades, and, as- cending the vaulted seats, consider the vast mass of ruin that surrounds him — insu- lated walls, immense stones suspended in the air, arches covered v/ith weeds and shrubs, vaults opening upon other ruins ; in short, above, below, and around, one vast collection of magnificence and devastation, of grandeur and decay." Gibbon, the historian, has given a splendid description, in his twelfth book, of the exhibitions of the Colosseum; but he acknowledges his obligations to Montaigne, who, says the historian, " gives a very just and lively view of Roman magnificence in these spectacles." Our readers will, we doubt not, be gratified by the quaint, but most appropriate sketch of the old philosopher of France: — " It was doubtless a fine thing to bring and plant within the theatre a great num- ber of vast trees, with all their branches in their full verdure, representing a great shady forest, disposed in excellent order, and the first day to throw into it a thousand ostriches, a thousand stags, a thousand boars, and a thousand fallow-deer, to be killed and disposed of by the people ; the next day to cause a hundred great lions, a hun- dred leopards, and three hundred bears, to be killed in his presence ; and for the third day, to make three hundred pair of fencers to fight it out to the last, as the emperor Probus did. It was also very fine to see those vast amphitheatres, all faced with marble without, curiously wrought with figures and statues, and the inside sparkling with rare decorations and enrichments ; all the sides of this vast space filled and environed from the bottom to the top, with three or four score ranks of seats, all of marble also, and covered with cushions, where a hundred thousand men might sit placed at their ease ; and the place below, where the plays were played, to make it by art first open and cleft into chinks, representing caves that vomited out the beasts designed for the spectacle ; and then, secondly, to be overflowed with a profound sea, full of sea-monsters, and loaded with ships-of-war, to represent a naval battle ; and thirdly, to make it dry and even again for the combats of the gladiators ; and for the fourth scene, to have it sirewed with vermilion and storax, instead of sand, there to make a solemn feast for all that infinite number of people — the last act of one only day. '• Sometimes they have made a high mountain advance itself, full of fruit-trees and other flourishing sorts of woods, sending down rivulets of water from the top, as from the mouth of a fountain ; other whiles, a great ship was seen to come rolling in, which opened and divided of itself, and, after having disgorged from the hold four or five hundred beasts for fight, closed again, and vanished without help. At other times, from the floor of this place, they made spouts of perfumed waters dart their streams upward, and so high as to besp'rinkle all that infinite multitude. To defend themselves from th^ injuries of the weather, they had that vast place one while cov- ered over with purple curtains of needlework, "and by-and-by with silk of another color, which they could draw ofi'or on in a moment, as they liad a mind. The net- work, also, that was set before the people io defend them from the violence of these turned-out beasts, was also woven of gold." _" If there be anything excusable in such excesses as these," continues Montaigne, " it is where the novelty and invention create more wonder than expense." Fortu- nately for the real enjoyments of mankind, even under the sway of a Roman despot, " the novelty and invention" had very narrow limits when applied to matters so ut- terly unworthy and unintellectual as'the cruel sports of the amphitheatre. Probus, indeed, transplanted trees to the arena, so that it had the appearance of a verdant grove ; and Severus introduced four hundred ferocious animals in one ship sailing in the little lake which the arena formed. But on ordinary occasions, profusion — taste- CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 279 280 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN less, haughty, and uninventive profusion — the gorgeousness of brute power, the pomp of satiated luxury — these constituted the only claim to the popular admiration. If Titus exhibited five thousand wild beasts at the dedication of the amphitheatre, Trajan bestowed ten thousand on the people at the conclusion of the Dacian war. If the younger Gordian collected together bears, elks, zebras, ostriches, boars, and wild horses, he was an imitator only of the spectacles of Carinus, in which the rarity of the animals was as much considered as their fierceness. Gibbon has well re- marked: "While the populace gazed with stupid wonder on the splendid show, the naturalist might indeed observe the figure and properties of so many different spe- cies, transported from every part of the ancient world into the amphitheatre of Rome. But this accidental benefit, which science might derive from folly, is surely insufficient to justify such a wanton abuse of the public riches." The prodigal waste of the public riches, however, was not the weightiest evil of the sports of the circus. The public morality was sacrificed upon the same shrine as its wealth. The de- struction of beasts became a fit preparation for the destruction of men. A small number of those unhappy persons who engaged in fight with the wild animals of the arena were trained to these dangerous exercises, as are the matadors of Spain at the present day. These men were accustomed to exhaust the courage of the beast by false attacks ; to spring on a sudden past him, striking him behind before he could recover his guard ; to cast a cloak over his eyes, and then despatch or bind him at this critical moment of his terror ; or to throw a cupful of some chymical preparation into his gaping mouth, so as to produce the stupefaction of intense agony. But the greater part of the human beings who were exposed to these combats, perilous even to the most skilful, were disobedient slaves and convicted malefactors. _ The Chris- tians, during their persecutions, constituted a very large number of the' latter class. The Roman power was necessarily intolerant: the assemblies of the new religion became objects of dislike and suspicion ; the patience and constancy of the victims increased the fury of their oppressors ; and even such a man as the younger Pliny held that their obstinacy alone was deserving of punishment. Thus, then, the im- perial edicts against the early Christians furnished more stimulating exhibitions to the popular appetite for blood, than the combat of lion with lion, or gladiator with gladiator. The people were taught to believe that they were assisting at a solemn act of justice, and tliey came, therefore, to behold the tiger and the leopard tear the quivering limb of the aged and the young, of the strong and the feeble, without a de- sire to rescue the helpless, or to succor the brave. The Pantheon may next be described. It was originally dedicated to all the gods, but is now converted into a church, and dedicated to the virgin and all the martyrs. It has been generally supposed to have been built by Agrippa, son-in-law to Augus- tus, because it has the following inscription on the frieze of the portico : " M. Agrip- pa, L. F. Cos. Tertium fecit." Several antiquaries, however, have supposed that the Pantheon existed in the times of the commonwealth, and that it was only embellished .by Agrippa, who added the portico. The form of this magnificent building, which is represented on the next page, is round or cylindrical, and its roof or dome is spherical. Its interior diameter measures one hundred and forty-four feet, and the elevation of the eye of the cupola, through which the edifice receives light, measures the same from the pavement. It is of the Corinthian order. The inner circumference is divided into seven grand niches, wrought in the walls of the building : six of these are flat at the top, but the seventh, which is opposite the entrance, is arched. Before each niche are two col- umns of antique yellow marble, fluted, and of one entire block, making in all the finest internal colonnade in Rome. The whole wall of the temple, as high as the grand cornice inclusive, is cased with a great variety of precious marble in compart- ments. The frieze is entirely of porphyry. Above the grand cornice rises an attic, in which were wrought, at equal distances, fourteen oblong niches. Between each niche were originally raised four marble pi- lasters, and between the pilasters marble-tables of various kinds. This attic had a complete entablature, but the cornice projected less than the grand order below. Im- ,mediately from the cornice springs the spherical roof, divided by bands which cross each other like the meridians and parallels of an artificial terrestrial globe. The spaces between the bands increase ia size as they approach ihe top of the roof, to which, however, they do not reach, there being a considerable plain space between them and the great opening. That so bold a roof might be as light as possible, the CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 281 The Pantheon. architect formed the substance of the spaces between the bands of nothing but lime and pumice-stones. The walls below were decorated with lead and brass, and works of carved silver over them, and the roof was covered on the outside with plates of gilded bronze. There was an ascent from the springing of the ro,of to the very sum- mit by a flight of seven stairs. The portico is composed of sixteen columns of gran- ite four feet in diameter, eight of which stand in front with an equal columni?ition all along. The ascent of the portico is by eight or nine steps. Such was the Pantheon, the richness of which induced Pliny to rank it among the wonders of the world. It was repaired by Domitian and Adrian. But the Pantheon is more indebted to Septimius Severus than to any one since its erection. Sepiimius bestowed essential reparation upon it, as appears from an inscription upon the archi- trave. This temple subsisted in all its grandeur till the incursion of Alaric. Zosi- mus relates that the Romans, having engaged to furnish this barbarian with 5,000 pounds of gold and 30,000 pounds of silver, upon condition that he should depart from their walls, and it being impossible to raise those sums, they stripped the temples of their statues and ornaments of gold and silver. Genseric, king of the Vandals, thiny- nine years after, took away part of their marbles, and loaded one of his ships with statues. The Christian emperors had issued orders for demolishing the pagan temples, but the Romans spared the Pantheon, which suffered no damage from the zeal of the pontiffs, or the indignation of the saints, before the first siege of Rome by Alaric. It remained so rich till about the year 655 as to excite the avarice of Constantine II., who came from Constantinople and pillaged the Pantheon of its brazen ornaments, which he transported to Syracuse, where they soon fell into the hands of the Sara- cens. About fifty years before this, Pope Boniface IV. had obtained the Pantheon of the emperor Phocas to make a church of; but the artists of these parts spoiled everything they laid their hands upon. After the devastations committed by the bar- barians, Rome was contracted within a narrow compass. The Pantheon standing at the entrance of the Campus Martins, was surrounded with houses, which spoiled the fine prospect of it, and some of them were built close to its walls. Pedlars' sheds were erected within its portico, and the intercolumniations were bricked up, to the irreparable injury of the matchless columns, of which some lost part of their capi- tals, and others were chiselled out six or seven inches deep, and as many feet high, to let in posts. In this state the edifice remained till the pontificate of Eugene IV., who ordered all the houses to be cleared away, when the miserable barracks in the portico were taken down. Benedict II. covered it with lead, which Nicholas V. re- newed in a better style. Raffaelle Urban left a considerable sum for the reparation of the Pantheon, where his tomb is placed. La Vagna, Udino, Annibal Caracci, Flamingo, Vacca, and Archangelo Corelli, did the same. 282 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Pope Urban VIII. was a patron of the arts. He repaired this edifice ; but while he built up with one hand, he pulled down with the other. He caused two belfries, of a wretched taste, to be erected on the ancient front-work, and divested ihe portico of all the remains of its ancient grandeur, viz., the brazen coverture of the cross- beams, which amounted to a prodigious quantity. This pope, who was of the fam- ily of Barberioi, presented as much of this metal to his nephew as was sufficient for the decoration of several new palaces. Alexander VII. did what Urban had neglected to do. He ordered search to be made for pillars to match those of the portico of the Pantheon, and some were found of the very same model. He also caused all the old houses to be pulled down, and the rubbish to be cleared away which covered the steps and the bases of the pillars. Clement IX. enclosed the portico with iron rails. Several succeeding popes have added to its decorations, which were all in the taste of the times they were done in, and it may well be supposed that the body of the edifice and its architecture gained nothing by the additions. The wealth and power of Rome in the fifteenth century is best exhibited by a ref- erence to the splendid architectural edifice of St. Peter's, raised by the munificence of various popes, and which still remains a lasting monument of the skill of Michael Angelo, and other eminent Italian architects. The approach to this extraordinary structure is crowded by mean edifices, but with the immense advantage of being almost constantly seen through the medium of a pure transparent atmosphere, it forms a grand and conspicuous object in almost every dis- tant view of the city of which it is the glorious crown. It may be seen from the hills of Baccano on the north, from the lower Apennines on the east, and from the volca- nic ridges of the Alban mount on the south ; and in all these views it rises up from the broad flat of the Campagna, in which the "seven hills" and other elevations in the vicinage of Rome are of themselves ridges or breaks scarcely more perceptible than a distant wave at sea. It seems to reign in solitary majesty over all the dead, and for the most part uncultivated, level which surrounds the city ; and is, perhaps, never so impressive an object as when seen thence, particularly on the stated festi- vals, oa the evenings of which it is suddenly, nay, almost instantaneously, covered with a flood of light. The reader may conceive this efi"ect by fancying a magnificent dome, lighted up by innumerable lamps and torches ; but he must add, in the case of St. Peter's, " the deep-blue sky of Rome," without a cloud, without a vapor or wreath of smoke. In general effect, however, it appears to most advantage from elevated points within or near the city, where other objects can be brought into comparison with it. The tower of the Capitol, the front of the Quirinal palace, the bridge of St. Angelo, and the fields behind St. Peter's in the direction of the Villa Pampili Dorio, are all fine points of view; but the best of these near points is that from the public walks on the Pincian hill, and the best moment for enjoying it is toward sunset on a sum- mer evening, as the dark mass, then presents a bold and graceful outline against the bright western sky, and the horizontal rays of the sun pierce through and brilliantly illuminate the windows of the lantern under the cupola, thus producing a truly ma- gical effect. It is here, and on the bridge of St. Angelo, that the people of Rome chiefly resort on the great festivals, when the cupola is illuminated. This splendid exhibition occurs on the eve, and on the evening of St. Peter's day, and on the anni- versary evening of the reigning pope's election. On a still nearer view, or one taken from the piazza or square of St. Peter's, though the temple itself loses from the heavy, awkward structure of the front, which more than half hides the cupola, while it is out of harmony with the general form of the church, yet the scene, from its accessories, is one of imposing sublimity. St. Peter's there presents itself as the background of a noble and spacious amphitheatre formed by a splendid elliptical colonnade of a quadruple range of nearly three hundred pil- lars. The immediate environs of the cathedral are of a dull and gloomy character, but when the spectator arrives at St. Peter's square, the whole edifice is at once presented to the eye. A sweeping forest of columns surrounds the outer court with the swell of an am- phitheatre, and the circling colonnades are aptly inscribed with the metaphoric promise : " There shall be a tabernacle, for a shadow from the heat, and for a covert from storm and from rain." They lead to ascending corridors, which form an inner CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 283 284 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN court four hundred feet square, and open into either end of the portico of the church, under the pathetic invitation : " Come, and let us go up to the mountain of the Lord, to the house of the God of Jacob." An Egyptian obelisk of a single piece of red granite, originally brought from He- liopolis by the emperor Caligula, occupies the centre of the outer court. It is eighty-five feet high, and nine fe.et square at the base, and on either side of the stu- pendous cone an ample fountain spouts a column of water, which showers into a marble basin twenty feet in diameter. Six hundred feet beyond this glittering screen, over a quarry of steps, rises the gi- gantic frontispiece. It is of freestone, four hundred feet long, and one hundred and fifty high, supported by twelve columns of the Corinthian order, whose broad entab- lature is surmounted by an attic story, and crowned with a balustrade. At a distance of four hundred feet within the massy frontispiece, is seen to tower aloft the immense rotunda of the dome, surmounted, at an elevation of four hundred and fifty feet, with a lantern, ball, and cross. The great dome is accompanied by two lesser ones, which, though fifty feet in diameter, and a hundred high, are scarcely noticed in the stupendous outline; for such is the charm of proportion, that the greatness of the parts is lost in the immen- sity of the whole. It is only by comparison with objects of known dimensions, that the visiter can form an idea of , the unparalleled magnitude of the columns, the en- tablature, or the statues of the frontispiece. The spectator must actually enter the doors of the portico, which he will reckon diminutive, to convince himself that they are wide enough for entering and retiring crowds to intermingle upon their thresholds. Within the portico, an interior arcade, running the whole length of the front, and forming the foot of the prostrate cross, is fifty feet wide and five hundred long, including the width of the two corridors at the ends, in each of which appears an equestrian statue: on the right Constantine the Great, on the left Charlemagne, at distant periods the champions of the church. A stranger, at his first visit to St. Peter's, cursorily glances over the marble col- umns, the brazen gates, and the stuccoed arches of this magnificent vestibule, impa- tient to open on the middle aisle, six hundred feet long, ninety wide, and a hundred and fifty high. But at first sight of the Corinthian arcade, glittering in white and gold, it does not strike the disappointed visiter as very long, very wide, or very high, for neither length, breadth, nor height, predominates in the proportions of the nave, and he doubts for a moment whether he beholds the largest as well as the most beautiful structure that ever was erected by human hands. He compares St. Peter's to the rival edifices of London, Milan, or Constantinople, and scarcely suspects his error till he approaches one of the fonts, and perceives that the cherubs which support them are chubby giants. He looks up again at the resplendent vault, and discovers that he can not distinctly perceive the variegated fretwork of the immense compartments. The chapel of the sacred host is a most beautiful edifice, and nearly the first that attracts the notice of the stranger. Within the iron gates of the chapel, interleaved with glass, to reflect the illuminations of the altar, is seen a tabernacle for the Host, on either side of which a golden angel extends his protecting wings, in imitation of the cherubims of glory shadowing the mercy-seat. Directly opposite is the chapel of the choir, a noble apartment forty feet by fifty, with a splendid mosaic over the altar, representing the Virgin Mother, under the mistaken emblems of the spouse of Christ: the wonder that was seen in heaven, a woman clothed with the sun, having the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars. The most pompous exhibition of ceremony or parade rather diminishes than in- creases the effect of this wonderful edifice. It is never more impressive than when silence reigns over its vast vacuities, unbroken but by distant and solitary footsteps retiring for the night, the unnoticed windows, at the approach of evening, shedding a mystic twilight, undazzled by the glimmering lamps that twinkle around the sanctuary. Beneath the vast circumference of this aerial canopy there reigns day and night, summer and winter — that even temperature so favorable to meditation, since the double doors never admit external air enough to alter the medium of thirty-five mil- lions of cubic feet, and the thickness of the walls renders them impervious to heat or moisture. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 286 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN The visiter ascends to the summit of this prodigious edifice, by the innumerable evolutions of a spiral ascent of no greater inclination than will admit of the use of mules, for the purposes of the building. Near the top of it are inscribed the names of all the foreign potentates who in the course of two centuries have done homage to the imperial pile. This winding stairway terminates at the flat surface of the roof in a room for the custodi, from which you look out upon a village of belfries and cupolas, concealed from below by the massy balustrade, excepting the great dome, which has been boldly denominated the sun of the Vatican, with its attendant satellites, and a gal- axy of statues, whose gigantic proportions must be measured by a standard of twenty feet. Two external walks or galleries surround the basis of the dome, one of which is upon the mouldings of the basement, and the other, ten feet higher, is continued through the projecting abutments, which support the drum of the vaults ; these gal- leries are three hundred paces in circumference, little less than the eighth part of a mile. From the former you pass by a long entry into the inner gallery, at a height of two hundred feet from the floor. This is four hundred feet round, and from its iron railing the visiter may look down with safety upon the brazen canopy of the altar (itself ninety feet high), and into the sunken recesses of the sanctuary, surround- ed by kneeling devotees. At this elevation may be distinctly seen the mosaics of the four Evangelists, with their appropriate symbols, occupying the angles which support the drum of the dome. Of their enormous magnitude an idea may be formed by that of the cross keys, an ornamental appendage, which is said to measure twenty-two feet in length. The cylindrical part of the dome is ornamented by coupled pilasters between the windows, upon the continued basement of which are cherubs supporting festoons. Returning to the passage, you turn to the right or left, for the avenues are double, and wind round the imperceptible circle, between an outer and an inner wall, until you come to a spiral staircase, by which you mount perpendicularly fifty feet higher, and enter another gallery within the dome, just under the spring of the vault. From this elevated scaflfold the visiter can perceive the coarseness of the mosaic cubes, with which are formed the gigantic figures of the concave dome, and you may thrust your hand into a gaping fissure invisible from below. At the summit of the dome blind windows occasionally open into the lantern, it- self a cupola twenty feet in diameter and fifty high. From this stupendous eleva- tion, little less than three hundred and fifty feet, if you venture to look down upon the pavement, the processions passing to and fro upon the chequered floor remind you of ants upon a mole-hill, and so contracted is the perspective of the well of the dome, that you mistrust with apprehension the perpendicularity of the walls, and suspect the sufficiency of the lessening pillars to support the superincumbent mass. A rushing wind sets constantly from below whenever these windows are opened, and you gladly mount ten feet higher to ihe outer gallery of the lantern, from which you behold Rome at your feet, and stretch your eye over the deserted plains of the Campagna to the Apennines on one side, and the Mediterranean on the other. Here you ascend fifty feet higher by another flight of narrow steps, turned within one of the abutments which support the lantern, barely wide enough to admit one person at a time. This winding passage lands you upon the floor of a conical chamber, di- rectly oper the centre of the dome, from which you pass into the upper gallery of the cupola, or ascend, by a perpendicular ladder, into the hollow of the ball. Within this brazen globe, a man of six feet high may stretch out his arms, or stand on tiptoe, while through accidental crevices in the beaten copper he perceives the tremendous height at which he is soaring in the air. It takes ten minutes to de- scend from this stupendous elevation ; and when you emerge from its dark passage and winding stairways, you are glad to find yourself once more upon the surface of the earth. Such is this unrivalled monument of modern art, which bears no marks of age or incongruity, although it was three hundred years in building, by the hands of twenty different architects. Begun under Nicholas V., in 1450 ; it was carried on by Bramante, under Julius [I. ; by Sangallo and Peruzzi, under Leo X. ; and by Michael Angelo, who moulded the immense concavity of the dome, under Paul III. ; though he died before it was finished by Fontana, in the pontificate of Sixtus V. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 287 288 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN Succeeding popes and succeeding architects successively added the lesser domes, the portico, the piazzas, and the vestry, intermediately ornamenting the interior with brass and marble, and gradually securing the paintings from the touch of time, by incorporating them with the walls in everlasting mosaic. Exclusive of the dome and piazzas, St. Peter's church is twice as broad and twice as high as the temple of Jupiter Olympus, one of the wonders of antiquity, that still exhibits to the wondering traveller silent and solitary porticoes stretching over the prostrate plains of Greece. St. Paul's, at London, the only edifice of modern times with Avhich it can be worthily compared, does not enclose within its vast vacuities, including its porticoes, its turrets, and its dome, one fourth part of the cubic square of St. Peter's, the corridors of which would encompass Ludgate-hill. It has been observed that Pioman greatness manifested itself most conspicuously in the sewers, the aqueducts, and the high-roads. Of these, the first were arched galleries, carried under the city in every direction, and wide enough for a loaded cart or a boat to pass through them without inconvenience. These all communi- cated with the principal sewer (called Cloaca Maxima), which was sixteen feet broad and thirty feet high. The latter still exists, though almost choked up with rubbish and weeds. It is seen in an engraving on a subsequent page. Ancient Rome was supplied with v^rater by nine aqueducts. These extended through a distance of from twelve to sixty-two miles, and conveyed whole rivers through mountains and over plains, sometimes under ground, and sometimes sup- ported by arches, to the centre of the city. Of these aqueducts three are sufficient to supply modern Rome with a profusion of water for private as well as public pur- poses. What a prodigious quantity, then, must have been poured into the ancient city ! The ruins of some of these ponderous edifices, toAvering far above all the modern buildings, attract the eye, on the Celian and Esquiline mounts : but more particularly in vast broken lines, extending over the solitary plains adjacent to the city. Rome was indebted to Appius Claudius for her aqueducts, and to the public spirit and talents of the same censor she owed also her roads. In the Roman forum stood a pillar, on which were inscribed the distances of the great cities of Italy, and of the empire. At this column the roads commenced, and thence they branched off in straight lines from Rome to every part of Italy. They were paved, or rather flagged, generally with large blocks of stone. These roads, in process of time, were extended to the most distant provinces of the empire. The Roman forums, or squares, are represented by ancient writers as alone to have been sufficient to eclipse the splendor of every other city. These were of two kinds, one for the public markets and the other for the transaction of public business. The former were twelve in number, and the latter five. Of the latter, the Forum Roma- num was the most eminent. Its name was coeval with that of the city, and its des- tination was connected with all the glories of the republic. It was in fact the seat, or rather the throne, of Roman power, and was encircled with buildings of the greatest magnificence. The Forum Trajani consisted of four porticoes, supported by columns of the most beautiful marble ; the roof rested on brazen beams, and was covered wirh brazen plates. It was adorned with statues and chariots, all of gilt brass, and the pavement was of variegated marble. The entrance was at one end by a triumphal arch, and at the other and opposite end was a temple. On one side was a palace, and on the other a public library. In the centre rose the celebrated column, crowned with the colossal statue of Trajan, From the forums we pass to the porticoes. These, which were very numerous, are frequently alluded to by the Roman writers. They were erected for the conve- nience of the public in sultry or inclement weather, and were supported by columns, and, in many instances, decorated with paintings and statues. There were in Rome sixteen public baths, usually called Thermae, supplied with hot and cold Avater, and open at all hours of the day. Though they differed, both in magnitude and splendor, yet these edifices had some features in common. They contained spacious halls for bathing and SAvimming, for reading and declamation, for conversation and exercise. These halls were all lined and paved Avith marble, and adorned Avith the most valu- able statues and paintings. They Avere surrounded Avith plantations and walks, and combined eA^ery species of polite and manly amusement. The principal baths were those of Diociesian, Caracalla, and Titus. Next to these edifices, the following were the most remarkable : the temple of CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 289 jEsculapius, in the island of the Tiber, which was consecrated to that god, now the church of St. Bartholomew ; the temple of Antoninus and Faustina, in the Via Sacra, now the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda; the magnificent temple of Apollo, which Augustus built of white marble, on the Palatine, in which were preserved the Sybil- line books (it contained, besides many other curiosities, a splendid library, and served as a place of resort to the poets, who here recited their works) ; the temple of the Caesars (Templum Csesarum), which contained the statues of the Csesars, the heads of all which were struck off at once by lightning ; the temple of the Dioscuri, in the Forum Romanum, under the Palatine hill, opposite the church of Santa Maria Liberatrice, built in honor of the two youths, who, in the battle of the lake Regillus, assisted the Romans in gaining the victory, and were supposed to be Castor and Pollux ; the temple of the goddess Seia, under the Palatine, built by Servius Tullius, which Nero enclosed in his golden palace, and caused to be covered with transparent Cappadocian marble ; the temple of the confederacy, under the name of Templum Dianse commune, which the Latin cities built in union, by the persuasion of Servius Tullius, and upon a monument in which were inscribed the arliclesof the confedera- tion ; the temple of Janus, upon the island of the Tiber, near the modern Sistine bridge, one of the most beautiful of ancient Rome ; the temple of the Flavian family, in which Domitian was buried, still standing on the Piazza Grimana ;' the region by Fulvius Nobilior, who placed here the images of the Muses, brought by him from Ambracia ; the temple of Honor and Virtue, in the first region, built by Marcus Mar- cellus, and ornamented by the Marcelli with the monuments of their family ; the temple of Jupiter Stator, on the declivity of the Palatine hill, vowed by Romulus on an occasion when his soldiers began to flee ; the temple of Jupiter Tonans, built by Augustus with much splendor on the slope of the Capitoline hill ; the beautiful tem- ple of the Lycaonian hill, on the island of the Tiber, which thence received the name of Lycaonia ; two temples of Isis and of Serapis ; the temple of Juno Moneta, built upon the spot where the house of Manlius was torn down, on the fortifications of the Capitoline hill, because the awakening of the garrison on the attack of the Gauls was attributed to this goddess; the temple of Liberty, built by Gracchus in the thirteenth region, and restored by Asinius Pollio, who there established the first public library ; the temple of Mars, on the east side of the Appian Way, before the Porta Capena, in the first region, in which the senate gave audience to generals who claimed the honor of a triumph, and likewise to foreign ambassadors (the church delle Palme stands upon its ruins) ; the temple of Mars Ultor, built by Augustus with great splendor, when he recovered the eagles of the legions ihat had been conquered by the Parthians ; the splendid temple of Minerva, which Domitian built in the forum of Nerva ; another temple of the same goddess, Avhich Pompey built in the Campus Martins, and which Augustus covered with bronze ; the temple of Peace, once the richest and most beautiful temple in Rome, built by Vespasian, in the Via Sacra, in the fourth region, which contained the treasures of the temple of Jerusalem, a splendid library, and other curiosities, but was burnt under the reign of Commodus; the temple of the goddess Salus, which was painted by Fabius Pictor, the first Roman painter ; the temple of Saturn, built by Tarquin the younger, which was afterward used for the treasury and the archives of Rome ; the temple of the Sun, which Aurelian erected at an enormous expense, and of which some ruins still exist. There were several temples of Venus, and among them, particularly, the magnificent temple of Venus Genitrix, which Csesar caused to be built to her as the origin of his family,, and the temple of Venus and Roma, of which Adrian himself designed the model ;■ the temple of Vesta, one of the oldest and most remarkable, built by Numa on the southern summit of the Palatine : in it were contained the ancilia, or sacred shields, and the palladium, sacred fire, &c. Of the palaces, the imperial was the most distinguished. It was built by Augustus upon the Palatine hill, and gave the name to the tenth region of the city. The front was on the Via Sacra, and before it were planted oaks. Within the palac€ lay the temple of Vesta, and also that of Apollo, which Augustus endeavored to make the chief temple in Rome. The succeeding emperors extended and beautified this palace. Nero burnt it, but rebuilt it, of such extent that it not only embraced all the Palatine hill, but also the plain between that and the Ccelian and Esquiline, and even a part of these hills, in its limits. He ornamented it so richly with precious stones, gold, silver, statues, paintings, and treasures of every description, that it justly re- ceived the name of Domus Aurea (Golden House). The following emperors not. 19 php* 290 , SCENES AND SKETCHES IN only stripped it of its ornaments, but Vespasian and Titus caused some parts of it lo be pulled down. Domitian afterward restored the main building. In the reign of Commodus a great part of it was burnt, but it was restored by him and his successors. In the time of Theodoric it needed still further repairs ; but this huge edifice subse- quently became a ruin, and on its site now stand the Farnese palace and gardens, and the Villa Spada. Among the theatres, those of Pompey, Cornelius Balbus, and Marcellus, were the most celebrated. Pompey built that which bore his name, after his return from Greece, and adorned it with the most beautiful Grecian statues. An aqueduct brought water into every part of it. In order to protect it from de- struction, he built within its precincts a splendid temple to Venus Victrix. It was capable of containing 40,000 persons. Caligula first finished it, but Tiberius had previously restored the scenes ; Claudius, still later, did the same thing, and the Gothic king Theodoric caused it to be repaired. A few remains of it are yet to be distinguished near the palace Ursini. The theatre of Balbus, the favorite of Augus- tus, was situated in the Campus Martius. The theatre of Marcellus was built by Augustus in memory of his nephew Marcellus ; it accommodated 22,000 spectators, and was repaired by Vespasian. Some beautiful ruins of it are still to be seen. Among the remaining circuses the following deserve to be mentioned : the circus Agonalis, in the ninth region; the circus Aurelius, in the gardens of Heliogabalus, in the fifth ; the circus Flaminius, in the ninth, one of the largest and most remarkable, upon the ruins of which the church of St. Caterina de' Funari and the palace MafTei now stand ; the circus of Flora in the sixth region, upon the same spot which the Piazza Grimana now occupies, where the licentious Floralia were celebrated ; lastly, the circus of Nero, in the fourteenth region, near the modern church of St. Peter ; and the circus of Sallust, the ruins of which are still visible near the Colline gate. Without stopping to describe the Naumachise, we will proceed to the porticoes or colonnades. Among these are the Porlicus Argonauiarum, also called Porticus Neptuni, Agrippas, or Vipsanii, which Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa built in 729, and adorned with paintings, representing the history of the Argonauts : it was situated in the Campus Martius, surrounded by a laurel grove, and the marble pillars, still visible in the Piazza di Pietr'a, probably belonged to it ; the splendid portico of Europa, in the Campus Martius, supposed to have been built by Augustus, and containing the history of Europa ; the Porticus Hecatonstylon, in the ninth, region, so called from its one hundred pillars ; the portico of Livia, in the third region, built by Augustus, and demolished by Nero ; the portico of Metellus, founded by Metellus Macedonicus, between the temple of Apollo, built by him ; and that of Juno, in the ninth region, and ornamented with statues, brought by him from Macedonia; the Porticus Mil- liarensis, or of the thousand columns, the ruins of which are yet to be seen in the gardens of the duke of Muti ; the portico of Octavia, built by Augustus ; and the portico of Pola, built by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa ; the portico of Pompey, called the Corinthian, from its pillars being of that order of architecture ; Pompey built it near his theatre, and ornamented it with golden tapestry ; finally, the portico of the sun (Porticus Solis), which was built by Aurelian. Among the basilicse, one of the most beautiful was the ^milian, on the northerly side of the Forum Romanum, built by Paulus ^milius. We will also mention the Basilica Caii, or.Lucii, on the Esquiline hill, the splendid Basilica Julia, on the southern side of the Forum Ro- manum, built by Julius Cajsar, and the Basilica Portia, which was the oldest, and was built by Cato the Censor. Of the public baths, some of which equalled in extent large palaces, and were tsmamented with still greater splendor, there have been enumerated about twenty- two warm, and eight hundred and fifty-six cold, besides eight hundred and eighty private baths. Maecenas and Agrippa founded the first public baths, which were afterward surpassed by those of Caracalla, and these, in their turn, by those of Diocletian, vestiges of which remain till this day. Rome was likewise rich in magnificent gardens. The gardens of Lucullus, in the ninth region, held the first rank ; after these, the gardens of Asinius PoUio, Julius Csesar, Maecenas, Heliogabalus, &c. Of the tri- umphal arches, the most celebrated were, that of Constantine, the ruins of which are yet seen ; that of Drusus, in the Appian Way, of which the modern gate of St. Sebastian is said to have been built ; that of Gallienus, and those of Severus and Titus, which are yet in good preservation ; the former in the Forum, and the latter CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 291 in the Vicus Sandalarius. Among the columns, the most beautiful was Trajan's pillar, one hundred and twenty-four feet in height, still standing. Instead of the statue of that emperor, which it formerly bore, Sixtus V. placed upon it a statue of St. Peter, in bronze, twenty-three feet in height. The bas-reliefs, with which it is orna- mented, represent the exploits of Trajan, and contain about two thousand and five hundred half and whole human figures. A flight of stairs, within the pillar, leads to its summit. The columna rostrata, which Duillius erected in commemoration of his victory over the Carthaginian fleet, and the pillars of Antoninus and Aurelian, are still standing. Among the magnificent sepulchral monuments, the mausoleum of Augustus and theSeptizonium of Septimius Severus surpassed all others in splendor. This city was also rich in splendid private buildings, and in the treasures of art, with which not only the public places and streets, but likewise the residences and gardens of the principal citizens, Avere ornamented, and of which but comparatively few vestiges have survived the ravages of time. Having thus enumerated the principal objects which contributed so much to the splendor of ancient Rome, we shall now devote some space to the ruins which now exist, and which still render Rome so interesting to the votaries of talent and art. Among the monuments of antiquity still remaining in Rome, one of the most famous and most interesting is the beautiful column of Trajan. According to the inscription which is still to be read on its base, it was erected by the senate and peo- ple of Rome in honor of the victories obtained by the emperor Trajan, in his two expeditions against the Dacians, in the first of which he compelled that fierce people to sue for peace, and in the second, entirely conquered their country, and added it to the dominions of Rome. The former was undertaken in the year 101, and lasted for three years ; on the latter he set out in 105, and returned the year following, the war having been thus speedily terminated by the Dacian king, Decebalus, putting him- self to death to avoid the risk of what he deemed a worse fate. The column was erected in the year 115, after Trajan had gone on his last expedition, that against the Parthians and Armenians. From this he never returned, having been cut off by a dysenteric fever, at Seleucia, in 117. He never, therefore, beheld the magnificent structure which had been raised to record his glory. The pillar of Trajan originally stood in the midst of a large square or forum, as it was called, the buildings surrounding which, comprehended a palace, a gymnasium, a library, several triumphal arches, porticoes, and other erections, in the most superb style of architecture. Gilded statues and military ensigns glittered on the fronts of the buildings; and besides the column, an equestrian statue of the emperor appears to have occupied a conspicuous position in the open space within. For richness of display, there was probably nothing in Rome comparable to this forum. Cassidorus, a writer who flourished in the beginning of the sixth century, while the buildings, as may be gathered from his account, were still standing, says of it : " The forum of Trajan is a perfect miracle, if we inspect it even with the utmost minuteness." All the buildings of the forum of Trajan are now thrown down, with the excep- tion of the pillar. Their ruins have raised the present streets fifteen feet above the ancient pavement. A few years ago, however, the accumulated soil and rubbish were removed immediately around the column, which is now, therefore, to be seen standing in the excavation, in its full dimensions. It is built of white marble, which was probably also the material of the surrounding buildings, as it certainly was of their pavements, which have been, in part, uncovered. It consists of a base, a shaft of the Doric order, and a capital ; and it was anciently surmounted by a statue of the emperor, in place of which one of the apostle Peter has been substituted. The ashes of Trajan are said to have been contained in a golden bull, which rested on the head of the figure, and which is believed to be the same that is still to be seen ornamenting the great staircase of the capitol. Including the statue, the height of the whole is stated by ancient writers to have been one hundred and forty feet. The height of the pillar alone is one hundred and twenty-eight modern Roman, or one hundred and twenty-four English, feet. The whole consists of only thirty-three blocks of marble, of which eight compose the base, twenty-three the shaft, one the capital, and another the pedestal supporting the statue. It is ascended by a spiral staircase in the interior, which is entirely cut out of the same stones. There are forty-three loopholes or apertures for the admis- sion of the light. But the most curious part of the column is the sculptures in bas-relief, by which 292 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN the whole of the shaft is covered. The series of delineations runs round the pillar in an ascending spiral riband, which makes, in all, twenly-two revolutions before reaching the top. On this is represented, in chiselling of exquisite delicacy, the suc- cession of Trajan's Dacian victories, together with the two triumphal processions by which they were celebrated. The figures, which are designed with great spirit, are not fewer than between two and three thousand in number, that of Trajan occurring about fifty times. In the lower part of the shaft they are each about two feet in height; but as they ascend and are removed farther from the eye, their dimensions are enlarged, till at the top they become nearly double the size of those below. B as- Reliefs on the Column of Trajan, at Rome. These sculptures are extremely interesting in another point of view, as well as for their merit as works of art. " The Roman dress and manners," says Mr. Burton, in his " Description of the Antiquities of Rome," " may receive considerable light from these bas-reliefs. We find the soldiers constantly carrying their swords on the right side. On a march they are generally bareheaded ; some have no helmet at all ; others wear them suspended to their right shoulder. Some of them have lions' heads by way of a cap, with the mane hanging down behind. Each of them car- ries a stick over the left shoulder, which seems to have been for the purpose of con- veying their provisions. We may observe a wallet, a vessel for wine, a machine for dressing meat, &c. We know from other accounts that they sometimes carried sixty- pounds, and food for seventeen days ; they never carried less than enough for three days. Their shields are oblong, with different devices upon them. The standards are of various kinds ; such as a hand within a wreath of laurel, which was consid- ered a sign of concord. Pictures also were used, which were portraits of gods or heroes. The soldiers wear upon their legs a kind of tight pantaloon, reaching a little below the knee, and not buttoned. The Dacians have loose pantaloons, reach- ing to the ankle and shoes; they also carry curved swords. The Sarmatian cavalry, allies of Decebalus, wear plate-armor, covering the men and horses. These were called Cataphracti or Clibanarii ; and the words of Ammianus exactly answer the representation on the column : ' Their armor was a covering of thin circular plates, which were adapted to the movements of the body, and drawn over all their limbs ; so that in whatever direction they wished to move, their clothing allowed them free play, by the close fitting of its joints.' Some Roman soldiers have also plate-armor, but they are archers. The horses have saddles, or rather cloths, which are fastened by cords round the breast and under the tail. The Dacian horses are without this CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 293 294 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN covering ; and the Germans, or some other allies, have neither saddles nor bridles to their horses. We might observe several other particulars, such as a bridge of boats over a river, and that the boats everywhere are without a rudder, but are guided by an oar fastened with a thong on one side of the stern. The wall of the camp has battlements, and the heads of the Dacians are stuck upon it. The Dacian women are represented burning the Roman prisoners." Our engraving is principally copied from a plate in the splendid work on the " Architecural Antiquities of Rome." It represents the column, vi^ith the surround- ing ground and buildings, as the whole appeared soon after the late excavations. In the foreground is seen a portion of the pavement of the basilica, or palace, which formed one of the most sumptuous buildings of the forum ; and the pillars which are ranged around are some of those that belonged to the same edifice. " The church to the left," says the description appended to this print, " is dedicated to the Madonna di Loretto ; it was erected by Bramante, and its cupola is one of the ear- liest specimens of that modern appendage to a church, and is supposed to have been the prototype of the admirable dome of St. Peter's." The magnificence of the column corresponded with that of the Forum, constructed by ApoUodorus of Damascus. It was surrounded with porticoes of columns, sup- porting statues and bronze ornaments ; with a basilica, a temple, and the celebrated Ulpian library. It was found in the last excavations, that the column was placed in the centre of a small oblong court, sevenly-six feet in length and fifty-six in width, paved with marble, having to the south the wall of the basilica, and on the other three sides a portico, composed of a double row of columns. The library was divi- ded into two parts, one for Greek, the other for Latin works, which were afterward removed by Diocletian to his thermae. Remains of it have been found behind the two small porticoes near the column. The basilica followed the direction from east to west, having its principal entrance to the south ; the interior was divided by four rows of columns into five naves; the pavement was composed of giallo antico and violet marble ; the walls were covered with white marble, the roof with gilt bronze, and the five entrance steps were large blocks of giallo antico. Fragments of the steps, the pavement, and the granite columns belonging to the interior perystile, are still visible. Toward the column, the basilica was closed by a wall ; it had three entrances, each decorated with a portico of four columns, supporting an attic ; on the terrace above were a triumphal car and statues ; a triumphal arch led to the great square situated to the south, and surrounded with sumptuous porticoes. It is probable that a similar space existed at the opposite extremity, behind the temple, so that what remains at present may be estimated at about one third of the surface of the forum, of which the whole length was two thousand, and the breadth six hundred and fifty feet. Among the equestrian statues raised on this spot, was that of Trajan, in gilt bronze, placed before the temple which particularly attracted the attention of the emperor Constantius, when he visited Rome, in the year 354. The injuries of time and the depredations of man, ruined all these magnificent edifices v^rhich were still entire in the year 600, even after the ravages of the Goths and Vandals. The fragments and inscriptions found in the last excavations are affixed to the walls. Another vestige of ancient Rome is the Forum. This scene, though now so deso- late and degraded, was once the great centre of all the business, power, and splen- dor of Rome. Here, as long as the Romans were a free people, all the aflfairs of the state were debated in a most public manner, and from the rostra, elevated in the midst of the square, and with their eyes fixed on the capitol, which immediately faced them, and which was suited to fill their minds with patriotism, while the Tarpeian rock reminded them of the fate reserved for treason or corruption, the noblest of ora- tors "wielded at will the fierce democracy," or filled the souls of gathered thousands with one object, one wish, one passion — the freedom and glory of the RomSn race — a freedom which would have been more enduring had the glory been less. " Yes, in yon field below, A thousand years of silenced factions sleep — The Forum, where the immortal accents glow, And still the eloquent air breathes, burns with Cicero !" " The field of freedom, faction, fame, and blood : Here a proud people's passions were exhaled, CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 295 From the first hour of empire in the bud, To that when further worlds to conquer failed ; But long before had Freedom's face been veiled, And Anarchy assumed her attributes ; Till every lawless soldier ■who assailed Trod on the trembling senate's slavish mutes, Or raised the venal voice of baser prostitutes." Here the orators of the people brought their accusations against public men, or pronounced the eulogies of such as had died for their country ; and here also were exhibited the bleeding heads or lifeless bodies of traitors, or, as it but too often hap- pened, of men unjustly deemed so by an overbearing faction. The Forum was the court of justice, and in the homely days of the early republic civil and criminal causes were tried and decided by simple laws, in the open air, or in very plain sheds built in this square. The humble schools for the republican chil- dren (for these old Romans had places of public instruction for even the poor people) stood round the Forum, and seem to have been intermixed with shops, shambles, stalls, lowly temples, and altars. It was as she used to cross the Forum, day by day, in her way to and from school, that the innocent young Virginia, a maiden of plebeian rank, but extraordinary beauty, unhappily attracted the notice of the lustful and tyrannical decemvir, Appius Claudius, who sat there on the tribunal, surrounded by lictors, to administer the laws which he himself outraged. It was here, as she was on her way to school, that Appius had her seized. Livy says : " As Virginia came into the Forum (for the schools of learning were held there in sheds), a dependant and minister of the decemvir's lust laid his hands on her, and affirming that ' she was a slave, and born of a woman who was his slave,' ordered her to follow him, threatening, in case of refusal, to drag her away by force." This fearful tragedy, with a sort of dramatic unity, was ended where it began. When the honest centurion Virginius, informed of the disgrace hanging over the head of his daughter, quitted the army with which he was fighting for his country, and came to Rome, he appeared in the Forum to plead for his child ; and when he and Icilius, a young man to whom Virginia was betrothed, had both pleaded in vain, it was here he slew her. According to Livy : — " Virginius, seeing no prospect of assistance from any quarter, said : ' Appius, I entreat you first to make allowance for a father's grief, if I have made use of loo harsh expressions toward you ; and next, allow me here, in the presence of the maiden, to inquire of her nurse the truth of this affair, that if I have been falsely called her father, I may depart hence with the more resignation.' Permission being granted, he drew the maiden and nurse aside to the sheds, near the temple of Cloa- cina, then called the new sheds, and there, snatching a knife from a butcher, plunged it into his daughter's breast, with these words: 'In this manner, sweet child — the only one in my power — do I secure your liberty !' And then, looking back on Ap- pius: 'With this blood, Appius,' said he, 'I devote thee and thine head to per- dition !' " This fearful scene led to a general rising of the commons and people of Rome against the nobles. The tyrannical offices of the decemvirs were abolished ; the power of the aristocracy, which had been great out of all proportion, was abridged, and a check put upon their cruelty, arrogance, and insolence. In vain did Caius Claudius, a most noble and virtuous Roman, and the uncle of Appius, appear in the Forum, dressed in deep mourning, and surrounded by his relatives and dependants, to supplicate that the Claudian family, which had rendered many services to the state, might not be degraded by chains and imprisonment, and to implore pardon or protection of every individual citizen he met with in behalf of his nephcAV. The fate of the criminal Appius was sealed by men of unbending minds, and, to escape a pub- lic execution, he put an end to his own life in prison. His example was followed by Spurius Oppius, the most unpopular of his colleagues, and the rest of the decem- virs went into exile, leaving their estates to be confiscated. Marcus Claudius, the vile pander who had claimed the fair Roman as his slave, was condemned to die; but this sentence was mitigated, and he also went into a dishonored, wretched exile at Tibur (now Tivoli). "And thus the shade of Virginia, whose cause was best supported after her death, having roamed through so many families in quest of ven- geance, rested in peace, none of the guilty being left unpunished." We have alluded to these incidents as they throw light on the plain, homely state 296 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN of the Forum in the earlier ages of the Roman republic, when stately edifices and the pomps and beauties of architecture and sculpture were unknown. To narrate all the great events of which this spacious area was the scene, would be in a man- ner to write the history of Rome. Virgil, in speaking of this site in the days of Evander, who is supposed to have flourished some centuries before Romulus, says that then the flocks of sheep used to wander, and cows low, on the Roman forum. If this were the case, it could only have been in certain seasons, for, placed low, be- tween hills, it received the rain and other waters from the higher grounds and the ravines or gulleys that cut the hills, and must have been a complete SM'amp during a good part of the year. Indeed, as Sir William Gell shows in his recent learned and laborious work on the " Topography of Rome and its Neighborhood," the spot which afterward became the Forum, as well as all the low ground on the side of the Circus Maximus, or Colosseum, was a marsh in the" time of Romulus, and these two marshes served as a military defence to the Palatine, on which single hill then stood the whole of the city. If these bogs added to the strength of infant Rome, they must also have made the place a very unhealthy residence. As the city expanded, and enclosed other hills, and more and more room was required, the Forum was ar- tificially drained. Sir William Gell says : " The Forum must always have remained a marsh, had not a subterranean channel been constructed, which carried off the stagnant waters by the Cloaca Maxima to the Tiber." These cloaca, or sewers, which were works of magnitude and utility, as may still be seen by the almost per- fect remains of them, were built under the first Tarquinian king by a number of Etrurians whom he brought to Rome for the purpose. The increase of cleanliness and salubrity they gave rise to must have been prodigious, and they continued to be serviceable for many centuries. In the time of the kingdom and republic, regular officers were appointed to the charge of them; under the emperors, contractors en- gaged to keep them in order for a fixed annual sum. Of all the capital cities of Europe, though neither of them reached perfection in this essential, ancient Rome and modern London are probably those which have paid most attention to drainage, and made the costliest works for that most essential object. The same king, who is commonly called Tarquinius Priscus, was the first to as- sign lots of ground to the Roman people round the Forum, where sheds, lowly porti- coes, and shops, were soon erected. This was about five centuries and a half before Christ. As the conquests of the Romans extended, and the population of the city increased, the Forum became more and more thronged under the republic ; but one hundred or more years after Tarquinius, when the tragedy of Virginia took place, the square was still in a very primitive condition, as we have shown ; and the Forum does not appear to have gained much more a century after the latter event, or about 360 years before the Christian era, when a lake or chasm, called Lacus Curlius, sud- denly opened in the midst of it, and would not close again (so goes the legend) until the most precious object the city contained was thrown into it to pacify the angry gods. The story of the gallant, self-devoted Roman knight — the young and beautiful Marcus Curlius — who, after casting his eyes to the temples of the gods within view of the Forum, and to the sacred walls of the Capitol, galloped his horse into the chasm, and perished there for his country's good, was too marvellous even for the large faith of old Livy ; and yet it conveys so noble an example of patriotism that we are sorry we can not believe it. Perhaps, however, it was an embellished and poetized relation of some real event, in which the heroism or disinterestedness of a Roman knight conferred a great and lasting benefit on his countrymen. An earth- quake, or a tremendous rush of water, may have made a rent that would require an immense outlay to fill it up, and this outlay may have been made, to his own ruin, by one noble citizen. Or, if we suppose that some such calamity had in part thrown open, and in part blocked up, the Cloaca Maxima, which runs under the middle of the Forum, and that Curtius had it repaired at his own expense, although, to be able to do so, he was obliged to sacrifice even his horse, his best armor and gorgeous accoutrements, and utterly ruin his fortunes, and perhaps die while superintending the work, the narrative becomes less grandiose and romantic, but still conveys a glo- rious deed, while it gains infinitely on the side of credibility, as few people now-a- days will lend any belief to the responses of augurs and soothsayers, or to any part of the story as literally told by the old Roman chroniclers. In this natural way, even the labors of Hercules, and the exploits of Theseus, may be traced down to some real and natural deeds, which, as they had greatly benefited mankind, were in the first CONTINENTAL EUROPE.— ITALY. 298 SCENES AND SKETCHES IN instance magnified by gratitude in oral tradition, then made supernatural by priests, and finally etherealized by annalists and poets. During the republic, in the absence of those vast and splendid theatres and amphi- theatres where the emperors afterward amused that people whom they enslaved, the players and gladiators exhibited in the Forum. In the latter years of the com- monwealth a great number of temples, military columns, and rostra, dotted the space ; but these, for the most part, gave way to more splendid edifices and objects, which were erected during the empire, when the soul of liberty that had animated the place, and the virtues which could cast a charm on lowly walls, had for ever taken their departure. We do not eulogize the factious spirit, the love of war and conquest, which were the immediate causes of their ruin ; but we need scarcely re- mind any of our readers that the old Roman republicans had many private and pub- lic virtues, that they were sober, honest, chaste, and hospitable, and that they loved their country with an unbounded passion. All these disappeared under an execrable despotism ; and the Romans experienced what all nations will feel, that, in forging chains for others, they make rivets for their own necks ; that those who enslave to- day are on the road to be enslaved to-morrow ; that the spoifs of unjust aggression, and the gains wrung from a vanquished, but once free people, are like clothes stolen from the back of a man Avho has died