JUSTIFICATORY QUOTATIONS 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF MODELS OF THE CARAVELS 
 
 NINA AND PINTA 
 
 AND OF THE SHIP 
 
 SANTA MARIA 
 
 FROM THE « ARTE \AUTICA Al TEMPI Dl COLOMRO » 
 
 CAPT. E. A. D'ALBERTIS 
 
 MEMBER OP THE EOYAL COMMISSION 
 FOR THE PUBLICATION OF DOCUMENTS AND STUDIES ON CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 
 
 GENOA 
 
 PRINTED BY THE R. ISTITUTO SORDO-MUTI 
 1893 
 
 •» 
 

JUSTIFICATORY QUOTATIONS 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF MODELS OF THE CARAVELS 
 
 NINA AND PINTA 
 
 AND OF THE SHIP 
 
 SANTA MARIA 
 
 M THE « ARTE XAUTICA Al TEMPI Dl COLOMBO » 
 
 BY 
 
 ■to / 
 
 CAPT. E. A. D'ALBERTIS 
 
 MEMHER OF THE ROYAL CoMMI.SSrON 
 FOR THE PUBLICATrON OF DOCUMENTS AND STUDIES ON ChRISTOPHKR CoLUMHU.S 
 
 GENOA 
 
 PRINTED HY THE R. ISTITUTO SORDD-MUTT 
 1893 
 
JUSTIFICATORY QUOTATIONS 
 
 FOR THE RECOXSTRUCTION OP THE MODELS 
 
 OF COLUMBUS' SHIP AND CARAVELS 
 
 (oiumbus'vesH.'U Many authors , who have written about Columbus' three 
 glorious vessels, were of the opinion that one ot them only, 
 the Santa Maria, had a complet(3 deck, whilst the other two, 
 the Pinla, and the Nina, were deckless. Washington Irving, 
 Harrisse and otiiers are of the same opinion, which is how- 
 ever erroneous, as proved by the following quotations from 
 the writings of Pieiro Marlire d'Anghiera, a friend and 
 contemporany of Columbus. 
 
 « Instanti ex regio fisco destinata sunt tria navigia ; unum 
 onerarium caveatum (with cages or gabions viz : tops) alia duo 
 mercatoria levia sine caveis (without tops) que ab Hispanis 
 caravele vocantur » . 
 
 PlETRO MaRTIRE d'AnGHIERA 
 
 De orhe novo Decades. — Dec. I. 
 
4 — 
 
 « .... Ex cavea tandem grandioris navis pridie calendas 
 
 Julii nauta quidam speculator tres montes altissimos 
 
 se conspicere proclamat » . 
 
 PlETRO MaRTIUK d'AnGHIERA 
 
 De orhe nouo Decades. — Lib. VI. 
 
 In latin dictionaries the Italian words Gahhia {cage) or Cava 
 sotlerranea (cane) are given as corresponding to tlie Latin cavea. 
 — The Spanish term jaula corresponds to the Italian Gabbia 
 or English Cage. — In the Diccionario de la lengua Castel- 
 lana, compiled by the Spanish Accademy, the definition of 
 the word Gavia is as follows: « la jaula de madera en que 
 se encierra el que estci loco furioso. « Cavea furiosis deti- 
 NENDis « . The Diccionario marilimo espauol says Gavia obs. 
 vide Co fa ^= French. /m7ie := Engl, top = Ital. coffa. The 
 sides of the large round tops then used, sometimes perfo- 
 rated, gave such an appearance to these appendages of a 
 ship's masts, that Anghiera was thereby led to term them 
 in latin by the name of Caveis or cages. 
 
 To prove more clearly that by the term Cavealum^ Pietro 
 Marlire meant to translate into latin the Spanish expression 
 navio de gavia, and by the words sine caveis, meant to indicate 
 that the caravels were not supplied with the heavy and 
 warlike gavie, corresponding to modern « tops » , we beg to 
 quote wliat he wrote in his second Decade about the ships 
 composing Columbus' second expedition. 
 
 « XVII ad secundam expeditionem navigia parari iubet . tria 
 « oneraria cavenla magna. XII idem genus navium quas dici 
 « apud Hispanos caravele si-ripsimus sine caveis, eiusdem ge- 
 « neris duas aliquanto grandiores atque ad sustinendam ca- 
 « veas priiplcr vialonoii iimgnltndimmi apUis « . 
 
— 5 — 
 
 It results therefore that three, out of these nineteen vessels, 
 were large ships supplied witli gavie or tops, twelve were 
 caravels carrying no tops, and the remaining two were ca- 
 ravels of a greater tonnage, which, being supplied with larger 
 masts, could bear the weight of the gavia and stand the 
 strain of the top-sail. 
 
 « .... la villa [Palos] dio los dos navios . . , . y Cri- 
 stobal Colon lleto allende aquellos dos una nao ». 
 
 Las Casas 
 Historia de las Indias, vol. I. 
 
 « Armo una nao Capitana que 11am 6 Santa Maria, la se- 
 gunda se dijol la Pinla, y la tercera la Niha que Uevaba 
 velas latinas » . 
 
 Antonio de Herrera 
 
 Historia general de to hechos de los Castellanos 
 
 en las islas y en tierra firme. 
 
 Lateon-ri rireii « Los navios latinos son aquellos que tienen una relinga 
 sola y de palo ; y quando van barloventeando , para hacer 
 otra vuelta tienen necesidad de traer al pie del arbol el car 
 y pasarlo por de dentro de la xarcia, como se hace en todas 
 las caravelas y caravelones, bergantines y fragatas. En las 
 quales suertes y generos de navios es muy peligroso el modo 
 de navegar . . . . » 
 
liedondos « Redondos se llaman todos aquellos navios que tienen dos 
 
 vessels/ loes, que se dicen dos relingas, que se puede barloventear 
 
 con ellos de una vuelta y de otra sin virar las vergas, sino 
 
 haciendo a la larga con sus contras y escotas, y por el mesmo 
 
 modo de velas quadradas se llama el navio que las trae 
 
 « redondo » y este es el mejor y mas seguro y mas 
 
 competente modo de navios que para largas navegaciones 
 hasta agora se ha inventado » . 
 
 Itinerario de. navegacion de los snares y tierras occidentales, 
 compuesto por el Capitan Jhoan de Escalante de Mendoza, 
 1575, Royal library of Madrid. - M. S., N. 66, estante J. 
 
 The following quotations will afford a further proof that, 
 when sailing from Palos, the Nina was a lateen -rigged 
 vessel, while the other two were both square-rigged, viz: 
 Redondi. 
 
 « Hicieron la Nina redonda porque era latina » . 
 
 Columbus' diary, August 9.*'^ (^). 
 
 « . . . . fe mutar la vela latina in rotonda (or square 
 sails) air altra caravella, detta la Nigna, acciocche con piu 
 quiete e minor pericolo gli altri legni seguisse ». 
 
 Fernando Colombo, Ilisiorie — Venice 1685. 
 
 (') Navarrete writes Pinta insteari of Nina, but the correct version is to be 
 found in Vol. 1, Part I of the Raccoita di Docuinenti e Studi pubblicati dalla 
 li. Cominisslune Colonibiana — Rome 1892. 
 
— 7 — 
 
 « . . . . e della Nigna, che era latina, e 1' ultima, era 
 capitaiio Vincenzo Agnez Pinzon » . 
 
 Fernando Colombo, Historie. 
 
 ^aiitiralqunliticK 1 , in. 
 
 of the Niiip « .... la nao .... era muy pesada y no para el oficio 
 
 Santa Maria i i i ■ 
 
 de descubrir ». 
 
 The Diary, December 26J^ 
 
 The fararel 
 Pinta 
 
 yiiui 
 
 « Torno a ventar muy amoroso, y llevaba todas mis velas 
 de la nao, maestra, dos bonetas, y trinquete, y cebadera, y 
 mezana, y vela de gavia, y el batel por popa » . 
 
 7'he Diarij, October 2-1 J'^ 
 
 « . . . . porque la carabela Pmta era mas velera e iba 
 delante del Almirante, hallo tierra ...... 
 
 The Diary, October 11.^^ 
 
 The rarnvci « . . . . Si uo fuGra la Carabela [Nina) .... muy buena 
 
 y bien aderezada, temiera perderse » . 
 
 The Diary, February 12 J^ 
 
!l Clll'IlVul 
 
 Des-riptiori of « . . . . Quarum {the caravels') forma haec est. Carchesiis 
 carent: antennas non habent transversas ad pares angulos, 
 sed oblique paulum infra summum malis alligatas. Vela sunt 
 in speciem triangulis facta cuius basis non multum ab infi- 
 mis armamentis eminent ...... 
 
 HiERONiMi OsoRii SiLVENSTS in Algarbiis Episcopi. 
 De rebus Emanuelis — Coloniae mdxcvh. 
 
 « Las caravelas .... son embarcariones del mar de Le- 
 vante, y de velas latinas, siendo de 100 toneladas, poco mas 
 6 menos, y rara la de esta calidad que pase de 200, y hay 
 pocas que lleguen » . 
 
 D. Jose de Veitia — Noi^te de la Contralacion 
 de Indias Occidentales — Sevilla 1672. 
 
 « Si insegna chiamarsi caravella in Portogallo un piccolo 
 bastimento da 120 a 140 tonnellate ». 
 
 Slratico's Marine dictionary. — Ivlilan 1814. 
 
 « La carabela es una embarcacion de una cubierta, larga 
 y angosta {long and narroiv) y con espolon a la proa » . 
 
 Diccionario de Autoridades — Madrid 1726. 
 
_ 9 _ 
 
 « La carabela es una embarcacion, larga y angosta {long and 
 narrow) con una sola cubierta, espolon a proa, popa liana, 
 tres mastiles sin cofas y una vela latina en cada uno ». 
 
 Diccionario marilimo espaJiol, — Madrid 1865. 
 
 It appears from the above Spanish definitions that a ca- 
 ravel's mast, a lateen-rigged caravel's, at least, had no tops. 
 It is however logical to presume that in a voyage of disco- 
 very, through seas unknown, Columbus may have had a 
 basket or gabion « gata » placed at the upper end of the 
 mast, similar to those as used on galleys, where a sailor 
 was always on the look-out. 
 
 Acting on this consideration the models of the two caravels 
 have been rigged with the look-out basket or « gala » . 
 
 One however must be very careful about such defini- 
 tions, as: 
 
 « .... En punto a la definicion de la caravela, no es 
 de fijar. Esta embarcacion, como V. piensa muy bien, no ha 
 tenido, nunca espolon^, ni neccsitaba tenerlo. Toclos los otros 
 diccionarios espanoles son de epoca muy posterior y no me- 
 recen mayor credito ...... 
 
 From a letter of D. Cesaheo Fernandez Duko, author of the 
 « Dlsqalslciones Nauticas, t<i cap. D'Albertis. 
 
 What the sails of a Carabela quadra were like, is 
 explained in the notes left by Diego de Poiras Escribano 
 e oficial de la Armada with whom Columbus made his fourth 
 voyage of discovery. 
 
 The inventory of the Carabela Santiago shows : 
 
— 10 — 
 
 « 2. velas maestras del arbol major con una boneta. 
 « 1. vela maestra de trinquete con una boneta. 
 
 " 1. vela de mesana. 
 « 1. vela de gavia. 
 
 D. Cesareo Fernandez Duro. 
 La Nao Santa Maria — Madrid 1892. 
 
 Such are the sails used on the model of the Pinta : unlike 
 the Nao, she has no civada or cebadera sail, but a small vela 
 de gavia, or rather a velacho. 
 
 From the above quotation and from what Columbus says 
 in his diary of October 7.^^ « la carabela Nina levanto una 
 « bandera en el tope del mastel » , we may infer what is 
 likely to have been the canvas of the Pinta. In fact, if the 
 caravel Nina , at the Canary Isles , by the sole means she 
 possessed on board , was converted into a square-rigged vessel, 
 had a top gallant mast (since she hoisted a flag at the top of 
 her mastel or tnastellero) ; it is but reasonable to suppose 
 that the Pi7ita , a square - rigged caravel from the time of 
 building, must have been also furnished with such a mast. 
 We may therefoie rightly presume that the two caravels 
 (which Anghiera describes as mercatoria levia), whilst deprived 
 of the heavy warlike cavee or gavie used on large ships, 
 carried over their main sail a small top sail (vela de gavia 
 or rather velacho) to catch the light winds. 
 
 Also nowadays there are brigantines and brig-schooners 
 with, and without tops. 
 
 B..a(«. The Spanish ships in Columbus' time usually carried two 
 
 boats on board: ihe batel , which was the largest, and the 
 chalupa , the smallest. A caravel had one boat only , and 
 the batel had to be broader and stronger ahead than astern. 
 
— 11 — 
 
 that it might serve to weigli an anchor by means of a 
 windlass: the chalupa had to be sharper ahead and with a 
 rounder stern to bear the weight of a kedge anchor. 
 
 As to dimensions, the chalupa should be one third the size 
 of a batel, and the latter of such a burthen that fifty of its 
 loads should make a full cargo for the ship it belonged to. 
 
 « La mejor y mas acertada medida que un batel puede y 
 « debe tener para ser bueno y competente, es que se haga 
 «< u la medida de la mesma nao a quien hubiere de servir, 
 « .... Y la mas comun y ordinaria quenta que en esto se 
 « suele y acostumbra tener es que, en cinquenta barcadas 
 « 6 bateladas cargue el batel su mesma nao . . . . de ma- 
 « nera que el batel del navio de cient pipas lleve dos pipas, 
 « y el de la nao que fuere de quatrocientas, lleve ocho ...» 
 
 Jhoan Escalante de Mendoza, Work above quoted. 
 Cf. DuRO — Disquisiciones nauticas, v. 1. 
 
 Flags and «... la carabela Nina, .... levanto una bandera en 
 el topo del mastil , y tiro una lombarda por serial que vian 
 tierra ». 
 
 The Diary, October 7/^ 
 
 « . . . . como la carabela Pinla, .... fuese delante de 
 todas por ser mas velera vido la tierra, .... a las dos horas 
 despues de media noclie, .... hizo las senales que de liaber 
 visto lierra, por la instruccion que llevaba, debia hacer, que 
 era tirar un tiro de lombarda y alzar las banderas » . 
 
 Las Casas — Ilidoria de las Indias, 1. 
 
— 12. — 
 
 « Sacu el Almirante la bandera Real y los Capitanes con 
 (los banderas de la Cruz verde, que llevaba el Almirante en 
 todos los navios por sena con una F y una Y: encima de 
 cada letra su corona, una de un cabo de la )^ y otra de otro » . 
 
 The Diary, October 12J^ 
 
 According to Columbus' diary, the three vessels, that di- 
 scovered the new world, each displayed a wliite flag, bearing 
 in the centre a green ^, on one side of which there was 
 a capital F and on the other side , a Y : over these initials, 
 which were of King Fernando and Queen Isabella, stood a 
 royal crown. — As a flag ship, the Santa Maria, moreover 
 had flying from her main mast the royal ensign of Castillo , 
 on which two castles and two lions were quartered, forming 
 the arms of the Kingdoms of Castilla y Leon. — The ensign 
 was not quite square , and had the form of a shield , its 
 outer edge being sliglitly rounded. The royal ensign is there- 
 fore displayed, as for a holiday, on the models of the Pi?2ta 
 and Nina, which bear pennants as well on their mizzen masts. 
 Only the Santa Maria carries a lantern on her stern, as a 
 sign of command, and on her starboard side , the Admiral's 
 own flag, which is of crimson damask, square and bearing 
 a crucifix in the centre. This was the flag displayed by the 
 Admirals of Castille. 
 
 As a sign of rejoicing and according to the custom of the 
 middle ages then followed by all Spanish galleys and ships, 
 the Santa Maria is dressed; that is: she has both her fore 
 and aft-castles decorated with shields bearing the arms of 
 Castille y Leon and of Aragon. Nowadays a ship is dressed 
 by hoisting a decoi-ation of flags from mast to mast , but in 
 the fifteenth century , ships, and galleys especially, were 
 trimmed for a lioliday by placing along tlieir sides, besides 
 a number a small flags , a line of many coloured sliields , 
 
— 13 — 
 
 which served, during a fight, as a defence for the crew. 
 These almost rectangular shields were called in Italian « pa- 
 vesi » from which is taken the modern Italian sea-term 
 « fare pavese » . In English « to dress » . 
 
 « . . . . y mostrole (to King Guacanaguari) la fuerza que 
 tenian y efecto que hacian las lombardas, por lo qual mando 
 armar una y tirar al costado de la nao que estaba en tier- 
 
 ra, y vido hasta donde llego la lombarda, y como 
 
 paso el costado de la nao, y fue muy lejos la piedra por la 
 mar » . 
 
 The Diary, January 2/'^ 
 
 « Dejoles (at the fort of Navidad) mucha artilleria 
 
 {taken from the ship Santa Maria, that was ivrecked on the 
 shallows of the island Espahola) » . 
 
 The Diary, January 2.''^^ 
 
 The naval artillery of that time consisted of guns called by 
 the Spaniards « lombardas » , and by the Italians « bombarde » 
 which were generally muzzle loading guns of moderate bore, 
 and fired stone shot ; besides these « lombarde » , smaller guns 
 were also used, called in Spanish « falconetes » and in Ita- 
 lian « falconetti » : these wer(3 breech loading guns and fired 
 leaden and iron shot. The diminutive specimens of these guns, 
 whicii are to be seen on the models of Columbus' ship and 
 caravels, are taken from some « bombarde » and « falconetti » 
 of that epoch, recently dredged in the harbour of Genoa. 
 
Itules for the 
 u u ni b e r a u (I 
 classification of 
 a crew. 
 
 — 14 — 
 
 « Una nao de cient toneladas, para navegar bien, reqiiiere 
 doce marineros y ocho grumetes y tres pajes . . . Y por las 
 primeras cien toneladas (above the first 100 tons) se deben 
 afiadir a la nao que fuere mayor ocho marineros y quatro 
 grumetes y un paje, de suerte que la de dosoientas tenga 
 veinte marineros, doce grumetes y quatro pajes » . 
 
 Jhoan Escalante de Mendoza, Work above quoted. 
 
 Crew for the 
 expedition. 
 
 « la gente que se allego y metio en ellas (both on ships 
 and caravels) con marineros y hombres de tierra , porque 
 llev6 algunos criados del Re}^ que se aficionaron a ir con el 
 por curiosidad, y otros criados y cognoscientes suyos, fueron 
 por todos noventa hombres » . 
 
 Las Casas, Hist, de las hidias, I. 
 
 « . . . . Essendo elleno adunque fornite di tutte le cose 
 necessarie con nouanta huomini , » . 
 
 Fernando Colombo, Historie. 
 
 « con noventa hombres que en ellas se embarca- 
 
 ron la mayor parte naturales de Palos ». 
 
 Antonio de Herrera, llisloria general, I- 
 
 From the above quotations we see that the crew of the 
 first expedition numbered 90 men : the Santa Maria had pro- 
 
- 15 — 
 bably 44 persons on board, viz : the crew of a 200 ton vessel, 
 
 the remaining number , 46 persons , were divided between 
 the two caravels. 
 
 Supposed crew of the Santa Maria (about) 44 (i) 
 
 « » » Finta » 26 
 
 » » » Nina » 20 
 
 90 
 
 E. A. D'Albertis , A7'te nautica, etc. Chapter II. 
 
 « .... en Levante para dar a entender el tamano de 
 una nao dicen llevara tantas salmas de trigo, y en Flandes 
 y en Francia, tantas barricas, 6 sacas de lana, 6 cahices de 
 sal, 6 de las otras mas usadas mercaderias, ... En nucstra 
 Hespana habemos usado y usamos de este nombre de toneladas, 
 el qual modo de hablar y medir se (sic) nos qued6 de los marean- 
 tes Vizcainos, de ciertos toneles que en su tierra y en sus naos 
 antiguamente acostumbraron a cargar, y asi ellos se dan a 
 entender por toneles, y nosotros, en nuestra navegacion, 
 por toneladas; pero no es todo una mesma cosa ni una me- 
 dida, porque diez toneles de Vizcaya son doce toneladas de 
 las nuestras, y asi va a decir de lo uno a lo otro veinte por 
 ciento. El tamano y medida de una tonelada de las que no- 
 sotros usamos, son dos pipas de vino 6 de agua, 6 de lo 
 que las quisieren henchir, de las de a veinte y siete arrobas 
 
 y media, y ;'i la mesma medida y volumen estan redu- 
 
 cidas todas las toneladas de mercaderias de qualquier suerte 
 y genero que sean » . 
 
 G. DE EscALANTE DE Mendoza, Wo7'k ttbovc quoted. 
 
 (') There is, besides Columbus, another Genoese, whose name we flnrl inscribed 
 in (tie master bill of Ihe Santa Maria. He was a certain Jaconio el Rico G^no- 
 ves... He att^rvvards remained at fort Navidad and was killed by the natives. 
 
- 16 — 
 
 « Se declare que el porte de las naos que hubiesen 
 
 de navegar para las Indias fuese de cien toneles machos, 
 para arriba, siendo entonces et toriel macho lo mesmo que 
 tonelada, que es el buque (capacity) de dos pipas de veinte 
 y siete arrobas y media cada una » . 
 
 From the Cedula Real dated February 13.^'^ 1552. 
 
 « don Cristobal Colon, que descubrio y dio principio 
 
 a la navegacion de las Indias occidentales, no escogio ni 
 busco . . . navios grandes, sino pequeiios, muy poco mayores 
 que de cien toneladas. Y lo mismo hizo don Vasco de Gama, 
 que . . . tampoco busco navios grandes, sino pequeiios , que 
 ninguno paso de ciento y cincuenta toneladas » . 
 
 J. DE EscALANTE DE Mendoza, Wovk ttbove quoted. 
 
 S t a II (1 A r il 
 measure for the 
 
 « Hacease la cuenta de las naos generalmente por codos, que 
 Arqueamiento. ^^^ pj^^^ ^ ^^^ tercios do Vara hacen un codo » . 
 
 D. Diego Garcia de Palacio, Instrucion nauthica para el buen 
 USD ij regimienlo de las Naos — Mejico el aho 1587. 
 
 « Antiguamente se uso de este genero de modida nombrada 
 codo » . 
 
 Veitia, Norle de la contractacion — Work above quoted. 
 
— 17 — 
 
 « En Espaila . . . siendo cada tonelada de dos pipas, 6 de ocho 
 codos cubicos medidos con el codo Real lineal de 33 dedos . . . » . 
 
 Veitia, Work above quoted. 
 
 Probable equivalent fur the ancient " codo " 0, 50 Metres 
 Ditto for the tonelada de ocho 
 codos cubicos 1 , 405 ( 'ub"' M'' 
 
 Cap. E. A. D'Albertis, Arte naulica , etc. Chapter II. 
 
 wotMieii pumps. « cinco peritos declararon, bajo juraniento, 
 
 las excelencias y la superioridad que tenian estas bombas 
 (metal pumps) sobre las que se usaban de madera « {ivooden). 
 
 Consejo de la « Casa. de Contractacion de hidias — 2~) No- 
 vembre loSL » . — Navakrete, Colecclon de los viajes y descn 
 brimientos que hicieron por mar los Espanoles. Vol. I. 
 
 The above survey for the introduction of metal pumps , 
 having taken place in the year 1531 , proves tliat ('olum- 
 bus' vessels were still supplied with wooden ])umps. 
 
 Dimcnsioim Th(i dimeDslons of the present models of both the Nao 
 
 iiie MiodeN. Santa Maria and the caravels Pinla and Nina are based 
 
 partly on the above data, and partly on the ancient Spanish 
 
 ship-building rules given by Jhoan Escalante de Mendoza , 
 
 Diego Garcia de Palacio and Jose Veitia y Linaje. 
 
 It appears from these authors, as well as from ancient 
 Italian manuscripts, that during the fifteenth and in the early 
 
— 18 — 
 
 part of the sixteenth century , ship-buihiers in constructing 
 ships or navlos reilondos, generally followed the rules lianded 
 down to us by the Spaniards through the formula: " as dus 
 y Ires ». That is: the breadth of the hull to be twice the 
 depth of the liold , and the ship's lengtli , three times the 
 breadtii of the liull. Vessels thus built turned out therefore 
 very short and clumsy. Ship-builders however appear to 
 have deviated from this rule in constructing caravels, they 
 being smaller, lighter and faster craft tlian ships, projtortio- 
 nally longer and narrower; the difference consisting in a 
 greater proportional relation between their length and breadth. 
 According to this criterion the new Sunta Maria and the 
 caravels Pinta and Nina ought to have had the following 
 dimensions. 
 
 Length on deck 
 
 " on water line . . . 
 
 )> on keel 
 
 Beam 
 
 Depth of hold 
 
 Arqiieamiento , or Spanish 
 
 ancient tonnage . . Tons 
 
 Modern tonnage or Builder's 
 
 tonnage Tons 
 
 The reason why the vessels of that epoch appear at first 
 sight to be of such a light tonnage, may easily be detected 
 upon reading the above figures, showing the ancient Spanish 
 tonnage and that used now. 
 
 The models have been executed on a scale of Yss- 
 
 Santa 
 
 Maria 
 
 Ft. i 
 
 nch. 
 
 86, 
 
 3 
 
 7S, 
 
 1 
 
 62 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 79 
 
 i^ 252 
 
 2^U 
 
 ^■0 
 
 IHnta 
 
 Nina 
 
 Ft. inch. 
 
 Ft. inch. 
 
 82, S 
 
 79 
 
 76, 10 
 
 73, 6 
 
 59, 1 
 
 56, 5 
 
 23, 15 
 
 23, 11 
 
 11, 1 
 
 11, 1 
 
 115 
 
 105 
 
 .:- 161 
 
 .' 147 
 
 The models show the place from where the helmsman used 
 to steer the vessel. It was under the toldiUa, over which the 
 aft-castle rose, and the system appears to have been practical 
 enough; as it was of the greatest importance for the navi- 
 
— 19 — 
 
 gators of that epoch to keep the compass case [capsia pro 
 navigandi) carefully sheltered from the seas. Not possessing as 
 yet the improved modern binnacle, which, during the night, 
 throws light on tlie main instrument of the ship, they en- 
 deavoured to protect it thus from any damage of the sea, 
 rain and winds , and available at any time. 
 
 A hatchway above the loklilla , just al)0ve the steers- 
 man's post, or a large empty space around tlie mizzen mast 
 (as may be seen in designs of Venetian ships drawn by 
 Carpaccio towards the close of the lifteenth century) en- 
 abled the steersman to keep his eye on the sails and steer 
 according to the wind; whilst his assistants, whose duty was 
 to keep a steady watch on the compass, warned him when- 
 ever the ship's prow deviated from her course. 
 
 To represent an ancient vessel with all the details pecu- 
 liar to tlie construction and sails of a certain epoch is always 
 difficult; tlie more so when such a reconstruction is to be 
 executed on very uncertain dates and definitions. 
 
 To strengthen this my assertion I deem it opportune to 
 
 quote the opinion expressed thereon by Rear Admiral Serre , 
 
 author of Marine de guerre de I' AntiqiUte et du Moyen-Age: 
 
 « Tracer une mature so basant sur des descriptions in- 
 
 » completes, souvent contradictoires, est hasarde ; 11 
 
 » faut toujours en revenir a des suppositions dont on ne 
 » juge le merite, que par 1 'application des regies de la 
 
 » construction et de la nautique Les tableaux de 
 
 » marine qui remplissent nos musees ne seraient memes des 
 » guides fideles ; sur dix , il y en a neuf qui fourmillent 
 » d'erreurs » . 
 
 This is the true and correct opinion of a sailor endea- 
 vouring to unite his own sea-taught art with the definitions 
 of archaeologists, to whom as regards marine subjects, much 
 allowance is often to be made. 
 
 Genova September 8^^ 1802. 
 
 Captain E. A. D'Albertis. 
 
^. 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRE<;<; 
 
 ■11.