VIE\¥ OF THE UNITED STATES. VIEW UNITED STATES, HISTOZIXCAZ., OEOaRAFHICAI.;^ AKTB STATZSTICAI. ; EXHIBITING, IK A CONVENIENT FOKM, THE NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL FEATURES OF THE SEVERAL STATES, AND EMBRACING THOSE LEADING BBANCKES OP HISTORY AND STATISTICS BEST ADAPTED TO DEVELOP THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE NORTH AMERICAN UNION. ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS, &c. BY WILLIAM DARBY. / PHILADELPHIA : PUBLISHED BY H. S. TANNER» 1828. Eastern District of Pennsylvania, ss. BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the twentieth day of Octoher, in the fifty-second year of the Independence of tlie United States of America, Henry S. Tanner, of the said district, hath deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as pro- prietor, in the words following, to wit : " View of the United States, Historical, Geographical, and Sta- tistical ; exhibiting, in a convenient form, the Natural and Artificial Features of the several States, and embracing those leading branch- es of Histoi-y and Statistics best adapted to develop the present condition of the North American Union. Illustrated with Maps, &c. By William Darby." In conformity to the Act of Congress of the United States, enti- tled, ^^ An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books to the Authors and Proprietors of such copies, during the time therein mentioned}" and also to an Act entitled, " An Act, supplementai*y to an Act, entitled, an Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints." D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the Eastern District of Pennsijlvania, ,,y oT Con^. MIFFLIN & PAHRT, VllINTEUS. ■■'a? ,„.=^•'' H PREFACE. In the execution of the volume I now place be- fore the public, the natural method was chosen in preference to the usual more regular course of geo- graphical description. In the physical part the names of artificial subdivisions have been introduced only where indispensable; and the names of a few cities used as mere land-marks. The rivers are traced in a connected series as far as possible, and the continuity of the mountain systems traced as far as accurate data have been collected. With such previous survey of the mountain and river systems, and with their relative extent given, the artificial subdivisions can be referred clearly to their respective natural section. In a view, neces- sarily brief, only outlines could be [given, and the principal benefit of such a view would have been lost by crowding the description with too much de- tail. The work is intended for practical use, there- fore technical terms were excluded with scrupulous care. Geology, as it stands in our books, being a sci- ence (if it deserves the name of a science) of con- jecture, I have rejected, as far as practicable, terms that teach nothing definite. How far I have sue- 11 PREFACE. ceeded the reader will decide; but my sedulous en- deavours have been to render my little production a safe manual in regard to all the dependance that agriculture, commerce, and canal and road improve- ment may have upon correct geographical descrip- tion. In general but little of hypothesis has been ha- zarded, and this rule, in every case so necessary, has been observed respecting the climate. Long previous to writing for publication, on that or any other subject, I had been led, by lessons drawn from nature, to reject much that Volney and others had given as theory. With ample means placed at my disposal, I have collected and embodied data on the meteorology of the United States, as connected with that of the whole earth. In regard to personal means of observation, though my range was exten- sive, there is one, at least, to whom I must yield. That man's name is placed to the subjoined testi- monial, which I gratefully make a part of this pre- face. " Dear Sir: I have perused with great satisfaction your highly instructive Treatise on the subject of Climate generally, and that of the United States in particular; and it gives me pleasure to add my pub- lic testimony in favour of the correctness of your views and deductions. In regard to your conclusions respecting the temperature of the climate of the Great Valley or basin of the Mississippi, compared with that of the country bordering upon the Atlan- tic ocean, they are, to the best of my knowledge. PREFACE. Ill correct, and accordant with my own observations and experience in relation to this subject. I remain, dear sir, very respectfully. Your obedient servant, S. H.LONG, Tofil. Engineer." The substance of the meteorological observations referred to in Col. Long's Expeditions, and also the observations of Mr. Haines, are embodied in Chap- ter X, I always regard with peculiar respect the evidence of an actual observer, experienced on the subject which his testimony is requisite to support; and, therefore, consider the evidence of Col. Long, in the case of the climate of the United States, as going far towards a decision of the controversy. On more than one occasion, I have stated that, on the principles of hydrostatics, the surface of the Gulf of Mexico must be very considerably elevated above that of the Atlantic ocean opposite the Chesa- peake and Delaware bays. This theory is reiterated in the View of the United States, and I think stands on a secure basis, unless some other cause than gra- vitation can be given to account for a stream flowing upwards of one thousand miles, and towards its foun- tain, with steady and so great rapidity, as from three to five miles hourly. The political divisions have been placed in alpha- betical order, giving a facility of reference which would not have been compensated by any geogi-a- phical engrouping. There cannot easily be made any division of the states and territories, in regard IV PREFACE. to their relative position, against which very valid objections may not be urged. In one respect the View has a manifest advan- tage. It not only gives from the best authority> that of the General Post Office, every county in the United States, at the beginning of the current year; but also embraces much of the original information collected by Mr. H. S. Tanner for his valuable Map of the United States. The counties are alphabeti- cally arranged under their respective states, and with their relative position indicated. With a candid reader it may not be necessaryto state, that in a survey so widely extended errors must be expected. None will be found that my ut- most care could prevent; but unaided as I have al- ways been, in the collection of geographical mate- rial, the surprise to myself is that there are not more serious omissions at least. In the boundaries and areas of the states and ter- ritories I have used round numbers, unless where my data demanded or authorised more precision. Before closing this preface, I take the opportunity to tender my acknowledgments to Mr. M'Lean, Post-Master General; Mr. John Vaughan, Secreta- ry to the American Philosophical Society; to Mr. Reuben Haines, of Germantown; and to Col. S, H. Long, of the Department of Topographical Engi- neers. WILLIAM DARBY. Baltimore, Oct. 18, 1828, TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAP. I. GEoeaAPHT, a moral science. Of the United States, a vast outline, page 13. History of the United States, knows no fabiilous ag-e, 14. Discovery of North America by the Cabots, 15. Reasons why England did not sooner colonize thjs continent, ibid. First English patent for a colony in America, 16. The Italians, their influence in discovering and exploring America, ibid. The French, early discoveries, 16-20. English grant to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 20; renewed in favour of Sir Walter Raleigh, 21. First English colony, ibid; proves abortive, 22. Spanish armada, 23. House of Valois expires in France, and that of Bourbon succeeds, ibid. First French grant for Canada, 25. French established in Acadia, 26. Extensive fisheries on Newfoundland coast, 27. Florida discovered by Juan Ponce de Leon, 28. Vh-ginia founded; and Dutch on the Hudson, 29. Plymouth settled, Massa- chusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Isl- and — Delaware by the Swedes and Finns; Maryland founded, 30. Harvard college founded. New Haven founded, Charter of Rhode Island granted, Maine granted to Sir Francis Gorges, united to Massachu- setts, English Navigation Act, 31. First settlement in North Carolina ; New Netherlands taken by the EngHsh ; Philips' war in New England, 32. New Hampshire and Pennsylvania founded; Revolution in England, 33. Yale college at New Haven founded, 34. First English newspaper in America; Carolihas separatedj 35, Paper currency in Pennsylvania, 36. b CONTENTS. Georgia founded, 37i Stamp Act passed, repealed, 40. Boston port closed? battle of Lexington? inva- sion of Canada, 41. Bourgoyne's army surrenders, and treaty between the United States and France, 42. Cornwallis surrenders, 44. Peace of 1783, 45. Fe- deral Constitution formed; goes into operation, 46. Vermont and Kentucky become states, 46. Tennes- see becomes a state? Detroit, &c. given up? Transyl- vania University founded, 48. Ohio becomes a state, and Louisiana ceded to the United States, 49. Non- intercourse laws, 50-51. War with Great Britain, 51. Operations, 51-54. United States Bank established, 55. Florida annexed to the United States, ibid. CHAP. IL United States, position, and boundaries, 56. Extent, and natural subdivisions, 57. Atlantic slope, general view of, 58. Cape Hatteras, 59-60. Cape Cod, 61-62. Monotony of the southern coasts of the United States, 63. The Appalachian mountains, not a dividing line of river systems, 64. Specifically distinct from hills? their features, 66-68. Tables of relative height, 68-78. Primitive range in the United States, its position and extent, 81-82. General and attractive physiognomy of the Appalachian regions, 83, 84. CHAP. m. Geographical view of the southern section of the United States, 85. Peninsula of Florida, 85, 86. St. John's river of Florida, 87, 88. St. Mary's, 88. St. Ilia, 89. Alatamaha, 89, 90. Ossabaw Sound, 91. Savannah river, 92. St. Helena Sound, 93. Edistos, North and South, 93, 94. Charleston city and basin, 95. Win- yau bay, the estuary of Black river, Great Pedee, and AVaccamaw rivers, 95. Santee river, 96. Pedee ri- ver, 97. Cape Fear river and basin, 98, 99. Onslow bay, 99. Capes Lookout and Hatteras, and Neuse ri- ver, 99, Pamptico Sound, 99, 100. Basins of Roan- oke and Chowan, or confluents of Albemarle Sound, 101-103. CONTENTS. 7 CHAP. IV. Geographical view of the middle section of the United States, 104. Chesapeake basin, 104, 105. James river and branches, 106-108. York and Kappahannock ri- vers, 109. Potomac and its branches, 110-112. Pa- tuxent river, 113. Patapsco basin and city of Balti- more, 113, 114. Eastern slope of Chesapeake basin, 115, 116. Susquehanna basin, 116-124. Delaware basin, 124-127. Lehigh river, 127, 128, Schuylkill, 128, 129. Atlantic slope of New Jersey, 131, 132. CHAP. V. Geographical view of the north-eastern section of the Atlantic slope of the United States, 133. Basin of the Hudson, 133. Hudson river, 134, 135. Sacon- dago river, 135. Glenn's Falls, 137. Tide bay of Hudson, 137, 138. Mohawk river, 138, 139. Sa- condago mountains, 140. Green Mountains, 140. Sub- basins of the Hudson, 141-148. Amboy bay, or Ra- riton bason, 148-150. Passaic river, 150. Millstone, Pompton, and Hackinsack rivers, 151. Croton river, 152. Manhatten and Staten islands, 153. Long Island, 154-157. Long Island sound, 157. Housato- nick river, 160. Connecticut river and basin, 161-168. Thames river and basin,' 169-171. Narraganset basin, 171-173. Buzzard's bay, 174. CHAP. VI. Geographical view of the north-eastern section of the At- lantic slope, from Barnstable Isthmus to the mouth of St. Lawrence, 175. Peninsula of Cape Cod, 176. Bay of Massachusetts, and increase of Atlantic tides, 176-179. Middlesex canal, 180. Merrimac basin, 181-184. Piscataqua basin, 184, Saco basin, 185, Casco basin, or river Presumscot, 186, Kennebec basin, 186. Kennebec river, formed by Androscoggin, and Kennebec proper, 187, Androscoggin river, 187. Kennebec, 188-189. Penobscot basin, 189. Penobscot river, 189. Piscataquis, 190, Union river and Blue Hill bay5 Frenchman's bayj Narraguagus,and Pleasant riy- 8 CONTENTS. ers; Chandler's river, and Englishman's bay, 191, Ma- chias bay, 192. Schoodic, or St. Croix basin, 193. Pas- samaquoddy bay, 194. St. Johns' river of New Brunswick and Maine, 194. St. Frangois and Mata- waska rivers, 195. Aristook river, 196. j^eninsula of Nova Scotia, 197. Bay of Fimdy, 198, 199. CHAP. VII. Geographical view of St Lawrence basin, 200. Its sub- basins, 200. Basinof lake Superior, 200, 201. Lakes Huron and Michigan, 202. Canaiian sea compared with the Caspian, 203. Table of distances from lake Huron to Erie, 205. Lake Erie, 206-208. Falls of Niagara, 209-216. Lake Ontario, 217. Table of the relative heights of lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario, 217. Lower sub-basin, 218. Ba- sin of West New York, or Oneida, 219. Seneca river, 220. Trent river of Upper Canada, 222-224. Gene- ral remarks, 224-230. Table of the quantity of wa- ter contained in the St. Lawrence basin, 231. St. Lawrence river, 232-236. Ottawas river, 234, 235. Island and city of Montreal, 235. Stationary distances along St. Lawrence, 236-238. Thousand Islands, 240, Basin of Champlain, 241, 242. Basin of St. Francis, 242-244. Chaudiere river, 244. Saguenai river, 245- 247. Betsiamitis, Breslard, and Black rivers, 247. General features of St. Lawrence basin, 248-251. Table of the extent and position of the basins of the Atlantic slope, from Florida Point to the mouth of St. Lawrence river, 252-254. Tables of the area of St. Lawrence basin, 255, 256. Summary of the Atlantic slope, including the basin of St. Lawrence, 257. CHAP. vni. Geographical view of the river basins of the United States contiguous to the Delta of the Mississippi, 258. Basins of Mississippi and St. LaWrence, compared, 258-261. Sabine river, 262. Calcasiu and Mermen- tau rivers, 263. Vermillion river, 264, Atchafalaya river, 265. Courtablcau river, 266. Plaquemine ri- CONTENTS. 9 ver, 267. Teche river, 267. Rafts in Atchafalaya, 269. La Fourche river, 272, 273. Outlet of the Mississippi, 274. Iberville and Amite rivers; Pass of Manchac, 275, Eigolets, or the outlets of the Pearl river, 276-280. Lake Pontchartrain and its confluents and outlets, 281. Pascagoula river and sound, 282. Mobile bay and basin, 283. Tombigbee river, 283. Alabama river, 284-286. Basin of Pensacola, 287, 288. St. Andrews bay, 289. Chatahooche river and confluents, 289, 290. Appalachicola river, 290, 291. Cape St. Georg-e, Ocklockonne, St, Marks, and Su- wanne rivers, 291, 292. Vacasausa bay, Amasura ri- ver, Tampa bayj Charlotte harbour, and Cape Ro- mano, 293. Table of the extent and position of the preceding, 295. CHAP. IX. [7%e reader will 'phase, observe that by an error of the press Chap. VIII. is repeated at page 296, in place of Chap. IX.] Geographical view of the great central basin of the Mis- sissippi, 296. Table of, 297. Ohio vaUey, 298-308. Valley of the Mississippi proper, above the mouth of Missouri, 309-313. Lower Mississippi, 313-317. Val- ley of Missoui'i, 318-322. Inundation of the Delta of the Mssissippi, 323-325. Basin of Columbia, or Ter- ritory of Oregon, 326-330. CHAP. X. Climate of the United States, 331. Thermometrical data, ot servations on, 331. M. de Wallenstein quoted, 332. Volney's View, strictures on, 333. Quarterly Journal of Science quoted, 334. Rev. Robert Little quoted, 335-338. Regularity of geograpliical struc- ture in the great outlines of land, 343. Relative dis- tribution of land and water, 345. Laws of climate, 350. Continents, their structure, 351, Plateau of Asia, 351-352. Of Africa, 353. Atlantic ocean, 353- 354, Greenland, 354. South America, 354, North America, 355. Chippewayan system of mountains, 355. Appalachian svstem of mountains, 356. Central 2 10 CONTENTS. valley between the two great mountain masses, 356- 557. Prairies of North America and steppes of Asia compared, 358. Atmosphere, a part of the planet, 359. Equinoctial current, and currents of the oceans, 360- 362. Gulf stream, 363. Professor Playfair on the prevailing winds of Europe, 371. General course of the winds over the Atlantic ocean, 413. Brief meteo- rological register, or history of remarkable atmos- pheric changes on the eastern continent, 414-420. General remarks on cHmate, 420-433. List of Tables contained in Chapter X. No. 21. — Area of the Southern, Indian, and Pacific oceans, 340. 22. — Atlantic ocean, and connected seas, 340. 23.— Summary of oceanic area, 341. 24. — Land area, 341. 25. — Summary of land and water, 342. 26 — Land area of the torrid zone, 342. 27. — Land area of the southern temperate zone, 342. 28. — Land area of the northern temperate zone, 342. 29. — Land area of the northern polar circle, 343. 30. — Land area of the southern polar circle, 343. 31. — Deflections from the meridians, &c,, 346. 32. — Height of perpetual snow, 349. 33. — Degree of longitude, &c., 359. 34. — Temperature of the sea in both hemispheres, 364. 35. — Monthly mean temperature at Santa Cruz, o&5. 36. — Temperature of air over the Gulf stream, ^QT- 368. 37. — Prevalent winds over North Atlantic ocean, 369. 38. — Temperature and winds at Turin, 370. 39. — Western winds at Paris, 372. 40- — Temperature and winds at London, 373. 41. — Westerly winds in Northamptonshire, 374. 42. — Temp, and winds at U. S. military posts, 376. 43.— Weather do. oTl. 44.— Winds at North American Polar sea, 378. 45.— Elevation and temp. United States, 379-380. CONTENTS. 1 1 46.— Caloric, winds, &c. Washington City, 382. 47. — Monthly and annual temperature at Washing- ton City, 384. 48.— Winds at Washington City, 386. 49. — Meteorological observations at Baltimore, 387 50. — Temperature near Baltimore, 388. 51. — Excess of heat and cold at Baltimore, 389. 52.— Monthly winds do. 390. 53. — Depth ofrain at Baltimore, 391. 54. — Temp. Philadelphia, James Young, 392. 55, — Annual winds at Philadelphia, 393. 56. — Monthly temperature at Germantown, 394. 57. — Extremes of temp, at Germantown, 395. 58. — Winds at Germantown, 396. 59.— Temp. July, 1828, Washington City, 397. 60.— Temp. July, 1828, Germantown, 398. 61. — Summer at Baltimore and Germantown, 399. 62. — Rain at Germantown, 401. 63. — Temp, of Philadelphia and New Harmony compared, 402. 64. — Temperature of New Harmony, 403. 65. — Winds at New Harmony, 404. 66. — Rain at New Harmony, 405. 67. — Excess of temp, at New Harmony, 406, 68. — Temperature at Cincinnati, 407. 69.— Winds at Cincinnati, 408. 70. — Temperature Charleston, South Carohna, 409. 71.— Do do do 410. 72. — Temp. Richmond, Virginia, 411. 73.— Winds of the U. S. above N. lat. 35°, 412. 74.— Winds of U. S. below N. lat. 35°, 413. 75. — Maximum of cold in Europe, 419. 76. — Maximum of heat in do 420. CHAP. XI. Pohtical Geography of the United States. Population of, 435. Distributive population, 436. Progressive population, 437-441. Observations on population, 441-43. Comparative population of the new states in Mississippi basin, 444. Population of the central ba- 12 CONTENTS. sin, 445. View of the canals and roads of tlie United States, 446-480. Canal stocks in England, price of, 481-2. CHAP. XII. Geographical description of the individual states and ter- ritories. Alabama, 484-87. Arkansas territory, 487- 91. Connecticut, 491-93. District of Columbia, 494— 97. Delaware, 497-99. Florida, 499-502. Georgia, 502-8. Illinois, 508-12. Indiana, 512-16. Kentucky, 516-21. Louisiana, 522-28. Maine, 528-32. Mary- land, 532-37. Massachusetts, 538-42. Michigan ter- ritory, 542-47. Mississippi, 547-51. Missouri, 552- 58. New Hampshire, 558-61. New Jersey, 562-66. New York, 566-73. North Carohna, 573-80. Ohio, 580-88. Pennsylvania, 588-97. Rhode Island, 597- 600. South Carohna, 600-5. Tennessee, 605-9. Ver- mont, 610-^13. Virginia, 613-22. mm of m mmuti Btutm. CHAPTER I. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. I^s- every occasion where I have been called upon to make the estimate, I have considered geography as a moral science. The interest we feel in tracing the features, developing the resources, and recording the improvements of any given portion of the earth, must arise from the character of the people who in- habit its surface. In this respect, not alone the ter- ritory of the United States, but all America, is ac- quiring daily more interest to arrest the attention of the statesman and philosopher. The geography of the United States is a vast out- line, tolerably traced, but the shades of colouring- remain a void, except in a few instances. The in- trinsic value of statistical knowledge can only be known from its application in augmenting the sum of general prosperity, by pointing out the springs of general resource. This invaluable pursuit has only recently assumed the character of a science, and, as such, is yet confined to a few countries, and is every where imperfect. Consequently, important as it may be as a moral and physical science, geography derives its highest value as an aid to human history. In this respect our views of nations are clear and decisive in proportion as we possess a comprehen- sive knowledge of their locality. The accumulation of material for both history and geography, has been in America, during the last half century, too rapid and massive to admit ade- quate arrangement and record. Cities, towns, states. 14 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. and even empires, are presenting themselves, with a rapidity which outstrips the utmost effort of the pen or pencil. In the present instance, all that the author dared to undertake, was a general sketch of either the history or geography of his country; and in particular, a mere outline of the former, is all that the necessary brevity of " The View" would permit. " Courage, wisdom, integrity, and honour, are not to be measured by the sphere assigned them to act in, but by the trials they undergo, and the vouchers they furnish: and if so manifested, need neither robes nor titles to set them off."* The United States as a nation " knows no fabulous age;" in scanning its history, every point of outset is fixed and certain. The original colonies were, in most instances, established under the direct emi- gration of men, influenced by motives to action far above the ordinary moral incentives to human con- duct. From the subsequent consequences of such prin- ciples, no department of civil history demands from mankind such profound attention as the Anglo- Ame- rican colonial. In these early establishments, the ancient Saxon free institutions were implanted, guarded, and flourished, whilst fading or expiring in Europe. It affords, to a well-regulated mind, a cheerful retrospect, the progress of new-formed so- cieties, amongst the members of whom the most ex- alted principles of ethics, jurisprudence, and legis- lation, were not alone preserved, but received a more solid sanction in the hearts of men, from contrast with their retrogradation in their pristine seats. When America was first discovered, the people of Europe and their rulers seem to have, with one accord, considered the newly-found regions the pro- perty of the first who could disembark on its shores. * Benjnmiii Franklin's Historical Review of the Constitution and Govei'nmtnt ol' Pennsylvania, p. 5. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 15 In a struggle for division of so rich a prize, Spain, Portugal, England, and France, were the most con- spicuous competitors Expeditions were sent out under the authority of each of these governments. Henry VII., then king of England, sent to America, in May 1497, John Cabot, who, with his son Sebas- tian, discovered and coasted North America, from Newfoundland to the point of Florida. The Cabots were the first individuals recorded in history, who, under the authority of any European government, visited the south-east coasts of North America. There still, however, exists strong evidence, that, as simple fishermen, the Basques, or Bretons, from the north-west part of France, had visited the coasts of Greenland and adjacent parts, before any discoveries were made of the same places by national authority. During the long period which intervened, from the voyages of the Cabots to the actual colonization by both, the English and French nations seem to have preserved a nearly equal pace in the career of dis- covery. An examination of the intervening history of Eng- land will afford solid reasons why the government and people of that kingdom did not sooner avail themselves of their claims in North America. Un- der the Tudors, neither the population nor resour- ces of England were adequate to distant colonization, or even commercial exertion ; and to physical weakness were superadded political and religious contention. The immense treasures in gold and silver procur- ed from America, by the Spaniards, also tended to retard the northern nations of Europe from form- ing establishments on the opposing part of the newly discovered continent. Every nation considered Ame- rica as a seat of mines, and when unable to procure the precious metals, disregarded every other advan- tage. Although, however, slighted nationally. North America attracted the individual attention of many 16 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. Englishmen, in the early part of the sixteenth cen- tury. In 1502, Hugh Elliot and Thomas Ashurst, merchants of Bristol, with some other associates, obtained letters patent from Henry VH., with the avowed intention of colonizing the newly discovered regions. The original of this patent in Latin, is pre- served in Hazard's collections. It was the first En- glish governmental grant respecting any part of Ame- rica ; but fell useless, no steps having been ever taken to carry its provisions into effect. The actual want of population at that time, in all Europe, but more particularly in the northern parts, opposed an insuperable barrier to colonization. In 1500, it is rendered probable, from concurrent circumstances, that the English crown did not include, under its subjection, three millions of people. Nautical skill and commercial enterprise were also still more con- tracted than were the number of inhabitants. The discoverers of North America, under English au- thority, were Italians ; no English seaman of that age appears to have been competent to tKe execu- tion of such an enterprise. A similar remark may be extended to Spain ; as nearly all the discoverers under that crown were Italians. Hungry and cruel Spanish grandees, of the lowest class of their order, seized the fruits ; but it was the scientific men of Italy, who cleared the path to the new garden of Hesperides. The French were more attentive to North Ame- rica, than were the English at this early period; and the former, much sooner than the latter, perceived the true source of wealth, offered by the then very imperfectly known wilds of the recently discovered continent. In 1504, the Breton and Norman fisher- men had a regular trade and establislimcnts on New- foundland, which at that time included the whole coast from Labrador to Florida.* The Bretons and * Wlicn the Cabots discovered Noiih Amciiea, they gave to ihc HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 17 Normans, however, only visited the north-east parts, along the coast of the island of Newfoundland and vicinity. John Denys, a native of Rouen, sailed, in 1506, from Honfleur to the gulf of Newfoundland, and on his return to France, drew a map of that inland sea, its islands, and adjacent shores. Denys was followed, in 1508, by Thomas Aubert, from Dieppe. The latter was the discoverer of the St. Lawrence river, and the country now called Lower Canada, On his return to Europe, Aubert carried with him some of the native savages. . The Baron of St. Lery, in 1524, made some abor- tive attempts at colonization in North America. The failure of St. Lery's design, and many other adverse causes, gave a check to French enterprise, and pre- vented actual colonization on the part of that nation in New France, for upwards of eighty years after- Avards. Though without settlements by land, ne- vertheless the French fisheries flourished, and the knowledge of the country by that people became annually more accurate. The events of a voyage made by a Florentine, parts they visited the name of Newfoundland, which it retained until superseded by that of Virginia, imposed by Queen E\izabeth, in 1584. At a subsequent period to the discoveries of the Cabots, the Spaniards discovered the south west sections of the same coast, and named it Florida. Newfou)idland and Florida, therefore, included all the coast of North America between the Cuba channel and St. Lawrence. The extremes on the Atlantic ocean, still retain their original appellations, whilst the inttrmediate space has been parcelled, and variously designated. See pages 28, 29. It is a real subject of regret, that either Virginia or Florida had not prevailed, and been preserved over the m' hole Atlantic coast now in the United States. They are both line sonorous names, and ct-r- iainly preferable, as general terms, to the awkward expression Unit- ed States. Either of the former would have been distinctive ; the latter applies vaguely, to any combination of states into one gt-nt ral confederdcy, and always demands circumlocution, to reiidtr it» par= ticular application definite. 18 HISTOlllCAL INTRODUCTION. John Verrezzana, in the service of Francis I., king of France, are very imperfectly known. From the scanty records on the subject, it appears that, in 1524, Verrezzana reached the south-east coast of North America, and visited its shores from Florida to Nova Scotia. This discoverer was lost, and with him, in great part, the notes of his operations. Though suspended in their efforts to either colo- nize or pursue their researches in America, the views of the French were constantly directed towards this continent. In 1534, Philip Chabot, admiral of France, represented so strongly to the king the multiplied advantages which Spain was then deriving from her colonies, that James Cartier, of St. Pvlaloes, by royal commission, sailed from that port, April 20th, on a voyage of discovery, with two small ships and one hundred and twenty men. In his first voyage, Car- tier sailed round the island of Newfoundland, disco- vered and named the Bay des Chaleurs, on the con- tinent, and having afterwards reached N. Lat. 51*^, on the Labrador coast, returned to Europe. In his second voyage, 1535, Cartier penetrated the St. Lawrence as high as the island of Hochelaga, now Montreal, and having treacherously seized some ofthe natives, returned with them to France. Though disgraced by his conduct towards the savages of America, Cartier appears to have been the first in- dividual from the north-west of Europe, who con- ceived an idea of the true wealth to be derived from the regions he had explored. He represented, in his report to the king, the great advantages which were offered by the fur trade alone ; however, not having gold and silver mines in his list, no notice was taken of his representations. Nearly forty years had elapsed from the discove- ries of the Cabots, before any serious attempt was made by the English nation to avail itself of tlie claim. In 1536, a gentleman of I^ondun, at liis own risk, though countenanced by the king, Henry VIIL, HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 19 undertook a voyage to America. This adventurer, by the name of Hore, v/as accompanied by one hun- dred and twenty persons, of whom twenty-iive or thirty were men of education and character. Here's expedition was, in a peculiar manner, unfortunate. After haAang visited Cape Breton and some other places in the gulf of St. Lawrence, the party were reduced to the utmost extremity of want and wretch- edness ; many were literally starved. Falling in with a French fishing vessel, they seized her, and took from her as much provision as enabled the sur- vivors to return to Europe. The facts attending this voyage, it has been observed, prove, that the English were then utterly ignorant of the inexhaus- tible stores of fish to be found in those seas ; and that upwards of thirty years after a regular fishery had been established by the French, the En- glish had not attempted a participation in that rich source of wealth and subsistence. From the sequel it will be seen, that strong reasons concur to support the conclusion, that the voyage of Hore contributed to turn the immediate attention of the English nation to the American seas. In 1548, the English fisheries had become an object of national legislation. In that year an act of parliament was passed, to prohibit the exaction, from English fishermen and mariners going in the service of the fishery at Newfoundland, of money, fish, or other reward, by any officer of the admiralty, under any pretext whatever. This was the first act of the English parliament relative to America.* Cartier made his third voyage in 1541. Similar to that of England, the French government were in- attentive to the value of the recently discovered territories in America ; but many respectable indi- viduals of both nations renewed, from time to time. * Hackliiyt, vol. i. p. 53 1— iii, p> 131, 132. Chalmers, vol. Hulraes' Aunah, vol. i. p. 94. 20 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. projects of permanent colonization. The third voy- age of Cartier was undertaken at the expense of Francis de la Roque, lord of Roberval, a gentleman of Picardy. Roberval was appointed by the king of France captain-general and viceroy of Canada and its dependencies, with full powers. Cartier, as deputy captain-general, was sent out by Roberval. The former, on August 23d, 1541, landed on New- foundland, where he was, by appointment, to meet his principal. Roberval not arriving immediately, Cartier sailed alone to Canada, where he remained near two years, and built a temporary fort, near where Quebec now stands. In the mean time, Ro- berval not arriving in America, Cartier sailed on his return to Europe. Meeting Roberval on the coast of Newfoundland, Cartier disregarded his orders, and continued his voyage. Roberval proceeded to Canada, where he spent the winter of 1542-3, and returned to Europe in the spring of 1543. Francis I., the patron of Roberval, died in 1547, and with him terminated, for upwards of fifty years, any at- tempt at settlement in North America by the French. Unaided by his government, Roberval, accompanied by his brother, left France, with an intention to pro- ceed to Canada, and was never again heard of. So many disasters, and the distracted condition of France, under the expiring house of Valois, pre- vented any effective attention of the nation to Cana- da, until 1598. In that year, the Marquis de la Roche received from Henry IV. a commission to conquer Canada, and other countries not possessed by any Christian prince. Twenty years before the date of the grant to De la Roche, Sir Humphrey Gilbert had received one of a similar import from Queen Elizabeth. In 1583, after repeated disappoiiilments, Gilbert sailed to the ishmd of Nevvfoundhind, of which he took formal possession. On tlic 29lh of August, his largest ves- sel, with all its crew, was lost near Cape Race; and HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 21 on his voyage towards England, this excellent but ill-fated adventurer was himself, with all his crew, lost on the 9th of September. The grant of Gilbert was renewed in 1584, on May 25th, in favour of his maternal brotlier, Sir Walter Raleigh. The grant of 1584 expressly gave author- ity to Raleigh, to discover and conquer such heathen- ish and barbarous lands, as are not possessed by any Christian prince or people. Under the authority of Raleigh, Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlow sail- ed from England, in order to explore that part of North America called, by the Spaniards, Florida. Passing through the West Indies, Amadas and Bar- low having reached the American coast, and exa- mined its bays and rivers as far north as the mouth of Roanoke, returned to Europe in September 1584. The report of their discoveries was so seductive as to induce the queen to give the name of Virginia to the new acquisition to her dominions. Virginia con- tinued for upwards of fifty years afterwards to de- signate in the English maps the whole coast from Florida to Labrador, and, except the island which still bears that name, superseded the term Newfound- land, imposed by the Cabots, Richard Grenvilleas general, and Ralph Lane as governor, were deputed, with seven ships, to pro- ceed to Virginia, by Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1585. The object of this expedition was to plant a colony. The fleet left Plymouth April 9th, and on the 25th of August reached the mouth of Roanoke, the point of destination. Governor Lane was left there with one hundred and ten persons, to commence settle- ment, and Grenville returned to England. This was the first attempt to form an actual establishment on the continent of America, made by the English na- tion, and failed; as in 1586, those of the colonists who had survived were found by Sir Francis Drake, in so deplorable a situation, as to induce that command- er, with the written request of Governor Lane, to 22 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. convey them back to England, Some feeble exer- tions were subsequently made to, restore the estab- lishment, but were abortive. A few days after the departure of Sir Francis Drake, Grenville arrived with three vessels at Roanoke; but finding the place abandoned, left fifteen men to retain possession, and sailed to Europe. Early in 1587, Sir Walter Raleigh, anxious to preserve his colony, sent out three ves- sels and a company of one hundred and fifty people, incorporated under the title of " The county of Ra- leigh in Virginia," and with John White constituted as governor. The legislative authority was vested hi the governor and twelve assistants. In one of his voyages Sir Richard Grenville had discovered the mouth of Chesapeake bay, into which the colony of 1587 was directed to enter ; but by some unexplained management of Fernando, their principal naval commander, these devoted people were landed on Roanoke island on the 22d of July. The new colonists found the bones of one man in one of the houses left by Lane's party; deer was found feeding, and melon vines clambering along the walls of the deserted buildings ; but the fifteen men left by Grenville were gone for ever ! a melan- choly presage of the fate of the present colony. On the 27th of August 1587, the governor sailed to England in quest of supplies ; but of the wretch- ed people left behind, no trace was ever since known. Thus closed the efforts of Sir Walter Raleigh, as to American colonization. No period in the sixteenth century could have been more inauspicious to colo- nization, than 1587. The nation was then at war with Spain ; without disciplined troops ; a navy scarcely deserving a name, when contrasted with the formidable fleet of its adversary ; and the duke of Parma encamped at Dunkirk, with an army of fifty thousand veterans. In such a posture of affairs, neither ships, seamen, and above all, experienced naval commanders, could be permitted to engage in HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 23 any enterprise except national defence. Such men as Howard earl of Effingham, the two Drakes, Hawkins, Frobisher, and Sir Walter Raleigh, were too precious at home, to have them engaged in any- distant expedition. The danger was imminent and pressing; and though absolute conquest, it is pro- bable, could not have crowned the invaders, if their fleets and armies could have reached the English shores, yet such a shock must have produced lasting national deterioration. The Armada entered the En- glish channel in May, where, battered by storms, and harassed by the light vessels and superior seamanship of the English, it was finally defeated, and almost an- nihilated. When danger is past, nations, like indi- viduals, retain the impression, and continue measures of precaution, and stand ready to oppose a recur- rence. This feeling of apprehension fully accounts for the neglect of a far distant colony, eighteen years after the defeat of the Armada. In France, the house of Valois expired in 1589, by the death of Henry IH., who was assassinated at Orleans, and Henry de Bourbon, as Henry IV., suc- ceeded to the throne. A long series of civil and re- ligious tumult was gradually followed by peace and prosperity, in France. As the arts of agriculture and commerce revived, individual enterprise was roused, and Canada again assumed its share of na- tional attention. The American fisheries, about the termination of the 16th century, had commenced to engage the avidity of all western Europe, and after an interval of more than forty years, a French fleet, in 1591, sailed from St. Maloes to Canada. The same year George Drake, an Englishman, sailed up the St. Lawrence, and on his return published an ac- count of his voyage. Drake's representations pro- duced strong and immediate effects. Sylvester Wyatt, in 1594, found, amongst vessels of different other nations, above fifty English in St. Lawrence. Under the grant from Henry IV., the Marquis 24 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. de la Roche sailed from France to Canada, with a colony of convicts. Success corresponded with the moral material of his crews ; the plan proved abor- tive; De la Roche regained his native country to die of a broken heart. M. de Chauvin followed De la Roche in 1600, and was the first individual who im- ported Canadian furs into France. Chauvin made a second voyage in 1601 ; and whilst preparing for a third in 1603, died suddenly in France. The impression on the public mind in England, by the fatal issue of all attempts made under Raleigh's patent, and by the oppressive war with Spain, were imperceptibly effaced, and in 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold had the spirit to attempt, and the honour to produce a revival of English adventure to America. In the summer of that year, Gosnold, in a small ves- sel with about thirty men, reached the shores of what is now Massachusetts. This active naval officer left England, by consent of Sir Walter Raleigh and his associates, and attempted a colony on Elizabeth islands. The stores and men were landed, but their obvious weakness created discontent and fear ; the enterprise was relinquished, and the little colony re-embarked. This was the first attempt made by any European nation to obtain settlement in what is now designated New England. American colonization, at this period, was sup- ported by the able pen of Richard Hackluyt, who entered with zeal and sound judgment into the in- vestigation of plans of discovery and settlement. By the active influence of this gentleman and others, and permission of Sir Walter Raleigh, the mayor and aldermen, and some wealthy merchants of Bris- tol, fitted out a small vessel of fifty tons, the Speed- well, and a bark of twenty-six tons, called the Disco- verer, both commanded by Martin Pring. The ob- ject of this voyage was to discover and examine, more effectually than had been hitherto done, the HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 25 northern shores of Virginia.* Pring sailed from Milford Haven, April 10th, 1603, and reached the American coast amongst the islands of Penobscot bay. After ranging the shores to Massachusetts bay, Pring returned to Europe in August. At the same period in which Pring was employed on the northern section of Virginia, Bartholomew Gilbert visited the more central parts, in search of the lost colony of Sir Walter Raleigh. Gilbert made the coast between Hudson and Delawarebays, about N. Lat. 40, and rashly going on shore with four of his principal men, were all destroyed by the savages. The fate of their leaders intimidated the surviving crew, who immediately set sail for Europe, without having, in any manner, fulfilled the objects of their voyage. November 3d, 1603, an event occurred, which places in a strong light the vagaieness of English and French claims in North America. Henry IV. grant- ed to Pierre du Gast sieur du Monts, a patent for that American territory extending from N. Lat. 40*^ to 46°, with a commission of lieutenant general of that portion of country; and with power to conquer, colonize, and rule it, and to christianize the natives. The king of France, soon after, granted to this offi- cer and his associates a monopoly of the fur and peltry trade, in the province of Acadia and Gulf of St. Lawrence. In the same year of Du Monts' pa- tent, Samuel Champlaine, a native of Brouage in France, sailed up the St. Lawrence river, and made many extensive and important discoveries. The fisheries around Newfoundland had already become highly valuable ; more than two hundred sail of vessels and above ten thousand men were en- gaged in that business. * Now New England. It has been shown, that in the early pe- riods of English colonization in North America, the name of Vir< ginia was extended indefinitely. See p. 17. 26 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. The Sieur du Monts, with Champlaine as his pi- lot, and attended by M. Poutrincourt and a number of other volunteer adventurers of respectability, embarked in two vessels for America. He made first the coast of Nova Scotia, then Acadia, and an- chored in Port Rosignol, now Liverpool. Coasting round Cape Sable, the imm.ense bay of Fundy was explored. Poutrincourt fixed his residence at N. Lat. 44° 30', where, on a fine bay, he established a village, to which he gave the name of Port Roy- al. This place is now the town of Annapolis, and was the first French settlement in North America. By the joint exertions of Du Monts and Cham- plaine, the rivers, bays, and inlets of both sides of the bay of Fundy, and part of Maine, were disco vered during this voyage. Du Monts wintered 1604-5, at the mouth of the Schoodick, now St. Croix, on a small island, at present the north-east limit of the United States, on the Atlantic coast. In 1605, the seat of the French colonial govern- ment, if it then deserved the title, was fixed at Port Royal. This was two years before the establish- ment of the English colony at Jamestown, and four before the French settlement at Quebec. The two nations were each, however, emulous of discovery and colonization. The Earl of Southampton and Lord Arundel, in 1605, fitted out a small vessel to attempt a south-west passage, and gave the com- mand to George Weymouth, who appears, from his operations, to have had, even for that period, a very inaccurate knowledge of the North American coast. He made land in about N. Lat. 41° 30', and coasting thence north, discovered the mouth of a large river, supposed to be the Penobscot, up which he sailed for some distance, and in July set sail on his return to England. One hundred and nine years had now elapsed since the discoveries first made on the south-east coast of North America, by the Cabots. Though HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 27 England and France, in the interim, occasionally prosecuted voyages of discovery, and though both nations, in the' beginning of the I7th century, pur- sued their fisheries with activity, neither, if we ex- cept the trifling French port at Port Royal, had a single fortress or factory on shore. It may be noticed that, as early as 1577, the fisheries employed 150 French vessels, 100 from Spain, 50 from Eng- land, and 50 from Portugal. According to Joseph Childs, the Newfoundland fisheries, as those on the North American coast were designated, then em- ployed 10,000 seamen. The English nation, des- tined ultimately to become the ruling power in that part of the North American seas, islands, and con- tinent, now the United States and Canada, were, during the 17th and the early part of the 18th cen- tury, much less active than its rivals, particularly France. At, and for a century before, the epoch of actual colonization, English enterprise was in a great part exhausted in abortive attempts to find a north- west passage to China and India. The rage for dis- covering mines of the precious metals, was then also at its height. Rational projects of colonization, founded on a commercial and agricultural basis, had not been then conceived by any nation of Europe, much less by England. Local, domestic, and political causes were, how- ever, most efficacious in preventing England and France from emulating Spanish and Portuguese en- terprise in Anaerica. In England, the long, vigor- ous, successful, and politic administration of Eliza- beth, was, with all its beneficial effects, inadequate to heal all the wounds inflicted by a century of an- archy, civil war, or misgovernment which preceded her reign. The resources of France and the chi- valrous gallantry of its people, were employed, dur- ing almost the whole of the century, in either wars of ambition, national defence, or civil tumult. Hen- ry IV., as late as 1600, had merely succeeded in se- 28 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. curing his crown by force of arms, and had yet ob- taiiied little leisure to cultivate the arts of peace. In both nations, finances, able seamen, and com- mercial knowledge were wanting ; and to these moral were superadded physical impediments to fo- reign colonization, arising from deficiency of popu- lation. Though thus retarded, nevertheless, the germ of national force subsisted, and the spirit to give that force effect, was annually gaining intelli- gence by means of the press, and preparing for that long and embittered rivalry in America, which gave ascendancy to English over French power on this continent. At the epoch of actual colonization in North Ame- rica by the English, the entire coast of this conti- nent, from Labrador to Cape Florida, was known by two general names, Newfoundland and Florida. When the Cabots made their discoveries, during the last years of the 15th century, they imposed the name of Newfoundland on the coast which they vi- sited. This term was perpetuated in English books and maps during great part of the 16th century, and was gradually, by the imposition of other names for sectional subdivisions, restricted to the island still known as Newfoundland. (See page 17.) On the second of April, 1512, Juan Ponce de Le- on, a Spaniard, discovered the coast of North Ame- rica from the West Indies, and imposed upon his newly discovered region the name of Florida. This term originated from the circumstance of De Leon having descried land on Palm Sunday ; " Pasqua Florida," in the Spanish language. Florida became general to designate the south-east coast of North America, not only in Spanish, but in the geographi- cal works of the south of Europe. No definite limit separated the Newfoundland of English from the Florida of Spanish and Italian geography. The latter like the former slowly yielded to other sec- tional terms, and now is confined, and perpetuated HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 29 to designate, the south-east subdivision of the United States. Raleigh's patent of March 25th, 1584, being va- cated by his subsequent attainder, a number of gen- tlemen, instigated principally by Mr. Hackluyt, ob- tained, by petition addressed to James I., a patent, dated April 10th, 1606, for that part of North Ame- rica extending from north lat. 34° to 45°. As the name Virginia, given by Queen Elizabeth, had al- ready in a great measure superseded that of New- foundland, the former was adopted in the patent of James I, The immense zone of 14 degrees of lati- tude was subdivided into . two, North Virginia and South Virginia, and granted to two distinct compa- nies. The southern, named the first colony, was granted to what was then called the London Company, and the northern to the Plymouth Company. Such were the preliminary steps which led to a system of colonization, the most important in histo- ry, which has long since produced the United States, and prepared the foundation of another nation in Canada. The brevity of this view precludes the insertion of more than a simple chronological series of events, from the original settlement in Virginia, under the patent of 1606, up to the organization of the territory of Florida, 1821, and fixing the existing ratio of representation, 1822, of course establishing the actual political condition of the United States. 1607 April. First effective settlement of the English in America, at Jamestown, Virginia. 1610 Dutch form settlements on the Hudson. 1611 An abandonment of the colony of Virginia prevented by the timely arrival of Lord De la Ware. 1612 Second charter of Virginia. 16 1 S Marriage of Pocahontas to Mr. Rolfe — a most propitious era in the history of Virginia; this, c 2 30 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. guardian angel of the colony had saved the life of Captain Smith, and scattered peace and security around his dwelling. 1619 First general assembly called in Virginia. 1620 Plymouth settled; the first colony established in Massachusetts, and the second English co- lony in America ; African slaves first intro- duced into Virginia. 1621 New Netherlands, now New-York, granted by the States General to the West India Com- pany of Holland; New Hampshire granted to Gorges and Mason. 1623 Settlements began at Piscataqua ; and Fort Orange, now Albany, founded. 1625 Government of Virginia vested in the crown of England. 1627 Delaware planted by the Swedes and Fins. 1628 Massachusetts granted to Henry BoswelL Plymouth company erect trading houses on Connecticut river. John Endicot arrives in Massachusetts with a new body of settlers. 1629 Boston founded. Wheelwright's grant from the Indians. Grant to Mason by the Plymouth Company of part of what is now called Maine. 1632 Charter of Maryland granted by Charles, I., with equal privileges to all Christians. 1633 Severe penal laws passed in Virginia against dissenters. First settlement of Connecticut at Hartford. 1634 Charter of Plymouth annulled by the crown. Contests respecting limits between Connecti- cut and New Netherlands. First effective colony of Maryland planted at St.- Mary's. 1635 John Winthrop governor of Connecticut. Gorges sold New Hampshire to Mason. 1636 Colony of Providence founded by Roger Wil- liams. 163/ War in Connecticut with, and ruin of, the Pe- quods. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 31 1638 Harvard College, now Cambridge Universi- ty, founded. Colony of New Haven founded. Rhode Island settled by Coddington. Contest between Connecticut and Nev/ Netherlands. 1639 Written constitutions formed by Connecticut and New Haven. Privileges of Virginia restored to the colony. Maine granted to Sir Francis Gorges. First English printing press in America founded at Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1642 Kieft, governor of New Netherlands, expel- led the English from the Delaware. 1643 Charter of Rhode Island granted to Roger Williams. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven unite for mutual defence against the Indians. 1650 Boundaries between Massachusetts and Con- necticut fixed. First constitution of Mary- land formed. Carolina founded by emigrants from Virginia. 1651 Parliament of England infringe the privileges of Maryland. Dutch built a fort at Newcas- tle, Delaware, and erect trading houses on Delaware river, 1652 Maine submits to Massachusetts, First Ame- rican mint established in Massachusetts. Vir- ginia submits to Cromwell. 1653 New Hampshire claimed by the heirs of Ma- son. Violent disputes between Connecticut and New Netherlands. 1654 English navigation act rigidly enforced in Virginia. 1655 Swedes on the Delaware submit to the go- vernment of New Netherlands, under gover- nor Stuy vesant. 1656 Fendal's insurrection in Maryland. 1659 Royal government restored in Virginia. 1660 New Hampshire adjudged to Mason's heirs by Charles IL 32 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 1661 Settlements made by emigrants from New England, near Cape Fear river in North Ca- rolina. Laws of England adopted in Vir- ginia. 1662 Church of England established by law, by an Act of Assembly, in Virginia. Charter of Connecticut granted. Authority of Calvert restored in Maryland. 1663 Lord Clarendon received a patent of that part of North America between N. lat. 31° and 36°. 1664 New Netherlands conquered by the English, and granted, with great part of what is now New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania, to the Duke of York, by his brother Charles II. New Jersey conveyed by the Duke of York to Beverley and Carteret. 1665 Massachusetts had 4000 enrolled militia. Cities of Albany and New- York incorporated. Connecticut and New Haven united. Go- vernment of Rhode Island outlaws the Qua- kers. 1667 Constitution of Carolina formed. New Jer- sey becomes a distinct province. 1669 First assembly of Carolina. 1670 First settlement in what is now South Caro- lina, under Mr. Locke's constitution. 1673 First parliament of Carolina meets. Dutch reconquer New York, which is restored to England by treaty the ensuing year. 1675 Destructive war with the Indians under Phi- lip, against whom are united Massachusetts, Plymouth, New Hampshire and Connecticut. Insurrection in Virginia against the royal au- thority: the colony contained a population of 50,000. 1676 War with the Indians in New-England ended by the defeat and death of Philip. Rebellion jn Virginia under Bacon. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 33 West Jersey claimed by the Duke of York. Quakers settle at Burlington. Maine pur- chased from Gorges by Massachusetts. Commercial imports into New-York amount to 50,000 pounds colonial currency. New Hampshire separated from Massachu- setts, and made a separate colony. Charleston in South Carolina founded, and made the seat of government. Naturalization act in Virginia. Government of West Jersey usurped by Andros, governor of New York, and restored same year. First assembly of New Hampshire met at Portsmouth. Patent for Pennsylvania granted to William Penn, and first colony under, arrives. Delaware and New Jersey, with Pennsylva- nia, under the government of William Penn. First frame of Pennsylvania government form- ed. Charter of Massachusetts vacated by quo toarranto. New frame of government formed in Pennsylvania. Printing presses forbidden by the royal governor in Virginia. Quo warranto issued against the charter of Rhode Island, and a similar writ against Con- necticut. Quo warranto issued against New Jersey. Andros appointed royal governor of New England. Revolution in England, expulsion of the Stew- arts, a most desirable event in the Anglo- American colonies. First paper money issued by Massachusetts. Schenectady in New York destroyed by the French and Indians. Government of Mary- land resumed by the crown. New Hamp- shire united to Massachusetts. New charter of Massachusetts, including Maine, granted by William and Mary. As- sembly of New York again convened. 34 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTIOJf. 1692 Witchcraft madness in Massachusetts. Con- necticut and Rhode Island resume their char- ters by permission of William III, Univer- sity of Virginia incorporated by charter. — Treaty between New York and the Five Na- tions of Indians. Pennsylvania made subject to New York, by the king of England, who seizes the government of Delaware. New Hampshire irrevocably separated from Mas- sachusetts. Protestant religion established in Maryland by law. 1693 Locke's frame of government in Carolina ab- rogated, and one formed agreeable to char- ter. William and Mary College in Virgi- nia founded. 1694 William Penn restored t© his rights over Pennsylvania and Delaware. 1695 Rice planting introduced into Carolina. 1696 Third frame of gevernment in Pennsylvania adopted. City of New York contains 6,000 persons. 1698 Assembly of Connecticut separated into two houses. 1699 Annapolis becomes the seat of government of Maryland, and has remained so until the pre- sent time. Duty on slaves imported into Vir- ginia imposed. 1700 Act of Assembly of New York makes it pun- ishable with death for any popish priest who should enter that colony. Grant of lands to William Penn made by the Susquehannah Indians. Episcopacy introduced into Penn- sylvania. 1701 Yale College at New Haven founded. — Rhode Island contains 10,000; Ncav York 30,000; New .Tersey 15,000; Maryland 25,000; Virginia 60,000. Government of New Jersey surrendered to Queen Anne ; East and West Jersey united. New. charterer frame of go- HlSrORICAL INTRODUCTION. S5 vernment for Pennsylvania granted by Wil- liam Penn. Philadelphia incorporated, and Delaware separated from Pennsylvania. Duty of 41. imposed on every negro imported into Massachusetts. First Anglo-American newspaper, the Boston News Letter, published at Boston. Tonnage duty on foreign vessels imposed in Rhode Island. Assembly of Pennsylvania refuses to pass mi- litia laws. French and Spaniards besiege Charleston, but are repulsed with great loss Paper money emitted in New York. Bills of credit emitted in New Jersey. Palatines from Germany settle on the Roan- oke, and other German emigrants in New- York. New England colonies harassed by the French and Indians. Palatines from Kresheim found Germantown near Philadel- phia. Virginia divided into parishes, and the clergy given a regular salary by law. Dreadful massacre in Carolina by the savages. Alba- ny contains 1000 inhabitants. Boundaries between Connecticut and Massa- chusetts arranged. Spotswood first crosses the Apalachian moun tains, from Virginia to the valley of Ohio. Y^amassee Indians attack Charleston, and are repulsed. Government of Maryland restored to Lord Baltimore after having been usurped by the crown twenty-six years. The shipping of Massachusetts employs 3,493 sailors. Paper money issued in New Hampshire. Proprietary government in Carolina abro- gated, and the base laid for an entire separa- tion of the colony into North and South Caro- lina. First presbyterian church founded in 36 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. the city of New York. First newspaper in Pennsylvania, the Weekl)^ Mercury. 1720 First royal governor of North Carolina. Trade from New York to Canada forbidden by act of Assembly of the former colony. New England, particularly Maine, severely harassed by the Indians. 1721 Inoculation for the small pox introduced into Massachusetts. Treaty with the Indians made by North Carolina. 1 722 Oswego in New York founded, A population of 94,000 in Massachusetts. 1723 First paper currency in form of bills of credit issued, and made a legal tender in Pennsylva- nia. Beaufort in South Carolina incorpo- rated. 1724 Bills to the amount of 30,000/. emitted in Pennsylvania. 1726 After a most distressing war with the savages, Maine makes peace. New Hampshire had already formed a treaty the previous year, Massachusetts receives from England an ex- planatory charter regulating the governor's authority. 1727 New Hampshire adopts a constitution of go- vernment. Fort erected at Oswego. 1729 Quakers and baptists relieved from pay- ing the regular clergy in Connecticut. — Trade between New York and Canada re- stored. Emigrants to the number of 6000 come from Europe to Pennsylvania. Caro- lina permanently divided into North Caroli- na and South Carolina. 1730 Massachusetts supposed to contain 120,000 inhabitants ; 20,000 militia and 5,000 sailors. Treaty between South Carolina and the Cherokees. Rhode Island contained a popu- lation of about 18,000, of which 1,650 were negroes. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. v>7 1731 Boundary between New York and Connecti- cut fixed by commissioners. Philadelphia contains 12,000 inhabitants, and the colony- supposed to employ 6,000 tons of shipping. 1732 Georgia founded by General Oglethorpe, un- der patent from George IJ, Boundary be- tween Delaware and Maryland fixed, as also that between Maryland and Pennsylvania. Tobacco made a legal tender in Maryland. 1733 First colony of Georgia established ; treaty between Georgia and the Creeks, and Savan- nah founded. First newspapers published in New York and Rhode Island. 1735 Wilmington in Delaware founded. Oppres- sive royal government over New York. De- structive insurrection of the negroes of South Carolina. 1736 Colony of Highlanders arrive in Georgia. Trade of Maryland employs 130 sail of ves- sels ; Virginia and Maryland exporting 210,000 lbs. of tobacco. In Pennsylvania 211 vessels entered and 215 cleared. 1738 The first Governor of New Jersey indepen- dent of New York, Lewis Morris. 1739 Virginia suifered severely from her co-opera- tion with England in an unsuccessful expedi- tion to Carthagena. Boundaries between Massachusetts and New Hampshire fixed, and in the ensuing year, 1740, confirmed, by a decree of the privy council in England. 1740 Unsuccessful expedition from South Carolina against St. Augustine. 1741 Benning Wentworth, first Governor of New Hampshire separate from Massachusetts. Dangerous conspiracy of the negroes in New York defeated. Moravians found Bethlehem on the Lehigh, Pennsylvania. 1742 Treaty of Philadelphia with the Six Nations, who release a large tract of land on both o» HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. sides of the Siisquehannah. Spaniards from Florida invade Georgia, but are repulsed. Ncav form of government in Georgia. Massachu- setts supposed to have a population of 160,000. 1744 Maine contained 2485 men on the militia rolls. 1745 Claim of Mason's heirs, in New Hampshire, adjusted. Massachusetts supplies for an ex- pedition against Louisburg, 3250 ; Connec- ticut, 500 ; Rhode Island, 300 ; Pennsylvania, 4,000/. for provisions. 1746 Massachusetts embodies a force of 3500 to act with the British in an expedition against Canada ; Connecticut raised for the same purpose 1000 ; New Jersey 500 ; Pennsylva- nia 400 ; Maryland 300. 1747 Indigo to the amount of 200,000 lbs. exported from South Carolina. Village of Saratoga destroyed by the savages. 1748 Newark college removed to Princeton, New Jersey. 1749 The Indians of Maine submit to the authori- ty of the colony. Grants first made by New Hampshire to settlers in Vermont. Vessels in Pennsylvania entered 303, cleared 291. 1750 Emigrants to the number of 4300 from Ger- many, and 1000 from Great Britain, arrive in Pennsylvania. Connecticut estimated to con- tain a population of 100,000. 1753 Exports from Pennsylvania, for three years, 647,317/. Philadelphia contains a population of 18,000. 1754 Hostilities renewed with the Indians by Maine, Massachusetts and New Hampshire. The joint exports of Virginia and Maryland amount to 632,574/. and the imports to 356,776/. Major, afterwards General Washington, given the command of a Virginia regiment, which he marched towards the Ohio ; was at first HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 39 successful, but opposed by a superior force, was compelled to capitulate. Cotton first exported from South Carolina. ] 755 General judicial court established in Georgia. Indians cede an extensive territory to North Carolina. Convention of colonial governors meet. Maryland by actual enumeration con- tains a population of 108,000. Fort Edward on Hudson river. New York, built. Rhode Island contains a population of 35,939, and New Hampshire 34,000. General Braddock defeated and slain by the French and Indians near Pittsburg. 1756 Fortifications erected along the frontier of Georgia. Fort on Tennessee river built. Fort Oswego, New York, taken and destoyed by the French. 1757 City of New York contained a population of 12,000. 1758 Exported from Virginia 70,000 hogsheads of tobacco. Treaty of Easton, Pennsylvania, with the Indians. British army under Gene- ral Abercrombie defeated with great loss by the French at Ticonderoga. A force of 5000 men raised in Connecticut to invade Canada ; 7000 raised for a similar purpose in Massa- chusetts. 1759 Ticonderoga, Niagara, and Pittsburg taken by the British. 1760 Bills of credit emitted in Georgia. War on the frontiers of North Carolina with the In- dians. Counties of Lincoln and Cumberland, Maine, formed . 1761 War continues between the two Carolinas and the Cherokees. The Penobscot Indians in Maine submit. 1762 Nov. Secret treaty between France and Spain, by which Louisiana was ceded by the former to the latter power. 40 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION, IT 63 The peninsula between the Alatamaha and St. Mary's made part of Georgia. Popula- tion of North Carolina 95,000 ; of Virginia 170,000; of New Jersey 100,000; of Connec- ticut 141,000. New York exports to the value of 54,000/., and imports 238,500/. Maryland contains a population of 70,000. Joint commerce of Virginia and Maryland amounted in exports to 642,300/. in imports 555,400/. Peace of Paris, by which Canada was ceded to Great Britain. 1764 Massacre of the Indians at Lancaster, Penn- sylvania. Large number of Germans remove to and settle in South Carolina. Brown LTni- versity in Rhode Island founded. Medical school in Philadelphia founded by Dr. Ship- pen. 1765 Stamp Act passed by the British Parliament; produced on its promulgation the most violent tumults at Boston, and was opposed by most of the colonies,but the first legislati\'e proceeding declatory of American rights was made in the Virginia house of burgesses. Massachusetts proposed a Continental Congress ; South Ca- rolina first met the proposition, and was fol- lowed by all the colonies, except New Hamp- shire, which dissented ; and Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia, which were prevented from sending delegates by their respective governors. The Congress met at New York, and James Otis, of Massachusetts, took the lead on the side of law, humanity and free- dom. 1766 Stamp Act repealed. The population of South Carolina 135,000; New Jersey 161,000; and New York 168,000. 1769 Louisiana taken possession of by Spain, in virtue of the treaty of 1762. 1770 Affray at Boston, between the people and the royal troops. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 41 1771 Regulators, a lawless assemblage in North Carolina, are suppressed by Governor Tryon. 1773 Tea destroyed at Boston. Tea ships sent back to London from Pennsylvania. Assem- bly of Virginia appoints a committee of cor- respondence with the other colonies. 1774 Boston port closed by British authority ; and the provincial assembly of that colony meets at Concord. British military stores seized at Portsmouth. Assembly of Connecticut erects the Wyoming valley into a town, un- der the charter of that province. Royal artille- ry and military stores seized in Rhode Island. Continental Congress met September 5th, in Philadelphia, and chose Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, their President ; all the colonies, 13 in number, except Georgia, were represent- ed, 12 having sent delegates. 1775 Battle of Lexington, and Bunker's hill near Boston. Washington made commander in chief, besieges Boston. Ticonderoga taken by the Americans. Georgia accedes to the confederation. Constitution of Delaware formed. 1776 Jan. 1st, General Montgomery defeated and slain at Quebec. March 17th, Boston evacuat- ed. May 5th, the American army quits its lines near Quebec, and rapidly evacuates Canada, July 2ndj Constitution of New Jersey adopted. July 4th, Independence declared at Philadel- phia by Congress. July 5th, Constitution of Virginia adopted. 8th, British fleet repulsed before Sullivan's island near Charleston. Au- gust 14th, Constitution of Maryland adopted. 22nd, British army lands on Long Island, and battle of Flatbush on the 27th, Americans defeated. September 14th, New York eva- cuated by the American army. The Colo- nies first designated Uxitbd States, by reso- 1)2 42 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. lution of Congress. Commissioners sent to France. October 28th, Battle of White Plains near New York. November 16th, British take Fort Washington. 18th, Americans evacuate Fort Lee. 28th, General Washing- ton retreats over the Delaware. December 12th, Congress retires from Philadelphia to Baltimore. 13th, General Lee taken prisoner in New Jersey. 26th, Surprize and capture of 900 Hessians at Trenton. 1777 Jan. 3d, Battle of Princeton, British defeated. April 20th, Constitution of New York adopt- ed. 26 th, British destroy the stores at Dan- bury. May 23d, Colonel Meigs destroys the British stores at Sagg Harbour, Long Island. July 6th, General Burgoyne takes Ticonde- roga. August 6th, General Herkimer defeat- ed by the Indians. 16th, battle of Benning- ton, German troops under British colours and pay utterly defeated. September 11, battle of Brandy wine, Americans defeated. 19th, battle of Stillwater near Saratoga, New York. 20th, General Wayne surprised at Paoli, Chester county, Pennsylvania, and his troops massacred by the British. 27th, Philadel- phia taken by the British. October 4th, in- decisive battle of Germantown. 6th, Forts Clinton and Montgomery taken by the Bri- tish. 7th, British defeated at Stillwater ; and General Burgoyne surrendered his army on the 17th, at Saratoga. 22nd, British repuls- ed at Red Bank. December 18th, Constitu- tion of North Carolina adopted. IJ'78 Feb. 6, Treaty of alliance between the Unit- ed States and France. The American fri- gate Kandolph, of 32 guns, engages the Bri- tish ship Yarmouth, of 64; former blown up. June, Commissioners arrive from Great Bri- HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 43 tain to treat with Congress ; propositions of theformerrejected by the latter. 18, Phila- delphia evacuated by the British, Avho retreat towards New-York, are pursued, and on the 28th defeated by the Americans under Gene- ral Washington, at Monmouth in New Jersey. French fleet arrives at Newport. July 1, Massacre at Wyoming. Aug. 29, Indecisive battle on Rhode Island. Dec. 29, British de- feat the American General Howe, and take Savannah. 17T9 General Lincoln takes command of the south- ern army in January. March 3, Battle of Briar-creek, near Savannah ; Americans de- feated. The British advance towards Charles- ton in April ; invest, that city, but are com- pelled to raise the siege May 12. Indecisive battle of Stono ferry, June 20th ; the British had in the interim hivaded Virginia, and ta- ken Portsmouth and Norfolk. July 5, New- haven plundered, and on the 7th, Fairfield, Norwalk, and Green-farms, in Connecticut, burnt by the British. 16, Stony-point stormed by the Americans under General Wayne. 19, British post at Paulus-Hook, opposite New York, surprised and taken by Major Lee. Aug. Expedition of General Sullivan against the Indians of the Six Nations. Sep- tember 23, Naval battle off Flamborough Head, two British frigates captured by Paul Jones. October 4, Americans and French besiege Savannah, and on the Qth meet a san- guinary repulse in an attenipt to storm the place. 17S0 In January, a powerful British expedition, under Sir Flenry Clinton, . sailed for South •Carolina. Constitution of Massachusetts adop- ted March 2d. March 21, Charleston be- sieged by the British, who surprise the Ame- 44 HisToiiicAL introduction. ricans at Monk's Corner, and by bombard- ment, May 12th, force Charleston to surren- der. May 29, Colonel Butbrd defeated at the Waxhaws by Colonel Tarleton^ June, Lord Cornwallis left in command of the British in South Carolina ; Sir Henry Clinton returned to New-York. 23, Indecisive action at Spring- field in New Jersey. July 12, Party of Bri- tish defeated by General Sumpter, Aug. 6, Prince of Wales's regiment surprised and ut- terly defeated by General Sumpter at the Hanging Rock. 16, Americans meet a se- vere defeat at Camden, South Carolina. — September 21, Arnold escapes from West Point, and Major Andre taken by the Ame- ricans. October 7, Battle of King's Moun- tain, British and Tories defeated, and their commander, Colonel Ferguson, killed. Nov, 20, Colonel Tarletcn defeated by General Sumpter. 1781 Jan. 1, Revolt of the Pennsylvania troops, which is soon suppressed. 17, Decisive de- feat of the British under Colonel Tarleton, by General Morgan, at the Cowpens. March 15, Battle of Guilford Court-house. April 25, Second battle at Camden, Americans defeat- ed. September, Indecisive action off Virgi- nia, between the English and French fleets. Arnold, now a British officer, takes and burns New-I^ondon, and massacres the garrison of Fort Griswold, September 6. Battle of Eu- taw Springs on the 8th, British defeated. 14, The American army under General Washington, reaches W^illiamsburgh, and opens the campaign against Cornwallis ; in- vests Yorktown on the 30th, and, in conjunc- tion with the Fi'ench fleet, comjjcls the Bri- tish general to surrender himself and army on the 19th of October. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 45 1T82 Bank of North America, which had been or- ganized in December 1781, received a char- ter from Pennsylvania, April 1. Indians de- feated near Savannah by General Wayne. Treaty between the United States and Hol- land, October 8. Nov. 5, At Portsmouth, in New Hampshire, was launched the AME- RICA, 74 guns, the first United States ship of the line, Nov. 30, Provisional articles of Peace. 1783 Feb. 5. Sweden acknowledges the Indepen- dence of the United States. 15, Treaty be- tween the United States and Denmark. Pvlarch 22, Congress commutes the officers' half-pay for life for full -pay for five year?. March 24, Independence of the United States acknowledged by Spain, and by Russia in July. September 23, Definitive Treaty of Peace between Great Britain, France, and the United States, signed at Paris. October 18, American army disbanded by proclamation of Congress. Nov. General Washington published his admirable Farewell Address. 25, New- York evacuated by the British. — Dec. 4, General Washington takes leave of his officers ; on the 23d resigned his commis- sion into the hands of Congress, and retired to private life. Society of Cincinnati formed. 1734 Feb. First voyage from the United States to China undertaken in the ship Empress of China. St. John's college, in Annapolis, and a Roman Catholic college, Georgetown, Ma- ryland, founded. Bank of Massachusetts in- corporated. 1785 Treaty between the United States and Prus- sia. Athens University, in Georgia, founded. 1786 From August 22, until March 10th, 1787, civil tumult, almost amounting to actual war, agitated Massachusetts and New liamp- 46 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. shire ; but by wisdom, moderation and firm- ness, was in the end happily appeased. Port- land, in Maine, incorporated, and Harrisburg in Pennsylvania founded. Columbia, the pre- sent seat of government of South Carolina, founded. 1787 Convention in order to frame a federal Con- stitution met at Philadelphia, May 25th, and agree upon one September 17, which was re- ported to Congress, and on October 4, by a resolution of that body, referred to each state in convention. The new Constitution was t-atified, by Delaware, Dec. 7; by Pennsylva- nia, Dec. 12; by New-Jersey, Dec. 18; by Georgia, Jan. 2, 1788 ; Connecticut, Jan. 9 ; Massachusetts, Feb. 6; Maryland, April 28; South Carolina, May 23 ; New Hampshire, June 21; Virginia, June 26; New York, July 26; North Carolina, Nov. 21, 1789, and by Rhode Island, May 29th, 1790. 1787 continued. In that year New York ceded a large tract of land to Massachusetts ; and South Carolina ceded her western territory to the United States. Columbia College in New York incorporated. 1788 Black cotton seed introduced into Georgia from the Bahama Islands. 1789 March 3. The new Constitution went into operation : George Washington was elected President, and John Adams Vice-President, who were inaugurated at New-York, April 30th. Seat of government of South Carolina removed to Columbia. First Roman Catho- lic bishop in the United States consecrated, and first Roman Catholic church in Boston founded. 1790 April. Congress accepts from North Caroli- na a cession of th t territory now state of Tennessee ; and a territory south of Ohio HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 47 formed. May 20. September 2, Existing Constitution of Pennsylvania adopted. 20, General Harmar defeated by the Indians. Dec. Vermont and Kentucky permitted by Congress to form Constitutions, Existing Constitution of South Carolina adopted. First Census of the United States taken, and re- ported a population of 3,929,526, of whom 695,655 were slaves. Feb. 18, Vermont admitted into the Union as an independent state. March 3, Subscri- bers to the Bank of the United States incor- porated by act of Congress ; same day, Nov. 4, General St. Clair defeated by the Indians. Burlington College, Vermont, founded. Re- venue of the United States $4,771,000, expen- diture ^'3,797,000, and exports upwards of ^19,000,000. Exports of New York alone, $2,505,000. June 1, Kentucky admitted into the Union as a state. Existing constitutions of Delaware and New Hampshire adopted. Banks of New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, and South Carolina established. Union Bank in Boston incorpo- rated. March 4, George Washington a second time enters on his duty as President, and John. Adams as Vice-President. April 29, Pro- clan^ation of neutrality issued by the Presi- dent of the United States. In the autumn of this year the yellow fever ravages Phila- delphia. Congress passes an act to fortify and to pre- pare a naval armament in the ports of the United States. July, Insurrection in western Pennsylvania, which is in the sequel sup- pressed without bloodshed. Aug. 20, General Wayne defeated the Ir.dians on Maumee. Nov. 19, Treaty, usually called Jay's treaty, 48 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. between the United States and Great Britain, concluded. 1795 Aug. Treaty of Greenville, between the Unit- ed States and western Indians, concluded. Oct. Trjeaty between the United States and Spain. Nov. Treaty between the United States and Algiers. Georgia passes an act to sell its western lands. 1796 Tennessee admitted, June' 1, into the Union as a state. Western posts, Detroit, &c. de- livered to the United States in virtue of Jay's treaty, 1797 Treaty of peace between the United States and Tripoli concluded in January. July 7, In consequence of increasing difficulties with France, Congress passes an act, declaring the existing treaties with that nation no longer obligatory on the United States. Oct. Con- stitution frigate launched at Boston. 1798 May, Congress augments the army and navy, and in June authorises merchant vessels to arm in their own defence. July 13, George Washington appointed commander in chief, with the rank of lieutenant general. Oct. 2. Massachusetts cedes to the United States Castle William, in Boston harbour. Oct. 25. The United States and British boundary in St. Croix river determined by commissioners. Transylvania university in Kentucky founded. 1799 Feb. Commodore Truxton, in the frigate Constellation, of 38 guns, captures the French frigate L'Insurgente, of 44 guns. May 26, Treaty between the United States and Tunis concluded. July 11, Treaty between the United States and Prussia. New embassy to France. American navy carrying 950 guns on 42 vessels. Seat of the government of Pennsylvania removed from Philadelphia to Lancaster, The militia of the United States estimated at 854,000. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 49 ISOO May 13, Provisional army disbanded. Mis- sissippi territory erected into the first grade of territorial government. Indiana territory formed. Seat of government removed to Washington. Sept. 20, Convention between tlie United States and France concluded at Paris. Second census reported a population of 5,305,666. 1801 Contested election between Messrs. Jeffer- son and Burr, terminated by the choice of Mr. Jefferson for President. July 10, War declared by the United States against Tripo- li. UpAvards of 200 newspapers now publish- ed in the United States. 1802 April 28, Ohio admitted into the Union as an independent state. July, Louisiana ceded by Spain to France. Intendant at New Orleans shuts that port in October against the com- merce of the United States. Merino sheep introduced from Spain into the United States. Military Academy at West Point established. 1803 April 30, Convention of Paris, by which Lou- isiana was purchased from France by the United States, for 15,000,GOO of dollars. Oct. 31, The United States frigate Philadelphia struck on a rock in the harbour of Tripoli, and was taken. Dec. 20, the French coloni- al prefect, Laussat, delivered Louisiana to the United States. Columbia college in South Carolina founded. 1804 Feb. 16, The frigate Philadelphia burned in the harbour of Tripoli, by a body of Ame- rican seamen, headed by Stephen, afterwards Commodore, Decatur. Aug. The city of Tripoli bombarded by the American fleet under Commodore Preble. Middlesex ca- nal in Massachusetts completed. Brown Uni- versity, Rhode Island, remodelled. See 1764 50 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 1805 June, Treaty of peace between the United States and Tripoli concluded. 1806 April 25, John Pierce, an American citizen, murdered by a shot wantonly discharged from the British ship Leander,Capt. Whitby. May, Extensive and aggravated captures made by the British of American vessels, for alleged breaches of paper blockades. Nov. The Emperor Napoleon emulates the British in their spoliations on American commerce, by decrees of blockade on paper, and conse- quent seizure of American property. Treaty negotiated between the United States and Great Britain rejected by the President of the United States, Mr. Jefferson. 180/ June 22, American frigate Chesapeake at- tacked in full peace by the British frigate Leopard, and a number of American citizens killed or wounded. Nov. 11, issued the fa- mous British orders in Council, prohibiting the trade to France by neutral nations. Dec. 17, The Emperor Napoleon issues retaliatory decrees at Milan, equally affecting neutral commerce. Dec. 22, General embargo laid on American vessels by Act of Congress. William Rose arrives as ambassador from Great Britain to the United States. 1808 Congress authorises the President to suspend by proclamation the embargo in favour of one or both nations who should rescind their de- crees. The British government, by procla- mation, claimed a right to impress their own seamen, wherever found; and refused tore- peal the orders in Council. 1809 April 12, Congress passes an act to augment the United States army. The Embargo law repealed ; but a Non-Intercouse Act passed, forbidding commerce with either Great Bri- tain or France. Treaty between the United HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 51 States and Great Britain negotiated with Mn Erskine, April 23, providing for the repeal of the orders in Council and Non-Intercourse I^aw, but rejected by the British government and Mr. Erskine recalled. The Non-Inter* course Law renewed against Great Britain. Nov. Mr. Jackson, the British ambassador, dismissed by the President of the United States, for insulting expressions used in his communications. 1810 May 1, Act of Congress passed to authorise the President of the United States to suspend the Non-Intercourse Law with either France or Great Britain, on condition of a repeal of their respective decrees. Aug. 5, France rescinded the Berlin and Milan decrees in favour of American vessels ; repeal to take effect from Nov. 1, ensuing. Third census of the United States reported a population of 7,239,903. 1811 The British sloop of war. Little Belt, on May 16, fired upon the United States frigate Pre- sident, Commodore Rogers, and met a severe castigation for the rashness of her command- er. Louisiana authorized to form a state con- stitution. Nov. 7, Battle of Tippecanoe, on the Wabash, between the Indians, and the Americans commanded by General Harrison; Indians defeated. Congress resolves to aug- ment the army and navy of the United States. 1812 Jan. Acts of Congress empower the Presi- dent to raise an army of 25,000 regular troops, to accept the services of volunteer corps to the amount of 50,000, and to put in readiness detachments of militia to the number of 100,- 000. June 18th, War declared by the Unit- ed States against Great Britain ; and on the 23d of the same month. Great Britain revok- ed her orders in Council. July 12, United 52 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. States army under General Hull, invaded Canada. Fort Mackinaw taken by the Bri- tish. Aug. 9, Battle of Maguaga, British and Indians defeated. 13, The United States frigate Essex, Capt. Porter, captures the Bri- tish sloop of war Alert. General Hull, Aug. 16, surrenders Detroit, the Michigan territo- ry, his army, and himself, to the British. 19, The United States frigate Constitution, Capt. Hull, captured the British frigate Guerriere, Capt. Dacres. Oct. 8, British armed brigs, Detroit and Caledonia, cut out by a party of Americans from under the guns of Fort Erie. 13, Americans repulsed before Queenstown. 14, General Hopkins repulsed in an attempt on Canada. IT, United States ship Wasp captures the British ship Frolic, and both are subsequently taken by the Poictiers 74. 25, The United States frigate, Capt. Decatur, captures the British ship Macedonian. Dec. 29, Capt. Bainbridge, in the United States frigate Constitution, captured the British fri- gate Java. 1813 General Winchester defeated at Frenchtown, on the Raisin, by the British and Indians, Jan. 13. Feb, 23, The United States ship of war Hornet, takes the British sloop of war Pea- cock. Mobile, in West Florida, taken by General Wilkinson, April 15. April 27, York in Upper Canada taken by the Ame- ricans; General Pike slain in the assault. May 16, Commissioners from the United States to treat with Great Britain, sail for Europe. May, Fort Meigs besieged by the British and Indians, and General Clay defeat- ed in attempting its relief. 27, Fort George, in Canada, taken. 29, British meet a severe repulse in an attack on Sackett's Harbour. June 1, United States frigate Chesapeake* HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 53 Capt, Lawrence, captured by the British fri- gate Shannon; the gallant Lawrence fell in the action. 5, Generals Chandler and Win- der surprised and taken by the British. 24, Col. Boerstler surprised and taken with his detachment by the British. June 25, Fort Erie taken by the United States troops under General Brown. Aug. 1, British defeated at Fort Sandusky. 14, The British ship Peli- can captured the United States brig Argus. September 4, The British ship Boxer taken by the United States ship Enterprise. Sept. 10, The British fleet in Lake Erie defeated and captured by a United States squadron. Commodore Perry. Oct 5, The British army on the Tham.es, Upper Canada, defeated and in great part captured by General Harrison. Nov. The expedition against Montreal re- linquished. Dec. 17, Embargo imposed by Act of Congress. 19, Fort Niagara taken by the British. 1814 Jan. 22, Creek Indians defeated by General Jackson at Tallapoosa ; and on the 27th, an- other party of the same nation defeated by General Floyd, at Fort Defiance. March 20, The British frigate PhcEnix and sloop of war Cherub, after a sanguinary conflict, capture the United States frigate Essex. 27, The Creeks defeated by General Jackson at To- hopeka. 31, Action at La Cole Mill in Ca- nada. April 21, The United States ship Frolic taken by the British. The United States ship Peacock captured the British ship Epervier, June 28, The United States ship Wasp captured the British ship Reindeer. July 6, British defeated by General Brown at Chippeway; and again, July 25, a similar re- sult at Bridgewater. Aug. 9, British repulsed in an attack on Stonington, Connecticut. 15, E 2 54 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. British repulsed at Fort Erie. 24, United States army, composed chiefly of militia, de- feated at Bladensburg, and Washington taken by the British. September 1, The U. S. ship Wasp captured the British ship Avon. 11, Battle of Plattsburg, and capture of the British squadron on Lake Champlain by the United States squadron. Commodore M'Do- nough. 12, Battle of Long Point, near Balti- more, the British defeated. September 17, Sortie of United States troops from Fort Erie, British compelled to raise the siege on the 19th. Oct. 19, British defeated at Lyon's creek. Nov. 7, Pensacola taken by General Jackson. Dec. 23, British having invaded Louisiana, and reached the bank of the Mis- sissippi, eight miles below NewOrleans, were attacked by the United States army under General Jackson, and an indecisive though sanguinary battle ensued. 24, Treaty of peace between the United States and Great Britain signed at Ghent. 28, British repuls- ed in an attack on the United States line be- low New Orleans. 1815 Jan 1, British again repulsed near New Or- leans. 8, The British decisively defeated before New Orleans. 15, The frigate Unit- ed States taken by the British. British army' evacuate Louisiana on the ISth. Feb. 17, The Treaty of Ghent ratified by the Senate of the United States. 20, The U. S. frigate Constitution captures the British ships Cyane and Levant. March 23, The British ship Pen- guin taken by the United States vessel the Hornet. W^ar declared against Algiers. April, Massacre of United States prisonei-s at Dart- moor, England. June 18, An Algerine frigate of 44 guns captured by the United States fri- gate Gucrriere. Treaty of peacewith Algiers. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 55 1816 United States Bank with a capital of 35 mil- lions, and a charter for 20 years, established by Congress in April. Oct. Treaty between the Choctaw nation of Indians and the United States negotiated by General Jackson. Dec. Indiana admitted into the Union as a state. 1817 Jan. 1, Bank of the United States opened and commences business. Dec 11, The Missis- sippi territory admitted into the Union as a state. 24, The United States troops seize Amelia Island. 1818 April, The Seminoles, a tribe of Creeks, de- feated by General Jackson. 22, Massacre of Indians at Chehaw, by order of a Captain Wright. May 1, Trial and execution of Am- brister and Arbuthnot. 28, Pensacola taken by General Jackson. Dec. 4, Illinois admitted into the Union as an independent state. Trea- ties of commerce w^ith Sweden and Great Britain. 1819 Feb. 23, Treaty of Washington between the United States and Spain, providing for the cession of Florida by the latter to the former. Aug. but subsequently rejected by the King of Spain. Alabama admitted into the Union as a state. 1820 Jan. 11, Great fire in Savannah. March, Maine admitted into the Union as a state, and Missouri authorized to form a Constitution, which was done in the ensuing June. Nov. Constitution of Massachusetts amended in convention. Fourth census reported a pop- ulation of 9,637,976. 1821 Feb. 19_, Florida Treaty ratified. March, Missouri admitted into the Union as a state. July 7, Florida given up to the United States, and organized as a territorial government. 1822 Feb. Ratio of representation in the United States House of Representatives fixed at 40,- 000. See Art. U. S. 56 • CHAPTER II. GENERAL VIEW. Taken in its utmost extent, the territory of the United States, as a physical section of the earth, ex- tends from N. lat. 24*^ 27' to N. lat. 54° 40', and from 10° E. to 54° W. Ion. from Washington City. It is bounded N. by Cabotia, or British North Ameri- ca ; Northwest, by Russian America ; West by the Pacific ocean; Southwest by the Mexican Territo- ries; South by the Gulf of Mexico, and Florida or Cuba channel ; and Southeast and East, by the At- lantic ocean. This immense region has a limit in com- mon with Cabotia or British North America, from the mouth of St. Croix river to the Miles. Chippewayan mountains, 3000 By an indefinite boundary, from the Chip- pewayan mountains to the Pacific ocean, say 600 Along the Pacific ocean, from N. lat. 51°, to 42°, 625 In common with the Mexican territories, from the intersection of N. lat. 42° with the Pacific ocean, to the mouth of Sabine river, 2300 Along the Gulf of Mexico, from the mouth of the Sabine to Florida Point, 1100 Along the Atlantic ocean, 1800 Having an entire outline of 9425 The exact area included within this vast perime- ter, has never been very accurately determined, nor do I pretend that the subjoined table will completely solve the problem; but as I used the actual length GENERAL VIEW. 57 and mean breadth of the rhumbs formed by the lines of hititude and longitude, it is probable, that the re- sult is not far from the real superficies of the United States. No. I. — Table of the Area coinpHsedin each zone of lati' tude embraced by the territory of the United States, advancing from south to north. Between lats. Sq. miles. Between lats. Sq. miles. 24" and 25« 100 38° 39° 121,000 25 26 2887 39 40 127,194 26 27 8678 40 41 128,000 27 28 9675 41 42 132,696 28 29 9000 42 43 193,250 29 30 26,370 43 44 189,864 30 31 50,124 44 45 193,360 31 32 50,000 45 46 156,272 32 :is 50,000 46 47 137,550 33 34 60,500 47 48 117,900 34 35 78,374 48 49 96,420 35 36 83,300 49 50 47,200 36 37 83,300 50 51 30,660 37 3S 83,300 Asrerf jffate. 2,257,374 Exceeding by a small fraction the one twentieth part of the land surface of the earth, but withm the most temperate latitudes. The territory of the United States is naturally divided into three great sections; that of the Atlan- tic slope; that within the great central valley of North America; and thirdly, a slope or inclined plane extending from the Rocky or Chippewayan mountains towards the Pacific ocean. The already most thickly inhabited part, and the seat of primitive European colonization, is an elon- gated, but comparatively narrow slope, falling to- wards the Atlantic ocean. The second section, flanked South by the Gulf of Mexico, North by the interior sea of Canada, and by a wide sweep spread- ing from the Appalachian to the Chippewayan 58 GENERAL VIEW. mountains, embraces the most important part of the great central valley of the continent. This ex- panded region is drained in great part by the innu- merable confluents of the Mississippi, but having within its limits an important part of the basin of St. Lawrence or Canadian sea. Beyond the Rocky, or Chippewayan mountains, descends the great basin of Columbia or Oregon. The Pacific slope of the United States is still more extensive than that cf the Atlantic; but the former continues very im- perfectly known, and constitutes a very interesting Terra Incognita to stimulate to future discovery. In every disquisition upon its geography, the relative position and extent of these great natural divisions ought to be carefully kept in view. Contrasted in their general aspect, separated by natural if not by impassable boundaries, and each in itself of great ex- tent, the civil and political history of the United States, must in all future times be modified by fea- tures which no human powercan essentially change. The Atlantic slope, if extended beyond the Nortli- eastern limit of the United States, includes the out- let of the St. Lawrence basin, and reaches Cape Charles in Labrador, the extreme Eastern angle of North America; but in the present view, however, we are only concerned with that part, stretching from Florida Point, to the mouth of St. Croix river. This range of the Atlantic coast is the extreme southeast exposure of the continent to which it be- longs; and as an inquiry into the remote and proxi- mate causes which produce its atmospheric pheno- mena, forms an essential part of this view, the rea- der will find that subject discussed in Chapter X. A common, but very erroneous opinion, prevails that the great inclined Atlantic plain rises by gra- dual ascent from the ocean to a chain of mountains, and that, of course, the mountains give rise to the numerous rivers which flow down, and decorate the plain. It is a very remarkable fact, however, that GENERA.L VIEW. 59 the Appalachian chain or system of mountains does not form the dividing line between the Atlantic slope and Mississippi basin.* By reference to a good physical map of the United States, it will be seen that the real line of demarcation between the Atlan- tic streams and those flowing into the Gulf of Mexi- co ranges obliquely over the Appalachian system. The Atlantic slope, therefore, bounded south-east by the Atlantic ocean, and north-west by the source of its rivers, falls with an unequal breadth and very chequered surface, from north-west to south-east. The interior limit is an indefinite and very inflected line, curving between the river sources, whilst the ocean border is formed by a most beautiful sweep into three immense bays. Having Capes Hatteras and Florida as the ex- tremes of its chord, and the fine estuaries of St. John's, St. Mary's, Alatamaha, with many other rivers, pouring into its base, stretches a bay, swept by that great ocean river the Gulf stream. The coast of this bay is uniformly low and sandy, with small islands, extending generally parallel to the opposing shore of the continent. The rivers are comparatively shallow at or near their efflux into the ocean. It is much to "be regretted, that this bay and the two others which follow it to the north-east, had not received distinctive names; but as this has not been the case, I shall be compelled to distinguish them relatively, as South-western, Middle, and North-eastern. * To avoid circumlocution, I have designated the Central Val- l<^y of the United States, by the name of Mississi])])! basin, from tJie most noted of its rivers. The term Basin, in this view, will be also used as generieally to denote the entire space drained by a river having its outlet into a sea or ocean, such as the Mississippi, St. Lawrence, or Mauraee of Lake Erie; whilst the term Valley, will be used to describe the space drained by a river falling into another; such as the Mohawk, Schuylkill, Shenandoah, or Ohio. Speaking of mountains, \the term System will be used generically, and Chain specifically; thus, the system of the Appalachian or Chippewayan ; and the chains of Alleghany, Blue Ridge, or Kittatinny, 60 GENERAL VIEW. If we consider the South-western bay as commen- cing with the northern outlet of the Bahama chan- nel, the length of its chord will be about 600 miles, with a depth from that chord to the mouth of the Ala- tamaha, of about 200 miles. The Gulf stream in its passage north-east, flows almost exactly along the chord of this bay, and forms in its inner curva- ture an immense whirlpool. The general causes, courses, and extent of the Gulf stream, will be treat- ed of in Chapter X,, as well as the effect of this oceanic river on the climate of the continent of North America. Cape Hatteras forms a most distinguishing land- mark on the oceanic border of the United States. Without an elevation much above the waves which beat with untameable rage against its rocky front, this stormy promontory projects into the Atlantic ocean almost exactly mid-distance between Florida point and Passamaquoddy bay. Sweeping inwards from this cape of tempests, and forming a section of a very elongated ellipse, the Middle bay of the Uni- ted States extends about 550 miles to the eastern salient angle of Massachusetts, with a depth from its chord to New York harbour of 150 miles. The coast of the Middle bay, like that of the South-west, is generally low and sandy ; but the rivers and mi- nor bays of the former assume a very different char- acter from those of the latter. St. John's, St. Ma- ry's, St. Ilia, Alatamaha, Ogeechee, Savannah, Edis- to, Santee, Pedee, and Cape Fear rivers, all enter the Atlantic ocean, by narrow and very shallow out- lets; neither, except the St. Mary's, admitting the entrance of large vessels. With the Ncuse and Pamptico, entering into Pamptico sound directly west from Cape Hatteras, commences a new order of rivers. Pamptico sound is followed by that of Albemarle, receiving Roanoke .and Chowan rivers, which is again succeeded by that immense recipient the Chesapeake bay, and that again by the wide GENERAL VIEW. 6 I estuary of the Delaware, and next, the long and sin- gular tide river or bay of Hudscai. At the efflux of the Hudson, the Atlantic waves almost reach the base of the Appalachian system, but are again repelled by the sandy border of Long Island, which in a distance of 116 miles shelters an inland gulf, differing in character only from the other sounds or bays on the Atlantic slope in having two outlets into the ocean. The outer coast of Long Island may therefore be regarded as the continuation of that of the Atlantic, and what is called I^ong Island Sound as the recipient of the Houssatonick and Connecticut rivers. The beautiful and richly variegated bays of Nar- raganset and Buzzard, close the fine indentings of the Middle bay of the United States, which termi- nates with the sandy point of Malabar. Similar to that of the South-west, the chord of the Middle bay is very nearly the course of the Gulf stream, though in its advances to the North-east, that great current increases in width but diminishes in rapidity. Cape Cod, the eastern extremity of Massachu- setts, is a promontory which constitutes another of those geographical limits on each side of which strong contrasts in natural phenomena present them- selves. Here again the coast curves rapidly inwards by an abrupt sweep to the south, thence west, and gradually winding to the north-east and finally to the south-east; enclosing on three sides a sheet of wa- ter in form of a parallelogram,, 200 by 180 miles. Into this north-eastern recipient are poured the ri- vers Charles, Merrimac, Piscataqua, Saco, Kenne- beck, Penobscott, St. Croix or Passamaquoddy, St. Johns, and I might add, the Bay of Fundy. The North-east bay is rendered distinct by a pe- culiar character of coast. From causes which will receive a more ample notice in another part of this view, the elevation of the ocean tides mcrease from 62 GENERAL VIEW. Cape Florida north-eastward, whilst their flow in- land is regulated by the particular local features of the coast, or rock formation. In the South-west bay, the tides vary from 4 or 5 to 7 or 8 feet. In the Middle bay, and especially towards its north-east extremity, the height of tide is sensibly augmented; but along the whole shore of the Atlantic ocean, from Cape Florida to Cape Cod, in a distance, fol- lowing the general curves of the two great bays, of upwards of one thousand three hundred miles, the tides are under 10 feet, except in heavy and long continued south-eastern gales. Passing Cape Cod, a sudden and hitherto unex- plained elevation of the tides is at once perceived. The change is so excessive and rapid, that in Buz- zard's bay, the tide rises 9 feet, whilst at Barnsta- ble, on the opposite side of the narrow intervening neck of land, they rise to 18 feet mean height. Advancing to the north-east from Barnstable, the swell increases until in the Bay of Fundy the ocean tides are the most elevated known, rising to from 40 to 50 feet. There may be other causes which contribute to produce such a diiference in the Atlantic tides from Cape Florida to the Bay of Fun- dy, but it is probable that the principal part of the effect arises from the Gulf stream. It will be seen in Chapter X. that the current in the Florida chan- nel is from three to five miles an hour ; a velocity continued in the Bahama channel. This counter stream checks the tides ; but as the ocean current widens and becomes more slow, the swell falls with more and more force on the continent. The shores of Cape Cod are low and sandy, but with it terminates the sea-sand alluvial coast of the United States. The high land approaches the ocean, and the bays and rivers of north-cast Massachusetts, and of New-Hampshire and Maine, open to the ocean between bold and swelling hills. The har- bours of this North-east section of the United States GENERAL VIEW. bo are numerous, deep, and spacious, and the two ex- tremes of the Atlantic slope, present a complete con- trast in scenery and in commercial facility. Such are the prominent outlines of that coast which meets the wave of the Atlantic ocean, and upon which has been reared the first column of American freedom. Along the Gulf of Mexico, in a line of 1100 miles, scarce a hill of any perceptible elevation rises to break the dull monotony of the coast ; the rivers enter their recipient by narrow and shallow chan- nels, even the outlets of the mighty Mississippi, on no one bar has 13 feet water. The best harbours are bays into which no great rivers are discharged. To an eye sufficiently elevated and powers of vi- sion strengthened so as to admit a view of the whole territory of the United States, the perspective would present, on the south-east an immense inflected sea line, from the mouth of the Sabine to Cape Cod, of 2400 miles, unbroken and unadorned by any of those strong features which give relief to landscape. Ap- proaching the Hudson, far distant hills would be perceived, but still the ocean spray would continue to have a beach of sand and shells. With the Mer- rimac the monotonous scenery would cease ; more indented and now rising into rounded promontories, the ocean border would be seen richly variegated with sheets of water, intervening between isles now smil- ing in all the luxury of civilized cultivation. Extend the view inland from the Atlantic ocean and Gulf of Mexico, and one vast and very gently rising alluvial plain would seem emerging from the waters, and spreading to the base of the Appalachian mountains. The ocean plain, first an almost undeviating level, would be found imperceptibly broken into hill and dale ; the hills first humble in elevation, but ap- proaching the mountains more proudly swelling in- to that majesty, which gives so imposing an aspect to many of the interior parts of the United States. But to give still more grandeur to this interesting 64 GENERAL VIEW. picture, the long and irregular chains and ridges of the Appalachian system, would appear stretching from south-west to north-east, through upwards of 1200 miles. Those chains and ridges, however ir- regular in their individual physiognomy, would be perceived arranged as a whole, with a symmetry which mocks the efforts of art, and again, exhibiting the peculiar phenomenon of constituting the far highest elevation intervening between the Atlantic ocean and Mississippi basin, without being the di- viding ridge between the respective rivers of these two great sections of North America. Impressed with the common but erroneous opinion, that the Appalachian chains and ridges are the superlative of hills, and that the Atlantic scope is terminated by the base of that system, the observer would quickly perceive his error. He would discover that the Ap- palachian system, so far from constituting a dividing river line, that compared with the real fountain boundary, the mountains ranged obliquely ; and would appear in some respects as extraneous to the general structure of that part of the continent; and as having been formed at a different period. The mountains would be seen deflecting the courses, but in no single instance as determining the recipient in- to Vv'hich their waters are discharged. The river volumes would appear flowing down the mountain vallies, or bisecting the chains at very nearly right angles. This symmetrical inflection in the courses of the rivers, though apparent on both the Atlantic slope and Mississippi basin, is in a peculiar manner evident in the confluents of Chesapeake bay ; the Delaware, Hudson, and Connecticut basins. If a perceptible line was drawn on a good map of the United States, an observer of such a diagram, would be placed relatively as woidd s\Tch a one as I have supposed. Such a map would jirescnt the mountains as crossing the river line at an angle of about 30° ; and what is truly worthy of remark, the GENERAL VIEW. 65 river line, from the sources of St. John's of New Brunswick, and Maine, to Florida Point, would ap- pear to obey the inflections of the opposing Atlantic coast. The mountain system, on the contrary, al- most touching the ocean on the coasts of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York, penetrates, in its range south-west, more and more deeply into the continent, passing over New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, the two Carolinas, Georgia, and Alabama. If we receive the preceding data as correct, then are we bound to regard the mountains which com- pose the Appalachian system, as not only relatively, but specifically and generically distinct from the hills. The former stand prominent, are arranged in order, and are composed of different materials from the latter, which, indeed, are evidently the re- mains left by river abrasion. I would impress the distinction the more upon the mind of the reader, as it has been from confounding objects so different, that so much error prevails respecting the physical geography of the United States. Confounding the mountain chains with the river hills, again impedes a due conception of the prodigious facilities afforded by the Atlantic rivers to canal and road formation. The rivers have already done, what man cculd never by any combination of force have effected ; torn the mountains to their bases, and made not only natural canals, but afforded the ready routes to roads through those enormous piles of earth and rock. But though less influential on the general structure of the continent, than a casual observation would lead us to suppose, the Appalachian masses constitute very strongly marked features, on an ex- tensive scale, and give a rich finish to the great At- lantic plain. To the eye of the traveller those moun- tains present an almost infinite variety of landscape. Many who read accounts of foreign scenery, are un- aware, that, in a distance as great as from the F 2 66 GENERAL VIEW. Pyrenees to the Carpathian mountains indusive, the United States afford a succession of natural pictures which, if not so magnificent, are more soft, more easily approached, and really more attractive than Alpine glaciers. As objects of philosophical research, however, I am reluctantly compelled to observe, that no ade- quate idea of their relative extent, position, magnitude or number, can be gained by any existing map of the Appalachain chains. No operation which deserves the name of an accurate geographical or geological survey has ever been made of even any state section of this system. In every state map which I have seen, whole chains are omitted ; whilst others are so very defectively delineated, as to render the re- presentation deceptive. All therefore, which can be performed in the present state of geographical science, is a general view. Taken under a compre- hensive survey of its physiognomy, the Appalachian system comprises an undetermined number of chains, extending in collateral ranges. Each chain is indeed formed of ridges which interlock with each other, and are frequently cut by the rivers. Tlie ridges extend in most instances in the same direc- tion with the chain Avhich they contribute to form. The chains differ very materially in relative eleva- tion and continuity, and the whole system is, with a few exceptions, in a remarkable manner devoid of peaks. No unequivocal appearance of volcanic eruption has been anywhere detected. If we regard the Appalachian system as a whole, and extend our view from the sources of the Chata- hooche and Mobile to those of Connecticut, the mountain system has a range not deviating mate- rially from north-east and south-west ; but if we ex- amine the parts separate, we discover some very considerable inflections from the general course. These inflections have given rise to a doubt, whe- ther the chains of the opposite sides of the Hudsoit GENERAL VIEW. 67 formed parts of one, or were two distinct systems, but a few moments' attention to their respective ranges is sufficient to determine that they are really parts of one system. In Tennessee, Alabama, Kentucky, and part of western Virginia, the Appalachian chains extend between east and west, and north-east and soutli- west ; but in central Virginia turn to north of north- east, and thus crossing Maryland enter Pennsylva- nia in a direction almost north and south. Here again the system bends abruptly to nearly east, and curving through Pennsylvania and New Jersey, winds to north and south, in entering New York. Thus the chains on each side of the Hudson belong to that part of the system comprised by the bend commencing in the north-east part of Pennsylvania. When we regard the chains eastward from the Hudson, we perceive them extending from north to south, and terminating towards the Atlantic ocean ; but if taken in connexion, and due attention paid to the inflections already noticed, the continuity of the system will become evident. Carrying our view west from the Appalachian chains, a new and variegated landscape opens. The great central valley of North America spreads its widely extended sweep from the Atlantic to the Pacific system of mountains ; falling from the Ap- palachian by a gentle but broken descent to the Mississippi, and again rising beyond that great stream to the base of the Chippewayan. In its fullest extent, the central valley dips into the Gulf of Mexico, south, and mingles with the frozen marshes of the Artie ocean, north. Of that part em- braced in the United States territory, the Canadian sea flanks it on one side, whilst the Gulf of Pvlexico closes the landscape on the other ; from the two bounding mountain systems are poured the thousand streams of the Mississippi and those of its conflu- ents. The relative extent of these great sections which we have noticed will be given in another part 68 GENERA! VIEW. of this view. In order to exhibit to the reader a condensed summary of the comparative heights of the two sections, the following tables were construct- ed. Tables Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, were in a great part formed from actual survey; the distances are therefore taken along the inflected course of the streams ; but the residue of the tables being con- structed from estimated elevations, the lines of as- cents and descents, are direct air measures taken from point to point. It need hardly be observed, that those formed from observed elements have a superior authority over those formed from simple analogy in the fall of rivers. No. II. — Table oftheJiscents and Descents up the valley of James River, and thence to the mouth of the Great Kenhatva, by the route of Craig^s creek. Sinking' creeks and Great Kenkaiva. Route. Miles. Feet. llichniond, iip James river, to the mouth of Craig's creek 200 rises 925 Up Cr.iig's creek to the moutii ■ of John's cret'k 49 249 — 345 1270 Highest spring tributary to Craig's creek H '2^rl — 22812498 Lowest point on divitling ridge 257i — 53 2551 Hii^hest spring tributary to Sinkinsi;- creek L 258 fid Is 42 2509 Mouth of Sinking creek 34"* 292 — 924:1585 Down Great Kenhawa to the mouth of Greenbriar river 55 347 — 252 1333 Bowyer's Ferry 46 393 403 930 Kenhawa, at the foot of the Great Falls 21 414 341 589 Ohio river, at the mouth of Great Kenhawa 94 508 — 108 485 GENERAL VIEW. 69 No. ITI. — Table of the Ascents anil Descents from tide ■water in James river, to the tnouth of Great Keiihaiva, by the route of James, Jackso7i*3, Greenbriar, and Great Kenhaiva rivers. Route. Miles. Feet. Richmond, up James river, to the mouth of Craig's creek 200 rises 925 Mouth of Dunlap's creelc. above that of Jackson's ri- ver 25 225 — 313 1238 Lowest point ondividing' ridge 16 241 — 1240 2478 Mouth of Howard's creek in Greenbi-iar river, near Lew- isburgin Greenbriar county 12 253 falls 838 1640 Mouth of Greenbriar river 50 303 — 307 1333 Bowyer's Ferry 46 349 — 403 930 Foot of Great Falls 20 369 — 341 589 Ohio river, at the mouth of Great Kenhawa 94 463 — 108 481 These two routes were surveyed, by order of the Vir- ginia Board of Public Works, in order to determine the practicability of forming a canal communication between James river and the Ohio, by the valley of Great Kenhawa; and were inserted here with a view to illustrate the relative elevation of the At- lantic slope, the mountain valleys, and that of Ohio. When treating on the climate of the United States in Chapter X., the data on which the tables are founded, will be again referred to, as illustrative of the meteorological phenomena, depending on dif- ference of elevation. 70 GENERAL VIEW. No. IV. — Table of the ascents and desce7its, from tide ■water in Potomac river at Georgetoion, to lake Erie at the totvn of Cleveland, by route of Potomac, Yonghio- gany, JMonongahela, Ohio, Big Beaver, and Cuyahoga rivers. Ruutt . . Miles. Feet. j jleorg-eiovvii to the great fall's- - - - . 12 rises 143 Harper's ferry - - . 40 52 — 39 182 ihenandoah falls 5i 57i — 43 225 Cumberland - - - 130^ 188 — 312 537 Vlouth of Savage creek 31 219 — 446 983 Summit level - - - 14 233 — 1503 2486| Mouth of Deep creek into Yonghiogany river - 16 249 falls 342 2144 DownYonghiogany river to the village of Smythfield on the United States road 22^ sni — 739 1405 Connelsville - . - S7i 309 — 507 898 Mouth of Yonghiogany river 40 349 — 87 811 Pitts u0Rrr 18 367 — 11 800 Vlouth of B'g Beaver river - 30 397 — 106 694 Up the latter to the foot of the falls - - - - H 398^ rises 12 706 Mead of the falls 2i 401 — 44 750 Wan-en . . - - 50* 451 — 104 854 Summit Level between the sources of Big Beaver and Cayahoga rivers 10 45] — 53 907 Level of Lake Erie at Cleve- land, month of Cayahoga river _ . . - 60 521 falls 34V 565 GENERAL VIEW. 71 No. V. — Table oJ\1sC€iits and Deacents, from, ike level of tide tvater in Delarvare river, to the level of Ijake Erie at Baffaloe, by the route of the Schuylkill, Union Ca- nal, Susquehanna, and Chemung or Tioga rivers, JVetv- 101071 creek, Seneca lake and outlet, and the Grand Ca- nal ofj\'e~u) I'ork, from JMontezuma to Buffalo. Route. Miles. rises F. et. Philadelphia to Reading 55 186 Summit Level between Tul- pehocken and Swatara - 34 89 310 496 Susquehanna, at the mouth o( Swatara 34 123 .'alls 220 276 Harrisburg 13 136 rises 10 286 Sunbury . . . * 50 186 — 200 486 VVilkesbarre - - - 60 246 100 586 Tiog-a Point 50 306 — 189 775 Newtown 20 326 51 826 Summit Level between Tioga river, at Newtown, and Se- neca lake 7 333 59 885 Head of Seneca lake - 13 346 falls 445 440 Outlet of Seneca lake - 3j 381 440 Montezuma on the Great Ca- nal . - . . 20 401 69 371 Commencement of Rochester level .... 63 464 rises 126 49r Along Rochester level to the locks at Lockport - 65 529 68 565 Along Lake Erie level into " Lake Erie 31 560 — 565 72 GENERAL VIEW. No. VI. — Table of the Ascents and Descents, from tide •water in the Hudson river at Albany, to the level of Lake Erie, by the route of the Great Western Canal of JVew York, Route. Miles. rises Feet. Albany to Schoharie creek 42 286 Rome level at Herkimer 28 70 132 418 Along- that level 65 135 — 418 Montezuma 38 173 talis 45 371 Lyons 24 19/ rises 61 432 Rochester level 5^ 255 e>5 497 Along that level to Lockport and Lake Erie level 66 321 497 Along the latter level to Lake Erie 31 352 — 68 565 No. VII. — Table of theJlscents and Descents, along a mC' ridian 3° Ion, W. from Washington city, and from tide •water in the Atlantic ocean, to the mouth of Siono ri- very due JY. to the margin of Lake Erie, Route. Mi es. Fe et. To intersect the line of Table No. 11. at the mouth of Jackson's river, N. lat. 37^^ 49'. 361 rises 1238 Summit of the Appalachian system 25 386 1240 2478 Confluence of the Monong-a- hela and Cheat rivers, about one mile witliin the- southern boundary of I'enn- sylvania 105 491 falls 1578 900 City of Pittsburg 53 544 — 100 800 Summit level between the sources of French creek, and the small streams How ing into Lake Erie 112 656 rises 160u 1400 Level of Lake Eric 8 664 Hills 835 565 - /K GENERAL VIEW. 73 No. Vlll. — Table of the Ascents and Descents along- a meridian 12° loJi. IF. from TVashington^ and com- mencing on the margin of the Gtilfof JMexico, near the S. E. pass of the Mississippi, and thence due JV. to the southern margin of Lake ISuperior W. from Foint Ke- •zveena. Route, Miles. Feet. To the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, at N. lat. 37° \ 12° VV. from W. C. 542 rises 321 Illinois river at a point be- tween the influx of Ver- million river and Portage lake sm 842 80 401 Ouisconsin river 200 1042 760 1161 Summit level between the sources of the Ouisconsin and those streams which flow into Lake Superior 130 1172 450? 1611 Marg-in of and level of Lake Superior 100 1272 — 970 641 If another line was supposed extended from that of No. 8. into Lake Michigan, it would be found from its highest ascent, that no part of the intermediate space from the mouth of the Mississippi to the level of Lake Michigan, rose seven hundred feet above tide wa- ter ; disclosing the very important fact, how far na- ture has went in advance of art in uniting by water the two great basins of Mississippi and St. Lav/=- 74 GENERAL VIEW. No. IX, — Table of the Ascents arid Descettts along a me- ridian line drawn through the City of JMexico, Ion. 22° W. from Washington City, commencing on the margin of the Pacific Ocean JV. lat. 16^* 38', in the Bay of Pa- sahualco, of La Fuebla, and thence due JV. to the River jWssouri. Route. Miles. Feet. From Pasaliualco to tlie city of Mexico, N. lat. 19° 26' 194 rises 7460 Montezuma river, near Teco- zantla 80 274 falls 500? 6960 Panuco river, about 60 miles above its efflux into the Gulf of Mexico 120 394 — 6900 60 Rio Grande del Norle, about 150 miles following- the me- anders above its mouth 325 719 rises 200? 260 Country contiguous to St. An- tonio de Behar, N. lat. 29° 36' - - - - ir9 898 rises 50 310 Red River of the Gulf of Mex- ico, or Rio Colorado of Tex- as, at N. lat. 32°. 165 1063 — 120 430 Red River of the Mississippi 100 1163, ~ 430 Arkansas river, at N. lat. 38° 30' . - - - 326 1489' — 470 900 Kansas river, at N. lat. 39° 35 1524 — 50 950 Flatte river, N. lat. 40° 10' 80 1604 — 60 1010 Missouri river, near the mouth 1 of Jaques river, N, lat. 43° 160 1764 — 1010 It may be premised, that except the general level of the valley of Mexico, the ascents and de- scents in table No. 9, were not taken from actual ad- measurement, but were estimated by analogy from the length of the streams above their recipients, and may, -I presume, be taken as sufficiently correct to answer any practical purpose, and if so received GENERAL VIEW. 75 lead to very important conclusions. By reference to a map of North America, it will be perceived that meridian 22° W. from Washington City, ranges over the western territory of the United States, from Red river to the Missouri 600 miles, with a differ- ence of level of 580 feet. It is probable, that much of the spaces between the rivers are elevated seve- ral hundred feet above the level of the streams: but the relative numbers in the table will serve for a com- parative sketch of the height of that part of the Uni- ted States. Two reasons combined to give a pre- ference to the meridian 22° W. from Washington City. First, this line passes over the city of Mexico, and consequently, over the highest table land yet inhabited by civilized people in North America. The elevation of the Mexican valley has also been determined by scientific observation, and the line of the table extending thence N. depresses to near the level of the Gulf of Mexico, and in its ultimate range divides into two very nearly equal portions, the im- mense inclined plain between the Mississippi river and the Chippewayan mountains. In the second place, meridian 22° W. from Washington City di- vides the continent of North America into two not very unequal sections, and affords highly valuable points of reference when treating on climate. Though not particularly connected with the sub- ject before us, I may observe, that this geographical line exhibits to view the vast extent of the United States; as the point where it intersects the Missouri is very near mean distance between Cape Hatteras and the mouth of Columbia river. There is again another circumstance which gives interest to that part of North America, where long. 22" W. from Washington City crosses the Missouri; it is not far removed from the central part of the conti- nent, and very nearly equidistant, about 1000 to 1200 miles from the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, and from the Gulf of Mexico and Hudson's Bay. 76 GENERAL VIEW. No. X.— Table of the Jlscerits aiid Descents along- a curve of the earth from Cape Ilatteras to the mouth of C'o- iumbia river. These tivo points are respectively , at A", lat. 35^ 15', and Ion. 1^ 30' E. ,- and at JY. lat. 46° 15', and Ion. Washing-ton city 47° 53' W.^ bearing- from each other by an angle deflecting from the meHdians 73° 34', distant 2333 geographic, or 2702|- statute miles^ ex- ceeding one-tenth of a great circle of the earth. Route. Miles. Feet. Commencing on the mean le- vel of the Atlantic ocean at Cape Hatteras, and thence to the S. E. foot of the Blue Ridge, at the mid- dle sources of the Roanoke 280 rises 1200 Summit of the Blue Ridge 5 285 — 1000 2200 Kenhawa river in the Great Valley between the Blue Ridge and Alleghany 30 315 falls 615 1585 Ohio river near Louisville 300 615 — 1242 343 Wabash river above Vin- cennes 110 725 rises 20 363 Illinois river, at N. lat. 40° 175 900 — 137 500 Mississippi river near the mouth of Le Moine river 60 960 — 20 520 Missouri river, above Council Bluffs 240 1200 — 350 870 Foot of the Chippewayan mountains on the sources of Yellow-stone river 600 1800 — 1000 1870 Summit of the Chippewayan table land 20 1820 — 1500 3370 Tide water in Columbia river 780 2600 falls 3370 Mouth of Columbia river, and margin of Pacific ocean 102 2702 I GENERAL VIEW. '71 The preceding 9 tables might be deemed suffici- ent to exhibit a view of the relative elevations of the great sections of the United States; but I have con- cluded, in order to make the comparisons still more comprehensive, to add another, comprising the basin of St. Lawrence. The latter basin or Canadian sea, is peculiar, not alone in the United States, but in America; it has, indeed, but one similar on earth, that of the Black Sea. In one important feature the Canadian basin stands alone; it rises by abrupt steps and not by gradual ascent. The elements from which table 11 was construct- ed, were drawn from either actual survey or obser- vation. From the Atlantic ocean to Lake Erie, the results are from survey; the residue were taken from Mr. Schoolcraft's Tour from Detroit to the Sources of Mississippi. This table may be regarded therefore as giving an accurate view of the relative elevation of the interesting region of which it treats. G 2 78 GENERAL VIEW. No. XI.— Table of the Ascents and Descents from the Gcean- ic level in the Gulf of St. Latvrence, iip that stream and through the Canadian Lakes, and over the intermediate coxmtry by the route of St. Louis, and Sandy Lake ri- vers, to the ^Mississippi, and up the latter to its source. Route. Miles. Fe er. Up St. Lawrence river to the head of tide water 45C Lake Ontario level 200 650 rises 231 Lake Erie level 175 825 — 334 565 Lake Huron level 340 1165 __ 31 596 Lake Superior level 240 1405 — 45 641 Mouth of St. Louis river into the western angle of Lake Superior . - - 380 1785 641 Up St Louis river to the S. W. Company's House 24 1809 — 4 645 To the head of Grand Portage 11 1820 — 228 873 To the foot of Portage au Coteaux - - - 6 1826 18 891 To the head of Portage au Coteaux 2 1828 — 42 933 To the Summit level, or Sa- vannah Portage 100 1928 — 261 1194 Down Savannah river to the level of Sandy Lake - 21 1949 falls 24 1170 Mouth of Sandy Lake into the Mississippi 20 1969 — 36 1134 Source of the Mississippi 100 2069 rises 160 1294 An adequate attention to these profile tables, will tend to prepare the reader for a more due concep- tion of the great inflections in the surface of the United States. As respects the most prominent feature on the Atlantic side of the continent, the Appalachian system of mountains, we find it rising into masses in central Virginia, to an elevation of about 2500 feet, and in the Peaks of Otter to about GENERAL VIEW. 79 4000 feet above the ocean tides, and falling by a ve- ry gradual descent to tlie sources of the Mohawk, wiiere the highest table land is only 420 feet. The entire system penetrated by the ocean tides through the Hudson valley, extends in regular chains, and is altogether, perhaps, the most uniform mountain mass of the earth. It is not, as I have already ob- served, distinguished by any volcanic or other very elevated peaks, and in no one ridge rises to the region of perpetual snow. The component materials are arranged with an almost utter contempt of geological formation as it is called.* As far as yet carefully examined, the Appalachian system remains undefined at its two extremities, and still more so along the sides; but taken in the fullest extent, over which the mountain chains rise to evident notoriety, from Alabama to Maine, and including all its lateral chains, the Ap- palachian system extends in length 1200, with a mean width of 100 miles, embracing an area of 120,000 square miles. But a small part of this su- perficies is, however, actually covered with moun- tains. The chains vary in number from six to twelve, eight would be perhaps nearer a mean, and 4 miles an adequate allowance for their bases. This would suppose about one-third of the area occupied by- mountain chains, and leave two-thirds to the inter- vening vallies, * It is with mncli reluctance I am compelled to use a term so vague ar.ci difficult in its apiilication. Before a specification could be made of the geological structure of this great system, a previ- ous and very skilful survey would be requisite. Such a survey has never yet ])een made, and in the existing state of our knowledge, as far as formation is concerned, the great mass of the system is ar- ranged into inclined stratified rocks, whilst the two extremities are primitive. Some of the more humble northwestern chains reach in- to the central floetz or horizontal formation, and some of the south- eastern touch the Atlantic sea-sand alluvion. In many of the moun- tain vallies the formations are intermingled in such wild confusion as to put all casual observation at defiance to trace their outlines, if indeed such outlines have an existence in nature. 80 GENERAL VIEW. There are, it may be observed, two kinds of val- lies in the Appalachian system; one the intermedi- ate spaces between the chains; the other the river vales. These two crossing each other in all direc- tions, and affording a never ending variety of rock, water, hill, and mountain, with spreading alluvial plains, contribute to give to this part of the United States an indescribable attraction to the traveller. In respect to the two kinds of valley, the Hudson river or bay stretches a line of demarcation. South- west from thai remarkable tide valley, the rivers generally flow along the mountain range, or directly at right angles; on the contrary, east from the Hud- son, the rivers generally flow along the mountain vallies. If we disregard the mere ridges, and examine the plateau or table land on which they stand, we dis- cover a declivity falling from a mountain nucleus, from which flow James and Roanoke rivers into the Atlantic ocean, and Tennessee and Kenhawa into the Ohio, whilst a third series of streams are poured towards the Gulf of Mexico. To the north-east this plateau sinks slowly, and at its extremes differs in elevation about from 1600 to 1800 feet. The depression of the Mohawk valley near Rome, is not the lowest pass through the Appalachian sys- tem. The tides in the Hudson pass the primitive ledge, and flow into the interior of the continent to the verge of the central secondary above Albany. From the latter place the Hudson valle}^ is continu- ed, by one of the most remarkable features in na- ture. What is specifically called the Hudson basin, is in reality only a part of an immense glen, extend- ing from the Atlantic ocean, at New York harbour, in a direction a little east of north into St. Lawrence river, at N. lat. 46° 03'. This chasm is occupied by the Hudson from Sandy-Hook to Glenn's Falls; thence for 21 or 22 miles by an intermediate table land to the head of Lake Champlain, and for the resi- GENERAL VIEW. 81 due of its length into St. Lawrence, by Lake Cham- plain and its outlet the Richelieu or Chambly river; and inclines from the meridians only 52', in a direct distance of 387 miles. The highest summit level between Hudson river and Lake Champlain is only 140 feet above tides in the former. Thus we are taught that an elevation of 141 feet in the Atlan- tic level would insulate the entire space between the Atlantic ocean and Hudson and St. Lawrence rivers, and in the actual state of nature affords a facility of canal construction unequalled on this continent. We ought not to pass over, without particular ob- servation, the range of primitive rock over which so many of the rivers of the Atlantic slope are precipi- tated. The underlaying primitive strata, exposed to the day by the rivers at Patterson, New Bruns- wick, Trenton, Philadelphia, Wilmingten, Balti- more, Ellicot's, Georgetown, Richmond, Petersburg, and many other places more south-westwardly, reaches the ocean in the vicinity of New York, and skirting Long Island Sound, continues north-east- ward and forms the base of the indented shores of Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine. Though only discoverable at points, where either the ocean or rivers have laved its base, this lengthened and evidently conti- nuous range of rock strata constitutes a very definite physical limit. This inflected line, from New York to the Mississippi, is marked at distant intervals by falls or rapids in the bed of the streams. It is thus exposed near Patterson in the Passaic; near New Brunswick in the Raritan; near Princeton in the Millstone; in the Delaware at Trenton; in the Schuylkill near Philadelphia; in the Brandy wine or Christiana in the vicinity of Wilmington; at the Falls of Gunpowder; in the neighbourhood of Bal- timore; at Ellicott's on the Patapsco; at George- town in the Potomac; Fredericksburg on tlie Rap- pahannock; Richmond on James river; Munford 82 GENERAL VIEW. Falls on the Roanoke; the Neuse at Sinithfield; Cape F«ar river at Averysboro'; Pedee near Rock- ingham and Sneadsboro'; the Wateree near Cam- den; the Congaree at Columbia; and the junction of the Saluda and Broad rivers; the Savannah river at Augusta; Oconee at Milledgeville; the Oakmulgee at Fort Hawkins or Macon; Flint river at Fort Law- rence; Chattahooche at Fort Mitchell; Talapoosa at Tallossee; Coosa near its junction with Talapoo- sa; Tombigbee near Fort St. Stephens; and is sup- posed to reach and underlay the Mississippi between Natchez and Big Black river. Extending beyond the Mississippi, I have myself traced this natural limit in Ouachita river, immediately below the mouth of Bceuf river, and in Red river at the Rapids near Alexandria. It must not, however, be understood that the ledge we have been surveying is every where actually composed of primitive rock. In Alabama, Missis- sippi, and Louisiana, such is not the case; it is there in most instances a loose species of sandstone; but whatever may be its components, it serves to trace a great natural line between two very different re- gions. From New York to the Mississippi, with the exception of the comparatively elongated penin- sula of Florida, the rock ledge follows the general inflections of the coast, and in the Atlantic rivers, in most instances, arrests the tide. Although the change in the physiognomy of the earth above and below these falls, is not always distinctly defined by a rapid transition near the line of contact, yet a short distance on either side presents a contrast in vege- tation, and in the face of the country. Below the river falls the aspect becomes more and more mo- notonous, until the whole sinks to a level s^-arcely more broken in many places than is that of an ocean in a calm. The rivers except from the tides are without current, or flow gently. Marshes overflown by the tides, and land floods, are extensive near the GENERAL VIEW. 83 sea-coast. Above the falls all is different, and not only to the mountain bases, but in their expansive vallies, the hills meet the traveller's eye in a suc- cession of form and elevation, round, bold, and swell- ing in their contour. The rivers wind through vales, rich, variegated, and gently undulating, and now un- der the hand of culture, smiling in all the gaiety of field, garden, orchard, and meadow. This fine hill tract spreads, if I may use the expression, round the Appalachian masses, and extends from the mouth of St. Lawrence to near that of the Mississippi. It comprises the best peopled and cultivated part of the northeastern, middle, and southern States, and the finest sections of Canada. It may be doubted whether, on so large a scale, the Appalachian region is excelled by any other on earth, in all that nature can bestow to sweeten civilized life and to give scope and vigour to the human intellect If the reader will turn to the sketch of the rock ledge under review, he will perceive that, in the pro- gressive history of improvement, the largest and most wealthy cities in the United States have risen on its margin; it has therefore become a great mo- ral and political boundary. Along this line, at pre- sent, and through all future ages, will the commerce of Europe come in contact with that of the interior regions of North America. In this chapter has been given the extent, posi- tion, and general features of the United States. The inflections of its surface have been subjected to as rigorous delineation as the existing state of our to- pographical researches will admit. I would have been rejoiced that more perfect data had been with- in my reach in respect to the regions towards the Pacific, but those wide spread tracts have been too defectively explored to admit of much detail. What is known with certainty will be introduced in its proper place. Before closing thii subject it may be well to no- 84 GENERAL VIEW. tice a very common, but certainly a very doubtful, hypothesis. The primitive beauty and attractive varieties of the earth's surface have been themes of poetic description, but are such delineations founded on rational induction from known phenomena ? On the contrary, as far as I have had means of observa- tion in the United States, it has always appeared to me, that in very remote ages, the face of the earth was, compared with the present, much more mo- notonous, the river vales more obstructed, fenny, and marshy; and those genera of vegetables, indi- genous to such moist flats, greatly more prevalent; but as rivers abraded their banks and deepened their channels, the superabundant earth was slowly removed and deposited as alluvion near their mouths. New tracts were formed along the oceanic border, whilst the interior was drained. Thus was gradu- ally formed that hill and dale physiognomy, so de- lightful to the eye, and so well adapted to become the residence of intellectual man, and which spreads, I might almost say, interminably over tlie United States, but particularly round the Appalachian sys- tem of mountains. AND h^m^tm:^ Allies 85 CHAPTER III. GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW OF THE SOUTHERN SFC- TION OF THE ATLANTIC SLOPE OF THE UNITED STATES. I>T the progress of our survey v/e have examined the general position, direction, and extent of the Atlantic slope; we have reviewed its three great divisions of mountain, hill, and stlluvion. The ele- vation, extent, and most striking peculiarities of each section have been noticed; but before proceeding to a detailed view of the rivers and mountains, I have introduced some remarks on the peculiar physical construction of the peninsula of Florida. It may be observed, that Long Island and the sound which separates it from the continent are only distinguished from other islands and sounds, along the Atlantic coast, by the single circumstance of the sound hav- ing two outlets, and of course, insulating that strip now known by the descriptive name of Long Island. The latter, in every other general feature, has a very strong resemblance to those four peninsulas ; that of southern New Jersey, almost insulated by tide water in the Delaware ba.y and river, and by Amboy bay, and Rariton river: that of Cape Cod, still more nearly cut from the mainland by Buzzard's bay and the deep south-west indenting of Barnsta- ble bay ; thirdly, that extensive tract encircled within a few miles by the tides of the Delaware and Chesapeake bays ; and fourthly, the great peninsu- la of Florida. If our maps are even tolerably correct, Florida is connected with Georgia, by a flat country, over 86 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. which the tides probably once flowed, if the hypoth- esis of the abasement of the Atlantic level is founded on fact. The tables of ascent and descent given in Chapter I. are calculated on the supposition of uniform level along both coasts of America; an as- sumption, however, which demands considerable modification. From the circumstance of the Gulf stream flowing out of the Gulf of Mexico, into the Atlantic ocean, it is demonstrated, that the former is elevated above the latter, and that Florida rises as an immense wing dam, confining the water of the Gulf of Mexico from falling with irresistible weight into the Atlantic ocean. From this inequality of level, if ever a canal is opened over Florida, the locks on the Atlantic side must exceed those on that oftheGulf of Mexico. The entire peninsula seems based on shell lime- stone of comparatively recent formation, and of every degree of induration, from compact building stone, to loose hillocks of sand and shells. The cen- tral part of the country rises into hills of no great elevation, resting on the calcarious strata, and from which the surface slopes imperceptibly towards the contiguous ocean and gulf, and also towards the great body of the continent. It is an interesting sub- ject of inquiry, whether an artificial channel could not be opened from the Gulf of Mexico into the At- lantic ocean, with a current from the former into the latter recipient? As it is situated, Florida greatly modifies the maritime phenomena of the United States, and may admit, it is probable, of an improve- ment or change by the hand of man, which may, though to a very limited degree, influence the course of one of the greatest aquatic currents on the globe, the Gulf stream. Hitherto we have been examining the solid struc- ture or skeleton of the Atlantic slope, but we now are to traverse its rivers, those channels of living water, which give activity, beauty, and elegance GEOGRAPHICAL V1E^^^ 87 to tlie face of the earth, and without which, barba- rism, gloom, and poverty would prevail for ever. The rivers of this region are divided by the hand of nature into two sub-systems, by the lengthened tide valley of the Hudson. These two divisions I shall place before the reader in the order I have al- ready pursued with the previous survey, advancing from south to north.* In this order St. John's river, of Florida, appears first. On the principles I have adduced, this river partakes much more of the character of an inlet or sound, than that of a river in the real acceptation of the latter term. In Tanner's map, the extreme southwestern sources of St. John's are laid down at N. lat. 28° 15', from whence by the name of Ockla- waha it flows north-west eighty miles, and then curving gradually to an east course, unites with the St. John's proper at N. lat. 29^ 21'. The latter branch rises at N.lat. 28° 38', and pursuing a north- west course of about 60 miles, receives the tributary I have noticed. Below their junction the united water flows by a'very tortuous course 130 miles, fall- ing into the Atlantic ocean at N. lat. 30° 19', long. 4° 36' W. from Washmgton City. Composed of lakes and interlocking inlets, both branches of St. John's ap- pear on the map with a strong resemblance to other narrow sounds along the American coast. The source of the St. John's proper or eastern branch rises within a few miles from the Atlantic ocean, and flows into the peninsula. The intermediate strip between the river and the ocean of about 120 miles long, and with a mean width of from 20 to 25, • It may be noted, that in estimating the length of rivers, their co!u-ses are in this view taken comparativtrly, and their minute bends disregarded. Much distortion is frequently given to a country by estimating the meanders of rivers ; and it is from this cause, that the rivers of America are almost uniformly represented long- er than thpy are in fact, when compared with the streams of the other parts of the earth. ^» 88 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. is flat, in part marsh}', and otherwise presenting the common traits of those insular tracts scattered along the coast of the United States. The St. John's is rather important from the singu- larity of its structure than from its value either as a commercial basin, or a tract whereon a dense popu- lation could find subsistence. Its bar affords 15 feet water at .he best tides, and within the bar, the river channel rather exceeds that depth to Lake George 130 miles above the mouth. Lake George is one of the enlargements of St. John's proper, above the en- trance of Ocklawaha ; and with a depth of 12 feet, is about 18 miles by 12 in extent. Above Lake George the river again rather deepens and is navi- gable 40 miles higher. The Ocklawaha is also navigable some distance above its mouth, but both branches have more the appearance of irregular ca- nals than rivers. From the outlet of St. John's, in a distance of above five degrees of latitude, to the extreme south- ern point of the peninsula, no river of any magni- tude flows from the interior, nor does the coast af- ford harbours in any proportion to a distance of 370 miles. From every data we have yet procured, the far greater part of the surface of southern Florida, is open, flat, and marshy ; even the sources of St. John's are undefined, and what is a striking fact in the natural history of that river, though a fresh water stream at its mouth, its waters are often rendered brackish near its head, from the waters of the Gulf of Mexico, being driven by the winds into the lagoons which intersect the intervening morasses. St. Mary's, with the inconsiderable river Nassau between, follows St. John's. The St. Mary's, St. John's, St. Ilia, and Alatamaha, afford one amongst many other examples of a similar nature in the United States. These rivers in their inflections correspond to each other with an exactness, which warrants the mduction, that such uniformity must S5#^ GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 89 have arisen from some general cause, existing in the country over vv^hich those streams flow. The sources of St. Mary's have been traced to above N. lat. 31°. flowing thence with a mosi tor- tuous channel into the Atlantic ocean, which it en- ters directly west from the pass between Amelia and Cumberland islands, after an entire comparative course of 110 miles. The sources of St. Mary's in- terlock with those of Suwanne and St. Ilia rivers. General course from west to east, entering the oceM at N. lat. 30° 42', long. W. C. 4° 37' W. St. Mary's river is of importance from the depth of water on its bar, having twenty feet at mean tides, or more than is found in any other channel along the Atlantic coast of the United States, south-westward from the Chesapeake. St. Andrew's sound receives the St. Ilia river al- most exactly on N, lat. 31°. Of little importance as a channel of commerce, the St. Ilia, in respect to space drained, is a much more considerable river than St. Mary's. The St. Ilia rises at N. lat 31^ 42', long. W. C. 6° W., interlocking sources with the Suwanne and lower small branches of the Oak- mulgee, and drains some of the south-eastern coun- ties of Georgia. The St. Mary's in its lowest part separates Flori- da from Georgia, draining part of both, but the St. lUa basin is entirely within the latter state. From Florida point to the mouth of St. Mary's the coast of the Atlantic ocean inclines westward of a me- ridian one degree and a half of longitude in five degrees of latitude, but at the mouth of St. Mary's the coast assumes an inclination a little east of north, 45 miles to the opening of Alatamaha sound. As in almost eve- ry other instance of the rivers of this part of the Atlan- tic coast, the great volume of the Alatamaha enters the ocean between the salient points of two coast islands. St. Simon's and Sapelo islands bound the various outlets of the Alatamaha, the Dory inlet be- H 2 go GEOGRAPHICAL VIEWi. ing merely the north-east entrance into the port of Darien, situated on one of those outlets. Advancing along the Atlantic shore from Cape Florida, the Alatamaha is the first stream, the re- mote sources of which are drawn from the south- eastern spurs of the Appalachian system. It is formed by two branches, the Oconee, and Oakmul- gee, of nearly equal length and volume. Both con- fluents rise in Hall county, Georgia, N. lat. 34°, long. W. C. 7° W., and flowing nearly parallel to each other at a mean distance of 40 asunder, 160 miles, the western branch of the Oakmulgee turns by a gradual bend to north-east, joins the Oconee at the point where Telfair, Montgomery, and Tatnall counties have a common angle, N. lat. 32° 1', long. 5^ 33' W. Below the union of the two great branch- es, the Alatamaha, now a spacious stream, inflects a little east from the general course of the Oconee, and after a comparative distance of 90 miles, is lost in the Atlantic ocean at N. lat. 31° 19', long. W. C. 6° 22' W., between Glynn and M'Intosh counties. The sources of the Alatamaha interlock with those of Savannah, Ogeechee, Cambahee, and St. Ilia, flowing; into the Atlantic ocean, and with those of Chatahoochee, Flint, and Suwanne, entering the Gulf of Mexico. As a navigable basin the Alata- maha has 14 feet water on its bar, and the depth is increased within and for some distance above the port of Darien. Boats of .30 tons are navigated up the Oconee to Milledgeville, and an equal distance up the Oakmulgee. From the mouth of St. Mary's to Alatamaha souncl, the Atlantic coast is seen gradually curving east- ward ; at the latter sound, the eastward curve is increased to very nearly north-east, which course is maintained to the efflux of Savannah river. In a distance of 55 miles, the coast is decorated and brok- en by Bapelo island and sound ; St. Catherine's is- GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 91 land and sound ; Ossabow island and sound ; Was- saw island and sound; and finally, Tybee island, at thQ entrance of Savannah river. In the intermediate space between the Alatamaha and Savannah, Ossabow sound receives the only river, the Ogeechee. This small stream is formed by two unequal branches, the Ogeechee and Ca- mouchee. The Ogeechee proper rises in Greene county, in Georgia, and flowing thence S. S. E. 160 miles, receives the Camouchee from the right at N. lat. 32°, continues 15 miles farther, and opens into Ossabow sound. The extreme eastern angle of Os- sabow island is at N. lat. 31° 50', long. W. C. 4° 2' W. Our survey now brings us to the review of a river remarkable as forming in all its course from the Appalachian mountains to the Atlantic ocean, in a distance of 250 miles, and in a course of S. S. E., a boundary between Georgia and South Carolina. The general course of the Savannah is in an unusual man- ner direct, and compared with its length, drains the least area of any river on the Atlantic slope. The Savannah river has 17 feet on its bar, and is naviga- ble with large vessels to the city of Savannah, and for river vessels to Augusta. We may here pause on our course, and return to a summary review of that region comprised in the three basins of Alatamaha, Ogeechee, and Savan- nah. Taken together those three basins cover an area of 27,300 square miles. Extending from the verge of the central secondary formation, crossing the primitive, and terminating in the mixed river and oceanic alluvion, this portion of the United States comprises the greatest difference of climate and vegetable production to be found within any equal superficies. The surface presents all the va- riety of scenery, from the m.onotonous oceanic bor- der, to the elevated, rugged, and variegated moun- tain ridges. 92 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. In the higher sources of the Savannah, we are led to the first point where the fountains of the Atlantic slope and those of the Mississippi approach. Here the branches of the Tennessee, and those of Savan- nah interlock, at NT. lat. 35°, long. W. C.6° W. on a plateau at least 1500 feet above the Atlantic level ; and as that height in feet is a fall equivalent to four degrees of lat., consequently, the temperature of the region before us presents all the varieties found in the opposing ocean margin in extremes of seven degrees of the meridian. With the Atlantic border of Georgia commences the real tropical climate of the United States. It will be shewn when we are expressly discussing the subject of climate, why the temperature is so much lower on any given latitude upon the shores of the Atlantic ocean, than on the banks of the Mis- sissippi; and why the zone of tropical vegetables is so much more southward on the former, than on the latter section of the American continent. As the mouth of the Savannah river is a point of separation in some manner between two climates, it may be well to remind the reader that N. lat. 32'', and long. 4** W. from W. C. intersect about 5 miles almost directly west from the bar. The Atlantic coast, curving eastward from the mouth of St. Mary's, assumes above Savannah bar a general course, but with partial inflections, of N. 56° 40' E., which is continued to Cape Hatteras, within a small fraction of 400 miles. With this great change in direction, the character of coast from Cape Florida, is sustained by the far greater part of the maritime border of South Carolina, and along the latter the intricacy of inlets and islands is increased. Jones', Burtle, Dawfuskie, and Hilton islands, suc- ceed each other, in a distance of 20 miles from Sa- vannah bar to Port Royal entrance. This latter opening, designated Broad river in the interior of GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 93 the country is the estuary of a number of small creeks, the' principal of which the Coosawhatchie rises in the southern part of Barnwell district, flows thence into and crosses Beaufort district, gradually widens near the ocean, where it changes to the name of Broad river, and finally enters the Atlantic by Port Royal entrance. The entire length of the Coo- sawhatchie and Broad rivers united is about 70 miles, over a country uniformly flat, and in a great part marshy, receiving the Atlantic tides to near its interior extremity. The port of Beaufort, on one of the numerous inlets which v/ind through this laby- rinth of creeks and islands, is the commercial depot for Port Royal entrance. The port stands 14 miles north, and within Hilton head the southern and sa- lient point of the entrance. Hilton head is at N. lat. 32° 12', long. W. C. 3° 41' W. St. Helena sound, the most spacious opening from Cape Florida, in a distance of almost five hundred miles, is the recipient of two considerable streams, the Combahee and Edisto rivers, and also of some creeks and inlets of lesser note. It is one of the pe- culiarities in the history of human society in the southern states, that no city of great consequence has risen on the large rivers, if we except New Or- leans and Savannah. An explanation of this:, ano- maly is to be sought in the character of the rivers themselves. Shallow and intricate, their capacity of conveyance bears no proportion to their apparent magnitude. St. Helena sound is, including the mouth of south Edisto river, near eight miles wide, and narrowing inland ten or twelve miles, terminates by the influx of Ashepoo, Combahee, and Coosaw rivers; the latter an inlet from Broad river. With all this appearance of a spacious series of havens, the depth of water forbids the rise of any commercial depot of much consequence. It has been already noticed, that St. Helena sound, at its north-east angle receives one branch of Edis- 94 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. to river. The latter composed of two confluents, north Edisto, and south Edisto, both rising in Edge- field district, and flowing south-east 60 miles, uniting on the border between Barnwell and Orangeburgh, continue the original course thirty miles into Colle- ton : thence turning to nearly due south 25 miles, the stream divides into two unequal outlets. One under the name of south Edisto maintains a southern course of twelve miles into St. Helena sound. The other, flowing south-east fifteen miles, enters the Atlantic ocean by the name of north Edisto. The three outlets of St. Helena sound, and the two Edisto's, are so blended, as to be properly consi- dered only the estuary of one basin. The mouth of south Edisto river into St. Helena sound is at N. lat. 32° 28', long. W. C. 3° 21' W. Between the two outlets of Edisto is inclosed the fine island of Edisto, which advancing north-east is succeeded by a congeries of other islands, the prin- cipal of which are Wadmelaw, John's, and James' islands, composing Colleton and Drew's parishes in Charleston district. Wadmelaw, Avith the two mi- nor islands of Seabrooke and Kiawaw, are separated from the continent by north Edisto and Stono rivers. The ^former, for about ten miles after separating from south Edisto, is known locally as Dawho river, and which again dividing, is continued into the ocean as north Edisto by the right branch, Avhilst that of the left, assuming the name of Stono river, in a course of 35 miles encircles Colleton parish, and finally enters the Atlantic ocean in Stono inlet. In its pe- rimeter from north Edisto, Stono river flows first north-east 15 miles, where it receives Wallace's branch, and turns to a little south of east, 5 miles, under the name of Wappoo cut. At the eastern termination of the Wappoo cut, Stono river divides; the main volume turning south flows, as I have shewn, into Stono inlet; but the other branch, by GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 95 the name of Wappoo creek, east into Ashley river opposite Charleston. A small basin of about thirty miles square, or 900 square miles, opens into the Atlantic ocean by the most eligible harbour along the south-western coast of the Atlantic ocean in the United States. Not from superior depth of water, in which it is exceed- ed by St. Mary's river, and equalled by that of Sa- vannah, but in its position and spacious sheltered harbour, and from an early settled and well cultiva- ted interior, Charleston has risen into the largest city on the Atlantic coast of the United States, south from Chesapeake bay. The city of Charleston is situated on the point formed by Ashley and Cooper rivers, though the far greater part of the commercial business is done on the latter. The city is about six miles within the bar, and a small fraction above four west from Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan's island, and two and a quarter north-west from Fort Johnson, on James' island. The channel admits vessels of 16 feet draught. The city is at N. lat. 32° 43', long. W. C. 2° 54' W. The basin of Charleston has been artificially uni- ted to that of the Santee by a canal of 22 miles, from the head of Cooper river into Santee, 50 miles, a lit- tle west of north, from the city of Charleston. An extent of coast of 55 miles, still broken by in- lets and islands, reaches from Charleston harbour, to south Santee entrance, which three miles farther is succeeded by the north entrance of the same stream, and again at eight miles from the latter, by the wider opening of Winyaw river, or Georgetown en- trance. Winyaw river or bay is itself merely the estuary of Black river. Great Pedee, and Wacco- maw rivers. %, There is so small an mterval of coast between the two outlets of Pedee and Santee, that without much violence to physical correctness they might be uni- ted into one basin; but the two rivers differ so very 96 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. widely in their structure, that a separate notice is indispensable. The Santee is formed by two great confluents, the Congaree, and Wateree. Having their reniote sources in the south-eastern vallies of the Blue Ridge, the Saluda rises in Picken's and Greenville districts. South Carolina; the Ennoree, in Greenville and Spartanburg districts; and Broad river in Rutherford county. North Carolina, all in- terlocking sources with the French Broad branch of Tennessee, between N. lat. 35° and 35° 35', long. 5° W. from Vv^. C. Converging to a common point of influx, and by a general course of south-east, the united waters of those minor rivers meet at Columbia, and by a singular concurrence, on the verge of the pri- mitive ledge over which the volume passes, and is hence known as the Congaree. The site of Colum- bia and head of Congaree, is again rendered re- markable by being almost exactly upon the inter- section of N. lat. 34^, and of long. W. C. 4° W. Continuing a south-east course forty miles below Co- lumbia, the Congaree receives the Wateree from the north. Though inferior to its rival in mass of water, the Wateree considerably exceeds the Congaree in length of course. By the name of Catawba, the re- mote sources of the Wateree drain Burke county in North Carolina, and in part rise as high as N. lat 36°, long. W. C. 5" W. Interlocking with the head waters of French Broad, Nolachucky, Great Kenhawa, and Yadkin, and winding N. E. by E. six- ty miles along those of Broad river, the Catawba leaves Burke, and forming the boundary between Iredell and Lincoln counties, gradually assumes a course of S. S. E. 150 miles, entering South Carolina between Lancaster and Yoi^ districts, and above N. lat. 35°; and joins the Con'^ree at N. lat. 33° 45', forming the Santee. The Santee witli its branches, though navigable for boats far above the primitive ledge, is deficient GEOGRAPHICAL \IE\Y. 97 as an opening to the ocean, though steam boats as- cend to Columbia. With the basin of the Pedee, terminates that character of coast which we have found prevailing from Florida point. In this range we have seen ri- vers of greater or less magnitude dividing into nu- merous branches before entering the Atlantic ocean. The coast, rising by a very slow acclivity, is cut, by inimmerable channels, into islands, the surface of which are but little elevated above high tides.^ The rivers, comparatively, in a peculiar degree shallow, and in every instance deeper within than on their bars. The line of coast, though generally uniform as to course from point to point, is very irregularly indented. Along this part of the Atlantic slope, through 600 miles, the inlets are, as we have seen, shallow and impeded, but are excessively numerous, particularly from St. John's river to Santee and Pe- dee, inclusive. With the Pedee, however, a new order of coast commences, and which, if Long Island is included, continues to Montaug point, along 800 miles. In the latter instance, the range from point to point stretches in regular lines or curves, with long sand isles lying parallel to the main shore. The rivers opening to- wards the ocean in very wide sounds or bays. Winyaw bay, or Georgetown entrance, opens to the ocean at N. lat. 33° 11', long. W. C. 2^ 11' W. The main confluent of this basin, the Pedee, desig- nated near its source by the name of Yadkin, has its extreme fountains in the Blue Ridge, K. lat. 36^, long. W. C. 4° 40' W., interlocking sources with Catawba, Holston, and Great Kenhavv'a rivers; and flowing thence N. E. by E 80 miles over Wilkes and Surry counties of North Carolina, turns abruptly to S. S. E. 100 miles, enters South Carolina between Marlborough and Chesterfield districts, and con- tinuing the latter direction 80 miles, is augmented from the west by a considerable tributary, Lynche's 98 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. river, and 20 miles lower receives a more impor- tant branch from the north, I^ittle Pedee. Below the junction of the two Pedees, the united stream turns to S. S. W. 30 miles to the port of George- town. At the latter place, the name of Pedee is changed to that of Winyaw bay, into the head of which is discharged, besides the Pedee, Black river from the west, and Waccamaw from the north-east. The latter confluent of Winyaw bay, though hum- ble in respect to either volume or length, is re- markable from its peculiar position and course. Rising in Bladen county. North Carolina, N. iat. 34^* 40', flows south 50 miles, enters South Carolina, in Horry district. The Waccamaw, w^here it passes the line between the two Carolinas, approaches within eight miles of the Atlantic ocean, but instead, however, of continuing its course into the ocean, it turns to S. W. parallel to the opposing coast, from which it flows at a distance varying from 3 to 8 miles by comparative courses 60 miles, and finally enters Winyaw bay opposite Georgetown. In the future improvements of inland navigation along the Atlantic coast, a most important link may no doubt be afforded by the peculiar course of this small but remarkable river. From Winyaw point to Cape Fear, by the name of Long Bay, the Atlantic coast curves inward, pre- senting a section of an elongated ellipse, and in a distance of one hundred miles, winds with a regu- larity which mocks a work of art, and without a single inlet worthy of notice. N. Iat. 34° and long. 1** W. from W. C. intersect in the mouth of Cape Fear river. The most considerable stream flowing entirely Avithin North Carolina, Cape Fear river, rises in Guildford and Rockingham counties, N. Iat. 36° 20', long. W. C. 3° W., and flowing by a gene- ral course S. E. 200 miles, receiving a number of confluents of moderate size, enters the Atlantic about 10 miles north from Cape Fear, GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 99 The basin of Cape Fear, though not very exten- sive, is of consequence as a commercial inlet. Two of the most important seaports of North Carolina are in this basin; Wilmington, on N. E. Cape Fear ri- ver, and Fayetteville, on the main stream, are wealthy and prosperous emporia; the former 30, and the lat- ter 120 miles within Cape Fear. By another elliptical curve, with an astonishing resemblance, both in extent and form, to that from Winyaw to Cape Fear, the Atlantic coast again sweeps from the latter to Cape Lookout, under the name of Onslow bay. New River inlet, from Onslow county, North Carolina, is the only entrance of note which breaks the monotony of the coast in 120 miles. A series of long, narrow, and low sandy islands, as regular as the opposing coast, follow each other, leaving a very confined sound within. Cape Lookout, with a strong resemblance to Cape Fear, is only a salient point of a long coast island, and projects into the Atlantic ocean at N. lat. 34° 34', long. W, C. 0° 22'. Leaving Core and Pamptico sounds within, and again forming another elliptical curve inwards, the Atlantic coast stretches 80 miles from Cape Lookout to Cape Hatteras. Extending from N. E. by E., and S. VV. by W. 70 miles, with a mean width of 15, Pamptico sound spreads west from Cape Hatteras islands, and terminates inland by the wide bays of Neuse and Pamptico rivers. Neuse river rises in Person and Orange counties. North Carolina, interlocking sources with the con- fluents of Cape Fear, Roanoke, and Pamptico. The higher part of its course is S. E. SO miles into John- son county, where it turns to S. E. by E. agajn, 80 miles, to Newbern, below which it gradually spreads into a semi-ch-cular bay of forty by from three to five miles, which in its turn opens into the wider ex- panse of Pamptico sound. Interlocking with the lower and more humble branches of Roanoke, the Pamptico drains the space 100 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. between that river and the Neuse. Rising- in Gran- ville and Warren counties, by several branches, the general course of the Pamptico is S. E. by E., 100 miles to Washington, M^here it dilates into a bay, which thirty miles still lower terminates in Pampti- co sound. Pamptico sound is connected on the south-west by Core sound with Onslow bay; and on the north-east with Albemarle sound, and opens into Raleigh's bay by Ocracoke inlet. The latter may indeed be con- sidered as the mouth of the sound, and has 14 feet water at mean tide. Ocracoke inlet is about 3 miles north-west from the point in the ocean where N. lat. 35° and long. W. C. 1° E. intersect, and is dis- tant about 30 miles from the mouths of Neuse and Pamptico bays. We have now reached the north-east termination of the great southwest bay of the Atlantic slope. It has been already observed, that Cape Hatteras forms at once a physical limit of climate and of geographical lines of coast. Projecting a salient angle into the Atlantic ocean, this storm and ocean beaten promontory receives the full force of the Gulf stream from the Bahama channel. The reefs or long sandy islands, for 30 miles on each side of Hatteras, present an unbroken front to the never tiring surge; the Pamptico sound within, offering in its tranquil surface a curious contrast to the eter- nal billowy contest without. It is here, ever since the discovery of America, that the genius of the tempest seems to have chosen his abode. With Cape Hatteras the Atlantic coast turns to a small inclination west of north, which course is sustained 130 miles to Cape Henry or entrance into Chesapeake bay. In this latter expanse, the ocean border continues to present its regular series of islands and narrow inlets. In the rear of this chain the interior is penetrated by the decj) indenting of Albemarle sound. L}'ing nearly parallel to each Gl'.OGRAPHlCAL Vlii.W. 10 I other, but by the different tending of the respective coasts, Pamptico sound sweeps along the course of the opposing Raleigh's bay, whilst Albemarle stretches directly into the continent 60 miles, and received into its head Roanake and Chowan rivers. The basin of the Roanoke and Chowan vmites the rivers of Virginia and North Carolina. The Roan- oke, formed by two branches, the Dan and Stanton rivers, is the first stream from Cape Florida which derives any part of its waters from beyond the Blue Ridge. Dan river rises in Surry and Stokes coun- ties. North Carolina, and in Patrick, Henry, and Franklin counties, Virginia, and pursuing a general course nearly east 120 miles, receives the Stanton from the northw^est. The latter, rising in Botce- tourt and Montgomery counties, Virginia, in the Great valley west from the Blue Ridge, interlocking sources with James' river and Great Kenhawa, turn east, and piercing the mountain chain inflect to the S. E. and S. E. by E., and after a comparative course of 120 miles joins the Dan and forms the Roanoke. The sources of the Roanoke spread from N. lat. 36° 10', to N. lat. 3r° 25', and flowing from the most elevated table land in the United States, give to the basin an immense comparative range of climate. The most north-western branches rise in the spurs of the Peaks of Otter, in the Blue Ridge and Tinker mountains, at an elevation of at least 1500 feet.* This difference of level produces a change of tem- perature equal to four degrees of latitude, though the mean range of the basin declines but little from an east and west direction. All the higher branches of the Roanoke are upon the primitive; and similar to the Alatamaha and Santee, the Roanoke receives no large tributaries below the point of union of its main constituent branches, at N. lat= 36^ 40' and * See tables 2 and 3. I 2 102 GEOGRAPHICvVL VIEW. long. 1° 40' W. from W. C. Here the main stream inclining to S. E. by E. about 40 miles, quits Virginia in the S. W. angle of Brunswick county, and enter- ing North Carolina in the N. E. angle of Warren county, quits the primitive and enters on thfe region of alluvion, at the rapids between Halifax and Northampton counties. Thus far the ocean tides penetrate the basin. Below tide water the particu- lar courses of the Roanoke are excessively circuitous, and in a comparative distance of sixty miles it is probable the actual channel amounts to near 100. The entire comparative course below the junction of Dan and Stanton is about 140 miles, and the whole length by either branch 250 miles. If to this we add 60 for Albemarle sound, the Roanoke has a course of 310 miles. The Chowan, formed by the Meherin and Notta- way rivers, is, when compared with its rival the Roanoke, an humble stream, but the former derives great importance from the position and range of its valley. The Meherin branch rises in Charlotte county, Virginia, at long. 1° 30' W. from W. C, N. lat. 37°; and flowing thence S. E. by E. 80 miles, enters North Carolina between Gates and North- ampton counties, and continuing its course 20 miles, joins the Nottaway between Gates and Hertford counties above Wynnton. The remote north-western sources of the Notta- way are in Prince Edward county, a little northward from those of the Meherin. Inclining but little from an eastern course, the Nottaway flows about 70 miles into the centre of Sussex; bending thence to S. E. 40 miles, receives from the north, on the line between Virginia and North Carolina, the Black- water. The latter rising in Prince George's coun- ty, in the vicinity of Petersburg, floAvs 40 miles to the S. E., and turning thence 25 miles, inclining something W. of S., unites with the Nottaway as already stated. Below their junction the course of GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 103 the Blackwater is preserved, and 10 miles within North Carolina the combined waters mix with those of the Meherin, and form the Chowan, almost ex- actly on the meridian of Washington. A fine tide water volume, the Chowan, pursues a course of south-east 20 miles, whence it opens into a wide bay, and bending to nearly south 20 miles, terminates in Albemarle sound. As a commercial basin the Roanoke by neither branch offers facilities in comparison to volume of water or surface drained. Sloops ascend both branches about 70 miles, above which boats are used. As in most other streams of the Atlantic slope, which flow from the Appalachian chain, the most unnavigable part of the Roanoke is immedi- ately above the primitive ledge. The rapid and gigantic strides of internal improvement will, how- ever, soon remove obstacles to the passage of ves- sels on our streams, which a few years past, and even now, appear irremovable. In respect to climate, the Roanoke basin demands great attention in a view of the United States. Ex- tending from east to west, between N. lat. 35° 30' and 37° 30', it constitutes the mean between the ex- tremes of the United States, lat. 25° and 52°, since, though restricted by mere lines of latitude to 37^°, that part of the basin lying upon the Appalachian table land, virtually carries the temperature to N. lat. 41°. Rising like an immense central base, that section of the United States comprised in the western part of North Carolina, eastern part of Tennessee, and south-western part of Virginia, discharges the vari- ous river sources like radii from a common centre. A single glance on a general map of the United States will suffice to shew the full force of this ob- servation. i04 CHAPTER IV. GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW OF THE MIDDLE SECTION OF THE ATLANTIC SLOPE. We have now passed the tropical zone of the At- lantic slope, and have left the region of the sugar cane, orange, fig, and even in great part cotton, and have reached the climate of -wheat, the apple, and luxuriant meadow grasses. The first basin of this temperate tract is that of Chesapeake. By the caprice and accident of geo- graphical nomenclature, the Susquehanna loses its name at the head of its tides, or at the point where it passes from the primitive to the sea alluvion. The Chesapeake must therefore give name to this the most extensive of the Atlantic basins of the United States; and under this general head, we have be- fore us a navigable expanse, in form of an immense triangle, the base of which, from the mouth of Che- sapeake bay to the sources of Susquehanna riv- er, amounts to 400 miles; side along the valley of James' river 250 miles; area, including every inflec- tion, at least 65,000 square miles. Extending from N. lat. 36° 40' to N. lat. 42° 55', and from 1° 45' E. to 3° 30' W. long. W. C. I have already expressed an opinion that in strict- ness of geographical language, Chesapeake bay dif- fered from the other sounds upon the Atlantic slope, only as having one outlet, in place of two or more. It differs, however, in another greatly more impor- tant circumstance, that is in depth of water. We have seen the shallowness of the rivers and sounds to the south-west of Chesapeake. This feature is at once reversed in this great recipient, Avhich, al- GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 105 most to the head of its tides, sinks to a depth below the largest draught of vessels. The Chesapeake stretches in a direction nearly due north, from lat. 37° N. to 39° 33' N. or nearly 180 miles. The breadth is very irregular. Below the Potomac, or for about 70 miles, the width ave- rages 25 miles; but from the influx of the Potomac to that of the Susquehanna the mean width does not exceed 10 miles. These elements would yield an area below the Potomac of 1750, and above the mouth of that river 1100; in all, 2850 square miles. If to this we add 750 square miles for the minor bays or channels below tide water of James river, York, Rappahannock, Potomac, and others of a simi- lar nature but of less magnitude, we shall have an aggregate superficies of 3600 square miles for Che- sapeake bay and its immense branches. In the review of this important section of the At- lantic slope we shall advance by its constituent val- lies, of which that of James river follows that of the Roanoke. Entering Chesapeake from the At- lantic ocean about 20 miles, an opening appears on the left, which is found to be the capacious mouth of James' river. This great confluent derives its remote sources from the central vallies of the Ap- palachian system. If a line was drawn from the extreme western fountains of the Roanoke, and ex- tended also along those of James river, it would in- tersect that part of the mountain system at an angle of forty-five degrees nearly; and here we perceive at once the peculiar inflections of the river vallies of the basins of Susquehanna and Delaware. In the higher branches of James river those inflec- tions either pursue the course of the mountain val- lies, or cross them and the mountain chains at right angles. This structure prevails from the sources of Roanoke to those of the Delaware, with a regularity which evinces a general cause. Thus influenced in their courses, the two north- 106 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. western branches of James river, rising in Pendleton and Bath counties, Virginia, flow down the mountain valleys S. S. W., meet other streams flowing in a directly opposite course, gradually unite, turn to N. E. by E.., enter into and receive the waters of Rock- bridge county at the northwest base of the Blue Ridge. Turning again at right angles, and piercing the opposing mountain chain, leaves the great ele- vated table land of central Virginia. Interlocking sources with the Kenhawa, the Mo- nongahela, and Potomac, this mountain section of James river is, by actual survey, elevated at a mean of about 1500 feet above the Atlantic level ; between 3r° 20' and 38° 20' N. with a barometrical height equivalent to four degrees, the climate is virtually that of N. lat. 42° on the Atlantic ocean. Below Blue Ridge, James river flows S. E. 20 miles, to Lynchburgh ; turns thence N. E. 40, and again abruptly inflects to S. E. by E. With many partial bends, the latter general course is maintain- ed 140, to its influx into Chesapeake bay, between Willoughbay Point and Old Point Comfort, at N. lat. 37°, Ion. W. C. 0° 45' E. The Appomattox, entering from the right, 23' W. from the meridian of Washington, is the only large tributary stream which contributes to aug- ment James river on that side below the Blue Ridge. The Appomattox rises in Prince Edward and Buckingham counties, flows by a general course nearly east, falls over the primitive ledge at Peters- burgh, and joins the main stream 35 miles below Richmond. Rivanna from Albemarle and Fluvanna counties, and Chickahomina entering almost on the meridian of Washington, are the only streams worthy notice which flow into James river from the left. Following the general line of each ])articular course, this fine river has a comparative channel of 270 miles below the Blue Ridge, and 50 miles in the GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 107 Great Valley below the influx of Cow Pasture river; having an entire navigable channel of 320 miles, something above one hundred below, and the residue above tide water. The tide reaches to Richmond in James river, and to Petersburg in the Appomat- tox, Ships of the line can enter Hampton Roads, and those carrying 40 guns can be navigated to Jamestown, 25 miles higher. Merchant ships of 250 tons ascend to Warwick, and those of 130, to Rocketts, or the port of Richmond. The canal round the falls at Richmond unites ship to boat na- vigation, the latter extending upwards of two hun- dred miles. Petersburg is little if any less accessi- ble than Richmond to sea A'^essels. Since the very dawn of internal improvement in the United States, and particularly since the rapid augmentation of population in the Ohio valley, the channel of James river has attracted public atten- tion, as offering a route in connexion with the Great Kenhawa to reach the Ohio river. One of the most obvious benefits of such a view as this, is to trace and place before the reader clear views of the irre- gularities in the face of the United States, and to enable the statesman and statist to adequately com- pare proposed routes of canal or road improvement. Independent of elevation, the higher branches of James river, and those of Great Kenhawa, below the bend of the latter in Montgomery county, Vir- ginia, are so relatively placed as to greatly facilitate canal operations. The tables will shew, however, the respective heights v/hich are to be overcome by lock architecture, from which inductions may be drawn, and fair comparisons made between canal and road improvement. Whoever examines the courses of James river on a good map, and compares them with the geological observations I have made on their peculiar com- pliance with the mountain chains, will find that the general range of the channel is interrupted by 108 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW, this mountain influence as low as the mouth of Ri- vanna, and even to the falls and head of tide water at Richmond. An humble, but a very distinct, and on the rivers a very influential chain of mountains, traverses North Carolina, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New-Jersey. This chain rises in Rutherford county, North Carolina, extends through Burke, thence separates Wilkes from Iredell, and reaches in broken links through Surry and Stokes; enters Virginia in Henry, about Ion. 3° W. from W. C. In North Carolina this chain takes several local names. In Rutherford, Flint hill is its first distinct mass ; it is known as Montague hills in Burke ; as the Iron mountain between Wilkes and Iredell; and as the Pilot mountain in Surry ; and as Sawraton mountain in Stokes. It again, as Turkey Cock m.ountain, separates Henry from Franklin counties, Virginia ; appears in Buckingham and Nelson coun- ties, and assumes distinctness as a chain known as South-west mountain, in Albemarle. Thence it may be traced into Maryland, over Orange, Cul- pepper, Fauquier, and past Leesburg, in Loudon, crossing the Potomac below the Monocacy. Rising into a noted peak, the Sugar Loaf, in the western angle of Montgomery county, Maryland, thence it separates Montgomery from Frederick, and Frede- rick from Baltimore, merging into Pennsylvania in York county, nearly on the meridian of Washington. Traversing the south-eastern parts of York and Lan- caster counties, separates Chester and Montgomery from Berks, and Lehigh and Northampton from Bucks, crosses Delaware river below Musconecunk river, ranges over Hunterdon, Morris, and Bergen counties, New Jersey, and is known as the Haver- straw mountains in New- York. In all this distance of six hundred miles, any per- son well acquainted with the physical geography of the United States, would detect a chain of moun- tains from a correct map of the intermediate rivers. GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 109 The mountain agency is completely apparent in the higher branches of the Santee, Pedee, and Roanoke; in the courses of James river above and below Lynchburg, and in the sources of Rivanna, Rapid Ann, and Rappahannoc rivers. It is again very visi- ble in the courses of Potomac above and below the Monocacy. Similar effects are easily traced in the Susquehanna, Schuylkill, Delaware, Raritan, and Passaic rivers. The remote sources are drawn from the verge of the western floetz formation, from which they are only separated by the Allegheny or main chain of the Appalachian system. Proceeding thence over the central secondary, and primitive, reach and pass over the sea sand alluvion. The minor valley of York river follows that of James river. The Pamunkey and North Anna, both rise in the south-west mountain, 1° 20' W. from W. C, N. lat. 38° 10', in Orange, Albemarle, and Louisa counties, and after a course of sixty miles each, they unite between Hanover and Caroline to form the Pamunkey river. The latter, after a very tortuous course of perhaps seventy, but compara- tively only forty miles, receives a smaller stream, the Mattapony, from the north-west. At their junc- tion, the united stream opens into a bay or river, thence in a distance of forty miles known as York river, to its influx into Chesapeake bay. The remarkable valley of the Rappahannoc inter- venes between that of York and Potomac. The Rappahannoc rises in the Blue Ridge, and in the northern part of Culpepper and western part of Fauquier counties, one degree west from Washing- ton, and at lat. 38° 52' N, Assuming a course 40 miles to the south east, receives from the west a much more considerable stream, the Rapid Ann. The latter rises also in the Blue Ridge, and in the counties of Madison and Orange. The united vo- lume retains the name of Rappahannoc, and twelve 1 10 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. miles below their junction falls over the primitive ledge, and meets the tides between Fredericksburg and Falmouth. The Rappahannoc, below its main fork above Fredericksburg, in a course of S. E. by E. 130 miles, does not receive even a large rivulet. Below the falls, similar to other rivers of the Che- sapeake basin, this river imperceptibly widens into a bay, up which vessels of 140 tons can ascend to Fredericksburg. The progress of our survey now brings us into the very important valley of the Potomac. If we turn our eye to a map of Virginia, Maryland, and Penn- sylvania, we find, interlocking sources with James river. Great Kenhawa, Monongahela, and Susque- hannah, a series of rivers, north-west from the Blue Ridge, and flowing along the mountain valleys ; those of Virginia and Maryland having their courses to the north-east, and those of Pennsylvania to the south-west, whilst a middle stream is perceived rising west of all the chains but two of the Appala- chian system, and forcing its devious way across the system toAvards the Atlantic ocean. This series of rivers unite to form the Potomac, the extreme west- ern sources of which rise 2^ 45' W. from W. C. The south and main branch of Potomac rises in and drains Pendleton county, in Virginia, heading with, but flowing in a directly opposite course to Green- briar branch of Great Kenhawa, and Jackson's and Cow Pasture branches of James river. The south branch rises as far south as N. lat. 38° 25', complete- ly overheading the sources of the Monongahela. Flowing N. E. about 100 miles, between the Alle- gheny -and Kittatinny chains, meets from the west an inferior stream, but to which the general name of Potomac is applied. The Potomac rises in a ridge locally called the Backbone mountain, at N. lat. 39° 12', and flowing thence N. E. 30 miles, receives a small but impor- tant branch. Savage river, from the N. E.; then GEOGKAFHICAL VIEW. 1 1 1 turns at right angles to the S E., and piercing two chains of mountains in about 10 miles, inflects again to the N. E. 20 miles to Cumberland. Here once more the Potomac is inflected to the south-east, by the opposing mountain masses, across which its vo- lume is precipitated, and 20 miles below Cumber- land meets the south branch, and a short distance below once more turns to north-east to Hancock's town. At this point the Potomac has reached its most northern bend, N. lat. 39*^ 40', and within little more than two miles from the southern boundary of Pennsylvania. Turning to south-east below Han- cock's town, it passes the Kittatinny chain, and with many partial windings, but a general course of 40 miles, receives the Shenandoah from the south-west, and breaks through the Blue Ridge at Harper's Ferry. The Shenandoah is the southernmost branch of Potomac, rising in the south-west angle of Augusta county, at N. lat. 38*^ 55'. Draining the whole of Augusta, Rockingham, and Shenandoah, and part of Frederick and Jefferson counties, the Shenandoah is truly a river of the great Appalachian valley be- tween the two chains of Blue Ridge and Kittatinny. The main stream follows the range of the former chain, at a distance of from two to five miles, re- ceiving its tributary branches from the west or left. The Shenandoah valley is 130 miles in length, with a mean width of 20; area, 2600 square miles, with a considerable difference of elevation. By reference to table 4th, page 70, it will be seen that the surface of the water at Harper's Ferry is 182 feet above tide water at Georgetown, whilst by comparison with the first element in tables 2 and 3, it will be evident that the sources of Shenandoah must exceed one thousand feet. That spot where the Potomac and Shenandoah intermingle, has gained a celebrity which must en- dure as long as sublime scenery and the name of 1 12 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. Thomas Jefferson continue to excite admiration. Harper's Ferry is at N. lat. 39° 18', Ion. W. C. 0° 38' W. That part of the valley of Potomac above the Blue Ridge extends in latitude from 38° to the sources of the Conococheague, 40'% or through two degrees of latitude, in the direction nearly of S. W. and N. E. It lies in form of a nearly regular parallelogram, 150 by 50; area, 7500 square miles. Leaving the attractive mountain pass at Harper's Ferry, the general course to south-east is continued to the mouth of Monocacy 10 or 12 miles, where it passes the last distinct chain of mountains, and inflec- ting a few miles to the south, resumes a south-east course, which is maintained to the head of tide wa- ter at Georgetown, fifty miles below the mountain pass at Harper's Ferry. Below tide water the Po- tomac imperceptibly loses the features of a river in that of a bay, winds between Georgetown and the Navy Yard at Washington to a southern course, and below Alexandria inclines to the west of south 40 miles; sweeps round to N, E. 15 miles, and finally regaining a S. E. direction about 50 miles, opens in- to Chesapeake bay, at N. lat, 38°, having returned to the latitude of its most southern source, the She- nandoah. In its natural state the Potomac is the most navi- gable branch of Chesapeake ; ships of any burthen of war or of commerce, can be navigated to Alexan- dria, and vessels of very heavy burthen to Wash- ington navy-yard. This is the most distant point from the ocean that ships of the line can be naviga- ted in the United States. It is upwards of one hun- dred miles from the Atlantic ocean, at the mouth of the Delaware, the nearest point of that ocean ; and from the entrance of the Chesapeake, near two hun- dred miles. The attention of the philosopher and statesman will be secured to the central position of the Poto- mac valley ; its reaching almost over the Appala- GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 113 chian system of mountains, and with these natural, the political advantage of containing the capital of the nation. It is the business of the author of this view to collect and record data, and leave their ap- plication to those more directly cencerned. The general elevations and the connexion of the Potomac valley with that of Ohio, are given in table 4., page 70; and it may be observed here, that seven or eight feet are about the mean term of canal locks already made in either Europe or America; and that the ca- nal uniting the head waters of the Volga with Lake Ladoga, by the small rivers Emsta and Twere, ele- vation 568 feet, is the highest canal navigation yet actually executed ; and there " The rivers Emsta and Twere, near the summit level, have not suffi- cient water for a constant supply ; and it is necessa- ry to pound up the waters and lakes, for a flash, or artifcial flood. This is accomplished by pen sluices, and some short cuts." The next stream entering the western shore of Chesapeake bay after the Potomac, is the Patuxent. Obeying in a very striking manner the great inflec- tions of the Potomac, the Patuxent rises in the south- east mountain, on the south-east border of Frederick, and near the connecting angle of Montgomery, Bal- timore, and Frederick counties, at N. lat. 39° 20', long. W. C. 0° 08' W. Thence flowing south-east 35 miles, reaches to within five from the tide water of Chesapeake bay; inflecting thence nearly south 30 miles, at a distance of from eight to ten miles from the Chesapeake, it again gradually bends to south-east 25 miles, opens into a bay from two to three miles wide, until merged in the general reci- pient, between Calvert and St. Mary^s counties. Next above the Patuxent, spreads a small valley to which Baltimore has given incalculable impor- tance. The Patapsco rises in the south-east moun- tain along the borders of Baltimore and Frederick counties, and flowing S. E, by E. 30 miles^ unite and ■S.2 ' 114 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. fall over the primitive ledge, opening Into the Chesa- peake by a bay of ten or twelve miles in length. At the head of Patapsco bay, on a small haven at the mouth of Falls creek on the primitive ledge, stands the city of Baltimore, N. lat. 39° 18', long. 0« 27' E. from Washington City. Vessels of 600 tons are na- vigated to Fell's Point, the lower harbour of Balti- more. The small valleys of Patapsco, Gunpowder, and Bush river, fill the space between the upper Patux- ent, and the creeks of the lower Susquehanna. The eastern or left shore of Chesapeake bay, for about 50 miles, composing the Virginia point, is but little broken by bays; but with lat. SS'^ 03', nearly on the Maryland line, opens Pocomoke bay and river, leading to Snow Hill, in Worcester county; thence, turning Watkin's point, the small bay of Manokin leads to Princess Ann, and the Wicomico to White Haven. Nanticoke river rises in Sussex county, of Delaware, and flowing south-west, enters Maryland, separating Somerset and Dorchester counties, form- ing with Wicomico, Fishing bay. W^ith an intervening peninsula, forming Dorchester county, we next enter the bay and river Choptank. This is the most consi- derable stream of the eastern shore of Maryland, rises in Kent and Sussex counties, Delaware, and flowing S. S. W., enters Maryland, and after a course of 50 miles turns toN. W. and dilates into a bay of about 15 miles, on one of the arms of which. Tread Haven, stands Easton, in Talbot county, the most important mart of eastern Maryland. Next follows the small bay of St. Michael's; and on N. lat. 39°, the mouth of Chester bay, formed by a small river rising in Dela- ware, and flowing thence south-west, 35 miles, be- tween Kent and Queen Ann counties, opens by a wide bay into Chesapeake; Sassafras, separating Kent and Cecil, and finally, Elk river flowing out of Pennsylvania and Delaware, Into Cecil county, Ma- ryland. Long-- E fl-om l '^"■''^'";L'°"||| and * , ^ Miles. 5 lo JO 3o 40 5o Go 70 .^''^ V I R G I c;^ I .i4 lexandriji q A Dumfries® , " V^'tec'.'r«v ^ i^ir i ^.r/ ^^H»l'^ f)^l'fJ^'if».". fl >• f "'\i56SJ« ^f y ""y S, 'v^siwy ffl 'Mii<'fi>iil i"i'i ^^ 4^APOLI^ yMift-o^ ^ ftffi&orJ Kf^' Hciilopeii \ GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 119 much to remove before their streams can flow with tranquil or equal motion. This feature in the geography of the United States is highly favourable to canal operations, in forming a union between the Atlantic and central waters. The rivers have, during accumulated centuries, done that which man could not have dared to conceive. The rivers have torn the mountains to their bases, and given to human beings, and the fruits of their toil, a free passage. Man in his feebleness is re- lieved from labours beyond his aggregate force, and left to remoA'e mere obstructions- When this sub- ject is viewed with the eye of philosophy, it is one of those sources of reflection which gives exercise to every noble faculty of the mind. Below Tioga Point, the already large volume of the Susquehanna flows a little east of south 15 miles tothenorth-Avesternfoot of the Appalachian system, which it encounters at Towanda creek, near Means- ville, in Bradford county, Pennsylvania, and thence, turning to south-east, pierces the first chain, and flowing 30 miles, reaches the Tunkhannock creek and chain, having now passed over the secondary and entered on the transition formation. Breaking the Tunkhannock, and some other chains, the Sus- quehanna finally, at the mouth of the Lackawannock, 9 miles above the town of Wilkesbarre, enters the Wyoming valley, and winds to the southwest. Con- tinuing the latter course down the mountain valleys about 70 miles, to the influx of the western branch, between the villages of Northumberland and Sun- bury. In all its course of 120 miles, from Tioga Point to Sunbury, the Susquehanna receives no tributary stream of fifty miles comparative course. Wyalu- sing, Tunkhannock, Lackawannock, and Nescopec from the left, and Towanda, Mahoopeny, Bowman's, and Fishing creeks from the right, are merely bold and fine, but only small mountain torrents. 120 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. The Western Branch is, in all its extent, exclu- sively a river of Pennsylvania. Rising far within the central secondary, its extreme western sources in Indiana and Cambria counties, are within 35 miles from the Alleghany river at Kittanning, and about 60 miles from the junction of the Alleghany and Ohio at Pittsburg. Draining sections of Cambria, Indiana, and Clearfield counties by a general course of N. E. 70 miles, the West Branch receives the Sinnamahoning from the north-west, and at the northern angle of Centre county. Below the en- trance of Sinnamahoning, the West Branch contin- ues north-east ten miles, thence turning 20 miles to the south-east, receives Bald Eagle river from the south-west. Thus far of its course the West Branch drains the central secondary, but immediately above the influx of the Bald Eagle, it breaks through the Alleghany or main chain of the Appalachian sys- tem, and entering on the transition, turns to a little north of east. Receiving the two large creeks Pine and Loyalsack from the northward^ and passing William sport, this now noble stream continues its course of nearly east, forty miles from Bald Eagle creek to Pennsboro'. In the vicinity of the latter village, the stream turns to nearly south, twenty- five miles to its junction with the north-east branch, at Sunbury, and thirty-five from thence to the influx of the Juniata from the west. Juniata, the southwest branch of the Susquehan- na, rises in and drains the northern part of Bedford county ; flowing from the south-eastern side of the Alleghany chain, and thence about 20 miles nearly east, passes Bedford, and rushing through several minor chains, turns abruptly to a course a little east of north 40 miles, receives the Frankstown branch near the borough of Huntingdon. The general course of Frankstown branch is from north-west to south-east, and below their junction the united stream continues that course 15 miles, to its passage GEOGHAPHICAL VIEW. Ul through Jack's mountain, between Huntingdon and Mifflin counties. Again inflected to north-east, the Juniata enters Mifflin county, and pursuing that di- rection nearly thirty miles, passes Lewistown, and again winding to south-east, breaks through Shade mountain into Tuscarora valley; and thence, cross- ing that valley, in a course of 10 miles reaches the north-west base of Tuscarora mountain, where it once more bends to the north-east, and following the base of the mountain 10 miles, turns to south-east, and forming a passage through, leaves Mifflin and enters Perry county, over which it continues 15 miles to its junction with the Susquehanna, nearly on the meridian of W. C. and N. lat. 40° 23'. Like every other branch of the Susquehanna, the Juniata is as noted for the number of its rapids as for its exemption from perpendicular falls. Though originating in, and havmg its whole course amongst craggy mountains, it is navigable, at high water, to near Bedford. In speculative opinion on the means, and most suitable route, to form a water communi- cation between either the Delaware or Chesapeake basms, and the valley of Ohio, the Juniata has been conspicuously held in view. How far this route is comparatively eligible, is a problem now advancing towards complete solution, by a canal. The Juniata is the last tributary of importance which enters the Susquehanna. The Conedogwinet, Yellow-Breeches, Conewago, Codorus, and Deer creek, from the right, and below Sunbury on the left, the Mahanoy, Mahantango, Swatara, Conesto- ga, and Octoraro, are comparatively creeks, none of them having a general course of 50 miles. The Swatara is important, however, as its valley forms part of the route of the Union Canal. We have already seen that from Pennsboro' to the influx of the Juniata, the Susquehanna pursues a course of very nearly due south 60 miles. Though not appearing so on our maps, from the deficiency 122 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. of their representation of the chains, the southern course of the Susquehanna, below Pennsboro' to the mouth of the Juniata, is actually the most moun- tainous part of its course by either branch. Inde- pendent of minor ridges, in this distance of 60 miles, this remarkable river traverses six or seven of the principal chains, and even at the last curve to the south-east, below the Juniata, it has not yet passed the Appalachian system, but again in a course of 80 miles, it carries its now immense volume, through the Kittatinny 5 miles above, and through the Blue Ridge, 8 miles below Harrisburg ; and lastly, the south-east mountain, below the Conestoga. From the Blue Ridge the channel becomes more and more interrupted with shoals and rapids, until the stream pours over the last rocky ledge, and loses its name and rank as a river in the Chesapeake bay. The valley of the Susquehanna, from its position naturally and politically, and from its peculiar fea- tures, must at all future times attract a full share of attention from the traveller and statesman. I have often observed that rivers were the most diversified objects in nature, and defied generalization most ef- fectually. To be adequately understood, they must be studied individually. The three rivers, Susque- hanna, Delaware, and Hudson, are contiguous to each other, and the former has interlocking sources with the two latter, and all pierce the entire Appa- lachian system; and yet, in those intrinsic features which give character, no three rivers can be more strikingly distinct. It is true, that in their respec- tive courses, the Susquehanna and Delaware pre- sent an accordance, which must have arisen from some general and inherent structure of the country they drain; but here the resemblance ceases. In- cluding all its higher, and in particular its north- east branches, tlie Susquehanna is peculiar in the physiognomy of its vallies. Very wide bottoms of two, and often three stages, spread along the con- GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 123 vex side of the bends; whilst along the concave rise steep, frequently precipitous, and sometimes moun- tainous banks. Here are at once, and over a large space, combined in never ending variety, the most bold and the most soft and tranquil scenery ; the fine glassy surface of the rivers, bordered on one side by wide spreading vales, rising by acclivity af- ter acclivity, and on the other by high swelling or abruptly rocky walls. Exuberant fertility is here followed on an almost perceptible line, by the sterile though wood-clothed mountain. The varied hue of the foliage again gives a truly rich drapery to the landscape. The natu- ral timber of the bottoms, differ materially from that of the mountains. On the former, sugar-maple, black walnut, elm, beech, and other trees indicative of a productive soil abound. Rising to the higher stage, the deep green of the pine is seen intermin- gled with the softer and lighter tints of the timber of the vales. On the slopes and even summits of the mountains, we meet the pine, oak, and chesnut, and above the Lackawannock, the hemlock. As a navigable stream, the Susquehanna is much less interrupted by rapids, or dangerous shoals, than might be expected from the tortuous course it pur- sues through an extensive mountain system. It is also a feature strongly marked, though common to the other rivers of the Atlantic slope, that where the volume of water passes the particular chains, rapids seldom, and perpendicular falls no where occur. On so large a space as that of the Susquehanna valley, mere difference of latitude would superin- duce a sensible difference of climate ; but here re- spective elevation enters as a very powerful ele- ment, in changes of temperature. The mouth of the Susquehanna, at Havre de Grace, is at N. lat. 39° 33', one degree east from Washington City. The extreme northern sources, are, as I have already 124 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW, noticed, at N. lat 42° 55\ between one and two de- grees east of Washington. This gives a difference of three degrees and twenty minutes of latitude; but by recurrence to table 5th it will be perceived, that the summit level between the Chemung at New- town and Seneca lake, is 885 feet above the level of the Atlantic tides, and the pass between Newtown and Seneca being a movmtain valley, falls far short of the mean elevation of that part of New York comprised in the counties of Tioga, Cortland, Che- nango, and Otsego. The latter region is safely es- timated at a height of 1000 feet, or equivalent to at least 2^ degrees of latitude. Thvis we find, that in effect, the climate of the basin of Susquehanna differs upwards of five degrees in temperature. Again, if we examine the relative position of the mountain valleys of Pennsylvania, drained by the West-Branch, and the Juniata, and compare the ele- ments in tables 4 and 5; we are warranted in stating the mean height of that region at 1200 feet, or equivalent to three degrees of latitude. Therefore, all the higher sources of the Susquehanna, flow vir- tually from N. lat. 44° or 45°, if reduced to the ocean level. Though m'lch less extensive than the preceding, the basin of the Delaware is a very important link in the chain of rivers along the Atlantic slope. The Delaware rises by two branches in the western spurs oftheCatsbergs. TbeCoquago to the north-west, and the Popachton to the south-east, flow from their sources, south-west 50miies, draining the central and south-eastern part of Delaware county. New York. Kcaching within 5 miles from the north-east angle of Pennsylvania, and within 10 from the Susque- hanna river, the Coquag-o turns to south-east, and continuing that course 15 or 16 miles, receives tlie Popachton. With rather serpentine indivichial wind- ings, the Delaware maintains a south-cast direction 60 miles from the n91,060,480,000 square lect. GEOGllAPHICAL VIEW. 231 No. XI\ . — Table of the quantity of the St. Lawrence ha Watei' contained in •asin. Solid contents in cubic feet. 592,173,440,000,000 476,720,640,000,000 376,358,400,000,000 26,863,626,240,000 74,059,334,120,000 836,352,000,000 co^ cm" a> 1—1 o Superficial area in feet. 669,081,600,000 529,689,600,000 418,176,000,000 223,863,552,000 150,543,360,000 41,817,600,000 o o o tH i^ i-T b- 1— ( CO CO o c4^ Superficial area in square miles. o o o o o o O O O CO o o O O^ O^ O^ ^^ V) TjT oT vf co" io" T-T C^ iH tH i Mean depth, in feet. O O O C^ CJi c^ Superior, Huron, Michig-an, Erie, Ontario, St. Lawrence, &c. Those who have read the table of the quantity of water contained in the St. Lawrence basin, inserted in my travels from New York to Detroit, at pages 89 and 90, will discover a discrepancy between the 232 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. two results. The difference arose from my having, when compiling the enclosed table/ subjected the representation of the lakes of Canada to a more ri- gid admeasurement, and finding that, on the former occasion, I had overrated their aggregate area, and in some measure miscalculated their relative extent. Reduced as is the result, it certainly falls below reality, stupendous as may appear the amount: but assuming the cubic contents, shown by table 14, as the aqueous mass in St. Lawrence basin, the result may well appear astonishing ; it would form a cubic column of near 22 miles each side, or if spread round the earth equally on each side of the equator, at a depth of one foot, it would nearly cover the torrid zone, and would actually envelope the earth to up- wards of three inches in depth. In positive mass, it may be assumed on very solid grounds, that the St. Lawrence basin contains more than one half of all the fresh water on this planet. Another problem of great interest next presents itself for solution, that is the quantum of annual dis- charge, which, though very great, does not from the nature of the basin, bear a near proportion to the contained body of fluid. Three points presented themselves to me as suitable, from which to calcu- late the discharge: — First, opposite Black Rock in the Niagara strait : second at the head of Ogden's island: and third, at Point Iroquois, a few miles above the second. At all these places the whole volume is contracted to within less than half a mile wide, but flowing with great velocity. In estimating the mean discharge of rivers, a general mistake is prevalent to assume the upper current as that of the whole mass of water. Allowing the St. Lawrence to be three fourths of a mile wide at any of tlie places I have pointed out, and to flow three miles an hour, with a mean depth of 50 feet, the result would be that a transverse section of the river would con- tain 105,600 superficial feet, which multiplied by GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 233 15,840, the lineal feet contained in three miles, would yield 1,672,704,000 cubic feet as the hourly dis- charge. This estimate exceeds by more than one- half the quantity which, on another occasion, I cal- culated for the Mississippi ; and, though contrary to my own opinion ^yhen I first arrived on the banks of the St. Lawrence, 1 am convinced falls below reality. The St. Lawrence is as uniform throughout the year in its diurnal or monthly expenditure, as is the Mississippi for its continual change. A rise of three feet is a more remarkable revolution in the former, than thirty would be in the latter river. Rising from the same vast table land, and having such an ex- tended line of interlocking sources, it is worthy of remark, that no two rivers on earth so essentially differ in their general features, as do the Mississippi and St. Lawrence. The former is turbid in many places even to muddiness ; the waters of the latter and of its lakes highly limpid. The channel of one river is chequered with innumerable lakes, some of which are of immense extent; whilst in the other no lakes of any note occur : annually, the Mississippi swells and overleaps its bed, overwhelming the adja- cent shores; a casual rise of three feet once or twice in any given 50 years, is considered a great rise of the waters of the St. Lawrence. The Mississippi, flow- ing from north to south, passes through a great variety of climes, whilst its rival, winding from its source in a south-east direction to near N. lat. 41°, turns gradu- ally to north-east, and again flows into its original climate of ice and snow. The Mississippi, before its final discharge into the gulf of Mexico, divides into a number of channels, having their separate egress ; the St. Lawrence imperceptibly expands to a wide bay, which ultimately opens into the gulf of the same name. The banks of the Mississippi, particularly near the mouth, present a level scarce rising above the superior or highest spring floods of that stream ; u 2 534 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW, those of the St. Lawrence generally slope from the river margin by an elegant acclivity; and when clear- ed from timber have the aspect of a most delight- ful basin. Much of the surface within the Missis- sippi basin are regions of open grassy plains, where few shrubs or trees break the dull monotony of the landscape; nearly the whole St. Lawrence basin, in a state of nature, is covered with a continuous and almost impervious forest. Such are the leading and contrasted features of these two great North Ame- rican rivers. Much more could be said on the subject of com- parison between those rivers, but the necessary bre- vity of this view sets a limit to our survey, beyond which we cannot pass, and must therefore proceed to examine the residue of the St. Lawrence basin. I may remark, that vast as is the amount of water contained in the St. Lawrence basin above the points at which my estimates were made, the acces- sion below those points is enormous. When the river issues from lake Ontario, the channel gradually becnmes narrower, 75 miles down to Point Iroquois. In this distance the current imperceptibly increases, but continues very gentle, 65 miles to the Galloupe islands, 5 miles below the mouth of Oswegatchie. With the Galloupe commence a series of rapids, which are but little interrupted to the head of lake St. Francis, immediately below N. lat. 45°. Here the river dilates into a lake of thirty miles in length, and from one to six miles wide. At the lower end of this lake the river again contracts into a narrow channel of 16 miles, very much interrupted with ra- pids, the principal of which at the Cedars, is very difficult and dangerous, but followed by lake St. Louis, a sheet of water sixteen miles by from one to seven or eight. At the head of lake St, Louis commences the island of Montreal, at the north-west angle of which the Ottawa joins the St, Lawrence from the north- GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 235 west. The Ottawas is one of the greatest branches of the St. Lawrence, rising in the mountains which wind north from lake Huron, at N. lat. 48°, and long. 6° W. Its course is generally to the south-east, with an impetuous current, very much impeded by falls and rapids. Comparative length 450 miles. Like all the confluents of St. Lawrence from the north-west, the volume of the Ottawa is, compared to its length of course, immense. Settlements have been made for about 200 miles up this river, but at any considerable distance on either side of its chan- nel the country remains literally unknown, though as far as explored, the soil is excellent, and over- shadowed by a dense forest of very heavy timber. Such is the body of water in St. Lawrence, where its channels encircle Montreal and Jesus Islands, that the vast volume of tlie Ottawa makes no per- ceptible augmentation on the recipient, which pours round the islands over rapids of more or less de- scent. From the La Chine rapid about five miles above the city of Montreal, and on the same channel, a canal has been constructed, to pass the rapid and to meet ship navigation at that city. The port of Montreal is by the inflections of the stream 580 miles above the island of Anticosti, and yet thus high, ves- sels of six hundred tons can be navigated. The confluence of St. Lawrence and the Ottawa, is, perhaps, one of the most picturesque spots in the world. Besides some of minor note, three channels form the two large islands, Montreal and Isle Jesus, which unite at Bout de risle,orthe lower end of the two main islands. Below Montreal, though the fea- tures of the river and its banks undergo no very ra- pid change, yet, as a navigable stream, the introduc- tion of ships below Montreal gives a new and more interesting aspect to the scenery. Montreal is situated at N. lat. 45° 30', and at long. 3° 28' E. At the lower part of La Chine ra- pid, the river turns to a little E. of N., which course 236 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. is continued 22 miles to Bout de I'lsle, where it bends to nearly N. E. 30 miles to the head of lake St. Peter, and entrance of Chambly river, from the south. Lake St. Peter is comparatively shaliow, only admitting vessels of 18 feet draught, and though what is usually called by that name, terminates about ten miles above by the contraction of the channel, it may be considered as continued to the head of tide water, at the town of Three Rivers, and mouth of St. Maurice river, from the north. The head of the tides in St. Lawrence is a re- markable point in the hydrography of North Ameri- ca, and demands particular notice in an elementary view. With the highest ascent of the tides, is at- tained nearly the level of the ocean, in vs^hich the tide wave originates; we may therefore consider the level of St. Lawrence immediately below the town of Three Rivers, as that of the Atlantic ocean. The following table will more clearly exhibit the relative distance from the head of tide water to Lake Ontario, and in a contrary direction^to the At- lantic ocean. No. XV. — Table of the stationary distances down the St. Lawrence^ from Kingston^ at the loiver extremity of Lake Ontario, to the mouth at the ivestern fioint of the island of Anticosti, Miles. Kings to the mouth of Gananoqui river 16 Morristown on the New York, and Brock- ville, at the lower end of the Thousand Islands in Upper Canada, Leeds county 27 — 43 Prescott, in Upper Canada, Grenville county 12 — 55 Ogdensburg and mouth of Oswegatchie, St. Lawrence countv, New York 1 — 5C^ Galloupe Islands, or Red Mill 12—68 Point Iroquois 5 — 73 3- -76 16- -92 10- -102 1- -103 3- -106 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 237 Miles. Hamilton, and island of Rapid Plat Head of Long Sault Rapids Narrows, at the lower end of Long Sault Rapids Mouth of Grass River Mouth of Racket River Mouth of St. Regis river, N. lat. 45°, St. Regis village, opposite Cornwall in Stor- mont county. Upper Canada, and head • of Lake St.' Francis 2—108 Bodet river and limit, on the left bank of St. Lawrence, between Upper and Low- er Canada 18—126 Lower end of Lake St. Francis 12 — 138 Rapid of the Cedars, {Rafiides aux Cedres) 8—146 Head of Lake St. Louis _ \ 4—150 Lower end of Lake St, Louis, and village of La Chine 17—167 City of Montreal 6—173 Cape St. Michael, at Boute de I'Isle 15—190 Mouth of Chambly river and head of Lake St. Peter 30—220 Delta, at the mouths of Yamasseeand St. Francis rivers, the former from the south, and the latter from south-east 12 — 232 Lower end of Lake St. Peter 16—248 Town of Three Rivers, {Trois Rivieres^ and head' of tide water in St. Lav/rence 12 — 260 From Three Rivers to the mouth of ri- ver Becancour, from the south-east 5 — 265 Village of St. Anna, at the mouth of St. Anna river 20 — 285 Richelieu Rapids 20—305 Village of St. James C artier, at the mouth of St. James Cartier river 4—309 Mouth of the Chaudiere 25—334 Quebec 6 — 340 Head of the island of Orleans 5-^345 238 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. Miles. River and Falls of Montmorenci, on the left shore 2—347 Lower end of the island of Orleans 21 — 368 L'Isle au Ccudre 27 — 395 Mouth of Sagiienai river, from the left 55 — 450 Betsiamitis river, from the left 70 — 520 Breslard river, from the left 12 — 532 Black river, from the left 10—542 Cape Coribon, or Cosur Bon, on the left 50 — 592^ Head of the island of Anticosti 100 — 692' There is some difficulty in fixing on the real mouth bf St. Lawrence; the most natural to my own eye is the separation of the great straits above the island of Anticosti; and if that place be assumed as the mouth, then the tide ascends this channel 432 miles, almost four times farther than into the Hud- son; and if the Amazon be excepted, the highest tide on earth. As in the Hudson, the tide in the St. Lawrence passes through a chain of primitive mountains, on a breach in which stands the city of Quebec. * As I have before observed respecting the primitive chain which forms the Thousand Islands, I repeat respect- ing that which traverses the same river near Que- bec, that the latter as well as former were once con- * Is it not the same chain which crosses the Hudson at the Highlands, and St. Lawrence at Quebec? If any conclusion can be safely drawn from analogy in the struc- ture and range of the Appalacliian system, this question must be answered affirmatively. From om' maps little aid can be obtained in that or any other problem in phy- sical geography. A real minute geological survey of the region enclosed by the Atlantic ocean, and the Hud- son and St. Lawrence rivers, would be a most invaluable addition to science. GEOGRAPHICAL VIKW. 239 tinuous, and confined the water above it, in a lake which must have been drained by one of those ope- rations of nature which impose lasting changes on the globe. " When this opening was made by the force of the included water, the land was laid bare on both sides of that river {St. Lawrence,) as far as St. Re- gis, including the islands of Montreal and Jesus; and by the same operation, the land on both sides of Lake Champlain, would be drained as far as Ti- conderoga and Whitehall." — JDi\ S. L. MitchelVs JVotes on Cuvier's Theory of the Earth, p. 391. The ancient lake could not have been bounded by any limit near St. Regis. At that village there ex- ists no land of any considerable elevation above the present level of the water, much less, sufficient to cover Montreal island, or connect Lake Champlain on a similar height v/ith the supposed larger lake above Quebec. No current of any consequence ex- ists in St. Lawrence from Lake Ontario to the lower extremity of the Thousand Islands, consequently the actual depression of that river commences be- low the latter, near Ogdensburgh. By recurrence to table 15, it will be seen that the lower extremity of the Thousand Islands is forty-three miles below Kingston, and therefore, two hundred and sixty, less forty-three, or 217 miles is the distance in which the water of St. Lawrence falls 231 feet There- fore if any impediment of that height was raised at Quebec, and the decumbent waters were confined on both sides by barriers of sufficient elevation, the accumulated water would stand level to the mouth of Niagara strait; but it has been shewn that the Hudson and Champlain summit level was only 140 feet above the ocean level, consequently if a rock barrier ever existed at Quebec, to upwards of 140 feet, the St. Lawrence waters passed down the Hudson. I have suggested the probability of a depression 240 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. in the surface of the Atlantic ocean. If such a re- volution is admitted, many of the difficulties in the physical geography of the continent of North Ame- rica will be removed. Is it not probable, that when the margin of the ocean stood at the base of the Ap- palachian chain. New England, New Brunswick, and the south-east part of Lower Canada, were insulated; and that as the ocean gradually retired, cataracts were produced over the exposed rock bar- riers? In such a process the outer barrier must yield first, for the plain reason, that until it did in part yield, the more interior barriers would remain submerged. It is therefore probable that the Que- bec barrier was broken by a cataract, which finally became removed, and succeeded by another, which in turn sunk before the abrading water and ice. When the second granitic chain was broken, a de- pression in the depth and great contraction in the extent of Lake Ontario took place. It appears from the phenomena exhibited by most rivers, that schis- tose secondary yields more slowly to the action of water, than do primitive rocks, though the latter are more solid in their texture than the former. A body of water, and even masses of ice, glide smooth- ly over horizontal slate, without producing much effect ; primitive rocks, on the contrary, by their fractured surface, oppose points of contact to the moving fluid or ice, which tears away the resisting fragments, and in the lapse of time produces an un- interrupted channel. Below the Thousand Islands, the -rapids of St. Lawrence commence, at the Galloupe islands, and occur at unequal distances to the Richelieu rapids, 45 miles below the head of tide water, or through 237 miles. It is in a high degree interesting, that the lower rapids are produced by the tides. When the ocean swell is at the full, Richelieu rapids dis- appear; but as the tides rise there from 17 to 24 feet, the ebb exposes the rocks. Should tlie sur- GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. , 241 face of the Atlantic continue to depress, the time will arrive when Richelieu rapids will have a similar aspect to those at the Galloupe islands, Long Sault, the Cedars, and La Chine. The breadth, strength, and texture, of the com- posing materials in the bed of the St. Lawrence, render a farther depression of Lake Ontario the work of unlimited ages; and compared with the pe- riods in human history, the present order of things in that channel may be viewed as permanent. No earthquake short of a convulsion which would shake and disrupt the planet to its centre, could remove such enormous masses. I have long indulged an opinion, however, that the accidental agency of earthquakes and volcanoes, had been over-rated, whilst the slow, but constant action of water has met with too little attention from philosophers and natu- ralists. We shall close this part of our subject by some remarks on the particular valley of Lake Cham- plain and Chambly river. The latter is humble in respect to length of course, but is in many other es- sentials the most important confluent of St. Law- rence. Lake Champlain valley, if taken in its full extent, is occupied by two unequal sub-basins; that of Lake George, and that of Champlain proper, the former nearly 200 feet above the latter. Lake George is a sheet of water lying in an appa- rent rent between the adjacent mountains, extending from S. S. W. to N. N. E. 34 miles, with a width from one to three miles, discharging its waters into Lake Champlain, at Ticonderoga. The upper Hud- son winds so completely round lake George as to prevent the latter from receiving even a large creek. Lake Champlain, on the contrary, is the recipient of several rivers of some comparative magnitude. This fine sheet of water forms a part of the great North American Glen, and stretches in a direction very nearly from south to north, and from N. lat. 242 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 43° 30', to 45° 04', or through 109 miles. The breadth varies from half a mile to twelve miles. The depth, similar to the higher and longer lakes of, St. Lawrence basin, is in many places prodigious. It is in reality the lower plateau of a deep vale. The rivers Poulteney, Otter, Onion, La Moelle, and Missisque, all rise in the central valley of Vermont, and in their progress into the eastern side of Lake Champlain, pierce the Green Mountain chain, fall- ing in their courses of from 40 to 60 miles, perhaps from 500 to 1000 feet. Similar remarks again ap- ply to the Riviere au Sable, Saranac, and Chazy, which enter the western side of the lake, also from a mountainous region. The fact that the surface of Lake Champlain was only 90, and the summit level between it and the Hudson only 140 feet, has been stated. The an- cient union with the Hudson has been restored by human genius and labour, and only a fall of 90 feet is to be overcome to connect its bosom with the St, I^awrence tides by a canal down its outlet, the Sor- rel or Chambly. The latter leaves the lake almost exactly on N. lat. 45°, and enters St. Lawrence at the head of lake St. Peter, at N. lat. 46° 03', having a northern course of 70 miles. Nearly at midcourse this stream flows v\^ithin 13 miles from the St. Law- rence, at Montreal, and in its farther course ap- proaches its recipient by an acute angle. Very lit- tle farther labour will be necessary to complete an uninterrupted commercial connexion between this beautiful valley and the two great channels of Hud- son and St. Lawrence, and leave to the inhabitants of the basin the choice of marts. But with Champlain basin, advancing to the N. E., facility of constructing artificial channels of na- vigation, terminates. The river St. Francis, which rises also in the Appalachian valleys, far within Vermont on one side, and on the borders of Connec- ticut on the other, draws its remote sources from an GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 243 elevated table land, and thougli disembogueing into Lake St. Peter,, near the outlet of the Chambly, offers very different navigable features. The river St. Francis is formed by two branches, the St. Fran- cis proper, and the outlet of Lake Memphramagog. St. Francis rises in Wolestown, Colerain, and Garth- ly townships. Lower Canada, in a series of lakes, which discharge to the S. W. and continue in that course 60 miles to the point of confluence with the outlet of Lake Memphramagog. The latter has its sources in Essex and Orleans counties of Vermont, in a number of creeks which unite in the northern part of the latter, and flowing into Lake Memphramagog, enter LoAver Canada between Potton and Stanstead. This lake is a nar- row, but extremely picturesque sheet of water, 23 miles in length, from which an outlet of 17 miles unites with St. Francis. The entire length of the valley of Memphramagog, is about 60 miles, extend- ing from N. E. to S. W. with a slope in direct oppo- sition to the St. Francis, though like an indefinite number of other streams in the Appalachian sys- tem, which are mutual confluents, the current of the two foregoing are in opposite directions towards each other, and when uniting, turning at nearly right angles to their common valley. This is the case in the present instance; the St. Francis, after the confluence of its two main branches, bends to N. W., and pursuing that course 70 miles into Lake St. Peter, 12 or 13 miles N. E. by E. from the mouth of the Chambly, having an entire course by either branch of 130 miles, spreading over an area of about 5000 square miles. Few if any of the other small rivers of the Unit- ed States or Canada, have a more rapid descent ; the higher sources of Lake Memphramagog, in the central valley of Vermont, and perhaps also those of Lake St. Francis, rise on an elevated table land, of at least 1000 feet above the level of the Atlantic 244 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. ocean. Here again we have another instance of the apparent anomaly of climate, in the St. Lawrence basin. The seasons are much milder on the shores of Lake Champlain, and even on Lake St, Francis, than on the elevated region from which flow in op- posite directions, the sources of Kennebec, Connec- ticut, St. Francis, and Chaudiere rivers. The causes of a difference of temperature, inverse to the latitude, must be obvious from principles repeatedly laid down in this view. The Chaudiere, the last stream entering St. Law- rence from the right which merits specific notice, is a most impetuous mountain torrent; the richly va- ried, wild, and romantic scenery of whose banks has excited the admiration of every cultivated mind who has passed along its valley. It is also a classic stream in the history of the LTnited States; as by its banks. General Arnold conducted, early in the revolutionary war, and amid all the rigors of an Al- pine winter, a part of that army whose operations in Canada seem to partake of the hue of romance^ whilst entitled to the truth of history. The Chaudiere rises by a creek flowing north in- to Lake Megantic, and Riviere du Loup, interlock- ing sources Avith the St. Francis, Connecticut, An- droscoggin, Kennebec, Penobscot, and St. John's. With an elliptic curve to the east, but a general northern course of 100 miles, it falls into St, Law- rence 6 miles above Quebec. Geographically the Chaudiere valley stretches from K. lat. 45 '^ 25' to N. lat, 46^ 44', with long. 6° E, ranging over it longitudinally. It will not be necessary to repeat observations already made re- specting the effect of climate on a tract of such ra- pid descent as the valley of the Chaudiere. I may merely observe, that independeiit of mountain ridg- es, it is probable that the table land from which the Connecticut and Chaudiere and neighbouring rivers have their sources, is the most elevated in the GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 245 United States, and if so, must exceed 2000 feet, or an elevation equivalent to five degrees of lat. It cannot, or it ought not, therefore, to excite surprise, to find the winters of upper Connecticut, and Maine, more rigorous than on the tide level of St. Law- rence, a degree of lat. more northward. Below the Chaudiere, the right slope of St, Law- rence narrows rapidly, and about 120 miles below Quebec, or nearly opposite the mouth of Saguenai, is not above ten miles wide from the banks of the St. Lawrence to the northern sources of St. John's. Advancing still farther down the basin, its right slope widens, but never again spreads to 40 miles in breadth, and finally terminates at N. lat. 49*^ 12', and long. 12"^ 40' E. We may close our protracted view of the St. Lawrence basin by a brief survey of that part of the northern slope below the valley of the Ottawas, This extensive and imperfectly known region com- prises a space of upwards of 700 miles from N. E. to S. W., with a mean width of at least 250 miles; area exceeding 175,000 square miles. As far as any dependence can be placed in our maps and on geo- graphical analogy, the rivers of this tract exhibit in a very striking manner the lake character, and in proportion to length of course pour down into their recipient enormous volumes of water, flowing with excessive velocity. The principal of these rivers are St. Maurice above Quebec; and Saguenai, Bet- siamitis, Breslard, and Black river, below that city. The following account of the Saguenai, extracted from Bouchette's Canada, page 563-566, may serve to exhibit the character of the rivers of this rapidly inclining plain. I may premise that the respecta- bility of Mr. Bouchette, and his ample means of cor- rect information, preclude any suspicion of undue warmth of description. " The river Saguenai, which discharges itself into x2 246 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. the St. Lawrence, at Pointe aux Allouettes^ is the largest of all the streams that pay their tribute to the Great river. It draws its source from Lake St. John, a collection of water of considerable expanse, lying in N. lat. 48° 20', long. 72° 30' W., (W. C. between 4*^ and 5° E.) receiving many large rivers, that flow from the north and north-west, from an immense distance in the interior, of which, the Pie- cougamis, the Sable, and Pariboaca are the princi- pal. At its eastern extremity, {Lake St. John)^ two large streams, one called the Great Discharge, and the other the Kinogami, or Land river, issue from it; which after flowing about 57 miles, and en- compassing a tract of land of the mean breadth of 12 miles, unite their waters, and become the irre- sistible SAGUENAI; from which point it contin- ues its course in an easterly direction for about 100 miles down to the St. Lawrence. The banks of this river throughout its course are very rocky and im- mensely high, varying from 170 even to 340 yards above the stream- Its current is broad, deep, and uncommonly vehement. In some places where pre- cipices intervene, there are falls from fifty to sixty feet in height, down which the whole volume of the stream rushes with indescribable fury and tremen- dous noise. The general breadth of the river is from two miles and a half to three miles, but at its mouth the distance is contracted to about one mile. The depth of this enormous stream is also extraor- dinary. At its discharge, attempts have been made to find its bottom with 500 fathoms of line {oOOO feel) but without effect; about two miles higher up, it has been repeatedly sounded, from 130 to 140 fathoms; and from 60 to 70 miles from the St. Lawrence, its depth is found from 50 to 60 fathoms. The course of the river, notwithstanding its magnitude, is very sinuous, owing to many projecting points from each shore. The tide runs about 70 miles up it, and upon account of the obstructions occasioned by the nu- GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 247 nierous promontories, the ebb is much later than in the St. Lawrence; in consequence of which, at low water in the latter, the force of the descending stream of the Saguenai is felt for several miles. "Just within the mouth of the river, opposite to Pointe aux Allouettes, is the harbour of Tadousac, which is very well sheltered by the surrounding high lands, and has good anchorage for a great num- ber of vessels of large size, where they may lie in perfect safety," From the little that is distinctly known respect- ing the Betsiamitis, Breslard, and Black rivers, their features are strongly similar to those of Sague- nai; but except near trading stations, and along the main streams, the rivers and lakes, and country they drain, towards Labrador continue a Terra Incog- nita. The great elevation, and an advance nortli- ward to 52° of lat., render the climate of those regions severely and permanently cold in v/inter. The highest civilized agricultural settlement that I have been made acquainted with on the continent of North America is that of Mingan, along the north- ern shore of St. Lawrence, opposite the island of Anticosti, and between N. lat. 50° and 51°. In. all" the immense interior tract of 1200 miles in length, equal to the distance from Maine to Georgia, or from the western coast of France to the sources of the Dnieper, all is yet silence and barbarism; but let it not be understood that these interminable re- gions are naturally sterile; for the fact is the con- trary, and the day is rapidly advancing when sci- ence and civilization will take place of wilds and desolation. Let it be remembered that no unfavour- able opinion is laeld respecting the soil and climate of Canada, but was once prevalent concerning simi- lar objects in the United States. We have thus passed cursorily over the great features of this very peculiar basin, and we may now in few words conclude our survey by a general sura- 248 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. mary. As a basin of inland commerce, it maj^ be truly asserted that the St. Lawrence stands alone on the globe. The sublime and boldly sketched features of that vast and unequalled assemblage of fresh water lakes demand more than ordinary atten- tion from the geographer and statistical enquirer. In its main channel, that of the St. Lawrence, we have found the ocean tides penetrating to 432 miles, or about midway between Quebec and Montreal^ Above tide water to Ogdensburg, the channel is much impeded by shoals and rapids, but in no place actually impassable with vessels, either ascending or descending. Ships of the line, of the first class, are navigated to Quebec, and those of 600 tons to Montreal, upwards of 500 miles from the Gulf of St. Lawrence. But again passing from St. Lawrence we merge into an inland sea, already rendered classical from contending fleets. At the lower extremity of the first expanse of that central sea, Ontario, two har- bours present their deep recesses to the most un- wieldy vessels of war; these are Kingston and Sack- ett's. Beyond those spacious havens the harbours of the Canadian sea are generally shallow, but no region of the earth presents such varied, contrasted, and peculiar scenery. Even the mighty Niagara is but the principal object of interest on this expanded canvass. Without ascending above Buffaloe, it may be doubted whether any other equal distance can afford more to arrest the admiration of the traveller than the space from Lake Erie to the city of Que- bec. Than the Thousand Islands, a scene can no where be found more savage, rude, and wild. The placid and limpid water reflects the broken rocks, and the few trees and shrubs which rise amid the fissures of their fractured ruins. No human habitation appears to enliven for an instant this picture of eternal waste; but passing this scene of silent and magnificent de- GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 249 solation, a fairy land seems to open. Where the Thousand Islands terminate at Brockville, the river dilates into a small bay, and farther down slowly contracts; the shore on both sides rising by a regu- lar and gentle acclivity, exposes a landscape which for placid beauty cannot be excelled. This is the general character of the main banks until far below Montreal. Four miles below Ogdensburg a group of islands, the Galloupe, commences, but with a physiognomy entirely distinct from the naked rocks of the Thousand Islands. The Galloupe cluster ex- ceeds thirty in number, and lying with every incli- nation to the general course of the river, and vary- ing in size from 1^ miles to 20 yards in length; almost all of an elliptical form, and rising from, the water by a globular swell. In the bland air of a Canadian summer evening the imagination can scarcely con- ceive any spots more delightful than those isles. On many which have been formerly cleared of tim- ber and again overgrown with ash, linden, wild cherry, and aspen trees ^vithout underwood, it is a real recreation to contemplate the enchanting pros- pect, the cultivated shores, the floating barks, and the majestic river whose overpowering volume is spread around. Proceeding downwards a constant succession of natural objects meet the traveller's eye; objects ' commensurate in their outline to the scale of the ba- sin in which they are placed. Below Montreal, the country adjacent to the river becomes less elevated, and of course the scenery less bold and striking, and this character of coast continues to near the head of the tides at the mouth of St. Maurice; but, here again the banks resume all their varied splendour of contrasted beauty, and rise on both sides to the height of Cape Diamond, on which Quebec is placed. "At this capital of the province," says Bouchette, "there is a most excel- lent port and a capacious basin, wherein the great- 250 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. est depth of water is 28 fathoms, with a tide rising from 17 to 18 feet, and at the springs from 23 to 24 feet. From whence, and from Point Levi on the south shore, one of the most striking panoramic views, perhaps, in the whole world, offers itself to notice. The assemblage of objects is so grand, and though naturally, yet appear so artificially contrast- ed with each other, that they mingle surprise with the gratification of every beholder. The Capital on the summit of the cape, the river St. Charles flow- ing for a great distance through a valley abounding in natural beauties, the falls of Montmorenci, the island of Orleans, and the well cultivated settle- ments on all sides, form together a coufi d'ceil that might enter into competition with the most roman- tic." This grandeur in the face of nature remains undi- minished if not increased below Quebec. At Riviere du Sad, 30 miles lower than the capital, the river is 1 1 miles wide, and the white churches, hamlets, vil- lages, and farms, protruded on the vision by the dark and thick woods, and the strongly defined back-ground of lofty mountains, maintain the pre- eminence of landscape along the St. Lawrence. It is not, however, in summer alone, or in autumn, that the St. Lawrence basin can be seen to most ad- vantage. In all the rigors of a Canadian winter, when the capacious bosom of most of its rivers are turned into solid and glassy roads, and in the vicinity of Quebec this change is annual, then the more intense and continued the frost, the more pertinaciously do the inhal)itants boast of their season of business, amusement, and pleasure. If frost and snow do not altogether compensate to the Canadian the open navigation of summer, the long and unbroken frozen surface of Lower Canada, renders winter in that country certainly preferable to the same season in the middle states of the United States, and the southern part of Upper Canada, GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW= J5 1 Excessive tides prevent the St. Lawrence ever becoming covered with CDmpact ice, below Quebec, but such are the enormcus masses driven in every direction by the winds aid currents, that the river is utterly unnavigable nearly half the year. It is then amid snow and ice that gliding vehicles supply the place of sails, oars, tnd wheels, and the smooth faces of the streams are :ransformed into most excel- lent roads, and the Caradian, shut from the ocean, performs his rapid journey of business or social in- tercourse. In fine, at any season of the year, if taken as a whole, I cannot conceive of a more pleasing region than the St, Lawrence basin; nor of any part of the earth where nature has engrouped more to gratify the traveller or the natural philosopher, — and I might say the statesman, for here is a powerful na- tion in its cradle. 252 GEOGRAPHIQAL VIEW. .5 2 u OOV50ir5»r:>OC<>0^00000000 CO T^ CN CJ O '^T-t '^JtCN^^O^OT-l-*'^ *0 V> O K "O «ol'^ '^C0»0'^C0OGSJOC0 THCOCOC^OV-j^C^TiC>QCOOlOOOOOOCOO o CM CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO C<3 CO CO CO oooooooaoooooooo oooooooooooooooo 00r-tC^i0C0OK00Cr)O*OO0^^OO TjT C^ T^" (>r r^" O O In- 00 t^CO O 0V5OO0O00O0OO0OOO ^C0C0V5C0^T-i-<*C0-<*b-'*C0*O^O-^ oooooooooooooooo G^<0'!i**nyD*nt^CNC0i0iOOC0*0O»D a s ^ ^ ^^ bo £3 ? 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CO cN b^Oi ^:,c» '-H c<^j>~j:=>^ CO '-^'" cT oT co" tC o" —'" cf oo" «D co" £ ^ J' =« ;: O OJ I- o -5 ;? a! ■" ^.s?Js ^^-^'^ ^ S rf .t; ^ 3 ^ . c • ^ '-a • «r'^ ^ li 2 '-"c^ 5 t^ ^ o o 5 1;^ -2:^ -n -i ^^ » " J^*:^ ^ a; o o o*ococo'oc^ OOOOOOOOOOO "^Sooooo OOOOOOCOOO^OO ^OOO'TOG .o o o^^2 S ^^ f= a r^ a c ° (U 3 +i =« r:i hH C *- 5 • •^ O o s ^ ^ «- Is J ^ ti- . s- CD ^ T3 c« q ■l.e « (D ' -rj =4 > ^ 9 c . . . - 1-1 i) 1 ^ c^ o o o Cx> CO o o s o cr (U J3 -w «o >o 00 CM CN O O^ 4J '5 CO •T' ■^ »o ID 7:! C o &0 "^ 1 311.^ S iO CO o CO »D £.Sd| o -* o r-t m CM CO Tr< ^ CM o o O o O g o CO CO o CO ■< i-T to" T-T o" CO ^ -00 CM iO 00 „ s ~ ^ «o Cs> o .S'^.S'xJ « "^ o 00 i^ ^ ^ il ^ S tH ^ ""^ M tr^ ^^ ^ ■"~~" 5 S-TS o o o Q ss is £15 ^'^a.S- o h CO D h < 'A .2 5 1 I.S 1 °? =.2 PQ o c 0) Cj- O O c S < C4M O CO- ^ ^O O c 258 CHAPTER VIII. "^^. GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW OF THE RIVER BASINS OF THE UNITED STATES, CONTIGUOUS TO THE DELTA OF THE MISSISSIPPI. Widely extended as are the united regions included in the Atlantic slope of North America, and the ba- sin of St. Lawrence, we now enter on another basin, that of the Mississippi, more extensive than the two former taken together. I have already shewn that the Mississippi and its confluents present features so totally different that nothing but contrast can be drawn between them and the St. Lawrence. In passing from one basin to the other a new world opens to the traveller; the face of nature is changed; the objects are distinct in species, almost in genera, and it is difficult to conceive ourselves on the same continent, and on a region contiguous to that from which we have departed. In respect to the distinctive feature of lakes so immense in one basin, and almost unknown in the other, it may not be irrelevant to observe that we are sometimes deceived by too greatly restricting terms. '* Before reaching Montreal," says Mr. Bouchette, when speaking of the St. I^awrence, "the lakes St. Francis, St. Louis, and des Mon- tagues, present themselves; they do not admit of comparison with those already noticed, and can, in- deed, only be considered as so many widenings of the river." ^0i To this it may be replied, that if the first springs which afterwards form the rivers west of Lake Su- perior are taken into the account, then is th^i great ■It r"*i=^i "^1 /*■ ^' i IK ^> -.J i^§i k'^Ml d xS § lOs GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 259 body of water itself only a dilatation of the channel, as' the streams are aggregated in descending from their original source. Lakes Huron, Erie, Michigan, and. Ontario, and even Lake Superior, differ in nothing but extent, comparatively, from those of Sfr: Francis and St. Louis in the St. Lawrence; from Lakes George and Champlain in the Richelieu; from Cassina and Pepin in the Mississippi; or from Lake Leman in the Rhone. The smallest brook presents all the features of the largest river. Where the plain hap too little declination to admit direct descent, a pond or lake is formed; and again, where the descent becomes rapid, a flowing stream is the effecL and an effect in direct excess in proportion to the slctual declination of the plain. From such simple principles arise all the variety of feature conceivable, from the smallest pool to the expanded besom of Lake Superior^*nd from the slowest perceptible current to the m^ impetu- ous cataract. On these sound data depends the phi- losophy of rivers. Closely examined, all streams, whatever may be their size, will be found composed of chains, whose links are themselves alternately lakes and cataracts, but it is the excess in the dila- tions of the St. Lawrence, and their moderate ex- tent in the Mississippi, which so strongly contrast those two great rivers. ^ On true geographical principles, the Mississippi basin, vast as it is, can only be considered as a sec- tion of that system of rivers which fiov/ into the Gulf of Mexico, and regard chat inland sea as their com- mon recipient. It is very remarkable that if every stream, great and small, which enters this gulf, from Cape Sable of Florida to Point Gorda of Yu- catan, were supposed to be continued in the line of their course, they would unite with each other in a common estuary, not far outside of the centre of the gulf. But from the great superiority in quantity of water and of surface drained by the Mississippi, 260 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. that river well deserves to give name to the system of which it forms so conspicuous a part. I, there fore, in proceeding to sketch the great central ba- sin, include with the Mississippi those minor rivers which enter the Gulf of Mexico in the U'litea States. If we examine a map of North America, we at once perceive that the great basin of the Mississippi is really only a part of a much more extensive de- pression, which has its oceanic termination S. in the Gulf of Mexico, and N. in Hudson's bay. This great central valley of the continent rises from the actual channel of the lower Mississippi by two unequal in- clined planes ; the eastern plane, having its highest line of elevation in the dividing ridge between the Atlantic and Mississippi sources; whilst on the west, the opposing plane rises by a much slower acclivity to the line of separation between the western conflu- ents of the Mississippi and those of the Pacijfic ocean. The Appalachian system does not constitute the dividing ridge between the rivers which flow from or towards its vallies ; and, from what we actually know concerning the Chippewa.yan system, there are strong reasons to believe that similar to the Ap- palachian, the range of the chains of the former is oblique to that of its river vallies. When treating of the St. Lawrence basin, it has been seen that no particular elevation of either moun- tain or hills, serves to form a demarcation between its southern sources and those of the Mississippi ; on the contrary, the waters of southern Michigan are at some seasons nearly on a level, and mingle with those of Illinois, floM'ing into the Mississippi. The preceding remark may be farther extended, and applied to the immense inflected line, of upwards of two thousand miles, from the sources of the Susque- hanna, Genessee, and Allegany, to those of Saskasa- win of Hudson's bay, Maria's river of Missouri, and Clark's river of Columbia. The latter line may be GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 261 considered as that by which the slope of the Missis- sippi basin declines from those of the St. Lawrence and Hudson basins, and entirely destitute of moun- tains, though exceeding in length the curve line of Europe, extending from the Carpathian to the Ural systems, and which separates the sources of the streams which flow into the Black and Caspian, from those which enter the Baltic and White seas. We may therefore consider the basin of the Mis- sissippi as the southern declination of the great cen- tral valley of North America ; and as limited east, by the table land, and not by the actual chains of the Appalachian system, and on the west, in a simi- lar manner, terminated by the table land, and not by the chains of the Chippewayan. On the northern boundary, the actual separation of source is in many places undefined by nature, and the summit level so completely apart of the surface of a sphere, that the waters flow both ways. This circumstance we have found to be the case near the southern termination of Michigan lake, and between St. Louis river of lake Superior and the Ouisconsin branch of Mississippi. It is evident from the pre- ceding data that lake Michigan, Illinois river, and the Mississippi river below the mouth of the Illinois, are parts of the lower depression of the central valley of North America, and that a barrier of very little elevation above Niagara, would turn the entire dis- charge of the higher sub-basin of the St.Lawrence in- to the Illinois, and of course into the basin of the Mis- sissippi. This has been supposed by some observers to have been the case; a more correct geographical knowledge may yet decide this curious problem in physical geography. * In the existing state of things * Might not lake Erie have formerly discharged itself by the Tonnewanta valley, into the Genessee river ? It is, however, believed by some that this lake formerly dis- charged itself by the Chicago creek and Illinois rivers into 262 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. it will demand comparatively but a limited exertion of human power to open an uninterrupted water communication between lake Michigan and Illinois river, and insulate all that part of the territory of the United States, and adjacent parts of Cabotia, wllich are included between the St. Lawrence basin, the Atlantic ocean. Gulf of Mexico, and Mississippi ri- ver. The great surface included under this head, the imperfect state of geographical knowledge respect- ing many of its sections, and the brevity of this view, all combine to preclude so detailed a notice of the minor parts, as has been given in respect to the At- lantic slope; but there are peculiarities in the period- ical fluctuations of the rivers of the central basin which demand the more attention because the laws which govern the annual overflow of the main reci- pient are but imperfectly understood. The -most south-western stream of the United States is the Sabine. This river has its source in the province of Texas, about N. lat. 32° 30'. With an elliptical curve to the east, the general course of the Sabine is nearly south. At N. lat. 30° 10', it emerges from a dense forest into open plains of grass and marsh, through whicKit flows by an exces- sively winding channel, to N. lat. 30°, where it di- lates into a shallow lake of 30 miles in length, and from three to five miles wide ; which, at its lower extremity, again contracts into a river of about 200 yards wide, and discharges into the Gulf of Mexico at N.lat. 29° 28', long. W. C. 17° 05' W. The coun- try from which the sources of Sabine arise is rolling or rather moderately hilly, but eminences of every kind subside as the stream quits the forest, and in the gulf of Mexico, before the supposed barrier at Lewis- ton was broken down. — Clinton's Introductory Discourfie befm-e the L. & P. S., K Y., note 7, p. 51. Da^ia Long- worth, 1815. GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 263 the prairies and marshes towards the sea coast, one iindeviating level spreads its monotonous bosom. This river affords no navigable facility worthy no- tice j it has not in ordinary tides above three feet v/ater on its bar, nor has its inland lake or bay above four or five feet, and near the shores still less depth. I navigated it with three assistants in a large pirogue, drawing about one foot water, and was very seldom able to reach the shore without dragging our slight vessel. The Calcasiu is the next stream which follows the Sabine to the eastward. Tlie former rises in the angle between the latter and Red river, at N. lat. 31° 30'. Curving in a singular manner alike, the Sabine and Calcasiu, from the sources of the latter to its mouth, flow very nearly parallel to each other, distant about 35 miles; and similar in their features, the latter, like the former, emerges from the same forest into open prairies and marshes, expands into a lake, and again contracts into a river before reach- ing the Gulf of Mexico, into which it is discharged at N. lat. 29° 32', long. 16° 23' W. The resem- blance between the two rivers is extended to their respective rank as navigable channels ; the depth either on the outer bar or lakes, is remarkably si- milar. Following the coast of the Gulf of Mexico about twelve miles eastw^ard from the mouth of Calcasiu, is found that of the Mermentau. The triangle made by the Delta of the Mississippi, the shores of the Gulf, and the Sabine, has its base along the Gulf, perpendicular along the Sabine, and hypothe- nuse along the Delta, and consequently, the rivers rising on the triangle have more contracted courses, advancing from the basin of the Sabine towards the cutlet of the Mississippi. The Mermentau is truly a river of Opelousas prairies, rising on the triangle we have sketched, at N. lat.. 30° 53', and, draining the centre of Opelousas by a number of branches, 264 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. flows by a general course of S. S. W., opens like the Sabine and Calcasiu, into a lake, and again contracts into a river, which falls into the Gulf of Mexico at N. lat. 29° 32', long. 16° W. With other traits of resemblance, the Mermentau partakes with the Sg- bine and Calcasiu in a defective navigation. "^ Those three streams are so perfectly similar, and so nearly of a width at their respective mouths, that it is difficult to distinguish them asunder. There is, however, one certain landmark to point out the Mermentau from the two others. The live-oak, Quercus semfiervirens, is plentiful in small clusters along its shores, and in little clumps spread over the adjacent marshes; but upon the Calcasiu and Sa- bine this tree is utterly wanting. This fact in vege- table physiology, I can vouch from actual observa- tion. When I entered the Calcasivi, I thought my- self in the Mermentau, and looked in vain for the live- oak tree, which 1 had previously and truly been • told abounded near the latter. In a careful exami- nation along both the Sabine and Calcasiu I did not detect a single stem of this valuable tree, so A^ery plentiful on those streams more eastward. The cause of this phenomenon may be accounted for by due attention to the elements in Chapter X. of this view. From the outlet of the Mermentau, a distance of about 60 miles is altogether unbroken by a single stream originating in the solid prairie and crossing the marsh. This inaccessible line of coast is fol- lowed by the Vermillion, a fine, but small river, ri- sing in Opelousas, but flowing through Attacapas into the Gulf of Mexico. The source of the Ver- million is near the village of St. Landre, the seat of justice of Opelousas, at N. lat. 30° 31', and with a general southern course of about 80 miles, falls into a large bay, which again opens by several passes into the Gulf of Mexico at N. lat. 29° 35'. Though something more navigable than the small rivers we FART or LdUISIANA; Delia ®f the Mississippi. Miles 5 lO 20 aO JO GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 265 have already noticed as entering the Mexican gulf west of that stream, the Vermillion will not admit vessels of above 5 feet draught. The lands along its banks above the sea marsh are of excellent quality, and as low as the 30th degree of N. lat. produce sugar cane; cotton is, however, the staple commodity generally cultivated. The Teche, a stream of superior magnitude and length of course to the Vermillion, heads in the same part of Opelousas, but as the latter mingles with the Atchafalaya, the Delta of the Mississippi succeeds to the former. The Atchafalaya* is the upper mouth of the Mis- sissippi on the right, and leaves the main stream at N. lat. 31°, long. 14° 47' W. W^here this outlet leaves the Mississippi, the latter is a fraction above half a mile wide, and the former 110 yards. It is only in seasons of high water that a heavy volume flows down the Atchafalaya. I have seen the cur- rent in fact flowing out of that channel into the Mis- sissippi, but when the latter is at its extreme height, the mass of water drawn down this great outlet is enormous, and for five or six miles, the current is excessively strong, but abates as the river ap- proaches the interior overflowed plains. I have de- nominated this inundated tract " plains," to distin- guish it from the sea marsh. These two kinds of soil, though contiguous in Louisiana, and in many other parts of the sea border of the United States, are radically distinct. The periodically inundated tracts along the Mississippi, are also very errone- ously called swam/is. So far from being swamps, * A-tcha-fa-lay-a, as the Indians pronounce this word, giving each syllable with equal accent, and with the sharp «, as in bat. It is in fact a sentence signifying " Lost water," and when properly pronounced is an ele- gant, and when understood, a very descriptive name. 266 GEOGRAl*HICAL VIEW. in the true meaning of that term, the low and flat lands submerged annually by the surplus waters of this immense river, are, when left dry for some weeks, excessively solid land, and in a state of na- ture, covered with very dense forests. In point of soil the high prairies are similar to the inundated and wooded lowlands; but the marshes near the sea, still more uniform in their surface than either the high prairie or inundated forest land, are liable to diurnal flow of the tides, and are real swamps, and, except by the streams, utterly impassable by man. The Atchafalaya in its course, and including its confluents, drains within a comparatively confined area a very great variety of soil and surface. After leaving the Mississippi, this stream flows south- west 5 miles, and thence turns to south, which lat- ter course, with great partial windings, is maintain- ed 30 miles, to the influx from the north-west of the Courtableau. The Courtableau is a singular stream; its two re- mote sources, the Crocodile and Boeuf, rise in the hilly pine forests, between Red river and the head of Calcasiu, about N. lat, 31° 20'. Flowing south- east, and nearly parallel, 63 miles, they unite about 8 miles a little east of north from the village of St. Landre. The lower part of the channel of the Croc- odile passes along the verge of the prairies of Ope- lousas, whilst its confluent, the Boeuf, ranges along the western margin of the great forest-overflow of Red and Atchafalaya rivers; below their junction the united stream, under the name of Courtableau, maintains the original course of south-east 20 miles to its junction with the Atchafalaya. Within 5 or 6 miles from St. Landre, this really important though humble stream, opens a glimpse of the wide spread prairies, and again plunges into the deeply entangled woods whose roots are annually bathed with the waters of the Mississippi. The Courtableau is the GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 267 channel of intercommunication between the higher parts of Opelousas and the Mississippi. Below the Courtableau, the Atchafalaya, through a maze of interlocking outlets and inlets, turns to S. S. E. about 20 miles, to the outlet into Lake Cheti- maches. Turning thence nearly due east 15 miles, receives the Plaquemine outlet from the Missis- sippi. The Plaquemine is one of the mouths of the Mis- sissippi, and except in size, is otherwise of the same nature with' the Atchafalaya itself. The former issues from the main stream about 20 miles below Baton Rogue, and 6 below the Iberville. It is only at high flood that any water flows into the Plaque- mine; the channel is narrow and the current exces- sively rapid, but, similar to that of the outlet of the Atchafalaya, mitigates approaching the interior low grounds, and becomes moderate near its junction with the latter, six miles in a direct line from the Mississippi. Having received the Plaquemine, the Atchafa- laya winds to a little east of south, 30 miles to its in- gress into a large bay of the same name. At 20 miles above its mouth the Teche enters from the north-west. The Teche rises in the northern prairies of Ope- lousas, at N. lat. 30° 40', and flowing south-east 30 miles, between the Courtableau and Vermillion, enters Attacapas, At the point of entrance into the latter, an inlet from the Vermillion unites with it, below which the Teche assumes the form of a river, and continuing S. E. 30 miles to New Iberia, meets the tide at N. lat. 30° 02', and inflecting to S. E. by E. widens from about 30 to 100 yards, and deepens from 5 to 30 or 40 feet, and flowing 90 miles, joins the Atchafalaya, The entire length of the Teche, by comparative courses, is about 150 miles, but following the wind- ings of tlie stream at least 200; but a circumstance I S68 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. of peculiar interest in the geography of this river is the fact, that in all its range in Attacapas, of up- vizards of 120 miles comparative course, it receives no tributary branch. The banks rise by gentle ac- clivity, to 35 or 40 feet, and decline from the water 40 or 50 yards, and similar to those of the Missis- sippi, rise above the adjacent plains, and have every appearance of having once been overflowed peri- odically, and of having contained a much larger volume of water than now passes down the channel at any season of the year. If a map of the country drained by the Teche was drawn without that stream and presented to a person unacquainted with its individual geography, he would place a dividing ridge precisely along its channel; such, however, is the intricacy of the topography of the western part of the Delta of the Mississippi, that I have inserted the enclosed sketch, in order to compensate for the defect of verbal description. The real distinction between the prairie, sea-marsh, and inundated for- est land, is also exhibited. The Atchafalaya is, however, drawn on a much too large comparative scale with the Mississippi. New Iberia, at the head of tide water in the Teche, is a port of entry, and vessels frequently clear out from thence, but the general commercial communication is with the city of New Orleans, through the Atchafalaya, Plaquemine and Mississip- pi; or from the lower Teche, through lakes Pal- ourde andVeret and their connecting inlets, and the Lafourche and Mississippi rivers. Boats from 15 to 60 tons are conveyed from New Orleans by the Plaquemine into the Atchafalaya. Those destined for the lower part of Attacapas de- scend the latter river, and enter theirpoints of desti- nation by the Teche. Those bound to the central parts of Attacapas, ascend the Atchafalaya about 20 miles, and are thence transported by an outlet and Lake Chetemaches, to the Fause Point landing. GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 269 Here is a portage of 10 or 12 miles to St. Martins- ville, seat of justice for the parish of St. Martins, or Upper Attacapas. Vessels destined for the higher and central parts of Opelousas ascend the Atchafa- laya to the mouth of Courtableau, and thence by the latter stream to Lemell's Landing, 6 miles, or into Bayou Carron, 4 miles from the village of St, Lan- dre. The much misunderstood phenomenon in the Atchafalaya, " The Raft," is in reality the debris thrown out of the Mississippi, Vv'hich at some un- known period was collected in a mass at one of the abrupt bends in the narrow and very tortuous chan- nel of the Atchafalaya, and augmented by future accessions of floating timber, obstructed the naviga- tion between the points marked on the accompany- ing sketch. I surveyed the Atchafalaya from its outlet from the Mississippi to its junction with Plaquemine, and examined the coast, in 1808, 1809, and 1810. At those epocha, the Raft began about 26 miles by the channel from the Mississippi, and occurred in fragments as low as within 5 miles above the Courtableau. About 1774, a small mass broke from the main body, and lodged again about half a mile below the mouth of Courtableau, and continues yet to embarrass the navigation of both streams, though partially removed by the inhabi- tants of Opelousas. The Raft is by no means stationary ; several breaks were made by the rising waters in my own presence; but interlaced as the trees are by their branches and pressure, when a breach does occur, it is by immense masses, which soon again lodge. The channel varies very little from about 110 yards wide from the Mississippi to the Teche, and above the Courtableau the bends are extremely abrupt and winding, presenting in reality a miniature pic- ture of the Mississippi. The ordinarv tides of the Gulf of Mexico are so S70 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW, much influenced by variable winds, that the flow in- land cannot be marked to any given point in most of the channels of Louisiana; but left to its own natu- ral swell, the spring tides, when the interior waters are low, ascend in the Atchafalaya above the lower Raft, and in the Covirtableau, to near the lower Opelousas landing. In the Plaquemine and Iber- ville, the spring tides, in the foregoing stated condi- tion of the rivers, rise to within 4 or 5 miles from the Mississippi. I particularly notice these circum- stances in the tides, as they tend so strongly to illus- trate the real and relative elevation of this country. The spring tides of the Gulf of Mexico, unaided by wind, do not exceed 3 feet, and consequently from the approach of the earth in and near the Delta of the Mississippi to the curve of the sphere, a rise so moderate is perceptible to a distance inland, which from a superficial viev/ of the external features, would be totally unexpected. Similar inductions may again be drawn from the rise of the tide in the Teche, Vermillion, and the branches of Mermen- tau; and I have no doubt also in the Calcasiu and Sabine, but when I examined the two latter rivers, they were greatly swollen by winter rains, and north and north-west winds prevailed nearly the whole period of my visit to their channels. The other rivers from which my examples have been drawn, I had repeated opportunities to examine leisurely at nearly all seasons of the year. I may dismiss the subject of the Atchafalaya, by observing that the surface on both sides of its chan- nel is the lowest ground, the sea marshes excepted, in the Delta, and with very partial exceptions, is liable to annual and deep submersion. The reader ought, however, to cautiously distinguish between the relative elevation of the surface near the rivers, and the actual bottom of the streams. It will be shewn in the sequel, that the channel of the Mis- sissippi is the lowest valley of the country through GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 271 which it flows, but it is evident, from the enclosed sketch, that the surplus water which /a//*, if I may- be permitted the expression, out of the surcharged channel of the main stream, is carried with great velocity backwards towards the deep recesses of the overflowed lands near the Atchafalaya. The overflow of the latter is again slightly, and but slightly, augmented by the Raft. As the timber rises and falls with the flood in the river, it cannot greatly impede the descent of the water. In fact the most operative cause of the annual inundation of the Delta, is evident from the data given to be the very little inclination of the plain from the inte- rior towards the sea. The water therefore accu- mulates in the Atchafalaya valley, and if the forest was removed would give to that region in the time of inundation the aspect of a lake. Another powerful cause of inundation in the Atcha- falaya valley is, that a line of comparaiive high alluvial land' is protruded to the latter river by the Teche, and with the mere intervention of the main channel, is met by another alluvial line of a similar nature from the La Fourche. Thus the whole body of water drained in spring floods from the Missis- sippi by the Atchafalaya, and which is also brought down by the Courtableau, Teche, and smaller streams from Opelousas and Attacapas, can only es- cape by the former, opposite the mouth of the Teche. It may be asked, how high does the tide rise in the Mississippi itself? Such is the weight of the volume of water in the channel of the Mississippi, even when lowest, that the tide has never been known to ascend to New Orleans, though percepti- ble near that river far above that city. The cause of this apparent anomaly is, that the surface of the water in the Mississippi, at its most depressed stages, rises above that of the lakes and rivers in its vi- cinity. 2f2 GEOGllAPHICAL VIEW. Advancing eastward from the Atchafalaya along the shores of the Mexican Gulf, the La Fourche is the first inlet of consequence in a commercial point of view. In the intermediate distance of 60 miles, several small streams enter the Gulf, but from their very abridged length of course, are un- important. The La Fourche {the fork), as its name imports, is a mouth of the Mississippi, similar to the Atcha- falaya, Iberville, and Plaquemine, and the third on the right in descending. The outlet of the La Fourche, 40 or 50 yards wide, is at N. lat. 30° 06', long. 14° 01' W. After leaving the Mississippi, the course of the La Fourche is S. E. by S. 90 miles, to its egress into the Gulf of Mexico, at N. lat. 29° 05', long. 13° 30' W. The La Fourche is one of the most important inlets of Louisiana, having 9 feet water on its bar, and admitting vessels drawing 4 or 5 feet to Avithin 30 miles of its efflux; but contra- ry to those of the Atchafalaya, the banks of the La Fourche are high and arable for a distance of 60 or 70 miles from the Mississippi. Cotton and sugar are the principal staples. Much of the produce and merchandize of the settlements along its banks are transported to and from New Orleans .by the Mis- sissippi. From the Sabine to the Vermillion, the coast of Louisiana stretches a very little north of east, but at the Vermillion outlet bends to S. E. by E. upwards of 100 miles, forming an obtuse cape which reaches to near the 29th degree of latitude. The interior of this cape is formed by the high lands between the Atchafalaya and La Fourche, and by the high allu- vial banks of the latter. I call those einbankments high land, it may be noticed, by mere comparison with surface still lower, and subject to annual inun- dation. In the present case, the alluvial lines being above any except very extraordinary inundations, shelter a triangular body of land, uoav forming the GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 273 parish of Terre Bonne. In this new parish, a num- ber of small rivers or bayous rise, and flow south- ward into the Gulf of Mexico. Not being liable to the inroads of the Mississippi overflow, the banks are arable, though no one of their channels is of such width and depth as to admit vessels of any draught worthy of observation in a navigable point of view. It is the most southern tract of cultivata- ble soil in Louisiana of any considerable area, and will, on every spot which admits agricultural ope- rations, produce sugar cane and rice. Here exists the only prairie, in the real meaning of that term, to be found in Louisiana east from the Atchafalaya. The La Fourche is followed by an intricate net- work of lakes and bayous, which are mostly dis- charged into Barrataria bay. Having an open out- let to the sea, the overflow of the tract east from La Fourche, is neither so deep or permanent as that of the Atchafalaya valley above the mouth of Teche; but in the former case the real sea-marsh prevails much farther inland, and reaches to the vicinity of the Mississippi, south from its great bend near New Orleans. Very little arable soil exists in all the large triangle formed by the Mississippi river. Gulf of Mexico, and La Fourche river. The inlets of Barrataria bay are only navigable with small craft. The coast at the outlet of La Fourche bends to the north-east, and by a bold circular sweep, first in that direction, then east, and finally south-east, forms an open elliptical bay, between the outlets of La Fourche and the south-west pass of the Missis- sippi. The interior of this bay terminates in Barra- taria lake, nearly due south from New Orleans. We now approach to that very remarkable sa- lient point formed by the main volume and real mouths of the Mississippi. This vast river stands alone in the manner of its egress. If, like the Nile, Ganges, Blue and Yellow rivers, the Orinoco, the Rhine and some others, the Mississippi divided its 274 . GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. volume into various outlets far in the interior, there would be nothing peculiar in its Delta; but as the Atchafalaya, Iberville, Plaquemine, and La Fourche are mere drains, and, accurately speaking, not real mouths, we may consider the entire volume as continuous over the main body of the Delta, and upwards of 30 miles into the Gulf of Mexico. The latter circumstance has no parallel in physical ge- ography, even on a small scale. If the protrusion we have noticed is supposed removed, there would remain a tolerable near resemblance between the Delta of the Nile and that of the Mississippi, but the long narrow cape destroys the fancied resem- blance, and leaves the Mississippi to . form at its es- tuary a distinctive picture. This noble river has three main and three lesser passes or outlets, which are marked on the accom- panying sketch. The most frequented is the S. E. pass, with 12 feet water at ordinary tides. The S. W. pass has, in similar circumstances, nearly a like depth with that of the S. E. The other passes, that of the south, west, north-east, and La Loutre, have from 5 to 8 feet, but are but little frequented. The shallow water is only on the bars of either pass. I sounded both the main passes and that of the west, in April, 1818, and found deep water immediately outside of each. The depth increased more gradu- ally within the channels, but in either, the largest ships of war could ride within one mile of the bar. With the outlet of the Mississippi, the coast turns to a north course of 70 miles, with a curve to the west, to Pass au Marianne. The latter is the main outlet into the Gulf of Mexico, of a chain of lakes and inlets, which commences near the Mississippi, 50 miles to the N. W. by W. from New Orleans. The hilly and comparatively elevated country of the state of Mississippi, extends into Louisiana, gradu- ally depressing, and finally terminates in moderate- ly high bluffs or banks, near the Iberville, about 16 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 275 miles south from Baton Rouge, If we turn to the map of the Mississippi below the mouth of Ohio, we perceive that the channel of that river fol - lows the eastern bluffs, and that the great body of overflowed surface is west from the stream, be- tween the mouth of the Ohio and Baton Rouge: the windings of the Mississippi, in many places, reach the base of the eastern hills, but in no one instance do they approach those of the west. The cause of this phenomenon will be exposed in another part of this view. The Iberville, or upper drain of the Mississippi, leaves the main volume near the termination of the eastern high land, and following its base N, E. by E. 15 miles, receives the Amite from the north, and inflecting to the east, by a very winding channel of 20 miles comparative course, opens into Lake Mau- repas. The latter is a circular sheet of water about 8 miles each way, receiving from the north the Tickfoha, a small river rising in the state of Mis- sissippi. The pass of Manchac carries the waters of Lake Maurepas into the much more extensive Lake Pontchartrain, an ellipsis 20 by 32 miles, and a very general depth of from 18 to 20 feet. The longer di- ameter of Lake Pontchartrain is nearly from W. to E., and parallel to the opposing range of the Mis- sissippi, in the vicinity of New Orleans, leaving an intermediate slip of low marshy, and mostly un- wooded plain, of from 5 to 8 miles wide. Into the northern side of Pontchartrain is discharged the rivers Tangipao, and Chifuncte, with some minor creeks, and the entire mass of waters are discharg- ed from the south-east curve of the lake by two passes, that of the Rigolets, and that of Chef Men- teur, both again discharged into Lake Borgne. Lake Borgne is, though denominated a lake, real- ly a bay of the Gulf of Mexico, or a continuation westward of Pascagoula so md. "North-east from 276 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. New Orleans, extends a peninsula, which is opposed by another of nearly similar extent, stretching to the south-west. The former bounded by Chef- Menteur, and the latter by the Rigolets, are sepa- rated by a marshy island between the two passes; the whole forming the disjointed' isthmus, which spreads between Lakes Pontchartrain and Borgne, from 6 to 8 miles in width. With about 9 feet water at each extremity, the Rigolets receives from the north, at near its mid- channel, a considerable stream, Pearl river, rising in the state of Mississippi at N. lat. 33°, long. 12° 30' W. Interlockhig sources with Big Black and Pascagoula rivers, the Pearl flows S. W. about 80, reaching to within 45 miles from the Mississippi at the mouth of Big Black, and thence inflecting to S. S. E. 160 miles, enters the Rigolets, after an entire comparative course of 240 miles. On strict geo- graphical principles, from its very superior length and volume, and from the position of its estuary, Amite, Tickfoha, Tangipao, and Chifuncte, with the discharge of Lake Pontchartrain, are branches of the Pearl, and confer upon the latter the dignity of giving name to the basin in which it is the princi- pal stream. Adopting this distinction, the basin of the Pearl occupies that part of the northern slope of the Gulf of Mexico, between the immediate con- fluents of Mississippi and those of Pascagoula. Geographically the basin of the Pearl extends from N. lat. 30° to 33°, and in long, from 12° to 14° 17' W. It will at once be seen by reference to the map of the Delta, that in the Pearl basin I have includ- ed the minor streams, having their sources near the very margin of the Mississippi, from Iberville out- let, to Bayou St. John, draining the streets of New Orleans. A single glance on the map of this region will exhibit the correctness of this arrangement of parts. In extent, the Pearl basin stretches 220 miles from S. to N., but with very unequal width. The GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 277 higher part of the basin confined to the mere valley of the Pearl for 120 miles, does not exceed a mean width of 30, or an area of 3600 square miles; but nearly E. from Natchez, at N. lat. SI** 30', the ba- sin widens rapidly, and spreads in form of a trape- zium, with its longest side 120 miles from Biloxi bay to the efflux of the Iberville, and perpendicular 120, with an area of about 9600 square miles; which latter surface added to the higher extension of 3600, gives an entire superficies of 13,200 square miles. Though the base of the basin of the Pearl, forms a decided connexion with the Delta of the Missis- sippi, the far greater part is composed of a soil and formation essentially distinct from recent alluvion, the component of the Delta. On the north side of the chain of lakes and inlets between the efflux of the Iberville and Biloxi bay, the surface rises for S or 10 miles, by a very gentle acclivity, but this slow- ly rising inclined plain is imperceptibly succeeded by hills; the surface becomes broken, and the chan- nels of the streams more shallow, though their val- lies sink much more comparatively deep; except near the water courses, pitch pine, pinus strobus, is the common timber. As the region of which the 'basin of Pearl forms a part, is an important and pe- culiar section of the United States, some amplifica- tion in this place may not be deemed irrelevant, and particularly as the observations, without much vio- lence done to correct theory, may be extended to the larger basins of Pascagoula, Mobile, and Appa- lachicola. Extending our views from Baton Rouge, or per- haps more correctly from the efflux of Iberville, to the mouth of Ohio, stretches a buttress, broken by numerous streams, and the projections of which, worn by the abrasion of the Mississippi, are known by the name of Bluffs. These Bluffs are the mere advanced points of the comparatively more elevated A a 278 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. country east of the Mississippi, above the overflow- ed tracts immediately west from that stream. The elevation of the Bluffs varies, but may be considered as exceeding 100 feet above the alluvial plains near the Mississippi, and the interior country rises by a moderate acclivity. The excessively broken aspect of the country for 15 or 20 miles from the Mississippi, is calculated to deceive a casual observer, and induce him to exag- gerate the actual height of the general surface, but more careful and continued observation discloses the real nature of the ten thousand hills, which lie scattered in wild confusion seeming to mock all ar- rangement. Advancing eastward, it is soon perceiv- ed that the hills near the streams are the remains left of a once extended terrace, now furrowed by innumerable channels. The soil of the bluff, or hilly tract, is almost uniformly productive, but as the hills subside into plains, the soil deteriorates, and the mingled forests of oak, sweet gum, poplar, liriodendron tulipifera, hickory of various species, and some pine, are followed by the almost exclusive prevalence of the latter tree. It would not be much risk to estimate the pine tract as occupying two-thirds of all the superficies from the Atlantic ocean to the Sabine, along a zone> from the 30th to the 33d degree N.lat. This species of soil, deriving its title from the most abundant tim- ber it produces, terminates in some places abruptly, but in general gradually merges into what is known locally by the designation of interval land; a kind of soil partaking of an intermediate quality between actual alluvion and pine-land. Correctly speaking, the superstratum of the bluffs is a real interval land, and for variety of vegetable productions, highly valuable. Before proceeding to delineate the residue of the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, from the Delta of the Mississip])i to Florida })oint, wc may pause antl cast GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 279 a summary glance over that region of recent crea- tion, the coast of Louisiana. The first sweep of vision along the entire line of sea coast from the Sa- bine to the mouth of the Pearl, spreads before us a marsh of upwards of 400 miles, interrupted only by the water courses. On a near approach to their line of separation, the waves of the Gulf can be still, with some difficulty, distinguished from the very little more elevated green of the marshes. A few shrubs and clumps of trees are perceived at a distance in solitary groups, to mark the commence- ment of a more majestic vegetation. To the north- west, along the Teche,^Vermillion, Mermentau, Cal- casiu, and Sabine, beyond the marshes, and with a moderately greater elevation, immense prairies would be seen to extend, and most elegantly orna- mented by the serpentine lines of forest, curving with the concealed channels. Still farther inland, and on all sides, beyond the marshes and prairies, the perspective would be darkened by dense and continuous forests, through which would be seen the tortuous Mississippi rolling, with solemn and irresistible majesty, towards its only successful rival the Gulf of Mexico. Suppose for a moment, that stream at its utmost elevation; suppose the wide recesses we have de- scribed to be gorged to overflowing, and then ima- gine the forest removed from the inundated plains, and what a picture would open to the eye. From the prairies and marshes of Attacapas and Opelou- sas, to the bluffs of the Mississippi, the water courses would vanish, and before us would spread a vast lake of upwards of 100 miles in length, with from 10 to 40 miles in width. The very narrow alluvial borders along the streams would, like the wooded lines over the prairies, decorate and embel- lish, without greatly diminishing the expanse of wa- ters. On the east, the limjt of this annually recur- ring inland sea, would appear strongly defined, but 280 - GEOGRAPHIGAL VIEW. on the west, the demarcation with the prairies and marshes, would be faint and indefinite. But of all the wonders of this annual deluge, the most curious is certainly the almost exact resemblance, mere magnitude of volume only excepted, between the two bounding rivers, the Mississippi and Teche; and what is peculiarly worthy of notice, the latter river coasts, without either receiving or participa- ting of the water contained in the adjacent lake. From the preceding data, may be conceived the impenetrable nature of the Louisiana coast, except through the channels of the rivers. Even by those entrances, 12 feet is the deepest water which canbe calculated on at all seasons, and that depth only in the Mississippi. Extremes in no instance can more effectually touch, than in the case before us. No walls of rock, however high and rude, could more completely oppose all approach, than do the low shores, shallow waters, and marshes of I^ouisiana. I have in the preceding survey omitted a particu- lar review of the outlet of the Mississippi itself, or of its course over the Delta, only as incidentally ne- cessary to complete a notice of the m.inor streams. This apparent omission of what constitutes the pri- mary object in a review of the sea-border of Louisi- ana, was an intentional postponement to the close of the article. The channel of the Mississippi is inti- mately connected, not alone with the Delta, but also with the basin generally, and can be more appro- priately reserved to the close of the article. We therefore now resume our survey of the coast east- ward from the Delta. We have given a passing notice to a low flat and marshy peninsula, which projects to the N. E. from the lower part of the Delta. It is this peninsular flat, the isthmus between Lakes Pontchartrain and Borgne, and the southern coast of the state of Mis- sissippi, which form that deep and shallow bay mis-named Lake Borgne, a parallelogram extending GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 281 40 miles from S. W. to N. E., with a mean width of 15 miles. Lake Pontchartrain, the Rigolets, Lake Borgne, and below the latter, the Pass of Christian, Pasca- goula sound, and Pass of Heron, form an interesting inland navigation into Mobile bay. This channel is formed by the main shore of Mississippi, and south- western Alabama, on the north; and a chain of long, low, sandy islands, stretching from the mouth of Mobile bay, in a western direction towards the Ri- golets. These islets are, advancing from the west to east, the groups of Malheureux and Marianne, the solitary Cat island. Ship island. Dog island, Horn island. Petite Bois, and Dauphin island. In ordina- ry stages of the water, this coast passage cannot be made with vessels drawing above 5 feet water, as over the shoals of either Heron or Christian, that is about the common depth. Distance from New Or- leans to Mobile bay by this inner passage, 100 miles; and 130, if extended to the city of Mobile. This inland channel is again continued N. W. from New Orleans 125 miles, following the wind- ings of Lake Pontchartrain, Pass of Manchac, Lake Maurepas, Amite and Iberville rivers, to the Mis- sissippi, at the efflux of the latter outlet. Schooners, and other vessels of 5 feet draught, can be navigated to Galveztown, at the junction of the Iberville and Amite. In every section of this chain of navigable rivers, lakes, inlets, and sounds, it has been shewn, that 18 feet water in Lake Pontchartrain is its deepest part. Some projects have been broached for making this line, the principal channel of internal navigation in the Delta; I trust I shall, however, demonstrate in the sequel of this article, that the heaviest ship of war that is now in the United States' navy, could be navigated from the Gulf of Mexico to New Orleans by the channel of the Mississippi, at greatly less ex- pense than could a vessel of 10 feet draught be made A a 2 282 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. to float doAvn the Iberville, Amite, Lake Maurepas, and Pontchartrain, to the mouth of Bayou St. John. I may now say en passant^ that the former is prac- ticable, the latter almost beyond human means. In the eastern extension of the preceding channel, the only river worthy notice which it receives, is the Pascagoula, an unimportant stream, however, in a navigable point of view. It rises on the angle be- tween the sources of the Pearl and the confluents of Tombigbee; flows south 120 miles under the name of Chickasawhay; where it is augmented by a large confluent from the north-west. Leaf river. Assum- ing below their junction the name of Pascagoula, con- tinues south 50 miles, and falls into a sound of the same name, opposite Horn island, and receiving near its outlet, a considerable tributary. Dog river from the N. E. Themarshy coast of the Gulf of Mexico terminates with the Rigolets, and eastward of that inlet, the pine tract reaches the gulf, and that tree thence constitutes the prevailing timber along the sea coast of Mississippi, Alabama, and great part of Florida. At the mouth of the Pascagoula, pine forests extend from the margin of the sound. The few dwarf trees on the Sand islands opposite, are also pine. It was at this very spot, that I felt my self beyond the allu- vial creation of the Mississippi. Examining the coast from the mouth of Pearl to that of Mobile, the shores seemed rather yielding to the waves than augmenting by any deposit carried inland by their means. West of the mouths of the Mississippi, as far as I have examined the coast, the debris brought down its surface are distributed in great abundance; eastward of the Delta, these fragments are nowhere found. These facts shew the course of the currents along the northern shores of the Gulf of Mexico, to be westward, and serve also to direct the approach of vessels to the entrance of the Mississippi. GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 283 Mobile bay is a fine triangular sheet of water of 30 miles in length and Varying from 18 to 3 miles wide. The projection of Mobile point, and the po- sition of Dauphin island, land-lock this bay. The main entrance with 16 feet water, winds between Dauphin island and the western cape of Mobile point, close upon the latter. Between Dauphin island and the main shore of Alabama, lies the Pass of Heron with 5 feet water. The depth over the main bar is maintained inland to about 5 miles be- low the city of Mobile, where another bar, or sand bank, with only 10 feet water, crosses the bay from W. to E. Into Mobile bay is poured the river of the same name, the discharge of a triangular navigable basin of 37',120 square miles. The Mobile river is form- ed by two great branches, the Tombigbee from the north-west, and Alabama from the north-east. The Tombigbee is formed by two branches ; the Tuscaloosa {Black Warrior), and Tombigbee. The latter rises in the north-east angle of the state of Mississippi, in the country of the Chickisaws, at N. lat. 34° 40', long. 12° 20' W., the branches, howev- er, rising with the small creeks of Tennessee, through 100 miles, interlocking westward with those of the Yazoo, or Tallahatcha, and eastward with those of the Sipsey or New river. Flowing by a general course, nearly south, 100 miles,the various branches haAdng united, incline to a little E. of S., and enter the state of Alabama, at N. lat. 33° 16', 5 miles be- low Columbus, the seat of justice for Monroe coun- ty, Mississippi. At this point the Tombigbee is al- ready a navigable river, having drained a surface of at least 5000 square miles. Below the Alabama line 25 miles, the Sipsey or New river enters from the N. E., and the main stream, in a course S. S. E. of 50 miles, is again augmented by the still more im- portant branch, the Tuscaloosa, after an entire com- parative course of 170 miles ; at N, lat. 32° 31', long. 10° 58' W. ( Tanner's map). 284 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. It will be seen, when treating of the Tennessee, that in its curve through Alabama, it flows near the lower margin of the mountain valley. It is from this formation of the intermediate country, that the sources of the Mobile basin through upwards of 400 miles, circle round and approach the actual channel of iTennessee, within from 10 to 25 miles. The ex- treme north-eastern branch of the Tuscaloosa, rises at N. lat. 34° 20', long. 9° 14' W., and but little above 10 miles from the channel of Tennessee river, at the Great Bend, Decatur county, Tennessee, and about an equal distance from the Coosa, at the mouth of Will's river. Pursuing a south-west course 150 miles, receives numerous confluents from the north- west. The valley of Tuscaloosa is triangular; base 150, and perpendicular 56; mean width 28, and area 4200 square miles. Below the junction of its two main branches, the Tombigbee, with a very winding channel, curves by an elliptical sweep to the west, but by a general course, but very little W. of S., 90 miles, to N. lat. 31° 09', where it unites with the Alabama from the N. E. Between the mouths of the Tuscaloosa and Alabama, the Tombigbee receives no tributary above the size of a large creek, and its valley does not exceed a mean width of 35 miles, or contain an area above 3150 square miles : the entire valley, including that of Tuscaloosa, having a super- ficies of 13,350 square miles. The Alabama is formed by two branches, the Coosa and Tallapoosa. The Coosa rises at N. lat. 35'' 05[, long. 7° to 8° W., in the. northern part of Georgia, interlocking sources with Tennessee, Hi- wassee and Chatahooche rivers. The Etowah or extreme north-eastern branch, heads in the angle between the Hiwassee and Chestatee branch of Chatahooche, and flowing 35 miles a little east of south, and parallel to the Chestatee, bends thence west 30 miles, and thence S. S. W. 35 miles to N. GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 285 lat. 34°. Curving abruptly to the N. W. by W. 30 miles, receives the Oostenalah, and assumes the name of the Coosa. The Oostenalah rises in Georgia, and at N. lat. 35° 05', in the angle between the Tennessee and Eto- wah rivers, and falls but little short of the latter in volume, but both streams having their sources in the highest nucleus of the Appalachian mountains, are large and rapid rivers compared with their length of channel. The Coosa, below the junction of its two consti- tuent branches, flows west 8 miles and enters Ala- bama, near Fort Armstrong,* and inflecting to S. W. by W. about 35 miles, receives Will's creek on N. lat. 34°, long. 8° 05' W. Bending to S. S. W. 75 miles to N. lat. 33°, again by a gentle curve turns to S. S. E. about 40, and thence S. W. 10 miles to its junction with the Tallapoosa, at N. lat. 32° 28', long. 9° 22' W., after an entire comparative course of near 300 miles. From the circuitous windings of the Coosa, its val- ley is not more than two-third s the length of its channel, or about 200 miles. Receiving no conside- rable branches, the mean width of the valley is only about 45 miles; area 9000 square miles. The Tallapoosa rises in Georgia near the channel of the Etowah, and between the Chatahooche and Coosa, at N. lat. 34°, long. 8° W. Without receiv- ing any considerable confluent in the intermediate distance, Tallapoosa enters Alabama, flows S. S. W. 120 miles, and receives the Tallassee creek from the east, and abruptly bending to the W. 25 miles, unites with the Coosa, and forms the Alabama, at the village of Coosawda, Autauga county, Alabama. The valley of Tallapoosa is about 125 by 35 miles; area 4375 square miles: Extending from N, lat 32° to 34°. * Tanner's Map. 286 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. From Coosa wda, the Alabama flows by compara- tive courses a little S. of W. 50 miles, receives the Cahaba, a considerable confluent from the N., in- flects to S. S. W., and continues that direction near- ly 100 miles to its junction with the Tombigbee. There is perhaps no other river in the United States in which the actual length of the channel and those of the comparative courses differ so much as in the Alabama. By its two general courses, one above and the other below the influx of the Cahaba, this river is about 150 miles in length; but if esti- mated along its banks it would exceed 100 above, and amount to near 200 below the Cahaba. Including the valley of the Cahaba, that of the Alabama is of very irregular form, stretching from N, lat. 31° 04' to 33® 47', and containmg by actual survey 8460 square miles. Before their actual junction, some one or more small outlets partially unite the waters of Tombig- bee and Alabama, and after uniting and losing their names in that of Mobile, the mass of water does not immediately intermingle in one bed, but penetrating the inundated intermediate flat by two main and nu- merous smaller channels, flows upwards of 30 miles before the whole is lost in Mobile bay; out of which it is again discharged around Dauphin island. The valley of the Mobile proper is about 60 by 30 miles, or 1800 square miles, one-third at least oc- cupied by the bay, leaving 1200 square miles for the two small slopes on each side of the bay and river. Mobile basin, at its north-eastern extremity, is followed by that of Appalachicola, but these two basins receding from each other towards their re- spective estuaries, leave a comparatively small, but a very important, intermediate basin, having Pensa- cola tor its principal entrance from the Gulf of Mexico. It has, however, two more bays of con- siderable extent, Santa Rosa and St. Andrews; and Perdido may be also considered a part, though de- GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 287 riving consequence merely as a political boundary between Florida and Alabama. Pensacola bay is the estuary of several small creeks or rivers, and one stream, the Escambia, of considerable magnitude. The Escambia is formed by two very unequal branches, the Escambia proper and Connecuh. The Escambia is a mere creek, rising in Monroe county, Alabama, and flowing S. S. E. over Baldwin and Connech counties enters Florida, and falls into the Connecuh river, about 2 miles below the boundary between Alabama and Florida. The Connecuh is a river of much greater magni- tude than its confluent the Escambia. The latter rises in Alabama and in the angle between the Talla- poosa and Chatahooche rivers, at N. lat. 32° 10', long. W. C. 8° 30' W. Flowing thence 130 miles south-west enters Florida, and receiving the Escam- bia the united water assumes the latter name, and turning to a little E. of S, 25 miles, is lost in Escam- bia bay, the northern arm of Pensacola bay. Pensacola bay, forming the deepest haven of the United States on the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico, opens from that Gulf at N. lat. 30° 19', long. 10° 18' W. The entrance is about 8 miles S. S. W. from the city of Pensacola, and formed by the main channel and by Santa Rosa sound. The bay widens above Pensacola, and extending a little N. of E. 20 miles, terminates to the north in two deep sub-bays, Escambia and Yellow Water. The latter is the recipient of several creeks of little con- sequence, rising in the Pine woods, north-east from the city of Pensacola. The surface of Pensacola basin, with the excep- tion of a few confined strips along the streams, and some interval land, is a sterile pine forest, or open prairies of similar soil. The depth on the bar 21, and in the harbour, of Pensacola from 23 to 36 feet, admits vessels draw- 288 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. ing 20 feet water to enter safely. The bottom, both in the entrance and bay, is either a fine sand or mud. Like some harbours on the Atlantic coast, Pensacola stands indebted for its depth of water to the circumstance of not receiving any large river, the alluvion of which, if any such had existed, would, in the course of time, have changed it to a shallow waste. One of those long, narrow, and low sand islands, so common on the Atlantic coast and on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, extends from Pensacola 40 miles N. E. by E., to an entrance into a considera- ble bay, the Choctawhatchie. The sound within Santa Rosa island is like the island itself, narrow, and is also a mere elongated shallow, which, within its entrance, turns to east 25 miles, and receives from the north-east Choctaw river, a stream of about 80 miles comparative course, rising in Henry and Pike counties, Alabama. As a navigable basin Santa Rosa or Choctawhatchie bay is unimportant. If due attention is paid to the philosophy of the seacoasts of the United States, no rational doubt can be entertained but that those elongated sand islands are mere bars, formed when the oceanic level stood above their surface. The coast of Louisiana, Ala- bama, and Florida, exhibit a constant succession of ridges with every appearance of islands, except be- ing now joined to the continent. This formation of coast is in a particular manner observable west from the Delta, and again along the coast of Florida. The chain of islands, however, which we have seen stretching from the Rigolets to Mobile bay, is in reality one of those sea-bars, which is again conti- nued in Mobile point, and broken by Perdido, reaches to Pensacola. Santa Rosa island perpetu- ates this chain, and beyond Santa Rosa inlet, inflect- ing to S. E. by E. 65 miles, is once more interrupted by St. Andrew's inlet. GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW, 289 St. Andrew's bay is the last advancing from the west, of the intermediate basins between Mobile and Appalachicola rivers, and is of little consequence as a navigable entrance. Unlike Mobile, Pensacola, Perdido, and Sta. Rosa, which all more or less incline to the north-east, St. Andrew's bay stretches to the north-west, almost insulating the sandy isthmus be- tween Santa Rosa bay, ChOctaw river, St. Andrew's bay itself, and the Gulf of Mexico. Taken in its full extent, including the confluents of Perdido, Pensacola, Santa Rosa, and St. An- drew's, the Pensacola basin extends from the west- ern sources of Perdido to the eastern bend of the Ekanfinna river 160 miles, with a mean breadth of 80 miles, area 12,800 square miles. The sources of the Coosa river and those of the Chatahooche rise together in the, northern part of Georgia, the latter being the principal confluent of the basin of the Appalachicola. The Chatahooche river rises in the highest table land of the Appalachian system, at N. lat. 35°, long. 6° 20' W., interlocking sources wdth those of the Coosa, Hiwassee, Tennessee, and Savannah rivers. The higher Chatahooche is formed by two branches, the Chestatee and Chatahooche proper. The for- mer is the main stream, drawing its most remote sources from Habersham county, Georgia. Flow- ing west 25 and thence S. S. W. 75 miles, and cross- ing N. lat. 34°, the Chestatee receives from the north-east the Chatahooche. The latter, rising with the Chestatee and Savannah rivers, flows S. S. W. 70 miles, having only a mountain ridge between it and the higher branches of the Oconee and Oak- mulgee branches of the Altamaha, and joins the Chestatee. The Chatahooche, below the junction of its two constituent branches, flows S. S. W. 50 miles, and thence, with a slight elliptical curve to the west, pursues a general southern course of 200 miles to D b 290 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. its junction with Flint river, from the north-east. It is remarkable that in such a distance as 250 miles, from the junction of Chestatee and Chata- hooche to the mouth of Flint, no tributary stream enters the main recipient above the size of a large creek, and the valley at its widest part does not ex- ceed 50 miles, averaging perhaps 35 miles from its highest point. Entire length of this long vale about 320 miles; area 11,200 square miles. Flint river rises in Henry, Fayette, and De Kalb counties, in Georgia, at N. lat. 33° 30'. Pursuing a southern course between the Chatahooche and Oak- mulgee 130 miles, turns thence 80 miles S. W. to its junction with Chatahooche, after an entire com- parative course of 210 miles. Similar to that of the Chatahooche, the Flint river valley is narrow, averaging a mean width of about 40 miles and with an area of 8400 square miles. The united streams of Chatahooche and Flint as- sume the name of Appalachicola, which flowing nearly due south 70 miles, receiving from the north- west the Chipola, and separating into several chan- nels, opens into St. George's sound at N. lat. 29° 46', and into the open Gulf of Mexico at N. lat. 29° 38'. The Appalachicola is the only river of the Gulf of Mexico, except the Mississippi, which forms a salient delta at its estuary; and it is, of all the rivers of the United States of equal length, the one which presents the greatest variety of climate. The lower valley of the Appalachicola is 70 by 30 miles, area 2100 square miles. Though less in volume, it is a more navigable stream than the Mobile as to distance, though the latter admits the entrance of the largest vessels at its mouth. The ascent of sea vessels is arrested in Tombigbee at or near Fort St. Stephens; in the Alabama at Claiborne, and in the Appalachicola near its head. The basin of the Appalachicola extends through GEOGRAPHICAL V1.EW. 291 upwards of 5^ deg. of lat. and rising on a table land at least 2000 feet above the level of the Atlantic ocean, or an equivalent in height for five degrees of lat., the temperature must have a difference of 10 degrees. From Cape St. George, the extreme southern point of the delta of the Appalachicola, to the Point of Pines, the western termination of St. Da- vid's bay, distant about 90 miles, is the chord of an elliptical sheet of water or bay of Appalache, the curve waving northward, and having at its inner- most extension Ocklockonne bay and the mouths of St. Mark's and Auscilla or Ocklockonne rivers. The depth of this bay is the north-east angle of the Gulf of Mexico. As a navigable basin, that of Appalache is of mi- nor importance, but gains some consequence as be- ing the inlet to Tallahasse, the newly established capital of Florida. Its principal inlet the Ocklock- onne rises in Georgia at N. lat. 31° 35', long. 6° 40' W. Flowing south 40 miles, thence south-west 60 miles, receives from the north-west the Atapulquas, and turning thence south-east 25 miles into Appa- lache bay, after an entire course of 125 miles, near- ly one-half in Florida. The St, Marks is a short river or bay of about 20 miles comparative course, rising at N. lat. 30° 20', 15 miles south-east from Tallahasse, Its source is a large pond or lake, from which it flows a little W. of S. and is navigable for boats of considerable ton- nage to its very source. The Suwanne follows the Appalachicola basin at the source of the former^ but in their respective courses towards the Gulf of Mexico enclose between them the more confined basin of the Appalache. The Suwanne rises in Dooley county, in Georgia, between the Flint and Oakmulgee rivers, and head- ing also with the great St, Ilia. It is formed by two branches, the Alapapaha to the east, and Suwanne 292 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. proper to the west. The extreme source of the latter is at N. lat. 32°. Pursuing a southern course 70 miles, it thence inflects to S.S.E. 35 miles, enters Florida, and continues the last course 30 miles, re- ceiving the Alapapaha from the N.E. The Alapapaha rises at N. lat. 31° 35', between the sources of the Suwanne and St. Ilia, and flowing thence 80 miles, receives from the N.E. the drain of the tract absurdly called Okofinoke swamp, turns to S.W. 10 miles, and unites with the Suwanne, at N. lat. 30° 25', long. 6° 20' W. The united vallies of the Suwanne and Alapapaha above their junction, form a parallelogram of about 85 by 50 miles, area 4250 square miles. The Suwanne, now a considerable stream, flows by a rather circuitous channel, but by comparative courses 65 miles, separating the basin of St. John's from that of Appalache, and falls into the gulf of Mexico, between Sta. Fe and Vacasausa bays, at N. lat. 29° 20', long. 6° 13' W. In Florida, Suwanne receives few tributaries from the west, and those it does receive from that side are mere creeks ; but on the eastern side, about 30 miles above the mouth, a very remarkable stream enters, the Santa Fe, This small river heads with Black creek of St. Johns, and is composed of two branches, both of which have natural bridges ; the main or eastern branch flowing 3 miles, and the western half a mile subterraneously, before their junction. The valley of the Suwanne below the junction of its main constituents, is in length from north to south, 65, with a mean width of 40 miles, area 2600 square miles. Entire area of the basin 7200. Geographi- cally, Suwanne basin extends from N. lat. 29° 24', to N.lat. 32^ long. W.C. from 5° 24 to 6° 53' W. This river closes the list of tributary rivers enter- ing the northern shore of the Gulf of Mexico. As laid down in Tanner's map of Florida, this bay is traversed by long. W. C. 6? W., and towards the GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 293 southern extremity by N. lat. 29°. It is therefore directly east from the mouths of the Mississippi, distant 7 degrees of longitude or 432 miles. With Vacasausa bay, commences on the western side the peninsula of Florida. Nature has, indeed, traced no definite limit to this section of North America; but contrasting its position with the adja- cent part of the continent, the mouths of Suwanne and St. Johns seem to present sufficiently accurate points of separation. Assuming, therefore, these boundaries, a line of about 120 miles within a small fraction, will define the north-western extremity of the peninsula. It is, however, little more than 90 miles directly across from the bottom of Vacasausa bay to the harbour of St. Augustine. From the north-east angle of Vacasausa, the shores of the peninsula, on the western side, incline a little W. of S. 60 miles to the mouth of Amasura river. Here the peninsula is upwards of one hundred and twenty miles wide ; a width which it maintains with little variation for 250 miles. In this distance, the only large entrances are, Tampa, or as formerly called, St. Espiritu Santo, N. lat. 27° 50', and Charlotte har- bour at 26° 50'. Thus far the western coast inclines slowly eastward, and at Cape Romano, lat. 26°, in nearly 3f° of latitude, has only made 1° of longitude; but, with Cape Romano commences a deep indent- ing eastward of upwards of 30 miles, forming Gal- livan's bay. With N. lat. 26'', both sides of the pe- ninsula rapidly tend to a point, and finally terminate at Cape Sable, N. lat. 25° 04', long. 4« 14' W, Too little is accurately known of the western coast, and of the rivers flowing from Florida into the Gulf of Mexico, to admit any beneficial detail. The interior structure of the earth on this remarkable peninsula, even renders the very sources of the ri- vers in great part undefined by nature. It seems to be in fact a region recently and partially wrested from the retiring ocean, and presents, in the forma- B b 2 294 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. tion of its rivers, a similar aspect, which character- ised perhaps all rivers at the epoch of their primi- tive commencement.* There appears, too, a general and very gradual in- clination from north to south. Hills of some eleva- tion, and calcareous components, stretch between the sources of St. Johns and Amasura rivers; but, advanc- ing more southward, the whole surface becomes a dead, and in great part inundated plain. In Chapter II. of this view, the peculiar structure of the peninsula of Florida, was noticed in discussing the phenomena of the gulf stream. It will not be necessary to pursue the subject farther in this place ; we shall, there- fore, proceed to a summary of the basins of the Gulf of Mexico, the general features of which we have sketched. See Basin or Valley of Ohio. # GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 295 V OOOC-?OOOOOK.OO'*V5*f>CO CO ""■ •^ ^ r^ !■- O O l-O in CT ■>* T? ^ CO C^ O (?> t* ^O -COOOOOOCNOOOOTi. »r} i> r-(rtH,-,CO>Ot-iOC^OC^O{Mo-*tnoo*i^oov5o o 3 . (^jco*oc':ct*ooO'*OtHt-icoo o •H ^ o CNfHOOr^OiOOCJC^iOC^JOi-IC^ o c CO CO CO CO CO CQ CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO V>CS>C^»OOC. T^OOOO'.J'OOOO'* o 1 !^' C-^COeOCOCOOi-sOOrHr-lOCOOCM o C7iO^CT>O^O^O^CT>CTlOOOOO^OOi ^ ca (MCNC^C^CVCNCJG^COSOCTCOCNCOCN CN» *_ oooooooooooo»noo o OOOOO^Oi^OOOCNOOOO o fN _ ■- OioO-^OCNT-tOCNOr-OO-^^OC* »^ ?i « •^ ■>*'■ CO CN -o --T T-rco'"/i>r5C7^r>ooeoocov50 Vi OJ C-0 CO CO CO CM C^ <£5 >* CN CO lO -^ ■* V5 ^ O00000'n00»rt00»0 00 o to oiooco^V)CoocNocr.ocooco ^ 5 C^r-r-H T-l C o IS 11 £= =3 .2 '"^ 15 "5 O.E > , •s..is Jog Is- 1! 11 ^^ Sis ^ >■ c cJ &i3 o bo c 1 1 J II 298 GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. From the preceding table we find that the entire surface drained by the Mississippi and confluents, amounts to the great extent of one million and ninety- nine thousand square miles. It may be seen by reference to table 18, page 257, that the aggre- gate extent of the Atlantic slope including St. Law- rence basin, amounts to 820,530 square miles, or little more than two-thirds of the extent of the im- mense regions included in the drain of the Mississip- pi. I shall now proceed to sketch a brief view of each valley of this important basin, and make the survey in the same order as they stand in table 20. Ohio Valley. — It has been long my opinion that the Ohio Valley once composed an immense inclined plane, into which the beds of the rivers have been formed by abrasion of water. A similar opinion was formed by Mr. A. Bourne, author of a very va- luable map of the state of Ohio, and so very well explained by that gentleman in a letter, from which I quote his words : — " The hills are generally found near the rivers or large creeks, and parallel to them on each side, having between them the alluvial val- ley, through which the stream meanders, usually near the middle, but sometimes washes the foot of either hill alternately. Perhaps the best idea of the topography of this state, (Ohio) may be obtained by conceiving the state to be one vast elevated plain, near the centre of which the streams rise, and in their course wearing down a bed or valley, whose depth is in proportion to their size, or the density (solidity must be meant) of the earth over which they flow. So that our hills, with some few excep- tions, are nothing more or less than clifi's or banks, made by the action of the streams : and although these cliff's or banks on the rivers or larger creeks, approach the size of mountains, yet their tops are generally level, being the remains of the ancient plain. In the eastern part of the state, some few hills are found in sharp ridges, similar to those in GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW. 299 the eastern states. The bases of the hills are gene- rally composed of limestone, free or sandstone, slate, and gravel, admixed with mineral coal, ochre, Sec. " The entire valley of Ohio, as well as most other parts of the basin of Mississippi, rests on horizontal strata, belonging to that formation called by geolo- gists floetz or secondary. In 1815 I surveyed Pitts- burgh and its environs, and found the rocks so near- ly parallel to the horizon, as to scarce admit a current from the deep perforations of the coal mines. These mines are opened along the sides of the hills, and extend inwards on a level with the horizon, and about 320 feet above the lower surface of the adja- cent rivers. The circumstance most conclusive of the fact, that the hills and vallies of this region were formed by abrasion, is the uniformity of elevation, and similarity of material, of corresponding strata, on the opposing banks of the streams : phenomena, however, every where visible, in Ohio valley, where the nature of the country will admit accurate obser- vation. The Ohio valley is subdivided by the Ohio river into two unequal sections, leaving on the right or N. W. side 80,000, and on the left or S. E, side 116,000 square miles; the Ohio river flowing in a deep ravine, and forming a common recipient for the water poured down from both slopes. The length of the Ohio ravine in a direct line from the city of Pittsburgh to the Mississippi river, is 548, but by the meanders of the stream 948 miles. The peculiar features of this river, and its imme- diate banks, have led to most of the gross misrepre- sentations respecting the valley in general. The low water surface of the Monongahela at Brownsville, is 850, and at Pittsburgh 830 feet above the tides in Potomac river at Washington city. The apex of the hills around Pittsburg are within a small fraction of 460 feet above low water level in the rivers in the same vicinity. These elements give us 830 to be 300 GEOGllArmCAL VIEW. added to 460, or 1290 feet, as the extreme elevation of the hills near Pittsburg. The data being in great part drawn from actual admeasurement may be con- sidered as correct, and combining the result with the hypothesis of the whole valley being once an inclined and unbroken plain, we are led to the con- clusion that about 1300 feet in round numbers was once the general elevation of that plain, where the Monongahela and Allegany now form the Ohio. The plain must have risen considerably higher to- wards the Appalachian system, and towards lake Erie, and declined slowly towards the Mississippi and Illinois rivers ; and such depression, though more gradual, must have continued until the land sunk under the Gulf of Mexico. The elevation of surface at the central junction of the Ohio and Mississippi, has not been determined with the same precision as has been done respecting that near Pittsburgh, but may be estimated with con- siderable accuracy from the length of the Mississippi below the mouth of Ohio, which is very nearly 1100 miles. If we allow 3^ inches fall to each mile, we shall have 3850 inches, equal to 321 feet within a very small fraction, for the height of the country at the junction of Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Deduct- ing 321 from 830, would leave 509, as the fall in the Ohio ; but this sum exceeds the real depression of that stream. A very considerably greater fall exists from Pittsburg into Chesapeake bay, than into the Gulf of Mexico, a seeming anomaly explicable from the simplest laws of hydrostatics. When speaking of the Gulf of Mexico, in Chapter III, page 86, it was stated that this sheet of water was a real reser- voir, supplied by the Gulf stream, and evidently elevated above any other part of either ocean which laves the coast of America. The gulf stream flows from the Gulf of Mexico into the Atlantic ocean witli great velocity, and the current, though conti- nually lessening, is continued from the Bahama chau" GEOGKAPHICAI. VIEW. 501 nel to the coasts of Europe and .Africa, by a curve of upvr'ards of six thousand miles ; but if we restrict our view to the higher part of tlie tropic current, or that from Cuba to Cliesapeake l)ay, or about 1000 miles, the velocity of the stream must demand at least an inch fall per mile, or 83 feet. If this hypo- thesis is correctly formed from existing data, then is the surface of Chesapeake bay 83 feet depressed below that of the Gulf of Mexico, and of course the fall of water from Pittsburg into the latter recipient only 747. feet. The allowance I made in my geogra- phical dictionary on this head, page 476, was 125 feet, and 1 am now far from being certain, that the diminution to 83 feet is better sanctioned by the real phenomena. It is a fair induction from what has been stated, that the valley of Ohio is composed of an inclined plain, furrowed by the deep channels of the rivers, and chequered by hills and alluvial Hats, the whole resting on a floetz or secondary formation. In some parts of the basin, particularly in the state of Kentuc- ky, the rivers flow in chasms rather than valleys, in the true meaning of the latter term. The two op- posing slopes present some curious contrasts. Though most extensive, the south-eastern slope has no con- siderable remains of the ancient plain ; the north- western slope on the contrary, contains in the cen- tral parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, large tracts marking unequivocally the primitive state of the valley. The confluents of Ohio, which flow from the Appalachian mountains, are precipitous torrents from their sources, and, as has been already noted, pursue their courses in deep channels ; whilst those streams which derive their fountains from the north- western slope, rise on a continuous plain, in some places morass, sluggish tov/ards their sources, but gaining velocity as they approach the Ohio, The principal confluents of Ohio from the south- east.crn slope are, the Monongahcl.i, I-