vrv.n ir, rrrr 13 B U3 ■ * , ■ ■ ■ H ■ ;^ i \ i nass pa. is Book__B-3 GRAMMATOGRAPHY __ MANUAL OF REFERENCE ALPHABETS OF ANCIENT AND MODERN LANGUAGES . BASED ON THE GEliMAN COMPILATION 3 X> 01 1'. IIAI.LIIDIIN. LONDON TRUBNER AND CO., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW. 1861. i 1, s> ■> 1> PREFACE The Grammatography is offered to the Public as a compendious introduction to the reading of the most important ancient and modern languages. Simple in its design, it will be consulted with advantage by the Philological Student, the Aniateur Linguist, the Bookseller, the Corrector of the Press, and the diligent Compositor. Although substantially based on " Ballhorn's Alphabete," a German com- pilation, which, in the space of a few years, passed through nine editions, the present manual has in several articles been very considerably improved and enlarged. Of the new observations which have been inserted, some may prove useful even when this work shall be consulted by the side of the respective Grammars. With regard to the Asiatic Alphabete, it may be stated, thai the continued efforts to obtain trustworthy specimens have, in 6ome instances, led to highly satisfactory results. In preparing the type of the Chinese characters, the lateral "Tones" have been adjoined to the 21 1 symbols of pronunciation. These additions will enable the student, instructed by native teachers, to re- member with greater facility the varying articulation of vowel-sounds. The publishers entertain the hope, that the present work, an humble attempt to assist in the furtherance of philological pursuits, will obtain the encouraging consideration of competent scholars, whose suggestions, available for future editions, are respectfully solicited. ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Afghan (or Pushto) 28 Amharic .... 23, 24, 25 Anglo-Saxon 73 Arabic .... 20,21 Arabic Ligatures 21, 22 Aramaeic . 9 Archaic Characters 8,9 Armenian . 53 Assyrian Cuneiform 7 Bengali .... . 45 Bohemian (Czechian) . 67,68 Biigis .... . 45 Burmese 41 Canarese (or Carnataca) . . 42 Chinese 30, 31 32,33 Coptic .... . 29 Croato-Glagolitic . 60 Cufic .... . 9 Cyrillic (or Old Slavonic) 58 Czechian (or Bohemian) 67,68 Danish 71 Demotic . 8 Estrangelo . 9 Ethiopic 23 , 24, 25 Etruscan 9 Georgian . 54 German 70 Glagolitic . 59 Gothic 74 Greek .... . 55 Greek Ligatures . 56 Greek (Archaic) . 9 Gujerati (or Guzerattee) 43 Hieratic .... . 8 Hieroglyphics 8 Hebrew 10 , 11, 12 Hebrew (Archaic) 8 Hebrew (Rabbinical) . 13 Hebrew (Judseo- German) Hebrew (Current hand) . Hungarian . Illyrian .... Irish .... Italian (Old-) . Japanese Javanese Lettish Mantshu Median Cuneiform Modern Greek (or Romaic) Mongolian . Numidian Old- Slavonic (or Cyrillic) Palmyrenian . Persian Persian Cuneiform . Phoenician . Polish .... Pushto (or Afghan) Romaic (or Modern Greek) Russian Runes . . . Samaritan . Sanscrit Servian Slavonic (Old-) Sorbian (or Wendish) Swedish Syriac Tamil .... Telugu . Tibetan .... Turkish Wallachian . Wendish (or Sorbian) Zend .... 46, Page 13 . 14 68 . 63 73 . 9 34 47,48 69 50,51 6 . 57 52 . 8 58 . 9 27 . 5 8 . 65 28 . 57 61,62 75,76 15 37,38 63 . 58 66 . 72 16, 17, 18, 19 39, 40 44 35, 36, 64 66 41 PERSIAN CUNEIFORM CHARACTERS. There are two main families of Cuneiform Characters which, before the expedition of Alexander the Great, were in use nearly in all Asiatic Countries, subjected to the (Acha?- nienides) Persian Kings. One of these, the Arian arrow-headed, is here given, and is a pure alphabet of fixed characters, which was made use of by the old Persians, proper, and is now read with tolerable accuracy. The other, however, not yet deciphered with sufficient certainty, was employed, with some modifications, by at least five different nations, the Babylonians, the Assyrians, the Medo-Scythians (the second in the triglot inscriptions of Persepolis and Bisutun), the Susians and the Armenians. Almost in each of these five sorts of characters can be distinguished three styles, the Archaic, the Lapidary, and the Cursive. Form Value Form Value Form Value Form Value TTT a sTyT t y<£ 111 before i Z 8 (8h) 11 i W£ I before i £<- 1)1 before u Ml z 4 L 1 ch >y It > 11 ) ^ r ►► ££ j *y t * j-. ! A* / a, ya £T \ *i I IT- TJ !» ^y H i! > r rsh tz i HHfK I t, s ^y 1 v >y- 1 \ ■ HI! \ i- i ^y vy- , B h -<— i. y ^y I k i- 1 JUtU all] Tl 1 1 lui, v, y 3TY i, ii 1 *h \ sh It ) ^y; y ?i 5r oil + 1 & v, h, a, r ^ 111, V >ff f > n j 5 1 1 ) vush i OLDEST CHARACTERS Arrangement Hieroglyphics Hieratic Demotic Phoenician Numidian Early -Hebrew K Aleph ? f f -* f 3 Beth ▼ D XJ. *> 9 * e 1 Gimel r 7 1 i 1 1 Daleth i -H" 4 ^ . 1 ^ 4 H He CJI Gl ? 3 f> 5 1 Vav $ f 7 ^7 ^ t Zayin \ ~1 7. * — . v- t_ — a A. A • • • n Cheth n ft ft * ))) B B Teth * J © U . . . •> Yodh u *T iX "» rn • • • 1-X 3 Kaph *- *—< *-^ *t*n oy id ^ Lamedh AAAAA A > LLK / L ft Mem AAAAA HJ ±z w 1 *i 3 3 Nun ^ i? 1 1 ) y D Samek L ii X. Wi Hf t J? Ayin ©! v o 1. U o O S Pe ? > > 1 ) 7 2 Tsadhe M r r w\, D Q'oph ^ h , u V V i7 7>P 7 Resh A R Cv 1 4 1 1 a 1 1 3 Fk H =1F + * \* A 1 V I , J / / ~L ntp d 1 \ e_ H 3 3 3 e s E| 8 f h ^k Ji 6 B H a h e h 4 G L G © 9 i i X ^ r > D j ? 2 yi J±%l ) 7 ^r 3 3 k » k » K ^j i A J ' U L X & J 1 IH J £ m m j 11 "1 1 ' u -1 ^ c © e© . 1 A ^> J J 1 1 r G O [o r J£-T * J* 7. * 3 3 ^ p, b PT JZL ft 3 g $ C) A <1 V / H i "l T H A J <) 4 A P . S D ) r V X V ^ ! aa aa M 8 S ^ s />/> V * j m n t< 1 CONSONANTS. n Cheth ch 8 Nates on Pronunciation. $ is the softest guttural, an emission of the tO Teth t 9 breath scarcely to be heard, the Spiritus lenis of the Greeks, similar to r», but much * Yodh J 10 softer. 2 final | Kaph k kli 20 fj before a vowel, is our aspirated h (the Spi- ritus asper of the Greeks): but after a £ Lamedh 1 30 vowel, at the end of a syllable, it is a guttural, and, at the end of words, it D, final Q Mem m 40 often supplies the place of a vowel. final 1 Nun n 50 V* 1 ) is a guttural g, accompanied by a gra- ting or rattling sound ; 2) a softer breathing- D 1 Samek s 60 like s. In reading and transcribing hebrew words, it is now usual to omit " and s. V Avin guttural 70 e. g. ^y Eli. p] is the harshest guttural, like the German s, final £1 Pe P Ph 80 ch as pronounced by the Swiss, or the Spanish x and j. s, final V Tsadhe ss 90 *) is pronounced in Hebrew more like a ratt- P Q'oph 100 ling guttural, than as a pure lingual, and q partakes of both sounds. i Resh r 200 *£} and ^* were originally but one and the same letter, as they still are when written Sin s without points : but as in some words this 300 letter had a softer sound, similar to s, # Shin Sll this two-fold pronunciation is distinguished by the grammarians by the diacritical point : n Tav t til 400 '£• (sh) and : ~ (s). Final -R 'aph * is the English z. with Sliva TT wit i Q'amets " t £2, p * u *d ^ are strongly articulated sounds. with Daghesh an I Q'amets " produced by a compression of the lower organs of the mouth: the two first, therefore. LIGATU RES. differ essentially from r and r which are "n or £ = - ; ^« equivalent to our t and k, and are often * = *? fr$, also ii istead of a - '" -'?N aspirated. 11 The six consonants r£2-;s have a two- fold pronunciation : 1 ) a harder and more slen- der sound (tenuis), like our b g d k p t, and 2) a smoother sound accompanied by a soft aspiration. The harder sound is the primeval : it occurs at the beginning of words and syl- lables without a vowel preceding immediately. and is indicated by a point (Dughesh lene) in those six consonants. They are aspirated after a vowel immediately preceding: in manu- scripts this is indicated by the Raphe ("), but in printed books the aspiration is shown by the absence of the Daghesh. CLASSIFICATION OF THE CONSONANTS. a) According to the organs of speech by which they are pronounced: 1) gutturals (f/uttura/ea) ~ v n s 2) palatals (pulatinae) p r ; ■ 3) Unguals (tinyuales) *j r - and • V 4) dentals (dentales) + & z i .">) labials (labiates) r z a - The 1 partakes of the 1. and :j. class b) According to their sound: 1) aspirated consonants (aspirantes): r.yrs 2) soft consonants (molten )\ 1 i < ^ 1 1 i < I ^ i jai, semivowels i * 3) sibilants (sibUantes): 3E V • 4) mutes (mutae): rrr;: and p B VOWEL That the scale of the five vowels a r i o oo i> derived from the three primitive rowels i i oo, is to be seen much more distinctly in the Hebrew and the other Semitic languages than in other languages. The ,-■ has been funned by ,i |- i, the o by a -\ oo, and. properly speak- ing, both are contracted diphthongs: e ai, 6 = an. — The full rowels formed by this process are the following, arranged according to the three principal rowels and bO their pro- sodical quantity : Vowel a (S) -=- (Tamers, a fi -zr~ Patach , a. Vowel e -1 C) *-tt- Tsere (with Ybdh), e 1_ — Chireq (magnum), t -7T" Tsere (without Yodh), v (e) .. Seghol, g, e (the latter is also written *—%-) —r- Chireq (parvum), j (i). Vowel o-oo C\) *\ Cholem (magnum), 6 *) Shureq, fi — ^_ Cholem (parvum), o (6) -=r- Q'amets-chafuph. 6 — Q'ibbuts, oo (66). The vowels, or vowel-points, are placed 1 under the consonants after which they are pronounced (- ra); but the Patach, placed | under a guttural at the end of a word, is pro- i nounced before this guttural, -t ruach, in , which case it is named Patach furtivum. The i Cholem (without Vav) is placed above the consonant on the leftside: ~ro. The figure * ' is to In' pronounced sometimes oe, the : being I ponsonant , and the — preceding it: sometimes ! t'O, the Cholem being read after the Vav. It is more accurate to distinguish thus: 1 oo, i ' co, ' o: likewise also ', (Shureq) and » (Vav j with Daghesh). As, however, -. (Shureq) is readily discernible, because a vowel neither can precede nor follow it, only this form is made use of. In opposition to the vowels —j— Shva (Sh e va) indicated full and distinct vowel. the absence Therefore if a 1) placed under a consonant concluding a syllable, it indicates the complete absence id* a vowel and serves to divide the pre- ceding .syllable from the following (ShFva qitiescens). It is not made use of, how- ever, when the consonant concluding the syllable at the same time concludes the word, except in the ease of the Final Qoph -). and those words ending in two consonants, when each of them is to be furnished with a Sh*va, e. g. --: 2) itrepresentsa slight and indistinctvowel, as it were only the onset or beginning of a vowel (Shfva mobile). The ShPva mobile is pronounced somewhat more clear and distinct in the SO called Cha- teph - vowels (Eltsn rapidum ), joining a short vowel to the Sh e va simplex] in opposition to which it is also named Sh e vu compositum. There an' three Chatephs : — Chateph Patach. half a -.— Chateph -Seghol , half e -^r- Chateph - Qamets . half o. READING- SIGNS. There are some reading-signs which have (dose connexion with the vowels and probably were introduced at the same time. Amongst these is to be noticed the diacritical point of 37 and V. Meeting together with the Cholem (— ), only one point is made use of which re- presents both: therefore -"is to be pronounced SO, if no other vowel -point is added : and osh, when the preceding consonant is unpointed, e. g. vivo sdhe', ~v;;: mosheh. More frequently we see a point placed in the consonant to indicate in general a harder pronunciation. Tfcere are three eases to be distinguished, viz.: 12 Da ghesh forte, doubling the consonants. Daghesh lene, hardening the consonant; it stands only in the six mutae: nssisa in the above named cases ; otherwise the point occurring in these consonants must be a Da- ghesh forte. Mappiq, indicates that those consonants, which are also used as vowels , are then to be pronounced as consonants ; in modern printing it is made use of only in the W at the end of the words. In opposition to the point hardening the consonant, a little stroke standing above the consonant indicates his softer sound. This stroke called Raphe (") is now almost out of use, and is only employed in order to indicate express- ly the absence of a Daghesh or Mappiq. ACCENTS. The general design of the accents is to indi- cate the rhythmical members of the verses in the Old Testament. In doing this , they per- form a twofold duty; for the accents mark at one and the same time partly the logical re- lation of each word to the whole sentence, and partly the accented syllable of each single word. In the first case the accents supply the punctuation, in the latter they are signs of tone. — As signs of tone, the different accents are equivalent, because there is in Hebrew only one kind of accentuation. In most words, the last syllable is accented, more rarely the last but one. — As signs of punctuation , their use is more complicated, because they not only separate words , like our points , commas and colons, but also join one to the other. Therefore they are divided in Distinctivi and Conjunctivi. In the following list they are ar- ranged not according to their grammatical value, but according to their being placed below the consonants or above them, in order to give a more facile view of them. ACCENTS PLACED UNDER CONSONANTS. , Silluq only at the end of the verse, there- fore always joined with : Soph-pasuq, which stands between the single verses. A Athnach, mostly in the midst of a verse < Yethibh ( always to the left of the vowel). y Tebhir Tiphcha initiale j Merkha Double -Merkha j Munach Mahpakh (to the right of the vowel) s Darga v Yarach , Tiphcha finale. ACCENTS PLACED ABOVE CONSONANTS. ••• Segholta : Zaqeph-qaton '■ Zaqeph-gadhol ' Rebhia ~ Zarqa Qadma 1 Pashta j Shalshelet tJ Paser v Qarne-phara p Great-Telisha * Little -Telisha ' Garesh " Double- Garesh. ACCENTS CONSISTING OF TWO PARTS BELONG- ING TOGETHER, THE ONE ABOVE, AND THE OTHER BELOW CONSONANTS. — — Merkha mahpakhatum ■r - — Merkha sarqatum ■r Mahpakh sarqatum. t Soph-pasuq, separating verses. I Pesiq, between the. words. - Maqqeph, hyphen, aloft, between the words, i Metheg, sign of tone (to the left of the vowel). NUMERALS. There are no numerical ciphers in Hebrew ; but consonants are used instead of them. The units are expressed by s — B, the tens by • — u, 100— 400 by |p— P. The numbers 500—900 sometimes are expressed by the five final letters -[500 Q 600 j 700 PJ800 y 900, sometimes by r = 400 with addition of the other hundreds-, e. g. pr = 500. In compound numbers, the greater is placed first, e. g. x- 11, ssp 121. The number 15 is written with ita (9 + 6), instead of !T», because the name of God trap begins with these letters: and for the same reason, 16 is written te instead of v. The thousands are expressed by the units. superscribing two points , e. g. s 1000. ABBREVIATIONS. ' A stroke aloft to the left of the consonant. e. g. 's, denotes that this consonant serves side of the last con- . 'ca ( = rt-nott) it as a numeral. By the sonant of a word , e. marks an abbreviation. Two strokes above a word, e. g. rs, indi- cate that each of these letters stands for a separate word abbreviated. or * in copies of the Hebrew Bible refer to the readings placed in the margin or at the foot of the page. The first is of Masoretic. and the other is of modern origin. 13 RABBINIC GERMAN-RABBINIC Form Name Pronunciation Form Pronunciation h Aleph Spiritus lenis h a 3 Beth Giniel bh b gh g a 2 * b v f g 1 Daleth dh d i d 1 f n 15 He Vav Zayin Cheth Teth h s ('h guttural t n ii i n h V U w s cch t i j e short i Yodh y D, final "[ (' J, final "J s Kapfa Lamedh ch k 1 i M , final p ch 1 111 )), final C Mem m >, final | 11 ;, final ] D 1? Nun Sainek Ayin n s guttural D 1) D, final ^ D s ss e lon K p ph pf v 5 j fi»al C] 5, final J Pe Tsadhe ph ]> z 3 , final [* P z tz k ck q r P Q'oph k D s sh r Resh Shin Sin Tav r sli s th t n n t tt n DIPHTHC >m au, " ei, **| e )NGS. 11, >| tl german. 14 HEBREW RUNNING-HAND Form Name Pronun- ciation Numerical value Ligatures Polish German | ll " A Aleph K a 1 a. S Beth 2 b 2 -GP = J» 1)0 < Gimel Daleth 3 g 3 4 ff - nn bh a ^ He n h 5 ^ = ;: no i i Vav ) w 6 of = -: ncl r> a n Zayin Clieth 1 s n cii 7 8 (3 = n: nh b G Teth a t 9 & = a: nf 1 J3 i 3 Yodli Kapli ' y 3 cch 10 20 _m =- :; nn V V or (£, Lanierih *? i 30 M = 13 n w * N Mem £ in 40 j = »3 nj o J O Nun Samek : n D ss 50 60 ot = ^ Z(l y or ^ y °r $ Ayin > e 70 7 = is zw © Pe a p 80 Qi = ^ zi ® D Fe £ f 90 op Tsadhe Q'oph 2 c o' z 100 200 4 1 with mark of ab- breviation, in use at the end of certain words. n o Resh 1 r .300 Shin » sh 400 j\ .n Tav n th 500 FINAL LETTERS. Polish. Gorman. = *] cch = D in = i » = *\ t = r c z f = 1 cch D Vn i " ?' c z 15 SAMARITAN Pronun- Numerical * Form Name ciation value NOTES. The Samaritan is a Semitic language. Therefore, A Aleph Spintus lenis 1 the alphabet consists only of consonants (22 in number ami is read from right to left. As iii this language 3 Beth b bh 2 words cannot be separated at the end of the lines. the two letters ending the last word arc separated t Gimel g gli 3 from the others ami placed at the end of the line ; hut in printing tliis is generally avoided by dimin- f Daleth d dli 4 ishing or enlarging the spaces between the single words. 3C He ll Spir. aaper 5 Save some points and scant) orthographical signs, there are in Samaritan no vowel- marks. * Yav \\ V G accents or other diacritical siijns as in Hebrew. ^ Therefore we are somewhat in the dark about the Zavin s (Is 7 pronunciation of the consonants and vowels ami it can be acquired only by comparison with the Syriac H Cheth cli hh 8 ami the Hebrew, f Teth t 9 VOWELS. 01 Yorth y 10 There are no rowel-marks as in ether Semitic languages. However, to supply this want ami to * Kaph k cli 20 indicate somewhat the pronunciation, some conso- nants are used as rowels . \i/. : 1 Lamedh I 30 i A. 3f- V 'U Mem in 4(> 8 A, fil > Nun ll 50 i ffl £ Samek v 60 «), oo X V Avin j; b. To Of two consonants beginning a word, the Hrsl is pronounced a^ if it were ■ slight and indistinct 3 Pe ]. ph 80 rowel, similar to the Hebrew Sbwa, m Tsadhe ts 90 DIACRITICAL SIGNS. V Q'oph k 1(H) The only diacritical sign i> a stroke orei the consonant e. g, fc) serving to distinguish two ^ Resh r 200 different words written in tbe same manner, or two different forma derived from one and the same root, JUUL Shin Bh 300 or to indicate so letter added or omitted. When A Tav t th 4(H) placed over fj^ or \, the stroke indicates thai these letters are real consonants, not representing 1 rowels. PUNCTUATION. A point is pin b\ the sub- of tb<' final letter of B word. Besides ihi>. ihe following signs have been introduced b\ the transcribers: t or * or •»* at the end of a sentence, ♦ ♦ < also ♦) at the end of pari of a sentence, like our colon, .♦ or — <^t more seldom — ** t etc. , or compound — <^t =■•* et< at the end of a longer sentence or section . <^V« = — »V^> or similar signs, sometimes again and again repeated, between the end ol one section, paragraph or chapter, and the beginning of the other. The numbers are written as m Hebrew sec under 16 SYRIAC Name V Olaph Beth Gomal Dolath He Vau Zain Cheth Teth Yud Koph Lomad Mim Nun Semcath Ee Pe Tsode Quph Rish' v ' Shin Tau Form 5 (51 i connect- ed with a preced- ing letter connect- ed with both r 01 4 A £1 la 1 £12 -. 2. connect- ed with a follow- ing letter Pronun- ciation Numer. value 2 - Spiritus lenis b or V g d h W or V Z ch t y ch 1 m n s ■- as in ** hebrew P or f tS or Z q r sh til or t 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 VOWELS. The Syriac is written from right to left. — The vowels are expressed by diacritical signs or some marks in imitation of the greek; the latter of which are now mostly in use. In former times both kinds were em- ployed promiscuously. Figure Name Syriac. Greek. -j- 7 " 7 Pethocho a — or _ 1 " Rebotzo e _ 3: Chebotzo i - or - P Zekopho o a a a 5s a — Etsotso 00 DIACRITICAL SIGNS. . Ruchoch , a point below an aspi- rated letter to indicate that it is to be aspirated. . Quskoi , a little point over an aspirated letter to indicate that it is not to be aspirated. •• Ribui, two points placed horizon- tally above the word to indicate the plural. — Marhetono, a line above a letter between two consonants to indi- cate the absence of a vowel. Be- sides, this line signifies 1) a num- ber, 2) an abbreviation, 3) an exclamation. — MeJiagyono , a line below a letter, to show- that though without a vowel it is to be pronounced as if it had one. — Linea occultans, a liue placed be- low a letter to denote that it is to be mute or omitted in pro- nunciation. PUNCTUATION. I marks a single part of the premise of a sentence. •» marks the end of a premise; or, it is sign of interrogation. •* marks the single parts of the con- clusion of a sentence; or, larger interrogations. *l* or ;; at the end of a period. NUMERICAL VALUE. The consonants of the alphabet sup- ply the numbers from 1 to 400; in compound numbers . the greater pre- cedes. Within 500 — 900, the tens from 50—90 are denoted by a point standing aloft. The mark N under a unit denotes the thousands , -the ten- thousands, /v the product ot'the thou- sands multiplied by the tenthousands. In writing fractions, the numerator is denoted by a little stroke going from left to right, placed above the denominator. LIGATURES. ^ ^ Olaph-Lomad. fl % \L >L Lomad -Olaph. ~ Double -Gomal. ^^ Doubie-Lomad 17 SYRIAC Cut in the printing-office of B. G. Teuhser in Leipzig conformably to original drawings by Professor Tcllberg of Upsala and Professor Bernstein of Breslan. Form Pronun- ciation Name Form Pronun- ciation Name Form Pronun- ciation Name 1 I 2 J 3 ) a or Spirit. lenis. Olaph 29 V*, 31 j gh Gonial 57 ) 58 | 59 ~ 1 z j'(gr.u) Zain 4 ^ 5 ^ 6 ^ 7 s2> b and bfa 32 ♦ 33 * 34 ♦ 36 'j (1 anil dfa 60 ~ Gl *• 62 ~ 63 t kh Cheth 8 -) 3G ♦ 64 & 9 1 87 ?' 65 ± 10 z> ii i BetL 38 f 39 J - d Dolatfa 66 £ ,;7 i> i Teth L2 z> i» 40 a fr 13 '-) ii .i ,; -' 4) 14 1 12 j 70 ^ 15 p 16 p 17 > bfa l:; .♦ 11 r 46 jf dfa 71 * 72 .. 7;; * 18 > 46 .♦ 71 ^ i Yud 19 ^ 47 O) 75 ^ 20 ^ g 48 o> 7G ^ 21 V^ gh 49 6i 77 x 23^ 85 ^ o- Gonial 50 6> 51 oi 52 o> 53 oj fa He 781 o 7:> D 80 } 81 3 c and cfa Kopfa 26^ 54 Oi 82 1 27 ^ 1 28 ^ 1 gh 55 o 1 56 Q j W V u Van 8* *j 84 b } c 18 SYRIAC 1 w „_' Pronun- Porm elation Name Form Pronun- ciation Name Form Pronun- . ciation Name 85 b 115 QQ 145 a 86 ^ II63P ' . S Semcath 146 A > sh Shin 87 i c 117 3P 147 a 88 -t 118 i. 148 I 89 ^ 90 p 91 p * Koph 119 * 120 \ 121 \ ee ■ (hebr. V) Ee 149 N 150 1 151 * t > and th 92 •> 93 -i ch 122 N\ 123 N^ 152 1 153 k 94 y 124 2> 154 1 , t , Ta li 95 ^ 125 2i p 155 -IS 96 \ 126.2) . and P h(f) 156 I 97 \ 127 s^l , Phe Vol I 98^ 99 ^ 1 Lomad 128 2> \ 129 2> J 158 fcs 159 1 > th 100 ^ 101 ^ 130 2> ) ' Lphf 131 2i J 160 & LI GATUR. ES. 102 X> 103 >Q 104 X> 105 » m Mini 132 j 133 J 134 j 135 J ; Sharp > s or SS Tsode 161 ^ 162 ^ 163 ^ 164^ - Olaph- Lomad 106 )0 107 )Q 108 J 136 a 137 JQ 138 JD \ k Quph 165 v^ 166^ 167 ^ 1 gg Double- Gomal 109 J 139 ja 168 ^ 110 i 111 ^ 112 v n Nun 140 * 141 i 142 V . r Rish 169^ 170Q^1 ► gv Gonial- Vau 113 v 114 a> [• Seincath 143 ♦ 144 jt sh Shin 172 ^ ] 173^ | ■ Ml Vau- Nojq 19 SYRIAC Form 174 175 176 L77 L78 L79 * ^ il .80$x 181 £ 182^ 183^ 184^ 185 ^ 18(J^ 187 \k 188^ 189 & 190 & 191 >& 192 \k 193 &. 194 & 105 •&. L96 •& 197 ^> 198 Jj 199 Ji 300 v 201^ 202 v^ Pronun- ciation la lee ssn ssg Name Yud-Nun Lomad- Olaph Lomad- Teth Double Lomad Lomad- Ee Lomad- Tan Mi in- Nim Nun- Olaph Tsode- Nun Tsode- Gomal Vowels, Accents and Orthographi cal Signs p Rebotzo i Chebotzo VOWELS AND ACCENTS. 203 v 1 > a Pethocho 204 ?■ ) 205 fi 206 » 207 •. 208 * 209 .• 210 • 211 p 212 • / o Zekopho 213 : •jil * u Eteotso ORTHOGRAPHIC \i SIGNS. 215 - Ribui 216 - Mehagyono 217 - Marhetono 218 Qoshoi,Ruchoch Points and Numbers POINTS. 219 220 221 222 223 j Little hooks at the | beginning <>f a word at the end of a f word Strokes between \ the single letters to adjust fche liiif- 224 . 229 225 _: 230 226 -: 231 227 _•. 282 228 -♦. 233 <• Mark of marginal notes 23 I < Number- Mark NUMBERS. Form Value t 1 ^ 2 ^ n o J 4 O) 5 o 6 ) 7 «A* 8 i 9 - 10 r> 20 ^ 30 K> 40 t 1 50 S> 60 \i. 70 & SO J 90 J3 100 200 300 400 1000 20 ARABIC Form Pronunciation Name Unconnected Connected with a preced- ing letter Connected with both Connected with a follow- ing letter Numerical value Elif I L N Spir. lenis 1 Ba o V—A. A J b 2 Ta v«> o. A 5 t 400 Tha icy OSi A 3 th 500 Jim Hha c e e a. J hh 3 8 Cha ia> S. ch 600 Dal 4> d 4 Dhal 6 A dh or ds 700 Ra ; ; / r 200 Zay ; > • *• • z 7 Sin U" LP* Aft* MJ s 60 Shin LP |> A Xu sh 300 Ssad U° (ja *a a9 SS or Q 90 Ddad U* L>a -* .O d or dd 800 Tta Jo h. k is tt or th 9 Zza Jo h b £ zz 900 Ain e t X £ y Spir. gutt. 70 Ghain £ t X ^ gh 1000 Fa o A i f .80 Qaf o (J- A 5 k 100 Kaf J & JC.^. r*b k soft 20 Lam J S JL j 1 30 Mim r r <♦■ /0 m 40 Nun u c> A 3 n 50 Ha 5 Final g x Final & 4 55 h 5 Waw J J w 6 Ya ^ ^5 A J 3Ti i 10 ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS S ■£ g % £ £■ 21 VOWELS. jC- Fatha, a a e ~ Kesre, 1 e _>_ Damma, oo o At the end of the substantives the vowels are doubled to indicate the ease, viz. : _s_ on ~~ in _f_ an This is called Nunation, because, in pronouncing, Nun is added to the vowel. DIPHTHONGS: ^_1_ a j ^JL_ au UJBgeman< ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. JeZllia, separating syllables, is written over the final consonant of all shut syllable and indicates, that the syllable is finished and the consonant to be pronounced with the preceding vowel; it corresponds to the Shica quiescens of the Hebrew. _TL Teshdid, mark of doubling. The final consonant of a syllable being the same as that beginning the following one, this consonant is written only once, but marked with the sign _^_, which corresponds to the Hebrew Daghesh forte. In African manu- scripts it is written v or a. _»_ HaillZa is placed generally above the Elif , when this is used as a consonant and furnished with a vowel; when this vowel is a Kesre, the Hamza is placed beneath; sometimes also it stands above the Y. In Kufie Korans it is supplied by a little green stroke, in Moorish or African manuscripts by a thick green or yellow dor. *° vv esla, joining- mark. The Elif , at the commencement of a word, is sometimes in pronunciation absorbed by the final vowel of the preceding word. In this ease, the vowel of the Klif is elided and marked by the Wesla. ~ Medda stands above an Elif pronounced l)y Fatha and followed by a Hamza; it in- dicates the prolongation of the a. It is placed, also, above an Elif at the commence- ment of a word, or instead of an omitted Elif. Besides, this sign is a mark of abbre- viation. PUNCTUATION. There are no signs of punctuation in Arabic, only in the Koran the verses are separated by ^. This sign, however, or * or *' or a red dot. is employed also in other books at the end of a section. In manuscripts , sometimes , anew section begins with a word written in red colour; in manuscript dictionaries a red line is placed above each catch -word. cirina Formerly, the Arabs, like other oriental nations, used the letters of the alphabet to express numbers; at a later period, however, they adopted the following 10 special figures, called by us Europeans the Arabian ciphers, by the Arabs themselves the Indian ones. I V r t° 6 ^ V A 1 ♦ 12 3 4 5 (5 7 8 9 Regarding their composition and value they aceord with our numerals, which are taken from them, whereas the consonant- expressing ciphers are written from right to left, viz. U«H (1861). AEABIC LIGATURES £e** Ba-Jim da. Tha-Cha Ba-Hha 3?: Jim - Jim Ba-Hha-Jim 3E Jim-Hha c • ■ Ba-Cha £* Hha-Jim €£* Ta-Jim i Hha-Jim-Jim d£~* Ta-Hha B Hha- Jim-Hha # c Ta-Cha f * Hha -Hha Tha-Hha i Hha -Hha -Jim 22 ARABIC LIGATURES t* Hha-Cha g£L£ Kaf-Cha Z* Cha-Jim 51 * Lam-Elif i £4^ Cha-Hha Sin -Jim Sin-Hha Sin-Cha Shin - Jim Lam- Jim Lam-Jim-Hha Lam-Hha Lam-Hha-Jim Lam-Hha-Hha Shin-Hha Shin-Cha S sad -Jim i Lam-Cha Lam- Cha-Jim Lam - Mini - Hha- Jim ^>^^a^p Ssad-Hha &j Lam - Mini - Hha - Hha ^P^i^iSS' Ssad-Cha a ± Lam-Ya ^a Ddad-Jim £ 4* ^ Mini -Jim Ddad-Hha Tta-Hha a? Mini -Hha Mini -Hha -Jim 4~ ^ Aiii-Jim 5S? Mim-Hha-Hha £. a£ Ain-Hha £ ^ ■=* Mim-Cha 4 # Ghain-Jim Ghain-Hha Fa -Jim Fa-Hha d£^* Nun -Jim Nun -Hha Nun-Cha Ha -Jim d&^* Fa-Cha <^N ^ Ha -Hha A Fa-Ya i& i£> Ha-Cha ££ Qaf - Jim ? Ha -Mini It Qaf-Hha Qaf-Cha Ya-Jim Ya- Jim -Hha Kaf-Elif Kaf-Jim Kaf-Hha Ya-Hha Ya-Hha-Hha Ya-Cha 23 AETHIOPIAN AND AMHARIC Form 3 O Name with D with u with i with a with e with e with 6 2.2 Hoi u i* U- hu yr hi y ha y he U be IT ho h Lawi A 'a A- '■ A li i\ la A la A la TV lo 1 Haut rf\ rfr »■- rfa. •" rh ha ith he fh be /fr ho h Mai C^> ma <^>» mu (ft. "» (fi ma C?3 me f^ me Cp mo m Saut ID ■' Uh bu UJL si W sa UJ se pu se IJJ so s Rees ^ ra 4^ ru Z Pi Zi ra *£ re C re C ro r Sat fl sa rt- su A, s' i*l sa rt. s * fl se j*i so s *Shat fl ■!" fj- shu Fi, sh. Fl sha fl she fl she _pi sho sh Kaf 4> ka $ ku <£ ki <$> ka * ke cf> ke

K a A a A a is o a Kaf "ft ^ ^ ku "ft ki Yl ka U ke 51 ke "pi ko k *Chaf "fr ,h.3 Tf •'a Tq da "fi f be 51 a Y* cho ch Wawi (D ax wu u ^ ' <7? Cfe e a {J V Zai H a H* ■ a ■ H H, za "H a p zo z :: Zshai ■H" ja TF ja K ji -H" ja ■K ja 5T ja K o J* Yam an P y« P jm p. f P F. ya .E ya p- yo y Dent £ «■ R. * JZ. i J? R i'- JP- Ja ^ do d *Jent Jf P £ ju %. J? ja ^ ja J?" ja £ jo j Geml 7 aa 7- 8'J 2 9 3 8a 2 ga °2 8 e 1 8° g Tait fll a m* t m. t n\ ta m, te ^P te jfn to t -Tshait HI tsba ffi. tshu m. tshi ttt ts ha m, tshe tyC tshe t™ tsho tsh Pait A pa /t pu A. pi A pa A pa A pa £ po P Tzadai A tsa /t tsu A ' S1 K tsa A tse A tse /* tso ts Tsappa 9 tsa EJ, tsu kue 4^ kue ted by : — The alphabet of both languages is syllabic ; the Am- •^o hka ^ hhui ■£ hhua **& hhue ^v hhue haric, however, has seven orders of letters (each order Ylt° kua fft kui fr. kua fa iue Y^ kue consisting of 7 forms or cha- racters), wanting in Aethiopi- T gua > F 2 S'aa 2 8 ue ' b 8 ue an, which, are marke iii the above 1 by *. able, 24 AETHIOPIAN Cut in the printing -office of F. A. Bkockhaus in Leipzig under the direction ol" the German Oriental Society. With a With u With i With a With e With e With 6 ha U« hu % hi y ha % he 1 li he V ho A »a A- 1" A. li A la A. le A le A° lo th ha rh. hti A. hi Ji ha ili. he ;u he th ho ao ma im- mii «?» mi n ma "fc m6 r me

se y so £ ra 4- ru & ri & ra & re c re £ r6 rt sa fr sd A. si * sa A. s6 A se A so 4» qa * qii * 4 r p qa * qe 4» qe * qo fl ba ft. bii n. bi n ba n, be -fl be ft bo ± ta •J: tii •t ti ^ ta -It t£ * te -fl to -» fe a **■ !$ X w 3 ha •fc he 1 he "P !?° ^ na ^ nu X ni 9 na fc ne ? ne go m ta m« tu m. ti m ta m. te T te fn to A pa A. pu A. P* ft P a A. P^ Ji- P e * po ft za ft zii X. zi * za & ze ff ze ^ zo za 0- zii t zi 1 za ft ze b ze P zo £ ^ £ fii & fi * fa 4, f e , <£ fe C fo T pa . V pu x Pi ? pa T pe T pe ^ po 25 DIPHTHONGS. kua gua qua hua h*. kui Tt. gui 4** qui *V. hui kue que hue kua gua quA kue gue que hu<§ PUNCTUATION. Comma Stop for the division of words : NUMBERS Semicolon Full stop 1234567 89 10 11 etc. 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 etc. 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 Ethiopic , formerly the vernacular language of the Abyssinians , by whom it was called Geez, is only preserved in writings. As a Semitic language it bears a close affinity to the Himyaric, a South- Arabian dialect, which was superseded in the times of Mahomed. The Ethiopic possesses a high degree of flexibility which is mainly due to the diligence with which the study of Greek writings was cultivated in Abyssinia. The Alphabet originally consisted of consonants without indications of vowels. In form it approaches the Himyaric and thus differs from the other Semitic characters. Ancient Ethiopic inscriptions show examples of writing from right to left; owing, however, to the early influence of Greek literature, espe- cially after the introduction of Christianity, the arrangement of words was fixed from left to right. At the same time the coalition of consonants and vowels was indicated by particular forms, which gave rise to the adoption of a complete syllabarium. With the change of the ruling power in the fourteenth century the Ethiopic language began to decay, and rapidly falling into disuse, it is now replaced by the Amharic language. AMHARIC. This language deriving its name from the kingdom of Amhara in Abyssinia, has supplant- ed the ancient Ethiopic idiom. The kings of Shoa, on gaining the upper hand, effected the preponderance of the Amharic language, to the exclusion of the kindred Ethiopic. The Alphabets of both languages are identical, except the following Characters, which are peculiar to the Amharic language. with a with u with i with a with e with e with 6 Jl sha ff. shu ft shi 7f sha K she 7j she ?? sho 5f? tsha ¥ ishu i£ tshi »j2 tsha if; tshe "4« tshe 2f tsho 7 na f. nu % Si ? na ■g ne ^ ne ^ no •fi kha TJ. khu U khl Ti kha -ftkhe •fi khe Ti kho IP ja (Fr.) Tf= ju TC ji Tfja Tfjt WP IT jo £ ja % j* % ji $ P E p ft je £ P 1,1,1. Cnlla £Eb chhu ££l.chhi «fc chha £Efe»chhe *£» chhe £Bbchh6 # * lua mua rua sua DIPHTHONGS. W sua X nua o bua }^ zua rjh lua ■ vua Jp cua' ^ dua ^ tua (X^ cua £ zua $. fua 26 TURKISH. T he Turkish language is a compound of words taken from the Tatar, Persian and Arabic languages. The high dialect, only spoken at Constantinople by people of quality, and serving as the written language, is a compound of Persian and Arabic words. Like most oriental languages , Turkish is written and read from right to left. t Elif supplies the german vowels a, y, o, u, the consonants of the word being hard ; but the german e, i, 6, u, the consonants being soft. When Alif is followed by a hard consonant, the ^ ( Ustun) is pronounced like a, the ~~7~ (Esre) like y, and the _j_ (Utru) like o or u. Follo- wing, however, a soft consonant, the ' (Ustun) is to be read as e, the~7~ (Esre) as i, and the > (Utru) as o or u. In the middle and at the end of words, without Hamzalif , the Alif is always pronounced like a, but with Hamzalif, like e. j Ba is our b. After Ta, Tha, Jim, Cha, Sin, Shin, Ssad, Tta\ Qaf, Gef'xt is often read likejj. ■> Pa is owr p. 'J Ta is our t. In the conjugation of some verbs it is changed into Dal. y Tha is our s or ss, except the word ^X'J tult. The Arabs pronounce it like th. - Jim, the Italian g before e or i. When '" meeting the consonants named above in connection with the letter ^ „>, it is pro- nounced like Tchim. Tckin like our ch in ches: Hha like h in have. C «p- Cha, the german ch in brauchen. <.> Dal like d. It is pronounced like t when meeting the consonants named above in connection with the letter ^. 3 Dhal like z. \ Ra like r. \ Za like our z. jj*< Sin like s, ss. (j** Shin like sh. Ssad like sharp ss. Ddad, like our z; the Arabs pronounce it like d. Tta like t or th; it is often confounded with Ta and Dal. lb Zza like our e e o O J J r -4in like a strong guttural and nasal a, V, to. Ghain like g guttural. Fa like our/. Qa/ like k, kh or c&. Kaf, like 9 or &, as in the french words qui, quel. Gef, accords with our g in give; in some cases it is pronounced like gi very soft; in the middle of words and in some terminations like y. ■£=3 Saghur Nun, i. e. mute Nun, like the french nasal -n in mon, son. Lam our /; in some cases it is soft like /in limb, in some hard like /in all. Mim, like m. Nun our n; but when followed by a Ba, it is pronounced like m. Waw our w or v; furnished with Utru, it is pronounced like a in conjunction with hard consonants ; like german ii or 0, however, in conjunction with soft ones. Ha like our h ; at the end of words it is mostly pronounced like a or e. Lamelif, la or Ha (Ligature). Fa, when a consonant like our y, when a vowel like t; it represents a vowel only in the middle or at the end of words. ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. " Ustun is placed over the consonants and pronounced like a with a hard consonant, like e with a soft one. ^ Esre below the consonants , is pronounced like vowel y with a hard consonant, but like i with a soft one. f Utru is pronounced like or u with a hard consonant, but like or u with a soft one. # Iki ustun (double Ustun) like en. ^ Iki esre (double Esre) like in. S Iki utru (double Utru) like on or un. The three last marks are only employed in Arabic words. fc Jesm (sign of pause) is placed over a consonant wanting a vowel , followed by an other consonant. ~ Teshdid or Shedde when placed over a con- sonant doubles it. ■"" Meddelif or Medda, is only placed over the Alif, which, then, is always pronounced like- a. P Hamzelif or Hamza : placed over Elif, is pronounced like e; over Waw, like u. over Fa, like 1; at the end of words, end- ing with a vowel, like 1. 27 PERSIAN 1 Name Form Pronun- Xumer: , i connected connected uncon- with a connected with a ciation value nected preceding letter with both following letter Elif » I 1 Spiritjs lenis 1 Many Arabic word* having been Ba o V* A J b 2 introduced into the Persian language. Pa * the Persian alphabet consists of 32 P consonants, which are written and Ta read from right to left; of these O) o* A 3" t soft 400 consonants, 28 are common to both Tha ("J £k X J S sharp 500 languages ; only the following four are purelj Persian : Jim e t A ^ j 3 V£J <* Tchim Hha C C V •2* tch nil sharp - VOWELS. Cha c t ia* ■^ kllguttur. noo All Persian letters are consonants. Dal (1 4 except Elif,Waw andYa, which also suppl] lo a g vouch , the Wa\V, some- Dhal 3 cX 700; times, represents a short vowel ; Ra ; 7 • • 1* 200, la y w ^5 y Za ; > Z soft 7 The short vowels are written thus: Zha J> / ZDorJfrench • • • j^Zabar, a >~Zir,e jJPish, u Sin LT u** ~ * S sharp 60 ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. Shin LT LT .w. «IM Bh 300 P Hamza, at the end of a word. Ssad u* Ofl. A2. .O S Bharp 90 800 sometimes supplies the Elif; it is also placed above an Elif in the Ddad u* L>i *d ^ Z Jia r.si. ^=s g palatal diphthong with a preceding,. Lam J J^ JL J 1 30 - Mini r r ♦ X) m 40 CIPHERS. 50 To write numbers, -tbe Persians Nun u ^ X j n employ ejjher the alphabet, or the Waw ) j w 6 Arabic ciphers (see under). Ha 5 & 4 h 5 LIGATURE. Ya £ 1 ^ A J yandi 10 3 ^ Lam -Elif, la. > , 28 AFGHAN OR PUSHTOO Figure Pronun- ciation Figure Pronun- unconnected in the midst at the com- mencement unconnected in the midst at the com- mencement ciation ! 1 1. t a, a, i, u lA •W. ■*£ sh ^ . A J' b o* ^/5* -4* -*> khin S^ X £ P u° Aft *Q ss o A J t u* *o. jo dz * £ 3 tt At 4a Jb t & A J t's b la fe z z rs £L t's £ A r cBj a A 2> j e it £ • gh c A £b> ch o A i f c &> fi> h Uf A 3 k,q t i^ ^ kh a* <=* £ ^= r k A J d tt* C*jf f g d £ S (Id J JL j 1 6 A j> z r ♦ /? m ; 7 ; r U a 3 n J J j rr g V * i rrn > > ) z J J ) w 11 t s iL dz 5 & 4 p- h •; J> 4 t J -J jz p- A j a u* m* AM s tS A j y, e, i, ai NOTES. Before the introduction of arabic words, the original Pushtoo alphabet consisted only of 29 different sounds; at present, theAfghans make use also of the 28 arabic letters, and of these four letters used in Persian: v-J er- '': and ^>, from which results an alphabet of 40 different characters which are all consonants. The Pushtoo vowels are the same as the Arabic and Persian: ' . Zabar or Fatha a, ~7~ Zer or Kasrah e, > Pesh or Zammah u. They are placed either above or under the conso- nant beginning a syllable, as: ^> ba, v«j bi, ^-J bu. JZabar followed by " is read as the diphthong au\ followed by ^, as the diph- thong ai. "" or " Jesm or Jesmah indicates that the consonant has no vowel and the syllable is finished. Meddah or Medd, an other form of Elif, is sign of producing a syllable. Teshdid indicates that a consonant is to be pronounced double. IVesla, joining -mark. Hamzah supplies the place of Elif. —£~ s Tanwin is the arabic Nunation ar the end of the words , pronounced by ad- ding a n to the vowels: an. in, yn. 29 COPTIC Figure Name Pronunciation Notes B s r p •A * G e H e I R \ u H £ n p c T T $ X x UJ cu UJ a, (T '. pieh, stroke slant- 20 1 o chwen, equal, 36 #° dsieh, evening ing to the left * o triangle 5 L yi, crooked 21 o tj pi, spoon 37 A la, great 6 J o stroke kiu, hooked 22 C fang, to pull out 38 jf" nil, girl "* O stroke 7 o — urh, two / 23 Uo kwah, division 39 : f tse, son, child between fields S -*~ yitien-yiwa 24 To _ shiah, ten 40 o *f» m ou or poen-an hat °A jin, man 25 b poh, to divine 41 \|" tsun. inch *1L. chah, foot 26 n ° tsshi 42°^ siou. small » A shah,. to enter 27 J~~ o shi, shelter 43 ~fLo kang } horrible 12 X x v o pah, eight 28 J^ chee, perverse 44 p" shi, corpse 13 n„ kwah, desert 29 ^° yiu, again, 45 lfl° tsou " o o moreover 14o*~> mien, to cover 30 p kiu, mouth 46 UJ° san . mountain i5° y pin, ice Bl° hwei, return «•{« cltuen . stream 16 JC chi, bench 32 o± too, the ground ° -r- 48 X kbng, artisan, time 31 49 tj ° chi, self 50 rtl chin, cloth 51 "p" /vuw.shield.spear 52 j£^ */l*£n ; source 58 o/ y*W, hut 54 jf- feow, long walk 55 Q V I A'o«(/ . higher ft yi£h . spear 5G V 57 *"^/ to.7- » bow 58 59 . kway } Come! saw, coal ^ 60 -q ghuang-jin, two „ HUM) iV 61 j|_j\ sw, heart 62 ^5 A'o/' ■ a lance 63 I 11 ' ic'oO . inner door (54 "4 sheu, hand 05 "^ /;'. branch 00 3C c/ii. the stalk 07 > >C- ftmw ■ gentle ►8 o*"| fo?/, ;i measure 39 /T ('/////. hatchet. o ■ . pound ~ i{) /I fa ny . a square. ° ^c tnt ' u >/L f'e. no »;s 73 I J t/i' oun 8 ° of animals 80 "W f'6, ia not 81 Jt? P'j to compare *2o ~~t ///0 "- feather 83 i^t w • dan 84 w i ''/". air 85 7j\ shway, water 86 /\ <7m. nails 88° ^C /"' ;// - f * ther 89 o >C .V "'- Bi g n 90 ^"J clucany . pole 91 o / = i /j/V'/? ? splinter 92 >f //a/*, teeth 9<*><)l '"'"• (,x 94 7\L elf en. dog 97 j5^ kwah, melon 98 ^PL wa/i, tiles, ■ ■ earthenware 99 Ho fcan, sweet 100 £o senn. to live, to » An give birth 101c ijbng, to use 102 Ho tien, field 103 5° /)/c/l piece 104 * o /sj£/i ; sick 105 Ko fall, to divide 106 a„ bull , white 107 ,J£ 6/. skin 71 95 "r^ t/tt&I, intermin- 72 P s7/c// . sun. dav i M j jh m ,V/. able gem 108 «Uu» mifi; implement 109 B ° mbh , eye 110 o^ //mu// . spear 111 ^^ ,s7//. arrow 112 ^ o .s/i/VV/ ; stone -~~~- o 113 M\ .S3, to admonish 114 P*J nulitj or shbh, .— clapper of a bell 115o^K haw, grain 116 /Vq, yueh. cave 117 .lLo //p. to stand 118 I J r//o/* ; bamboo 11!) o ^l\. mi, rice 120 ?!> s's ; silk 32 121 -fff fow, jar 145 ^fc t, clothing 169 pH mim, a door 122°|)(){J kang, hedge 146 ffi i/«w, twilight 170 JpL fou, a mound 123 gcr yang? sheep 147 S chien, to see 171 o^J< <#> to accomplish 124 "Ml ix, long feathers 148 ° m krih, horn, cor- / ' 1 ner 172°^ chhih,ftne 173 |>J\J y#, rain 125 ^ too, old 149 = nien, word o M 126 Bj wr/i ; and 150 ^St ^> a P ertures f— ' o in rocks 174 FFJ tsin, green o ■ ■ 127 H^ ^ e > handle of a /Tv spade 151 g £ow, head 175 ^f /fec^, not 176 ]R\ mien, face 128 tt- ull, the ear 152 ^^ s/m ; swine 129 :=&* y u ^ 1 ' to mani_ : T^*o fest, a baton 153 J%f c hh superior or- ^» der of animals 177 ^P- o fc££, leather 130 J^J yd/i, flesh 131 ET c/im, an official 154 J=4 pei^ valuables 155 ^p cfte/i, red 178 -^p /i^a?/ ; high 179 3t c/ii'w, leeks 132 13 °te% from one self 156 /fco £so?i ; to walk 180 o El yin,n sound, tone 133 "3? ° isz > t0 arr * ve ' - 1 *- 1 extreme 157 >^o tsbh, leg 181 E3 hieh. a sheet, a "^Z leaf g , o 134 H c/ww ; mortar 158 J^ s hin. body 182 /^J, fong, wind 135 j5" c/w;e/z ; tongue 159 o^ c/w, cart 183° jfe fee, to fly 136 ylf c/im/l, strong 160 ° ^Jr SiW ; bitter, hard- ships 184 "b£*° s/uV<. to eat 137 7q" c/iM< ; vessel 161 o^ ^ n ' anhour ' rt azure 185 ||[ s/?ez/. head 138 El kun , inferior or- -^ ° der of nature 162 ^c tseu, to run 186 ^2? shiang. scent 139 |2 ° se/? ; colour 163 Q y£ ( a town 187 BiL »ma. horse Hi *\ 140 (W tead , grass 164 m yoo, twilight o M 188 S* few«A; bones 141 o f% r hoo, tiger 165 7|\ £s/e, to separate 189 ° "a" *«« > hi S h 154 142 3\ chong, insects 166 Hi fi> one third °^ a mile 190 *=/ fcoo; whiskers, o3*X beard 143 IIIL shweh. blood 167 ^E^ o c/mw. gold, metal 191 tg /om. to fight # — o 144 'f^f j£/i ; to walk, to act 168 ]^ c/?«?i#, long 192 vSM cluing, sweel o ^J wine 33 193 Ugi Ueh, to cup nr-* o open xy kway, devil 195 4& nit, fish o < ba 26 J no 2 t? ro 2 y wa 26 "p ze 50 /-I pa 27 t 3 /^ fa, \a 3 3. e 4 -i i 27 is si 28 & zi 51 ^ fe 52 -s: be 28 ? ku 4 - ni 5 tf o 29 7 SO 53. ^< pe 29 ^V ya 5 £ fo 6 ^ WO 3o y zo 54 \L fl 30 v ni a 6 >^^ fo, ve 7 ^ 1. 31 % su 55 £* bi 31 ^ ke 7 K to 8 -V ya 32 X ZU 56 ir pi 32 y fu 8 f Isi 9 X ye 10 # yi 33 9 ta 34 -9 da 57 £ fo 5a :£ l)o 33 3 k() 9 9 ri 11 3 yo 35 r te 59 3"> po 34 X ye 10 * mi 12 2. yu 36 r de go y fu 35 t te 11 n/ ru 13 J? ka 37 f- tSI 61 *? bU 36 T a 12 ■^ w o 14 #' ga 38 f dsi 62 w ' : pu 63 ^- na 64 ^ ne 6f — ni 1 6 / no 67 5< nu 68 ^ n 37 t sa 38 df ki 39 3. y U 40 ^ me 13 14 15 16 7 w o ka yo da 15 $r ke LO ? ge 17 ^ ki 18 ^ gi 19 3 ko 39 }> to 40 K do 41 y tsu 42 5?" dsu 43 »T ma 41 £. mi 17 u re 20 I/' go 44 -* me 69 > ra 42 1/ si 43 3. e 18 19 tsu 21 ^ ku 22 >r gU 23 ^r sa - 1 mi 46 °t mo 47 2* mu w re 7i 9 ri 72 a ro 44 £ fi, vi 20 : t- ne 24 4f za * fa 73 H/ Ml 45 ^ mo 21 f na * The accent nig or i, consisting of two minute marks at tin 46 if se 22 ~7 ra right of the syllable, softens the consonant. The accent mnrn, 47 2 SU L a dot likewise at the right, hardens the consonant. By tin 23 mu addition of these marks and the », unattended by a vowel. 24 & u the letter- original] y -47. are raised to th 1 number of ABBREVIATIONS AND ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. 1 koto. "T goto. i site. 3- tama. ^ Sign of doubling a letter, placed in the middle line. ( Sign of doubling a syllable. | Sign of lengthening a vowel. Full stop. % comma, towards the right, bey< nd the middle Inn 35 SANSCRIT CONSONANTS. VOWELS. Each consonant is sounded with an inherent short a. The vowels in the left row are uttered as initials or are placed before their consonants. The vowel- - in the right division being medials and finals, GUTTURALS LABIALS coalesce with their consonants, and are respec- tively p.aced over, under, before and after the letters. ^ ka 13T kha JT ga ST gha qr pa qpf pba of ba >T bba ST a V 1 r 3 » 3 fi ft r H r ^ 1 COALESCENT TOWELS, ' a follows the consonant f. \ 1 precedes n » 1 ii a *T nia T 1 follows ,) PALATALS. tX cha ^ ch'ha sT ja T\ j'ha BEMI-VOWELS •ST ya 7 ra r?T la 3" va •O 11 under c 11 OT 11 a ml -,1 CEREBRALS 8IBILANT8 in DIPHTHOK Z la A8PIB \ I i> 7 •' - i\ over 7T (ha T da £ dha ST slia V( sh'ha *R" sa V ai SIT o ~ ai T follows W na ^ ha HI an l a " ' ' DENTALS. fT (a ET tha 3E: i This character peculiar to the Rig-Veda 1 sound which part of / and i ■ It st ants ior the cerebral da. When it represents thi rate of this letter, it is expressed i>y - and <., I!, as the sign of coalescence of two o. o is the sign of abbreviation. r and -* represent the Letter /•. The former sign is pronounced before the consonant (and the semivowel ri) at the top of which it is placed; the latter sign is placed under the consonant and sounded ifter it. ACCENTS. _ Anudatta or grave accent stands under the vowel. rita or circumflex is put over the vowel. In connexion with these marks the numerals y and H serve as accents. NI'ME 1 2 3 4 5 RALS. $ O K § 6 7 8 36 SANSCEIT The similarity of shape occasions mistakes in correcting proofs; it may therefore be of advantage both to compositors and readers of proofs to make use of the annexed numbers of reference. The form of the subjoined Alphabet differs from that which precedes, but is superior in point of correctness. 1 ^ a 27 -sir re(withAcc) 53 ^ kja 79 U nka 2 m a 28 **J ai(witMca) 54 35 kra 80 w likta 3 \ i 29 *fc raim 55 SR kra 81 ^J rikya «s « 30 : 56 15 kla 82 f rikslia 5 ^ u 31 ♦ 57 « kva S3 3 ri kha 6 ^ u 32 w 58 ^ ksha (x) 84 ST rikhya 7 W ri 33 | > 59 ^ ksh 85 W riga 8 ^ ri 34 || CD 60 "^T kslima 86 wn ligya 9 ^5 n 35 o CO P 61 -^ ksliya 87 ff ligha 10 ^ ji 36 - o 62 ^T kshva 88 ^ iighya ii TJ e 37 S CD ■1 63 ^ kha 89 -J- ii ghra 12 t a 38 * O 2 64 ^ kh 90 f liiia 13 f i 39 s 3 1 o 65 T^f khya 91 ^ cha (ca u*l i 40 + 66 T\ ga 92 x> ch (c) 15 T ri 41 - §L 67 X g 93 ^ cca 16 v*> u 42 i co eg' 68 ^ gna 94 ^ ccha 17 c\ u 43 * 3 CO 69 1% gnya 95 ? ciia 18 c ri 44 K 70 ^ gra 96 ^ cm a 19 6 fi 45 « 71 zq- grya 97 xlj cya 20 *2 Ii 46 ^{ ka 72 U gha 98 ^ cha 21 oj> ji 47 ^ kka 73 T gh 99 ^ chra 22 -s e 4« ^R kta 74 Jf ghna 100 if ja 23 ^ ai 49 ^ ktja 75 tjj ghma 101 5 j »i 50 ^ ktva 76 TZI ghya 102 15T jja 25 -si e (with Ace.) 51 15 kna 77 ^ ghra 103 ^ jfia 26 ■* re 52 ^q kma 78 ^ ria 104 5 j» 37 SANSCRIT 105 -tffj ii^a i 133 ^ff ndra 161 ^ th 189 V* dhya 106 5Ef jya 134 JJff ndrya 162 ^Zf thya 190 U dhra 107 15f jra 135 ^ ndha 163 ^ da 191 ^ dhva 10S 55 jva 136 ^ nna 164 ^ du 192 R na 109 1^ jha 137 ^ nya 165 £ du 193 * n 110 ^ jha 138 JJf nva 166 ? dri 194 tT nta ill 3? fia 139 fT ta 167 ^ dga 195 t*T ntya 112 > fi 140 r t 168 f dgha 196 ^ ntra 113 3f iica i4i 3; tka 169 ^ (Ida 197 ^ nda "* ^ nja 142 ^ tta 170 I ddba 198 ^ ndra 115 ^ ta 143 ^ ttva 171 q ddya 199 ^ ndha 116 J tka HI ^T ttra 172 ^ dd ha 200 ^ ndhra 117 I tta 145 ^ ttva 173 5J ddhya 201 ^ nna 118 251 (va 140 \>T tna 174 ^ diia 202 ■* npra 119 J (ha NT jq (pa 175 ^ dba 203 *f> nplia 120 35J thva l" W tpra 176 ^ dbra 204 ^ nphra 121 J thra 119 TO t))ha 177 ^ dbha 205 *T nma itJ 5 (la IM TO tphra 173 ^ dbhya 200 *l nya 133 f (Ida 151 m tina 179 ^ dma 207 *a nsa 124 3" (Ida 152 fWf tmya ISO ^ dva 208 XI pa 125 q- bhya 259 t*q lva 2S7 "Of slip a 315 1 lila 232 ^ bhra 260 of va 28S "BCf slipra 316 ^ hva 233 *q bhva 261 V 289 Iff shina 317 3^ I 234 Tf ma 262 «$ V 200 ^f shya 3IS ^ lha 235 I m 263 «q vya 291 ^ sa 319 Cj \ 236 ^ mria 264 ^ via 292 ^ s 320 ^ 2 237 pj mpa 265 if vva 293 ^j ska 321 $ 3 238 JXJ mpra 266 ^r 9a 294 ^ skha 322 tf 4 239 lg mba 267 ^ 9a 295 ^ sta 323 q 5 240 W( mblia 268 ^ 9 296 ^gf stra ■ 324 % 6 241 151 mya 269 * V 297 ^SJ stha 325 v9 t 242 J5T mra 270 ^5 90 a 298 ^ sua 326 t S 243 ^ mla 271 ^f 9<'ya 299 ^q spa 327 Q 9 244 JQ msa 272 ^ 911a 300 ^q; spba 32S 3 l J TAMIL The Tamil language was earlier cultivated than the other members of the Dravidian family. It includes two dialects the (ancient) Shen-Tamil and the (modern) Kodun -Tamil. Tamil is spoken throughout the plain of the Carnatic, below the ghauts from Pulicat to cape Co- morin, to the neighbourhood of Trivandrum; also in the northern and western part of Ceylon where in ancient times Tamilians established their settlements. This language has 12 vowels and 18 consonants. It is read from left to riffht. SHORT VOWELS. 3 as in America i d » fill U » d full e » « self long D 9 THE CORRESPONDING LONG 1T0WELS. a? hi 4p I i Sanscrit cerebralt like n of Sanscrit cerebral rolled partly like a cerebral. partly like a dental LIQUIDS. UJ \ as in yes rr r >. » round sv 1 a i> lap su V The consonants have been divided into roug h, soft and intermediate sounds. The first class includes the temies («, <£, t-L , @ , U, p). The second class contains the corresponding Nasals. The third class contains the Liquids. A dor placed at the top of a consonant indi- cates the absence of a vowel , hut is omitted in native MSS. 'off 1 hard, it is of cerebral character Lp 1 intermediate between r ami 1. The following rules are to be not iced in the pronunciation. iorl a. before the sofl letters sot, ggoi-, the intermediate letters ff", 6tf, ST), tp, and at the end of polysyllabic words, sounds like 6 in men. h Combined with a preceding fl it receives the same sound. c The vowels e and e as initials are pro- nounced as \ty were placed before tlicm. d) The vowels i (!) and e (e) before Unguals (lL, 6ot? and (6T) Q(6Jj[T t L_ L_/7 f L& ® 9 Oz_ QfrtT Qm %srr Oar/r r P & fSl $ J27 jyr Qp Qp 65)p Qqt? n 65T & (ssfl 65? M* ®pir Qgst Q<55T Ssw' 0@) Qsrr Q&n Qi_i Q(655) Qprr Qprr Quit GW QlUfT Quit Q5V1 Q a a z fi AX) 33 a G e J i K> t 32>Q a 33 ey T> i ? t s\ ie G@0 au ) u (^ th si ee g(So^ au 9 u v-o d § u o o 35) an P e (e) S dh O 2 u 00 35>0§ ah E e / D CONSONANTS » e o P f *, oo k 3 d V o j ; b s> kh O dh (MS ito « in o g ? n « an c > initial >JD gh o 1> c ngdt gn a ph 3 k jj y mi'tlial ch o b (S* kh 7 r 30 chli 00 bh t? q 6 \ initial S j o m (2 g )^ . v medial Ql |i 00 y t gh erff w e° n °l r jS ii . JS V ? t CO 1 ? c (ch) EP sh s th o vv d 00 s k j M3 j; 1 V dh oo h & sh ai 4 cha s> tha ^ ra 3 i (ee) & i chha 6 da S la J&> i (ee) 1) 6 83 ja £ dha o$ va & u (oo) 3-W 2o au 1 jha * na g sa (6^ u (66) O ii r^» na 2S pa (^ sha f ♦ h & t'a £ pha $ za %xyr r' * ka la J^ sha ft? «* §2 ttu S? iii 03~^ lu & slit 'a ^ gai i tie ^ 11 u 3) 3Hl) \ bha J a 2/\l j &4 ° 49 cliha 21 tha (Hj £ i (ee) OAl) 2 ja jha t'a <£ da $1 dlia «i na 1^ ma (\ va Ct la % ka I t'ha H Pa 2- ra \ *■ U\ kha 6 d'a % pha ">d sa ■3A \ e (ai) 91 ga G d'ha £| ba *l ra 61 gba U* o'a ^ ha LIGATURES villi dm XI id ^ glu, 6^ gin". <(f chi ^ elm <£^] chhi ^9 chlm ^ clihu «10ji $ J" JjJ, jllll J «'" il t'hi J *'"" £di ^ d-n £ ,ru <£l «* ^ d'hu ^ d'hu llrt Hi ^ ,11 ' 1 S vn lg> «•» ^1 pi 1 v,i Ilk y,p» «a.n sfl ti ^j"' *' oflbi ^ >'••• ^ b " ^1 i <£ di ^ '"■' 3, ™ 7A bhi ^i s '"' / H blm *d Si efl dhi /H blift Sj, S* £j dim l(l mi % s* ft dim 3 m " §lhi ,flni Tjmfi Jr 1 "- 1 "" 41 vi ^ N 44 TELUGU one of the branches of the Drftvidian stock, is spoken along the eastern coast of India from the neigh- bourhood of Pulicat to Chicacole. Inland it extends to the eastern boundary of the Maratha Coun- try and Mysore, including within its range the ceded districts and Kurnool, the greater part of. the territories of the Nizam, the Hyderabad Country and a portion of the Nagpore Country. This language is spoken by about 14 millions. © a © e Snga ^ ta *5 ra feP a J 8 £5 cha £•> tha O la 3 i (ee) 2o o \£ chha 2S da £5 va 5* i (ee) lo 6 & ja <*> dha q> sa & u (oo) Ij uo Cfo jha ^ na(soft) ^ sha feW ti (65) o h ££* nya ^3 pa •£ sa °a^ r : h . 6) t'a o$ pha £p>ha 1§ ka p kha X ga 5 -t'ha £§ d'a C§ d'ha i o Da (tjS* bha 53 ma gT^a Cj3 sha \ Pause o!i e aa gha i £® n'a(hard) CJSSya LIGATURES y ka Tfty° jha i (3r> ma a ti ct© 1 ' K 5o ku r°ko OdJ° jhi &s mi § ti ex3 in sSb^Jhu 2& mu 33 me 3o tu B te A Ha (3$l ksha ar na S£> mo S> ttu g Hi 7\ ge 2>nu 7^> & ^5~> n a S&k mmu ^J tra cO u va "A S au §> ni d3or> ya c5"3 da tf vu C^r>gha i |> ni S$S nu So ye & di Z&du "5) ve ^ ghu 3 ne S^y° "a de gswu 5^5- ** 3x mia TT> ra 5^ do g> ddu eg Si 25° n § a <£u ngu Sr> po ri ^ sha §? ppu 2^> nu ^° ddha £x* slit "a -gi clli x£> chu ^3) che ^ ba ££ bu *C§5° bhu db t'e 2o d'u (50 d'hu CjT3 dha 6 ri 30 ru £n> sa ■^-d ssa 45 BENGALI. This Alphabet is based on the Devanagari character. In some instances the circular shape has been altered into an angular form, in others the form has been entirely changed. The Bengali language is less mixed than the neighbouring idioms. VOWELS. CONSONANTS. THE VOWELS sounded after the con- ^3Ia J9 W "3> ka vq na SJ dha FT la sonants take their po- sition before, after WU & w • •$| kha fr ^ ^ na ^ va •*f sha T{ sa "^ sha "5 ha above and below their letters. They receive ii if e n ga & tha n pa in such cases the fol- lowing forms. ^ f ^ ai ■^ gha 5 da 5c pha T 1 a follows its cons. ° vg n ga •^ tsha -k tshha 3\J a If dha *1 na ^S ta ^ ba v^ bha TT ma ■ 1 precedes » » T 1 follows » » $• ri vSj^ang ^ tha *T ya "5f khya <>v U is subjoined jri Kigali "? J'ba TT da 3 ra (^ li » < ri »> » t ri „ OBSERV ATIONS. The vowel -sound of the short a is jt> r stands ander ;i consonant and is fJTJ C preoedes inherent in all consonants. pronounced after it. C ai " x (birdmj subjoined to a consonant o over a consonant, repn sents Us nasal causes the a to drop. A consonant moreover loses its &b] being attached to tilt; following consonant. sound. c\ denotes the word Ganesh. . take the cons. CI" in the middle. r*"> r.,1 take the cons. V» T ul in tlie middle. ci 111°* follows the & cons. J denotes y affixed to a consonant. (J denotes the name of God. s denotes r. it is placed at the top of | serves as a stop at the end of a the let! er, and Mum led before it. sentence all follows the cons. BUGIS is supposed to be the most ancient of the languages spoken in the island of Celebes. The same Alphabet is used in the Bfacassaz langc ~? a x> ba ff* ra ^ la *v ka — - ma tJ cha -^ wa -^ kha JO pha -o ja o sa ~j ga ^ ta sr a ^> ha 4* nga ^ da £C chha ^ ya rJ pa /-r* na 2- ra Ever] consonant has an inherent vowel, with which it forms a separate syllable. The following vowels vary in position: T o before a letter. J i over a letter. 1 after a letter, . u under a letter. un or at the top of a letter. 46 JAVANESE ORDINARY LETTERS INITIAL LETTERS Ordin. Form Pasangans Sound Ordin. Form Pasangans Sound . inn • • . . ~m . • . . ha . . . . na . . . . tva . . • • awn • • . . Na . . . (Kl '*..'■' . Tva. . . Ka . . . . Ta . . . . Sa , . . . Pa . . . .Nya. . . . Ga . . .. Ba . . • (JO) d • • (KV . . - - a^Ji • • aaa or a^ . in. • • <* ra " ' ca " . (Kin • • in . . ka . . . . (in . . (KL, da . .^ . . • • (ism • • ^ ta . . (kJi . . . . sa . . . . wa . . . o • • la • (irui « • . (Ul . . . (LJ| • • 00^ . . pa . . da UNCONNECTED VOWELS. fefc Ol <£) ^ j ze ann gha . . » 8 £ ghain . 01 • ' CO \•■/ Suku u r Taling e . m 2 • Taling-Tarung •Jl Paten or Pankon (deprives a consonant of its vowel) ■'•* •• Sagnyan ox Wignyan ll (at the end of a syllable) / Tyety-a 11 g (at the end Of ■ syllable) Layar 1" (at the end of a syllable) ■c-c- Tyakra 1* (between a consonant and a BUC< ; .ng letter) .-,}.. Km-t r6 (alter a consonant) ■/td" Plnkal y (after a consonant) PODOS ok PADAS. Under this designation the Javanese writing contains the following signs: l'uilo luhur. With this sign superiors begin their letters tu inferiors. 1'oJo madyo is used at the commencement Of letters by persons of equal rank. l'odo andap, with this superscription an in- ferior addresses a superior. Podo-bab stands at the beginning of a new paragraph. Podo-lingso, the usual stop at tin- end of a sentence or a detached word. In poetry it marks the end of verses, which are written consecutively like prose. It is doubled at the end of a section. !: Podo andegging lyrlatu or dirgo muraras occa- sionally replaces the Podo-lingso; mostly it accompanies numerals, and isolates them from the adjoining words. Ulu munta. When the vowel of a final syllable is an ulu, this character takes a Tyetifa in the centre. f Suku mendut. When the vowel of the last syl- -^ lable is a Sitku it takes this form. 1 I Dirgo mure is the name of the sign placed over the Taling or Taling- Taruny, when this vowel occurs in the final syllable. Vodo ujatyan anglegenno. Under this name the Taruny is employed as a sign of separation. Piaelep ingatembarg gede, serves to divide poetry. [Clfin UTi^q > Tfinnn^lon (m (m^tei Purwo-podo stands at the be- ginning of poems. Madyo -podo, at the beginning of a song following another, when the melody and the measure are changed. Wasono-podo at the end of a poem. 4.8 LIGATURES. The following ligatures consist of the (Vowel-) sings Suhu, Tyokro, Keret and Pinkal combined with the ordinary characters and Pansangans. The diacritical marks are also added. •5 3 J 3 J d fa a 3 y •5 3 J dl <3 "3 ^ Oil ■y o CJ dl J <& ■3 3 am .3 3 3 3 Q> Q} '3 fa fa -3 ™9 C9 eg G> g ^1 of Oil d ol cjjl "21 ononri 3 ■a a aaj) <3 a ■8 3 3 ™) raj 3 annn 3 3 3 o o 3 Q <3 3 21 ■a 3 as. uy ■ ,K J cJ a IK JI e* o/ cv c^ a q/ a£ O The small pasangan Wo is placed below a letter standing in the third row. -* s s-3 These small diacritical marks are placed under auxiliary letters which stand in the third row. 1 The short Layar is employed when there is no room for the large Layctr. ^_ This mark is placed under the letters Wo and Ngo to form the vowels it and o. OBSERVATIONS. The Javanese language has 20 letters which are called Aksoro, Sastro or Tiarakan. They are written from left to right, without being joined together. By the many auxiliary letters, vowels and diacritical signs, the numbers of characters is considerably increased. The Fasangans, employed in the Alpha- bet, are in close connexion with the sign Paten, which in fact they replace. When a consonant occurs in the middle of a word, and is to be de- prived of its vowel, a Paten must be employed. To obviate a disjunction arising from the use of this sign, the Paten is omitted, but the letter, which follows the mute consonant, is changed in form or in position or in both. The substituting sign is then called Pasangan. The Pasangan* being mostly placed under the common letters, while some vow- els and diacritical signs figure above the letters, the Javanese writing runs within three rows. The position of a character in one row or an other is indicated in this Alphabet by the addition of dots. 49 TIBETAN Form Value Form Value VOWELS. The Tibetan language is read from left to *! k 53 111 right and has five vowels. The vowel a is inherent in the several consonants. When confusion is apprehended from the absence F kh c ts of a distinct a after the prefixes ZH T, Z3 5J «! S tsh the sign Q^ is inserted to denote a. The remaining vowels are written and named as 5. follows, c ng 8 n gigu^i . Xi "° zhabs-kyu u * ch ^ IV V drengbu e v naro o The gigu drengbu and naro are placed * clih Oy j (French) above their consonants, the zhabs-kyu below them. When double, the zhabs-kyu is pro- nounced uu or ow: double drengbu ay or 5. 3 ie : double naro oo or ou. Gigu is often J z formed thus () A is placed below the letters. Ph is chang- ed by it into f : SS into x. Under the •=) a nya ha other letters it represents the vowel a: according to others it denotes u. — O placed over th , a and h denotes with 9 t U! 3 the first of these letters mce with the other two m. According to others it .1. 5, r signifies ang- and ong. ACCENTS. \ guttural sign .* d aj I P palatal 2- nasal » ^ ii sli T sign of the singular number. SI PUNCTUATION. P s QJ)7 is an introductory sign. Besides -* — — * i this figure other varieties are in use. 51 ph 9 h T Comma. Two such signs are equal to a J full stop. Four such strokes, with "•.'•' between them, denote "the end". 3 b ct a X is inserted between the syllables. u o mark the stress of a word. Si 3 LIGATURES. 5 ©^ 50 MANTSHU a > CO a S o o ^^1 ; rr *y ; ; J < ip -LP IP' -l?' rt- u- n r> i^ o ^^"rt fX^fc B a 1> . "ca _=2 .2^ £ m co S§ s; s c P=4 c Is £ i -v^ ^^ ^r ( ^ ► «► ix b ' h> p t ►> t a; C O o 5 ^ r* ; •; f^~*7T~? a > ) 51 flS » o < i o« » 3 .2 5-3 Us © o Pi *" " Ei © - / i sere khergen S! -W K 1) I EH s & ? CO 5 1FH © s o .~ 3 ^(p-(pi^(p.(p(r^ £ fc > ^S N t rP 17 K +C r^^K^A^^^ •H >VS.'"S~* "$"*"* «3 -= e3 CO ^ I * % 52 MONGOLIAN CONSONANTS Initial Medial Final VOWELS Initial Medial Final Value 5v 5y C -A 3 A A" C 1 T L. •2 fir t ^l 1 T J V 11 b ch Scotch gh guttural k g m 1 r t d y z ? ts "T3 i C Jo PUNCTUATION. Tf This sign divides sentences. ♦*♦ is nsed at the end of a period. dz >r Cll Mongolian books are not numbered by the page but by the folio. It is usual to head each folio by £>, or some other mark like this. OBSERVATIONS. U i s sh w Like the Mantshu the Mongolian cha- racters are written in perpendicular lines from left to right. The Alphabet consists of seven vowels, together with diphthongs derived from them, and of seventeen con- sonants which vary in form according to their position at the beginning, the middle, and the end of a word; or according to the effect exercised upon them by certain orthographical rules. — The consonants are not regarded as isolated sounds, but are always joined to vowels with which they form simple syllables. An exception is made to this rule when a consonant occurs as the final of a syllable or a word. But even such final consonants. may be attended by a vowel. A variation of the Mongolian characters is known under the name of Gahk. 53 ARMENIAN Form Name Value Num.- power Foi m Name Value Num.- power. 11 - Jpe a 1 jr iT mien 111 200 P> p pien P 2 G J he or ye h or V (in ' toy) 300 4, f kim k ck 3 li *, 1100 11 400 'r * tub t (soft) 4 C, i. shall sh 500 h * yetch y (cons.) :") II n wo WO(inworcl) orO(in move) 600 ft 1 zab z 6 L tchah fcch 700 I; * e (in met) 7 "'1 1 be b 800 II t yet 6 (in paper) - .?, t tche* ch (soft 900 0* p twoh t (hard) 9 ft* «. rah r (hard) 1000 ( > ^ zhe j (French) 10 11 u se S 2000 h /• inni i (inill) 20 a. 4 vii'v V 3000 1, L lune 1 30 s in dune (1 4000 Y> I- khe Ch(German) 40 p c IV r (aoft) 5000 Xr * * pure P 8000 a ' tzah tZ (soft) 80 ^ * !<(• k 11000 ■i, t ghahd v(Bomaic) 90 10000 A' * .)'<' j L00 y> * pha f 20000 % llll L yev ju is £ lu LIGATURES. 1/5- me 4 mg ivj mi i/fr myo ith nin Jk Ml grave circumflex rough breathing ^ soft breathing ACCENTS and PUNCTUATIONS apostrophe , comma : colon in semicolon . full stop * hyphen sign of length sign of brevity and abbrevi- ation sign of abbreviation, it also con- verts a letter into a numeral. 54 GEORGIAN. I The Georgian language is written in two Alphabets. The ancient character, used in the Bible and ecclesiastical works, is called Khutsuri (i.e. sacerdotal). The character MkhedruK (or rather Mkhedruli hlieli i.e. Soldier's hand) is used in ordinary writing and printing. KHUTSURI MKHEDRULI Form Value Form Value o Name Value 3 o Name Value Kx a bf. s b an a d) un 00 ^S b *E t I ban b H) W *V5 g OaUIf oo 6 gan g "5 ve ve S"S d *H V <> don d <3 phar ph x lt[ e 4> p'h en e i khan kh *hy w + f k d win V *? ghan gh (C Arab.) Vb z n-n gh (Arab.) % zen z a qar qt^JjAxab.) H h, e (short) 1'J q 8 he e 3 shin sh frm th vy sh (X> than th R chin ch *M j n ch o in 1 t$ tzan tz 'bin (3 kan k a dzil dz k' Giii ts «? las 1 v* thz.il thz 1 cLJi ds d 6 3 WA m Rpi thz man oar m n jar khan j kh (rough) in 5o n i (short) kh khh ie on i (short) a £ khhar jan khh Ci*J t rough) j OjUI O *s j 3 par P 1 hae h K Un P %*m h (mute) d zhan j (French) & hoe hoi H^ j (French) &J\ ho 6 rae r * fa f cMi r s s ch I san s 9 short e 6 tar 1 PUNCTUATION. - Hyphen : Full stop :• End of a Period . Semicolon Comma. 55 GREEK A a B r A E Z II £ c e s e i i \1 p. N v ? (7 C <) II P v T Y u $ 9 X X 12 ft Valiu AJpha Beta Gamma Delta Epsiloo Zeta Eta Theta Iota Kappa Lambda M) N) Xi OmlkroD Pi Rho Sigma Tau YpsiloD Phi (In Psi Omega a b g (1 6 Z e tli i k 1 in n \ o t u f pb ch ps o OBSERVATION^ Y before y ; ""' ln,> ol1 "' 1 palatala (x ^ £) is pronounced liken, as iy\ t, is ;i mere vowel ami never represents tbe consonantal Bound of y. as 'lama (I-onift). In foreign words the de- Qcient consonanl was replaced bj t, as louXio? (Julius). a is an initial and medial s. The tinal is marked bj tbe sign of?. The latter is, in some modern editions, used at the end of medial syllables. x before '.. followed bj a vowel, retains its proper sound ofti, and is not pronounced like shi, as faXaua (Ga-hi-ti-a). Accents and Punctuation SPIRITS or BREATHINGS. Every Greek word, commencing with a vowel , has over this initial either (') spiritus lenis, the soft breathing, or (*") spil'itUS asper, the rough breathing. The former is aspirated before a vowel and equal to our h. The spiritus lenis is placed over an unaspirated initial vowel. When a word commences with a diphthong (at, ei, ot, vi, au, eu, Tjv, on, gvj), the breathings as well as the accents are placed over the second vowel, as auto;, oto?, E?XG)V. p always has the rough breathing at the beginning of a word. In the middle of a word, when this letter is doubled, the tirst p has the soft and the second the rough breathing, as pp. ACCENTS. aCUiG oi sharp sound. grave or beavj Bound. Circumflex ,u long and trailing sound. tccenu iihined with either of the breathings or with the llheresis, are marked in the following manner. >i i\ rt <\ 5 « •/• v PUNCTUATION a.m. OTHEB MARKS. The point and COI a are used in Greek as in English. There i- 1 1 • • semicolon, The Colon i^ denoted bj a dol over the The note of interrogation i- | : . In some modern editons the note of exclamation !) has been introduced. The Comma is also used to distinguish two words of equal spelling. A- o,Tt, to,te, differing form the particles ott, tot£. i^n is termed Diastole or Hyper- diastole. This Tbe following >i-us are used in connexion with letters and syllables. The Apostrophe ,' . the Diaeresis " . over a rowel separated from the sound of a preceding VOWel, and the Coroiiis ' in contracted words to denotata Crasis as xouvavuov for tc s'vavxtov. Iota subscriptum is tbe Iota under the vowols y., r), o>, and indicates the etymolog] of tbe words. Formerly this t was pro- nounced, and had its place liy the side of the VOWel. This lateral lota is still used in words spelled with capital letters, as THI 20 Cfth ovde w oro % al s «^ cite ovx 5? OTQ JVfi aXX H eXJt OVTOV SU OTV A av W eXaxxov Xjj n w OTW ano aQ cv ev 7Ty nay a nei ov aw 1 ov 00) ac, ag 3 iftt eneidri -3% Tie (j ra autti av avrov ■u enev *& ne(jl i xai camS avrd) «Y em TlLuU 7\r\v nr xalg 6 (3 Sh em 7TG) Tin Tavra F 7 ya ya{> 3b eon 7T? 71Q W \ei ya lw 5* ev r\v 7?, 71Q0 TJX ilw T T7]V ti)v J= 77 77 ye yet yeX yell Sa 7W 7TZt) nv 7103 Ttjg it ye 74 9* $e w (ja r TO W &ei & Ql 5 TO Si do & C c Gil QO o aa o' w T \ 70 7W * ^ yev ysQ dv x9w oavTa oe TV TOV TOV yrj yrj n#1 xai <>i oet TOV yt 7 \ yiveiai \ v T TOV % xai xai alw OTj OtjV TOO ytf yv ** y.aia. c& o& TT yo X yo yv 3$ Kara. ecpaXaior % m o&at Ol TV Tit) T&f TV TO) i TO) yd) yco A 11 dy flWV & ore x> X* ei olor si orei K XQ i ei og \ . PRONUNCIATION. A a. (Alpha) short or long as in papa. B j . (Vita) is represented by 6A or c. In sound it differs slightly from the English v , tlie mouth being somewhat rounded in the articulation of the Romaic letter. r "I (Gamma) is an aspirate of ff in go. In yy the first gamma becomes nasal; byysXqc, for instance, is pronounced ang-ye-loa. It receivea the same sound before the palatals /. • and /, as otvarxi] (a-nu)i'j-Li). Before z i and u it is like y in yea. To produce the sound of our .'/ in ;/r*-i/, the Mo- dern Greeks use \'x as I'v.^ir/yj. (Uraham). A 8 (Delta) is aspirated as /// in ///«-. E z Eptilon) as the « in //<7. Z C (Zita) like :. ZuW] (*o-?;. H 8 (TTMtaJ like /// in fAfc*. I i (lota) like ?' in machine. When i is placed under the rowels as In a r ( <;> or by the side of capital vowels (Ai, Hi, lit) it is not sounded and only lengthens the principal vowel. This i is known ;n the Iota subacriptum. k x (Kappa) like our /.. it is softened alter the nasal y henoe arxXtd is pronounced any lid. A X (Lamvda) like / in i<>n. (Mi) like ///. Placed before -. these two letters acquire the sound of combination ol \y~ take- the sound ol b in words received from foreign languages, but in com- pound Komaic word-, each letter retains it> ori- ginal pronunciation. Example tu.-Gpeujia (em- - ire -ma). N v (Si) is //. Placed before T, the two letters coalesce in the sound of .sior. full stop (.), |j.i3'y3 7tyu.7, oolon ("), uitoemYu.7] or bitodiacroX?] comma '(,) and nMLSlOV tpu>TT9Su>e Bign of inter- rogation (;). The mark of exclamation (!) is ran h used. To tiie-e signs must be added the apostrophe and the diareais. The former (' ) denotes the elision ol one or more vowels. EE. g. Bit' Bftiva, dtp' 'i\jy.~ instead Of >KQ etc. This elision of vowels' occurs even before consonants as '2-' -<', instead otizh to. In •/.'// (instead of xai iv) and X«viv»< (instead of kn'<. av lv«5) etc. the mark f ) denotes tin- co- alescence of vowel- (update) and is called coronis. This mark is often used in contractions as ulO'jxo- The diasresit 'he union of diphthongs. ■; no'.cr/Tl/,; sounds bo-y-an- jis. Another mark of separation is the diastole (,)j which resembles the comma, and is used to dis- tinguish the pronoun •', . ~.\ and the adverb -.',, ~i lruin the conjunction 5?e and the adverb t<4te. A( CENTS. The tone is indicated by three accents . namely ■iiiiilr.v (ittpl9fCUlu.£v7]) " or long accent, the aCUte (if Ha}' or sharp accent, and the grave (fiapsi? ) or heavy accent in final syllables. Some mono- syllabic words, being unaccented, are called atona. The cirCUUUtex can only be placed on the ultimate and penultimate syllable. When the vowel of a final syllable is long, the penultimate vowel can- not take the circumflex. A word is termed peri- spomenon, when it has the circumflex on its last syllable, or if it is a monosyllable and is marked with this accent. When the circumflex occurs over the penult, the word is properiapomenon. The Acute takes its place in the penultimate and ante -penultimate syllable. Also on tlie final syl- lable at the end ol a period, or when an enclitic follows (i, e, a word like iiou, [toi, \xi which throws its accent on tlie antecedent). When the final syllable is long, the acute can- not revert to the ante -penultimate. When the acute occurs in a monosyllable or in a final syllable, the word is called o.vijtonoii; the penultimate, thus accented, is called j/oro.rytonon ; and the ante -penultimate with the acute is pru- paroxytonon. 58 OLD -SLAVONIC (CYRILLIC). on the most ancient MSS, and cut under the direction of the I. R. Aulic Councillor Dr. Paul Jos. Schafarik at the type-factory of Gottlieb Haase Sohke in Prague. Form Name Value Form Name Value A a Az a q> * Fert f, P h K E Buky b x * Cher kh R is Vedi V (0 <*> 6 6 r r Glagol' 8 (0 © Ot ot A A Dobro d M 'I Ci ts € e Est' e Y Y Cerv' m zn Zivete z HI in Sa s S s Zelo z l|l i|i Sta St. sc ? 1 Zemlja z T> * Jer — H it Ize i 11 u Jen ■y 1 ¥ 1 i hi hi Jery 5 I i I h y h h Jerek — K K Kako k H t Jet e II A Ljudi 1 10 HI Ju yu M M Myslite in IA r\ Ja ya N N Nas n l€ l€ Je ye o On A A IJs e II II Pokoj P ft * As a p p Rci(Reei^ r lift ia J§s W C c Slovo s Im i;,i J as ya T T Tverdo t 3 * Ksi * 1i fc terv' t T t Psi ps Q\ o\ Uk u e <> Thita th S » Uk u V v lzica > \ 2 3 8 = •A- •* 4 5 S=6 etc NUMERICAL LETTERS. Ah *B|. .f|. .^|. -ei- etc. K(Jl- KB- Br- K^- K€- etc M M i 3 14 15 21 28 2 3 2 4 25 C = y=90 f = 1000, E.g. Y 8T^8-=6396. Titla (simple Dobro -Titla. ABBREVIATIONS (In Slavonic Titly). ~ Glagol'-Titla. - Slovo -Titla. Onecek. Pajerek. NOTES. 1) The power and pronunciation of the accented (Roman) characters are sufficiently explained in the Polish and Czechian Alphabets. 2) The alphabetical names have been rectified and, as regards the nasals, completed according to approved ancient authorities. 3) The characters are designed to be printed without the abbreviations, which as relios of the middle ages must be restricted to ecclesiastical works. Here they are solely introduced as histori- cal forms. The "Pajerek*' is a Jer or Jerek placed over a letter. ■i) As in ancient MSS. the numbers are indicated by the insertion of the letters between two dots. The •• Titla'* formerly used have thus become un- necessary. 59 GLAGOLITIC. According to ancient MSS (sec. XI — XII) designed by Dr. Paul Jos. ScHAFAR of Gottlieb Haase Sohne in Prague. iiv, cut a the type - factory Form Name Value Num : value Fo|m Name Value Num: value Cyrill. Latin Cyrill. Latin + + Az A a 1 & » Uk ov u 400 Buky Vedi C 1 b" V 2 3 Fert ♦ f. ph 500 % % Glagol' r g 4 la lb Cher \ ch 600 &b sb Dobro A d 5 O o (0 o 700 3 3 Bit" € e 6 W w Sta V St 800 36 as i Zivete as z 7 V Zemlja I z 9 LU III Sa 111 s 8 s Ize I H 1 1 j 10 20 E « Jer 1» "e M AC j Den' o. Jot *,l dj, .1 30 •8 -8 ! Jery M y > h Kako k k 40 1 . \ Jeivk h i Sb sb Ljudi 11 I 50 A A .let t e. ja M « i Mvs!l1 '' Ii in 60 IP IP <€ € .111 10 1 e •P * Kti ii n TO 3€ *€ *■ .11 a 9 t On o o so \iffc 3€ Jes II fa F f Pokoj ii P 90 <*e ^e .las UK ja b b KVi P r 100 ■0- <► Thila ft tli 2 a SIovo c 8 200 ft ft Iziea V y UD oo Tvr'do T t 300 NOTES. 1. The letter Jery is~a compound of /cr and 1*6. 2. The letters vs — aa and «e — i are duplicate forms. 7g to Bulgarian MSS; aa and i are Croatian character hand is not a real duplicate form of <{> , it being ident is used "instead of (J) . and -8 S. fl. ical w are peculiar on the other ith 4. , which 3. These characters are arranged to be printed without are confined to liturgical books. abbrev iations, which 4. The numerical power of the letters is indicated by dc > •+• -tf- etc. >ts on both sides, as 5. Furthe letters r information on the value and the pronunciati is given in the Czechian and Polish Alphabets. on of the accented 8* 60 CROATO - GIAGOLIT1C. Designed from Croatian MSS and printed works by Dr. Paul Jos. Schafarik; cut at the type factory of Gottlieb Haase Sohne in Prague. Form Name Value Num: value Form Name Value Num : value m rh Az a 1 a m Uk u 400 ^u ^ Buky b 2 cp « Fert f, ph 500 QD QD Vedi V 3 7b Ai Cher kh (eh) 600 7a 7a GlagoF g 5 4 Q Q 6 6 700 Qb Ob Dobro d 5 W W Sta St 800 3 3 Est 1 e 6 HJ after a final consonant produces a hard and ringing sound. 1 is placed at the end of words where it softens the preceding consonant, and adds to it the sound of ye, such as is heard in theFrench pronunciation of Charle- magne. In the middle of a word, mostly between two consonants, it is uttered with a slight sound of ee. 61 is identical with the Polish y, and somewhat like the English we, when rapidly articulated. rfe as an initial like yai. The y of this diphthong is also sounded in the middle of a syllable after n, but is scarcely audible after the other consonants. a This reversed e is the initial of words commencing with the sound ai. It occurs in foreign words in which it replaces oe. m sounds like ew. In foreign words it is similar to the French u. a when accented, sounds like ya in yard. In unaccented initial syllables it sounds ye. After consonants it is pronounced like e in met. As a final letter it takes the sound of ya in yard. e represents the same Greek letter but is pronounced like F. In modern derivations from the Greek it is replaced by F. r only occurs in Greek words. At the be- ginning of a word or after a consonant it sounds like ee, and after a vowel like v. The letters h, c, x,f, do not occur in the & m A & S 8 M 0€ 3 3 .% 14, J % Jb TV 3fi j(Ad %uc cr © .9 % c % oc a A B 22 6 4 B J 7 Z r a 9 / A e e E Z, *> 5K 3 9 3 it a H i t I ft ft K Jl u A 7C ft o o ji n •//' M H H H o n n e c y y X X % % h w % "6 3K 61 £ 6 % <£ WW 91 J£ m ?n T t y¥ y y x x X x It, Uf II u p ^ mm ill ui w, w, K K mm €1 hi LI hi 6 6 ft fb % % to to a ji K)k> a a 6 V V e e r v V follows: 1) h is replaced by r, as in raM6ypnb Hamburg, or it is omitted altogether, especially in Latin words as AHHHoa.ix, Hannibal. 2) c before e, i, y, sounding like the German z or tz, is expressed by n; as IJimepoHX, and before o, o, u by k, as Ko.i.ieria. 3) x is expressed by kc, as A-ieKCtii (Alexius). 4) / and the German v are changed into 4>, as pH4pHXT> Frederick. DIPHTHONG^ Proper diphthongs are only formed*iby the ii follow- ing a vowel. This letter receives in .siieh a ease a characteristic sign at the top (8). The diphthongs are aft eft ift oft yft Lift tft aft toft aft. ACCENTS. The stress of an accented vowel is indicated by the acute (') and the grave ^). The former denotes the raising, the latter the depression of the tone. The hpv arp rPT»r*"!i accents are only then marked in writing, when cor- )et. iney aic lcpiesentea as v udillR forms are t0 be distinguished from one i st< in Fanrnrnn. ^v„*i,«.. another. They are placed over th a e h i o y bi -b vowels 63 SERVIAN. ILLYRIAN. (Modern form, cut by F. Kosch in Leipzic.) Nr. I represents the "organic" orthography now This language is divided into the dialects of the Her- used in Roman-Catholic publications ; Nrs. II and zegovina, of Bessava and Syrmia. The Servians use the III are to some extent current in Slavonia, Slavonic (Cyrillic), the Croats and Wends the Roman Croatia and Dalmatia. characters. Cyrillic Latin Pronunciation I. il III. | Pronunciation A a A a a a a a B 6 B b b b b b The Vowels a, o, u, i, B B c eh e sound as in German or V v V e ez eh Italian. r i e G g 8 c d cs d dj es d dy e as a medial, follows 4 4 D d d dy, Hungarian _;\ all the consonants except gutturals. It rarely is a final letter and never an E e E e e e e e initial. Its general sound )K )K Z z j in French e f e i r e i f 8 is like ye (in yes). In the dialect of the Herze- 3 3 Z z Z govina it has the same H H 1 i o % pronunciation when not i gj gj 8) lengthened , otherwise it I i 1 i y y 11 h h sounds like ee combined J j J i \ j k J k with ye, as is heard in see yet. Before i, like y K K k k lv j k in ye. In the Syrmian A A L 1 1 dialect it varies between 1 i 1 ayandee. In theRessava Jb Jb Lj lj ly, itai. gl, gli lj ij ly dialect it almost invariably M M M ni 111 III in in sounds like ay (in nay). This e is now often spelled H H N u I) 11 n il ie. lb H> Nj »j fl Itul and b'r [)g o C is like ts in lots. U o U o V p 1' c and tj almost like ts. 11 n P p Tin' difference between P r r r these spellings is, that c P p C c K r I i s w 3.2 can be used indiscriminate- S B S s si. SC ly, ami tj only in derived \ t eh I ty words. T T T l t l.l c like j in jar. h h C c »y. 'j u u u dj and gj are nearly y y U u u V \ Y like j in jar. <1> * F t f z z I lj like Hi in William. X x n n H li C c II Is i dz dx ex s ds nj like ni in opinion, s like sh. M M C c eh z like s in measure. in in 8 s sh dz like j in jar. mm ^ r lias the power both of a Consonant ami a vowel. 8 c se shell As a consonant it sounds as in oilier languages. As T> T, hardening suffix a vowel it tonus a separate syllable arid is pronounced bl H with a very slight sound of e. The orthography of 1 i ee, French U this syllable varies. Some spell it er , the Ragusans b b — softening suffix ar. Others omit a and e and simply write r, others b u again write i\ Je je e ie ye, ie e e H) H) Je je ye Accents used in Servian: acute (:); sign of Ju ju yu length (') ; w or ^ sign of brevity. f H a Ja ja ya U a Dz dz j e o Th th 111 64 WALLACHIAN Form Name 51 a B £ R B r r A A Q € m m 3 e 3 3 II 11 H f I I i K K A A M m H H o n n P p c T T 8 6 X x CO (o B.9 III 1H 4U% •B * ila a H) H) M M . y stands over a medial and final H and over a final H). LONG ACCENTS. " over initial vow- els and over K). ' over medial vow- els. over the medial A and the final a, t, *, h. ~ n over abbre- viations and let- ters employed as numerals. Modern Shape A B B r A E 3 3 I i K A M H n p c T y $ x it III in B T> ft R 5 v y zh k 1 m n o P i" s t u f kb(ch) ts ch sh sht ea P (uuh) iin J & and Y are only used in foreign words. Improved Modern Shape Antiqua Current A B B r D E J Z I K L M m N n X x u « 111 m I i II u A a E 6 B 6 r v D E J- Z z I i K k L A M m N n o n a P P V S s s T t t Y T u a b v g d ye e j (Br.) $ <£ # f - P p - P r — r rz — rsh 8 — S 8 6 — sy* j sz — sh t — t W — V vv — vy' z — z Z i — zy- Zz Zz — j(Fr.) The marginal column shows the pronunciation of Polish letters in as far as it approximates the English. The vowels a, e, i, o, ou, u, ii in the adjoining column are sounded as in German. The following peculiarities must be noticed. In addition to the five elementary vowels , common to the Eu- ropean languages, occurs y, which is deeper than the i and sharper than the French mute e (in poudre, Polish pudyr). As accessory vowels of a, e stand the nasals a and e (ong, eng). Before b, p, they sound om, but nasally; e, always strongly accented, is an intermediate of e and i. In ie, ia, io, iu the i merely indicates the softness of the preceding consonant: in fact this i forms part of such a consonant. 6 ifl B strongly accented deep o, nearly like ii. II<-]]iH.- the Polish vowels descend in the following gradation: t, e, (ie), e,g,y, a, a, o.v, u. These vowels have a clear and distinct sound, except the i which obtains the consonantal force of ?/, when it is followed by a vowel and preceded l>y h. c, //. try, :y. Tbcy >tand as finals of words, and also of syl- lables followed by consonants, of these letters r takes tbe inter- mediate sound of our h and ch. e sounds like is in wants. cz is our ch, and sz our ,sA. di sounds like d& in W(Utd8. (Li is like j in jar. h is of rare occurrence, the Slavonic h being represented in Polish by g. It is as guttural as the German ch, Ex: hultaj (a Good for nothing). I the virgulated I is heavier than the common /. The middle part of the tongue is more raised in the articulation of this letter. rz is r blended with z. The r is softly rolled, and its z is like the French j. Ex : przy. z like J in the French word jour. To avoid the accumulation of softening iota- marks of the letters b, m, n, p, s, w , z, the following process is preferred. Before a vow r el an i is inserted (as bia mia etc.); before T^ibwever and before consonants the 20£a-sign is dispensed with ; b, p, w, m, lose this sign even at the end of a word. Owing to the diminution of the characteristic signs, the letters w,b , p , m,n , s , z deviate from the original rule and may be followed by either i or y. 66 SORBIAN or WENDISH OF LUSATIA. The vowels are: a, 0, u, y, e, i. The union of a and o makes 6; O and u form 6; e and i coalesce in e. The semi-consonant j is connected with i; h with e; W with a O u. The consonants are divided 1) into Labials w, f, v, b, p, m. 2) Palatals and Unguals 11, 1, l\ 3) Dentals d, t, C. 4) Sibilants zz,Ss,CC. 5) Gutturals h ch (g) k. With regard to their articulation these consonants are divided into broad and slender sounds, accord- ing as they are hardened or softened in their utterance. Broad sounds: w, vv, b, b, z, z, d, dz, dz, h, g. Slender sounds: f, v, p, p, s, s, t, c, e, c, ds, ts, ch, k. Between these letters nine intermediates take their place: m, in, n, n, 1', 1, I, r, f. The whole Alphabet thus consists of the following 8 vowels and 32 consonants. A (6) o, 6, u, y , e, e, i; j, w, w (f, v) b, b, p, p, m, m,n,ri. 1,1, (l'),r, r, z, z,s, s, d, dz, dz, t, c, c, e, ts,h, ch, g, k. In combining one consonant or several consonants with a vowel to form a syllable, a distinction is made between hard soft and neutral consonants. At the same time the following rule is to be observed. In the grammatical combinations of structure, derivation, declension, comparison and conjugation the vowel y cannot follow a soft consonant, nor can e and i follow a hard consonant, whilst the neutral consonants may In; succeeded by either y or i. In conformity with this rule are reckoned as Soft, j vv v b' p m n 1 r z s c dz c. Hard, I r z s d dz t c (h ch g k). Neutral, w f b p m n ds ts. The letters qu and x, in words of foreign origin, are spelled k\v and ks, as kwadrat, Aleksander, kwas. Also g occurs only in foreign words. V and f are found in but few vernacular terms. PRONUNCIATION OF THE CONSONANTS. The accented characters vv b p m h r differ from the unaccented in softness of sound. Before e (acute) e and i this accent is unnecessary , because these vowels are sufficient to soften the preceding consonants. I sounds like v. In the north-eastern part of the country it is pronounced like a harsh 1. Kui instance colo. dz as in English, but without a break between the two letters. Example na tidzy. dz like g in gentle, as dzera, nadzya. z as in English, f. i. zuby. z like the s in pleasure, f. i. zolty. s like sh, f. i. saty, sery. c like ts, as cybac. •6 nearly like ch in churn, f. i. ceri'i. C the sharpest sibilant like tch in wretch, f. i. corny. ds, ts like ts, f. i. tsihac. ch is frequently pronounced bard, like c before a , o, u, especially at the beginning of words, for instance chory. j like y in yes. S like z. W like v. PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS. a i u as the vowels in are, here, true. e is acute , grave , or long. After c z s it O acute grave or lengthened. 6 deep nearly like u. e like ea in dear. y deep as ea in dearth. often pronounced like y 67 CZECHIAN or BOHEMIAN. Roman. abcdefghchijklmnoprstuvyz — a e i 6 li y — ii — h. £ c I) (1 I)' d' G g h K r S s f t f Z z German. abcbcfgfyc&ijn m n opr f $tut>9j — rictdiip — u — c 6 c t) i £>' b © cj ri 5Kf © f 3 Sit' 3 * q and x only occur in foreign words, qu is generally replaced by kv as kvitance (receipt). Some writers one \v for v and ou for an. Tin- accented rowels a e i ii y and u are long; j like y, as jam pr. yaro " springtime, withoul accent their pronunciation is short. n before i i. <>r when marked it, sounds like ni in 8 i i are termed sod rowels. The others are hard. opinion. h eh k r we hard consonant*. in of. c 5 <1' j fi i- s t /. are soft . and 6 as in door. 1) '1 f g 1 m D p I t TZ are called indednitc ou is a diphthong which blends the sound ol o (in < onsonants. pole With U in put). These vowels retain their separate pronunciation iii verbs with prefixed po, Tin; FOLLOWING SOUNDS DIFFSfi PR01 .is poubrati po- u-bra-ti ). THE ENGLI8H PRONUNCIATION. s (in German type |J, and as a final, 6) like .sli in fish. ;i sounds like the Srsl a in papa, t before i i, or when marked t, sounds like a t with a likf a in father. which the semi-vowel y coalesces, asTulipan (pron. i-le-pas tulip. c even before k, sounds lik<- ts, as n< cky nets-ku) the tray. U as in put. r like eh in church. li and it long as ni blue. (1 before i i or when marked with the liquifying sign v hk.' u iii the French pure. (d) is Bounded dy. This consonantal y i> softly z as in English but. blended with its , as sat;. The letters c ch q iv x are only found in foreign words, for instance Cato . Achilles, y does not represent an independent sound, but simply helps to soften the antecedent letter. Nevertheless in Old-Hungarian words y and eh are employed as independent letters. The former then sounds like i in it, and ch as in church. For example Palff'y. Forgach. The compounds cs and cz are often denoted by ts and tz. Modern Orthography rejects this spelling except in words where the t is radical, as baratsag (not baracsag). 69 LETTISH. The Lets have adopted the following 22 letters of the German Alphabet, abcbjeg^iiflmnoprfstutog. The c and i) are only used in combination with ] to express the sounds of [eft and fd). The I; moreover serves to lengthen the vowels. The German consonants h d) f D never occur in Lettish. Nor are 8 and ii in use. The cj r. ty are represented by tW, H, t. By means of the 22 characters the following 34 simple sounds of the Lettish language are formed. aBBjbeggVjt! '!4t(f&«t mj n n ^ o p p\ v v m f bf fd) bfdj f (9) fcf) t tfci) u to toj v PRONUNC TATION OF THE SIMPLE VOWELS. a C i 11 are short. When lengthened they are marked thus. d e i u The is always hmg, nevertheless it receives the lengthening mark to distinguish the accented ch and 6 from the lighter e. PRONUNCIATION OF THE DIPHTHONGS. There are six diphthongs in this language, at ait ci ci ui cc. The first five arc pro- nounced as in German. Although at and ci are naturally Long they occur with the circumflex at ci. The diphthong oi only appears in the word hum. When an and ui are to become separate syllables the 11 and i arc marked with the diseresi8, ail, lit'. Peculiar is the sound of cc; it passes from the articulation of cc (such as is heard iu the German word 3ee or in the English word say) to an intermediate sound, such as is heard in the second a of advantage. ( 0N8ONANTS. The following letter.- have the English sound, 6 b 1 m n p 1 1. The j it a consonant like our y; to sounds as b, and ^ like to. The labials 6 in p to may be followed by the modifying j, which like the Russian i. , helps to soften the consonant and causes a slight i to ring after it. It cannot be separated from the consonant nor uttered as an independent letter. I n r are virgulated as l n r. instead of being followed by ). Besides these letters the follow- ing four are virgulated. g like the German F before c and i; 3 is like f before a It. f hard like k in king, f BJ C in ennte , cut. f , sharp like our 8. IS the final of this sharp f. f is soft like our 3. bf form an inseparable sound like the .-oft Italian ~. fd) sharp like the Russian 111 and the English s/t. The virgula of f and fd) does not indicate the sound of an inherent j. It only helps to distinguish the sharply pro- nounced consonant from the soft f and fd), the latter is pronounced like the Russian Ai or the French J in jour. tfci) is like the English ch and bfcf; like g in gentle. PRONUNCIATION OF SUCCESSIVE CONSONANTS. Two or more Consonants, joined together in one syllable or in two syllables, must be so articulated that each should retain its original and independent sound. The it is some- what modified by the (j and f. It being assimilated with these letters, its sound is like that in the English words .sing, .sink (not as in tingle, tinkle). When g and t are marked with the cross -stroke the 11 is likewise virgulated, and is then pronounced in accordance with the foregoing rules. 70 GERMAN UO ^vc- % a a ■4Z~ di n 11 ^ ^ $ a ii & I 23 b b y^ D ^ J 6 6 &^ -i^ © c c ?7 $ P P 91 JL. ft ii ii /^>J/ ^l/ 2) b cl 9 T a q q < $ eh /£ -*-»-• U it u / P fl ? ^ 3 i i /& ~ $ t) V y; U si ?r 3 i j /M?^ 2B to w / ff ss <#rj $ I k f 7 £ J? X / ft St £f j 2 I 1 9 9 y ft sz yffl~r Tt m in 2r 3 5 z / 6 tz The vowels arc: a a c i i> u ii. The diphthongs or compound vowels are: ai ci cut an eu; all other letters are consonants. Simple vowels. Every vowel, followed by two consonants, is short, if followed by only one consonant it is long. 21 is pronounced like a in the English word father. 21 ii is pronounced like a in the English ^ord late. d c is pronounced like ein the English word let. 3f i is pronounced like e in the English word me. D is pronounced like in the English word hope. £) b is pronounced! like eu in the French'word seul. 11 U is pronounced like 00 in the English';word roof. it it is pronounced like the French u. There is no corresponding sound in the English language. 5) h has the sound of the German i, by which it is generally replaced. Double vowels. The double vowels aa, ce, 00, are no diphthongs, because only one letter is sounded, and the second serves to indicate that the syllable is long. ic is pronounced like ea in the English word meat. Diphthongs. In the German diphthongs, the two vowels must be sounded one after the other, but so quickly as to form only one syllable. at and ei are pronounced almost alike, and have the sound of the English t in the word fire. CM is pronounced like ou in the English word home. tilt and ett sound almost like ;oy in the word joy. Consonants. The pronunciation of the consonants differs but little in the two languages; the learner should no- tice the following peculiarities. 6 c before ci c and i is pronounced like is. Before a u, before a consonant, and at the end of a syllable it is pronounced like /.-, by which in most cases it may be replaced. 61) at the beginning of a word is pronounced like k, except in words derived from the French, in which it retains the French pronunciation. In the middle or at the end of a word d) has a pronunciation quite peculiar to the German language, and more or less guttural, but for which no corre- sponding sound can be found in English ; it is like the Scotch ch in the word loch after a u au , but softer after a c i ii iiu eu. and alter a consonant. &)$ or d)f is pronounced like r when these conso- nants belong to the root or radical syllable. But the d) preserves its guttural pronunciation, when it stands before the 8 or j by contraction or in a compound word. W n at the beginning of a syllable is pronounced like "the English g in the word i/ood; but between two vowels, in the middle of a word and at the end of a syllable it has a sound like the d\ only much softened. After it at the end of a word it' is pronounced like a very soft k. $ t) is always aspirated at the beginning of a syllable. The aspiration becomes however almost imper- ceptible before a final e. After a vowel or a t. the b is not pronounced, but, only indicates that the syllable is long. $ j only stands at the beginning of a syllable and is pronounced like the English y in the word yet. fl replaces the double F, and is pronounced short. £M qu has the sound of ke in English. like shp. & t> has die sound of /'. 233 to is pronounced like the English v. 3 5 is sounded like ts. t) replaces the double 5 and is pronounced very hard. 71 DANISH % a 2fo a a 23 6 a c $ b @ e 8 f © g § f> (haa) 3 i 3 i (Jod) jv t (kaa) 8 i 3W m 91 it o «P p q 91 r © f 3 X t U u 8 D (we) X s 9 t 3 3 TfSct (a) 2) 13 (o) The Danish language forms part of the great Gothic family and derives its origin from the ancient Norse which once extended over the whole of Scandinavia. Hence it is closely connected with modern Icelandic and Swedish, more distantly with the German, Dutch and English languages. In its further development it has embodied a variety of terms from the French, Latin and Greek. The Alphabet consists of the adjoining 28 characters. VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. The simple vowels are a aa e i o u to cc « They are long as in &tat (the a as in star) Jiaab , $3eeit, Mib , or short as in Stab, Sfallb, &eb, 53tb. The vowels e i U I) e have an open sound as in %itt, ®tgt, gobt, or a close sound as in ftreb, ftrib, gob. e t u, as long middle vowels, are doubled unless the word ends in to b g to, as ©teen, £3eeil, Wtatli. At the end only the e is doubled, as lee, fee. The other vowels at the end of a syllable are always long, as £aa, @tt , $fo , and often add a mute e, as ftaae. In inflections the reduplication of the vowel ceases, as ApllltS, £>llfe. The vowels qr«ftt>$a. According to the organs of speech they are divisible into: 1) Linguals b 1 1 it r. 2) Labials b to to f m. 3) Palatals g t q j. 4) Sibilants f j. 5) Aspi- rate fy. In the dialect of the Juts the 1; is aspirated before j and to. fc b g and to are softened to such a degree as to become frequently inaudible. After a vowel or when placed between two vowels b is pronounced bl) (like the Anglo-Saxon 0" or the English th in smooth). Double b has a similar pronunciation, lb and itb sound like 11 and nn. In rb the b has a very soft sound. Also before g the b loses part of its force, and it becomes inaudible before t. j sounds like y in yes. to sounds like the English c. The following letters are peculiar to foreign words. 1) c before a it or a consonant, is pronounced as in English; before e i to Of 0, it is like s. tf) is like k. 2) q, followed by to, sounds like kv. 3) 3 is like dz or tz, and sometimes like the English z. 4) r in the middle and at the end of a word is like gs or ks. As an initial it is almost as soft as z. Combinations of letters, ff fi ft II ff ff f( ft. 72 SWEDISH. The Alphabet consists of the following 28 letters, Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk LI Mm Nn Oo Pp Qq Er Ss Tt Uu Vv Xx Yy Zz Aa Aa 06. PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS. The vowels a u a are hard, and e i y a 6 are soft. The vowels a i u sound as in German or Italian, a is like a in bare, a like o intone. The e sounds as a in ale. 1) when forming an independent syllable, Ex: e-vig (eternal). 2) at the end of a syllable, Ex: ande (spirit). 3) In many monosyllabic words, inflections, derivations and compounds, e sounds like ai in air. 1) before/ g Imn r, when the next syllable of the same word is a consonant, as efter (after). 2) before j as nej (no). 3) in many monosyllables, as elg (elk). These rules have many exceptions, o has two sounds, 1) nearly as in move, when it constitutes a syllable by itself, or at the end of a word; also before the radical m, in nouns and adjectives; in all derivatives of words ending in o; before x and in various other forms of words. 2) o has a lengthened sound before a final /, and a sharp sound (as in not) before m n p r t. — 6 is mostly lengthened (nearly like the French eu in leur) as do (to die), or the sound is sharper and quicker, as for (for). There are no diphthongs in this language. b retains its ordinary sound. c before k stands for kk. Before h it only occurs in the Swedish word Och (pro- nounced ock). Before the soft vowels it sounds likes, before the hard vowels like k. d sounds like our d. Before t like t. As a final after n almost like n. Before j it is silent. / as in English. At the end of a word like v. In the middle of a word before v of the same syllable, also after Zand r, it is mute Ex: kalfven (pron. kalven). f and v of separate syllables retain their original sounds. Ex: drifted (= driv-ved). g 1) as in good before a hard vowel, before i and e in a sharp unaccented syllable , at the end , and before a consonant of the same syllable. 2) like y in yes, before the soft vowels , and after I and r. Ex : ge (like ya). Of this rule there are some excep- tions. 3) like ck when a t follows. Ex: sagt (=sackt). 4) like ng when a syllable ends in gn, as vagn (pronounced vangn). 5) before j it is mute. Ex : gjort (vr.jort). h is aspirated, before j and v it is mute. CONSONANTS j like y in yes. After/ m n p thej is clearly articulated and the preceding consonant has a very slight pronunciation. As a final letter it is somewhat like the German ch. k 1) as in English. It is subject to the same rules as g. 2) before the soft vowels it is like our ch. In Jcjortel the k sounds like t. I before j is mute. m as in English. The final m sounds like two m in those radical words which, on being inflected, are spelled with double m. Ex: lam (pron. lamm). q with r after, sounds like At. r and s as in English, stj, sj, skj like vh. sk before soft vowels is likewise pro- nounced as sh. t as in English, tj like ch in church. Hon. with a hard vowel before it, like schone, and after a consonant like shone. v as in English. The word von is pronounced fori as in German from which language it is borrowed. x is like ks. Z is pronounced like s. 73 ANGLO-SAXON. The Anglo-Saxon language developed itself from the Low -German (Old-Saxon) idiom, which was in- troduced in England by the Saxons in or before the fifth century. In the ninth century this language was cul- tivated in writing, and obtained currency through the agency of laws and translations. In the eleventh century, with the overthrow of the Saxon dynasty and the commencement of the Norman rule , French became the language of the court and of judicial pro- ceedings. The knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon language was confined to the dependent classes and to the re- sidents of convents. In the thirteenth century, when this idiom once more became popular, il had received such an amount of foreign elements, and had lost so many native characteristics, that it could only be con- sidered as a mixed dialect, out of which the modern English language was gradually forme. I. PRONUNCIATION. a e i o u have the same sound as in German or Italian. y has the same force as in Eng- lish. te sounds as a in that. The Consonants have the following peculiarities of pronunciation, c is in all instances hard like k. cw stands for kw. f between two vowels or as ,i final letter is pronounced like v. g is always like the modern g in go. Occasional!] j ocean instead of g. This letter takes the sound of y in yes. eg is used instead of gg. h is a strong aspirate. As a final of a syllable and before I eon- sonant ii resembles the German eh. h\v answers to the English \vh. h is also found before the liquids I, n, r. w sometimes precedes r and I. J) (tha) hard, like th in thick. <5T (elh) soft, like th in this. Usually |> is the initial and eV the final of a syllable. -] and y stands for and. j} stands for pa^t. I stands for 0(5"<5Te. The accent (') over a vowel denotes its length. In words of equal spelling this accent points out the difference of sound and meaning. For instance ac (otlf, eke) ac (oak). The elision of in and n is indi- cated by a short line (-) over the antecedent letter. A a a Bu Cc b c Db d 6e e f g h I 1 i lik k LI 1 CDm Nn m n Oo Pp P r IRISH. sr s Tc t Uu u VP V X DC X yy y Zz z B s dh M> th It has been a subject of learned discussions whe- ther the Irish in the I'agan period made use of the ancient alphabets, which arc known by the name of Ogham, and are preserved in some sculptured mo- numents and in various MSS. With the introduction of Christianity and the spreading of conventual edu- cation the subjoined Alphabet was formed, which is still employed in antiquarian publications and in some works intended for the Irish people. At the. present time the Irish language is frequently written and printed in Roman English) characters. 91 P e e e H\i r Vr t s r b 3 5 8 Zz t 1 ) i li V U 1 I 1 1)1) b LIGAT URES. Irish MSS. contain contractions of which Ihe following are the most usual. r chd 4© adfa 4$ e * A am 7 agar 4 ar l> V w 6? v w op b cc g c ch T>f d cr d % ea 6JX) ea 3c g o ^ n ft, ft i h) 11 ii)b in U)Y~ in * w tro n A nn V f w> 1) it* IT r h n SI o h er t cc d n i ^■x> i Vr6e ie y • M5 l 10 74 GOTHIC Form Num: Ligatures and Value ° , power ! marks Observations B r 6 u z h 1 1 R A H N q n n s T Y a b g d e q z h dh( b ) k 1 m n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 LIGATURES of frequent oc- currence in the Skeireins. "~f) for hT m b& — Hj\ — Mil — I1R — NH — NiV — NS The Gothic language was in ancient times . spoken by the eastern Germans who were de- signated by the collective name of Goths. It be- longs to the Indo-Germanic family, and as a dead language, it has been remarkably preserved in the most ancient relic of Germanic literature. It is the first of the sister- languages that was com- mitted to writing, and has thus reached us in its original purity. Although the relics of Gothic literature are very scanty, for beyond the frag- mentary version of the Bible and the so called Skeireins, we possess but insignificant remains, there is enough matter extant to afford a perfect insight into the grammatical structure of the language. The Gothic Alphabet has the adjoining 25 let- ters. Their names are not known, as the lan- guage was not cultivated by native grammarians. The invention of the Gothic characters is attri- buted to Ulphilas. MONOGRAMS. Tri for matpaius for markus. NUMERICAL FIGURES. To distinguish the numerical letters from the other characters, the sign or' 'is placed above or below the number. In these cases the diaeresis over the i' is omitted. Such letters receive a characteristic dot on the right and left. In the Neapolitan copy two dots, in the shape af a colon, are placed on both sides of the letter. Instead of dots the upright circumflex is I sometimes to be found, •B- (2), :n:(40), sq^ (60). The "catchword" is likewise enclosed tween upright circumflexes, as sGs. be- 90 900 ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. 1. Diacritical signs only occur in the diveresis over the initial I. 2. Punctuation. As a general rule the single stop represents the brief pause, and the double stop a longer pause. Yet this punctuation is not consistently carried out, such signs being often introduced without purpose, and contrary to the sense. After a long pause a blanc space is left. In the other parts of the text the words are all strung together without division, and sometimes the new sentence is placed in an other line, in which case the initial letters are preceded by the sign ■ * or ■ ~^. 3. The division of a word, written in two lines, is often made without any rule, and merely to fill the vacant space. The separation is in rare instances indicated by a hyphen, which then is marked at the beginning of the new line, and not at the end of the preced- ing one. 4. Quotations are distinguished from the text by the single upright mark S or the double ^. This mark is continued in the margin before all the lines which co ntain the quotation. In the Skeireins , which has single marks of quotation, the sign *^ r ^' is superadded in the first line, and the sign * . in the last. 5. Abbreviations. The elision of n is marked by ' ' or " \ and m by ' ■ ' or *"=*•. These signs are generally used at the end of a line, when there is not enough space for the letters, but sometimes they also occur in the middle of a line. Real abbreviations are in some instances indicated by the sign s before and after the word, but generally the signs ' — ', " ' or k ' are employed. 75 RUNES Form Name ' Value Num: power V Fe f 1 n Ur U . 2 i> Thurs til 3 H Os 4 k Reid r 5 Y Kami k G * Hagl h 7 k Naiul n 8 1 Is i <> /I Ar . a 10 H Sol s 11 t Tyr r 12 1 Biork 1) 13 h Laugr 1 1-1 Y Madr in If) i Yr y 1G Observations The adoption of the Norse Runes takes its origin in remote antiquity, and probably belongs to a pre- christian period, as is suggested by a variety of coincidences, although hitherto no positive proofs have been discovered in the Runic stones, by which those monuments might be connected with the prevalence of paganism. As is the case in the Greek, Gothic and other alphabets, the Runic signs represent both letters and numeral;;. These characters, 16 in number, bear peculiar names, and appear to have been arranged in an arbitrary manner, no attention having been paid to the mutual rela- tion and transition of the several letters. The Runic characters were divided into three classes, in which the letter w headed the first series, )k and "T each of the other two series. These three divisions were therefore respectively named Freys-aett (Frey's family), J 'Iiijils -actt and Tyra-aett. It is obvious that these letters could but imperfectly express the variety of sounds. There was only one sign for g and /,-, d and t, b and p, u v and y. It is most curious that the connective e and 6 are omitted in this system. The latter vowel is replaced by an, and tbe former by «, a, ia and ai. Instead of fl and yh the h is occasionally employed, while u might serve as the substitute of o, of the vowel i/, of the diphthongs ae, au and Cy, and even of the consonants V and/. Yr was equivalent to final r (of the same value as or and nr), and as such it was called out. When the insufficiency of the Runic alphabet was more sensibly felt, four additional letters were adopted, namely c, g, p and v. Their names were no longer in conformity with the 16 archaic characters. Nor were new shapes given to these Kunes. The simple expedient of adding one dot or two to the kindred letter was considered sufficient; therefore these sign bear the name of shmgnar rimir (dotted runes). The old letters adapted to this purpose are i, k, b and/. When the Roman cha- racters, along with the u.-e of paper and parchment were adopted in the North, the Runes were increased by the addition of tl/i, f< mm, Tvimartr. 18. (p tt, Belgthor. 19. To express the subsequent numbers, several Runes were combined. ^ (= twice ten) denoted 20.^^ = 21, ^l) = 22 and so on. 76 RUNES compared with the Gothic Alphabet of Ulfilas. Northern Runes td Golden Horn Anglo-Saxon Alphabet of Ulfilas r fe f Y r 7 feoh f I s faihu 9 n ur U V n n a ur u n urus 01) V turs torn t># v ► torn P 4> faiirnus ^r 4* 6s i* P a ^ OS ^ ans a n reid" r R fc r k rad r P raitfa ? Y kaun kg < < c(k) khh cen c (k) R kaunzama k c «'y x) X X a X gy fu g r giba Y P l> V r wen w YV vinja v u *HN hagal h H HH h NN* haegl h h hagls h + h nau* n + \ n + nyd n u naups V 1 is i I I i I is i i eis l(TjU6 Si) \A ar a S + ger ge l-y) Q j£r t (A) (F) % \ $ eoh eo z z iuja I («) H w peor * s h sigel s s£H sojil a : t 1 tyr t d t t t t tir t T tius T * biarkan bp * * beorc b B B bairika P v M M e M eh e t*(~) aihvus 7) (t sat as) YCp ma&r m M Y m M M man m n manna P- r logr I r r I r lagu l A lagus X o ♦ gg(ng) 5 ing ng x + iggvs x M £ M d M daeg d & dags o (* (M) * * * 3£M e<3rel ac aesc yr ear ior calc stan gar e ae 33 y ea io St g Q opal w o ou) WRTNTED BY F. A BROCKHAUS, LEIPZIG. Lb S 1 f LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 003 202 389 7 % ,!m ^m m m ■ 1 H