STUDIES iisr Horse Breedin g An Illustrated Treatise on the Science and Practice of Horse Breeding BY a. L. CARI^SON Published by the Author, Norfolk, Nebraska 1910 PRICE $2.00 0\\ c •^ Copyright 1910 by G. L. CARLSON All rights reserved SECONl» F.PIUON THE KET^YOX COMPANy PRIXTEKS ANI> BlNIiERS r>ES MOIiVES, IO\VA €'CI.A<»7575;'3 CONTENTS. PACK INTRODUCTION 4 CHAPTER I. The Sexual Product of the Stallion 10 CHAPTER II. The Sexual Product of the Mare 28 CHAPTER III. The Fertilization of the Egg of the Mare. . 43 CHAPTER IV. The Influence of Sex in Fertilization 61 CHAPTER V. The Fetus and Fetal Membranes of the Horse 68 CHAPTER VI. Artificial Impregnation 84 CHAPTER VII. Pregnancy, or Gestation 107 CHAPTER VIII. Parturition 112 CHAPTER IX. The Selection of a Stallion 121 CHAPTER X. Handling the Stallion 138 CHAPTER XI. The Selection of a Brood Mare 157 CHAPTER XII. The Care of the Brood Mare 164 CHAPTER XIII. Sterility 176 CHAPTER XIV. The Care of the Foal 190 CHAPTER XV. The Breeds 198 CHAPTER XVI. Jacks and Jennets 232 CHAPTER XVII. Cross Breeding 238 CHAPTER XVIII. The Phrenology of the Horse 245 CHAPTER XIX. The Science of Judging Draft Horses... 263 CHAPTER XX. Feeding the Horse 276 CHAPTER XXI. Diseases of the Horse 285 CHAPTER XXII. Barns and Barn Building 308 CHAPTER XXIII. Breeding Facts Worth Rememhering. .318 INTRODUCTION. In a former edition it was my purpose to so prepare the text that it would enlist the interest of the farmer- breeder and stallion owner. I had in mind only these two classes of men at that time, while in this edition it has been my purpose to interest the student as well. As before, I have left nothing undone to make brevity a striking feature of the text, yet at the same time I have endeavored to tell the story of the horse from a simple elemental cell, until we find him in a mature form. As before, I have aimed to give "The most possi- ble, in the smallest possible space," without sacrificing any of the vital facts bearing upon the .subject. The nature of this? work has made necessary the use of many technical terms, but in all cases the word more commonly employed to express the same thing has been given, mak- ing the text easy of understanding by either student or breeder. Every paragraph discussing a subject of gen- eral interest has been given a number for the purpose of reference, and these numbers are frequently referred to throughout the text. This will add some to the value of the work as one of reference. No apologies are ottered for the frequent reference to the draft horse. No one has a higher appreciation of the warm bred horse than the writer, yet the fact remains that the draft horse is the horse of, and for, the Ameri- can farm. He can be produced as easily and cheaply as a steer, and will sell for three or four times as much. Then again, while I have made a few experiments with light horses in breeding, nearly all my work has been carried on with draft horses. It is largely my own ex- perience and the statistics gathered and compiled by my- self that I am recording — I have spent much time and a large sum of money in such work, more I believe than has ever been spent in such work by all others in this country put together. One has only to consider some of the data collected to have this made clear. The chief object of this work has been to help in im- proving the horses of this country, and to be the means, in a measure at least, of employing better means in their production. That our methods have been wasteful throughout all the years of the past, is a fact well known to all breeders. There are now bred annually in this country 2,500.000 mares with no foals resulting. At $80 for each foal this means a loss of $200,000,000 an- nually to the horse breeders of the United States. The barren mare problem is no longer a national problem ; it is now an international one — Belgium, Canada, France, Great Britain, and other countries are having their troubles as well as ourselves. The world's loss annually as a result of barren mares is enough to bankrupt a strong government. The figures are startling. They far exceed $1,000,000,000 annually. Can an intelligent and progressive people afford to permit such a loss? In spite of this wasteful method no industry connected with the soil, or carried on in connection with the farms of this country, has yielded so liberal returns for the labor and money employed as the breeding of good horses. No live stock bred upon the famis of the United States has increased in value so rapidly as horses and mules. In 1869 the value of all horses and mules owned in the United States was $469,000,000. In 1899 the same live stock was valued at $607,000,000. In 1910 the value of this same live stock has reached the enormous sum of $2,500,000,000. Although the breeding- of horses and mules is now one of our most profitable industries, yet little has ever been done in a public way to encourage it, by either the Fed- eral or State Governments, or to aid the farmer and breeder in adopting more intelligent means of producing them. Bulletins without number upon other subjects of much less importance have been annually forthcoming, yet nothing upon that of producing better horses, or of employing more economical and intelligent means in their production. The same is true of individual help in the way of breeding horses. No embryologist has ever made a spe- cial study of the horse. There are reasons for this. The great Teutonic race has given to the world its most emi- nent embryologists. In the Teuton's native land, even more than elsewhere, horses have always represented too much value to be sacrificed for such purposes. Mares dying and which could be had for investigation of this kind were usually barren because of old age. So far as the horse is concerned, how the ovaries perform their various functions; how, when and where fertilization takes place ; or of the early development of the fetus and fetal membranes, nothing is really known. Our colleges and our professional men when regarded as a whole are many years behind the times in work of this kind. Even the farmer breeder iu many instances has passed them in progressive work and investigations of interest to the breeder. Our colleges from the begin- ning of time have been teaching that widely differing species or genera could not be crossed, and yet Luther Burbank has crossed the blackberry and apple; decidu- ous and citric fruits; hard woods with soft woods, and scores of other equally radical crosses. The same will yet prove possible with the crossing of our domestic ani- mals. It will probably require a thousand failures to make one success, but it will be done. Within ten years all our text books upon such subjects will have to be changed. AVhile the horse breeding business as a whole has been very profitable for many years, yet one branch of it, that of handling stallions for service, has been con- ducted at a loss. Several forces have been at work which are responsible for this condition. A want of a proper knowledge of the business, and a tainted live stock press are the two best known of these forces. It has been the policy of many of our farm and live stock journals to so boom the business of their advertisers that it has filled the country with small, cheap and unsound stallions to the great injury of the industry. This same press has taken advantage of every influence they could bring to bear in defeating all legislation compelling the use of sound stallions only. The world's most urgent need today, is for more men with special training to carry on its great work. In its last and best analysis the business of breeding horses does not differ from that of any other — only those best fitted, best equipped for the business shall survive. No rapid progress in producing better horses need be expected until more intelligent means be employed in producing them. Then again, 1 believe one is justified in appealing to the civic pride of the country, which is more or less developed in all mankind, upon the question of produc- ing better horses. I have observed that throughout all the rural world, the best and highest type of citizenship is always to be found in the districts of the best bred stock. To improve the live stock of a country is a potent means of raising the standard of its citizenship. The production of high-class animals calls into activity intelligence of the highest order. No country is better fitted by reason of its climate ; its nutritious grasses ; its abundance of grain ; its pure water; and the high intelliience of its breeders in the production of high-class horses, than a large part of the United States. No better evidence of this is needed than the fact that in nearly all the breeds we have produced many individuals imsurpassed in any country, and what can be done by a few breeders can be done by others. The most encouraging feature of the coming improve- ment in the horse breeding industry, is the kindly and courteous interest shown by the breeders of this and other coimtries in my investigations. I am under many obligations to veterinarians throughout all parts of the country for their many words and acts of encourage- ment. They are awakening to the fact that before a horse can be treated, he must be produced. In this con- nection I wish to acknowledge my appreciation of the help extended to the horse breeding industry, by the Kansas City Veterinary College. Never before in the history of such eclueation in this country has a profes- sional body of men done so much to help a great indus- try. The same appreciation is due the editor of the Stallion and Jack News, of Kansas City, Mo. It requires a large fund of both moral courage and enterprise to embark in a neAv and untried field of endeavor. This journal is devoted exclusively to the production of the best in horses and mules, and has taken a high position in advocating better methods, and the practice of higher business ethics in their production. The country is awakening as never before to the im- portance of the horse breeding industry to the best life of the country, and is appreciating as never before the need of educational aid in that direction. G. L. CARLSON. Norfolk, Nebr., Sept. 1, 1910. CHAPTER I. THE SEXUAL PRODUCT OF THE STALLION. 1. The Beginning of a New Life. In all animals the beginning of a new life can take place only when the reproductive elements of the two sexes are properly nnited. Under natural conditions this is done by the procreative act, or sexual union of the two sexes. These reproductive elements are known as spermatozoa and egg-cells, or ova, the former being the product of the stallion, while the latter are the product of the mare. 2. The Sexual Organs of the Stallion. The origin of the reproductive elements of the stallion will re- quire some study of the genital organs, shown in figure 1. Only the essential organs of reproduction will be described in this work, which consists of the testicles, the vasa efferentia, the epididymis, the vasa deferentia (vas deferens), and the vesiculae seminales (seminal vesicles). 3. The Testicles. The origin of the reproductive element is in the testicles. These organs are suspended in a pouch between the thighs, which is known as the scrotum. This is a single sac enclosing both testicles. Immediately under the scrotum one finds the dartos, a thin laver of elastic tissue. The dartos is a dependency THE SEXUAL PRODUCT OF THE STALLION 11 from the abdominal structure, and forming two cavi- ties, with H doubh' partition between them, througli Figure 1. The genital organs of the stallion, shown from the right side. 1, right testicle; 2, 3, vas deferens; 4, seminal vesicle; 5, prostate gland; 6, urethra; 7, Cow- per's glands; 9, fold of peritoneum; 10, vessels and nerves of left testicle cut off; 11, Abdominal ring; 12, bladder. which the penis passes. The cremaster is a muscle forming a partial covering for the testicle, and the 12 STTDIKS IN HORSE I5REF.DIXG tunica vaginalis is the serous covering of this organ. Strictly speaking the testicle proper is enclosed with a fibrous capsule, the tunica albuginea. This fibrous tissue is extended into the substance of the testicle, dividing the organ into separate lobules. In each lobule are found many seminal tubules, commencing in a highly convoluted portion, but ending in a straight tube, and piercing the tunica albuginea at the anterior extremity of the testicle. These seminal tubules con- Figure 2. The testicle of the stallion with other organs, dissected of their serous covering. 1, testicle; 2, glands in which are found the spermatoblast cells; 3, vasa efferentia; 4, epididymis; 5, vas aberrans; 6, vas deferens; 7, sper- matic artery. sist of several layers of cells, known as the spermato- blast cells, which form spermatozoa. See figure 2. 4. The Vasa Efferentia and Epididymis. The vasa efferentia are but the continuation of the seminal tub- ules which have now pierced the tunica albuginea and they in turn terminate in the globus major of the epi- didymis. No part of the genital organs of the stallion show such a variation in individuals as the epididymis. THE SEXUAL PKODUC'T OF THE S TALLIOX 13 Never have I found two stallions the same in this par- ticular. In some stallions we find the head, or globus major, some three inches in diameter, and suddenly terminatino: into a small tube, or globus minor. In others we find a large convoluted canal of even size throughout its length, and I am inclined to the belief Figure 3. The bladder and seminal vesicles dissected of their serous covering. 1, bladder; 2, 2, vas deferens; 3, 3, seminal vesicles; 4, prostate gland; 5, ureter; 6, urethra. that the latter form is found in the case of the most virile stallions. 5. The Vasa Deferentia. These are the excretory ducts of the testicles, each tube having the thickness of a small pencil. The semen is thus carried from the epi- didymis to the upper face of the bladder, terminating 14 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING in a short constricted portion, under the prostate, into the ejaculatory duct. 6. The Vesiculae Seminales. The seminal vesicles are the two oval bodies placed between the bladder below and the rectum above. They are the chief de- positories for the storage of semen. Here under normal conditions of all the bodily functions, semen may be stored for months. Shown in figure 3. Figure 4. Spermatozoa shown in two positions, and showing flattened form of head. 1, head; 2, middle piece; 3, tail. 7. The Ejaculatory Ducts. These are two short tubes formed beneath the prostate gland by the junc- tion of the vas deferens and the neck of the seminal vesicle, whore the duct soon opens into the urethra. 8. Spermatic Cord. The testicle is suspended by means of the spermatic cord, and blood is supplied by the spermatic artery. 9. The Penis. AVith this organ, which is the stal- lion's organ of copulation, may be concluded the chief THE SEXUAL PBODUCT OF THE STALLION 15 organs of reproduction. The penis consists of erectile tissue and is divided into two portions, the one perma- nent as to place, the other free. The free portion is suspended in a sling known as prepuce, which is a sheath covered by a skin possessing an extremely fine texture and smooth surface. The anterior extremity of the penis consists of an enlargement, the glans penis. The blood is supplied by the external and inter- Figure 5. Spermatozoa of the stallion. (Sketched.) nal pudic and obturator arteries. The nerve supply is by the internal pudic and sympathetic nerves, the most sensitive in the nervous system of the horse. It is because of the very sensitive nature of this portion of the penis, that injury so often results from the use of breeding bags. The same injury to this organ may result from sudden and forced blows, such as kicks, or striking the end of the penis with any foreign object. 16 STUDIES IN HORSE liREEUIXQ Injury of a serious nature has been known to follow forced copulation. 10. The Urethra. This is properly a part of the penis, and is a long membranous tube or canal extend- ing from the neck of the bladder to the glans penis. It is common to both generative and urinary systems. Figure 6. Spermatozoa of the stallion, showing the wider and thicker form as a result of using stains. This figure also shows the large corpuscles frequently found in the seminal fluid of some stallions. The commencement of the urethra is very constricted, but the membranous portion is more dilated. 11. Spermatozoa. It has already been shown (3) that the i-ei)foductive elements, or spermatozoa, nave their origin in the testicles, yet a mature spermatozoon, or one capable of showing any other than a rotary THE SEXUAL PRODUCT OF THE STALLIOX 17 motion, has never been found in the testicles of a stal- lion. It requires the same process of maturation to develop spermatozoa, as we find in the case of the egg of the mare. Motion is observed as soon as the sper- matozoa reach the vasa efferentia, but it is still rotary. Figure 7. Seminal eoi-puscles found in the semen of all stallions. This figure also represents the semen of a sterile stallion in which no spermatozoa are present. Greater activity will be observed as they reach the epididymis, and more active yet when found in the vas deferens. Evidence of full maturity is wanting, how- ever, until they reach the seminal vesicles. 18 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING The best test one can make of the full maturity of spermatozoa, is in experiments with external fertili- zation. The egg of the mare has no attraction for any spermatozoa found before reaching the seminal vesicles. Here one finds them as capable of fertilizing the egg, as are those secured by copulation. 12. The Discovery of Spermatozoa. The discovery of spermatozoa in the seminal fluid of the males, and later that a spermatozoon is but a cell containing the Figure 8. nifled. A spermatozoon of the stallion greatly mag fundament or primary structure of a future being, has been of far reaching importance to the study of embry- ology. During the eighteenth century, and even up to the middle of the nineteenth, there was a wide diver- sity of opinion among the most eminent scientists upon this subject. In fact very little was really known. Spermatozoa were first discovered by a German student in the year 1677. THE SEXUAL PRODUCT OF THE STALLION 19 20 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING 13. Ovists and Animalculists. One school of physi- ologists held to the opinion that it was the egg that supplied the germ or cell from which the future being had its origin. They were called ovists. After the dis- covery of spermatozoa another school of theorists came into existence, who were of the opinion that the sper- matozoa were provided with all the organs of the developed animals. They were called animalculists. Then there were those who held to the evolution theory of development, and others who believed in the perfor- mation theory. Each of these schools and theories had the support of some of the master minds of that time. It remained for C. F. Wolff, in 1759, to give to the world the relative importance of the sexes in the pro- cess of fertizilation, and that the germ becomes organ- ized only in consequence of fertilization. 14. Spermatozoa Organized. The early anatomists and physiologists were almost a unit in the belief that spermatozoa were organized. Later investigators were as well agreed in the theory of unorganized germinal matter. Better optical instruments have during the past twenty-five years established the organized cell theory of the present time. This theory is not that the sperm cell of the stallion is organized in the sense of a fully developed horse, but only in the sense that the primary or elemental organs are present. No one has been able to state the fact with more force than Hert- wig, when he said, "If the organ is not present, that which mak-^s it is." 15. Description of Spermatozoa. The spermatozoa of mammals are the smallest elementary parts of the body. They are developed in great numbers in the THE SEXUAL PROIHTCT OF THE STALLION 21 seminal fluid of the stallion, Init can be seen in it only by bringing to our aid the use of high magnification. A good penetrating eye can observe them with a mag- nification of 100 diameters. The best success I have ever had in photo-micro-graphic work is by using from 240 to 280 diameters. A magnification of 500 diameters will show the width of the head at about one-sixteenth of an inch and the entire length at one and one-half inches. A spermatozoon consists of three parts, head, tail and a middle portion. By far the greatest width is found in the head, which in shape is oval, slightly excavated on both surfaces, and much thinner at the anterior end. Viewed from the side it has much the appearance of a wedge, as shown in figure 4. Chemical reactions show the head to consist of nuclear substance. The tail, which is composed of protoplasm, is a long, contractile appendage, and capable of executing ser- pentine motions, by means of which the spermatozoa can move forward in the seminal fluid with great velocity, relatively greater than the fully developed horse. The head and tail are united by a short middle piece, which is about one-fifth of the entire length of the spermatozoon. On the whole there is not the diver- sity of form found in the spermatozoa of the many species of mammals, that characterizes the egg-cell of the same species. 16. Relative Size of Spermatozoa, In twenty-seven years of investigation, I have never found two sperma- tozoa of the same size, even in the same discharge, when measured with the photo-micograph. The size of the stallion has little to do with the size of the spermatozoa. They are always relatively larger in 22 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING small stallions than in large ones. The spermatozoa discharged by an imported Shetland stallion weighing 350 pounds, were about one-half the size of those from a Shire stallion weighing 2,250 pounds, the Shire being nearly seven times as large as the pony. The sperma- tozoa of Shire stallions are slightly larger than those of any other breed. , 17. Photographing Spermatozoa. A gelatinous sub- stance incloses spermatozoa in all their parts, and which is distinct from the surrounding fluid. If treated with chemical reagents of a mild alkaline nature, this in- closing substance takes up stains with avidity, giving the spermatozoa a wider and thicker appearance than when not so treated. Even by this process a part of the tail is lost, also giving the spermatozoa a shorter appearance than should be given them. This can be better understood by comparing figure 5 with figure 6. The former shows spermatozoa as they appear to the eye without the aid of reagents, while the latter shows them as photographed with the aid of reagents. In the use of stains, whenever it is chemically possible, red is to be preferred to blue, as the former will take black, while the latter always takes white. 18. The Seminal Fluid. The semen of the stallion consists in addition to the spermatozoa of a homogen- ous fluid — the liquor seminus — in which we observe minute rounded corpuscles, or seminal granules. These are found in the semen of all stallions both virile and sterile. These vary greatly as to size and numbers in the semen of different stallions, and in some stallions we find two kinds of these corpuscles, differing widely in size. In some instances a magnification of 200 diam- THE SEXUAL PRODUCT OF THE STALLION 23 eters will disclose small clusters of corpuscles of vary- ing shapes, and from tAVO to a dozen corpuscles in a cluster, and appearing sufficiently large with that mag- nification to be accurately counted. These take up stains quite readily. Figure 6 shows clusters of these larger corpuscles. If this same semen is placed under a higher magnification the smaller corpuscles common to all semen will be disclosed as shown in figure 7. These smaller corpuscles are about 1-2000 of an inch in diameter, and do not readily yield to chemical re- agents. 19. The Development of Spermatozoa. The develop- ment of spermatozoa clearly demonstrates that they are really metamorphosed cells, and that each sperma- tozoon is developed out of a single seminal cell. The development of a spermatozoon offers the investigator many interesting surprises. We have already observed (11) that a considerable time is required in maturing or developing a spermatozoon and we have likewise observed (11) that a mature spermatozoon possesses a head, a tail and a middle portion. Of these three por- tions the flat and wedge-like head is developed from the nucleus, and the caudal appendage out of the proto- plasm. In the earliest stage of development at which the sperm cell can be recognized, only a bell shaped cell f.an be observed. This grows out into an elongated cone, the base of which becomes the point of attach-- ment for the middle piece. This cone now develops into a still more elongated cone and narrowed into a rod shaped structure. At this stage of development a retrogression is seen to take place, so far as form 24 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING or shape js concerned, until finally it assumes the form of a mature spermatozoon. The progression and retro- gression of these changes are well illustrated in fig- ure 9. The fundament of the middle portion first makes its appearance at the time the nucleus begins to elongate. It is first observed at the base of the nucleus in the form of a small oval and in a short time from it the tail appears. From the above we learn that a spermatozoon passes through a process of development, not unlike that of the development of the fetus. At first there is but a single seminal cell out of which is developed the head. From the head is formed the middle piece, and finally the tail from the protoplasm. 20. Number of Spermatozoa in One Discharge. The number of spermatozoa in one discharge of a stallion is from 10,000 to 75,000, depending upon the sexual vigor of the stallion and the frequency of service. A virile stallion making but one service a day will discharge from 50,000 to 75,000 of them at each service. The amount of fluid discharged at each service of a stallion is from four to twelve ounces. The less frequent the service, the larger the amount of fluid, and the higher the number of spermatozoa. If stallions are made to do service too often, the semen will not contain mature spermatozoa. 21. Jacks. In the service of jacks one does not find as much fluid as in the service of stallions, nor does this fluid contain as many spermatozoa. Some virile jacks do not discharge more than an ounce of fluid, and very few of them more than three ounces. This makes THE SEXITAI, PRODUCT OF THE STALLIOX 25 breeding by the capsule method more difficult than when using stallions to make the necessary service. The spermatozoa of jacks are not as tenacious of life as those of stallions. Scientifically speaking, no jack is as certain of impregnating mares, as a virile stallion. This is particularly true when mated with mares, since the production of hybrids is never as certain in the case of all animal life, as when the mating is of one kind. There is a widely distributed belief to the contrary, but it is an erroneous one. Because of their temperamental difference, jacks make a more complete service than stallions ; that is to say they deposit the semen in the uterus more often than stallions. This better service would result in a larger number of foals, even with a lower vitality of the spermatozoa. 22. Vitality and Power of Resistance of Spermato- zoa. The life force of spiM'matozoa depends much upon the sexual vigor of the stallion from whence they came. In the case of the horse they have been known to retain their vitality for thirty days after having been intro- duced into the sexual passages of the mare. In dis- secting a mare that had been killed at a railroad cross- ing twenty-seven days after she had been bred, I found thousands of live spermatozoa attached to the mem- branes of the vagina, uterus and also in the intestinal cavity. In this case the mare had been pregnant for about three weeks. I have kept the spermatozoa of the horse under artificial conditio7is for fifteen days. At the end of this time I found every spermatozoon active. However, I made many failures before I succeeded in doing this. To succeed in keeping spermatozoa alive for any considerable time one must keep them from 26 STimiKS IN llOKSK liKKKDINC; (MHiiitiii' ill <'t>iit;ict with both air and lii^lit, and a iionnal tempei-aturc is an absolntc ncct'ssity. They may be fro/.on and k('|)t I'or niontlis, wlicn tliey will show activ- ity npoii bcini; thawed ont, yet lil'e soon eeases uiuler sneh eondilions. The bottle or tnbe in which they are to be kept iiinst be sterilized in boiling water before beino- used. If kept in jar, bottle oi- culture tube, these nuist l)e black so as to exclude all lii^ht. IMy success in this came as a result of fillini^' and sealing a small black bottle from the vagina of a mare that had just been served by a stalli(ui. b]\periments which 1 made in testing the longevity of spermatozoon life with re- gard to color I'l'sulted in i-ed being next below black, then yellow, green, blu(> and white. 23. Power of Resistance as Compared with the Egg. Both the dui-ation of life and the power of resistance are much greater in the spei-matozoa of the stallion thau in the egg of the mare. This is made necessary because of the egg being non-motive. In no other way could fertilization be accomjilished. A great division of labor has arisen between the two, since each has adapted itself to a ditferent mission. The non-mobile egg nuist be united with the mobile spermatozoon,which requires not only the migratory character of the latter, but a far greater duration of life as well. The egg-cell is very sensitive to all external infiuences, and is easily destroyed by influences having no etfcct upon the life of the spermatozoon. A normal salt solution, that is such a solution of about seven-tiMiths of one per cent, greatly stimulates the activity of spermatozoa, as do many weak solutions of an alkaline character, while TIIK SEXUAL I'KODUCT OK TlfK STAl.I.IO.N all acid solutions. Iiowcvcf dilute, will (|iii('kly prodiKM- death. The most destriKitivc lon-cs ol' the life oT spcniuito/oa. ill tlicii' order of dcstructivciicss ar(! bnctcriM, Mcids, suii- HliIiI and iiir. 1 li;ivc I'ound nwiny species oi' hjicler'ia, destructive of speriuatozoa, some of them proviii}:^ fatal to tlKiir existence, almost instantly. lieeause of bac- teria, spei'm;it.v 0. Figure 23. Fertilization complete. Here one observes that sperm-nucleus and egg-nucleus have fused as shown at a. thus preventing the penetration of another spermato- zoon, even though there was no other agency at work to prevent this. The real process of fertilization is now ready to take place. The egg-nucleus and the spermatozoon, which has now assumed the form of a sperm-nucleus mu- tually attract each other and begin migrating through 58 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING the yolk toward each other. This is shown in figure 21. The sperm-nucleus soon becomes surrounded in a protoplasmic radiation, while the egg-nucleus shows no such radiation. Soon the two meet near the middle of the egg and become surrounded by a common radiation as shown in figure 22. Immediately after this meeting they become flattened at the surface of contact, and finally fuse with each other, when the act of fertiliza- tion is complete as shown in figure 23. Only two or three minutes of time is required to carry the process of fertilization through all its many stages herein de- scribed. 55. When Fertilization Takes Place. The time elapsing from the introduction of spermatozoa into the uterus of the mare until fertilization is complete may be anywhere from a few hours to 30 days. Spermato- zoa showing great activity have been found in both the uterine and abdominal cavities of a mare 27 days after she was bred. Mares bred during one heat period fre- quently do not conceive until the next heat period. A test was made of 63 mares bred and found in heat 21 days later but for the sake of the experiment were not bred at this time, and 41 of them produced foals with- out being rebred. If the stallion is virile and the mare normal in every way, semen introduced into the uterus should be virile for 30 days or more. Of all normal mares bred, probably 9 of every 10 conceive from five to seven days after the cessation of the heat period. 56. Vitality of Egg and Spermatozoa. There is a wide difference in the vitality of spermatozoa as com- pared with the egg. The former have great duration THE FERTILIZATION OF THE EGG OF THE MARE 59 of life and power of resistance, while the egg of the mare possesses little of either. A normal salt solution will increase the vitality of the egg, and aid in ex- ternal or artificial fertilization, as does nothing else known at this time. The egg is extremely sensitive to air. light and low temperatures, while spermatozoa may be frozen for weeks and show motion upon being thawed out. In experimenting with artificial fertiliza- tion the egg must be kept from all natural light, a red light being used instead. This is true also of sperma- tozoa. Weak salt and alkaline solutions will quicken the activity of spermatozoa, while acid solutions, how- ever dilute will quickly produce death. 57. Conditions Adverse to Fertilization. In experi- menting with semen at low temperatures, I was never able to impregnate mares with semen much below nor- mal. On one occasion I impregnated two mares with semen that had been quickly lowered to a temperature of 94 degrees. This was done by placing the filled extractor for two or three minutes in water at that temperature. If kept at low temperature for any con- siderable time, spermatozoa will lose their fertilizing properties, although they still show motion. The more active one finds them, the more certain of fertilization. I have never been able to impregnate a mare having a temperature above 101.7. Only once have I done so with a temperature as high as that. In breeding mares with a temperature of 101 or more, one is confronted with a problem not yet solved. 58. Artificial Fertilization. So far as the horse is concerned, artificial fertilization is but external fertili- zation. The eggs of the first or primitive species were 60 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING all fertilized externally. The external fertilization of the eggs of other species is no more difficult if care be nsed as to normal conditions. Place a mature egg in mature semen and fertilization is certain. It will again he referred to in a future chapter. CHAPTER IV. THE INFLUENCE OF SEX IN FERTILIZATION. 59. Control of Sex. No one thing interests breed- ers so much as the control of sex, and yet it is of little value to them. If one was to announce that he knew of a plan by which sex could be controlled, he would have no difficulty in securing an audience, however absurd the plan might be. Some of the early authorities held that the ovaries controlled the sex, one ovary developing eggs of one sex, the other ovary developing eggs of the other sex. In the early 90 's I removed the right ovary from 10 mares and the left ovary from 10 others. At the end of three years all but one of them had given birth to foals of both sexes. Others held that sex originated in the testicles of the stallion. In 1895 I removed the right testicle from an eight year old imported Percheron stallion in October. That spring he was mated with 23 mares, resulting in 16 foals, nine of which were fillies. The spring of 1896 he was mated with 29 mares (having one testicle only) resulting in 19 foals, 11 of which Avere fillies. In October of the year 1896 I removed the left testicle from a Standard bred stallion. The spring of that 62 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING year he was mated with 17 mares, resulting in 13 foals, of which eight were colts. During the season of 1897 this stallion was mated with 21 mares, re- sulting in 15 foals, of which eight were colts. So far as these two stallions were concerned but little dif- ference was to be observed whether they had one tes- ticle or two. Figure 24. Sex attraction. The egg attracting the sper- matozoa. One of the old theories, and it is still living, is that of mating early in the heat periods for fillies and late for colts. Of 207 foals, the result of mating at the earliest possible time. 111 were colts and 96 only were fillies. Of 341 foals, the result of mating the last of the heat period, 191 were fillies and 150 only were colts. THE INFLUENCE OF SEX IN FERTILIZATION 63 Of 198 foals the result of mating out of season, that is in between the heat periods, 101 were fillies and 97 were colts. Another theory which has been given much prom- inence by many breeders and a few writers, is that of the alternation of sex. The following explanation will make this theory clear. If a mare was to produce a colt / ^ , J /■ Figure 25. Sex attraction. Wlien fertilized tlie egg offers no furtlier attraction to spermatozoa. one year, and mated with a stallion again at the first heat period following parturition, the next year she would produce a filly, but if mated at the second per- iod the foal would again be a colt. To put it in an- other w^ay, mating at the odd heat periods will pro- duce the opposite sex when compared with the last 64 STfDIES IX HORSE IJKEEDIXG foal, while mating at the even heat periods the foal would be the same. In 1895 I had 17 mares producing foals. These were all mated with a stallion at the first heat period, 14 of them producing foals from the first mating, and two Figure 26. Oell formation. Tlie first process in the de- velopment of tlie embryo. of the others from the second mating. These all pro- duced sexes in accordance with this theory, and I be- lieved for the time that I had solved the mystery of sex control. The next season these same mares were handled in the same manner, and records kept of the matings, and with one exception the reverse of this THE IXFLUENCIi OF SEX IX EERTILIZATIOX 65 theory proved true. Here again is evidence of the fallacy of short time experiments. Several other theories, some quite well known, while others were not so well known, have ended the same way. Some of them would make a very fair showing for one year, only to go wrong the next. Among these theories were such as moon influence, watering before and after service, the stallion hanging his head at the right or left side of the mare during- copulation as well as scores of others equally as absurd. 60. Sex Attraction. The only control of sex is that of sex attraction, and that is impracticable to the breeder for the present at least. The magnetic forces of sex are much more potent than we know, and give us a key to sex control which could be carried out quite successfully if it were profitable, but it is not. In the animal kingdom all normal males are mag- netically positive, while all normal females are mag;- netically negative. A perfect male, that is one endowed with all the masculine power possible for his kind, will invariably be positive in sexual character. A per- fect female, that is one feminine to a marked degree will invariably be negative in sexual character. It is this sex attraction, and nothing else, which attracts the spermatozoon of the stallion to the egg of the mare. The ovum or eg:g will be of the same magnetic character .-is the mare developing it. If a mare is feminine in a high degree, colts rather than fillies would be the result, while if a mare of a masculine character was mated with a stallion wanting in mas- culinity, fillies rather than colts would be the result: If a mare of an intermediate magnetic temperament 66 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING was mated with a stallion of like temperament a foal of either sex could be the result. I now have in mind a mare that produced nine colts in as many years, all sired by the same stallion, and by changing stal- lions she produced three fillies in succession by the second stallion. The number of breeders who have had similar experiences are legion. 61. Sex Attraction Shown by External Fertilization, In experimenting with external or artificial fertiliza- tion I was surprised at the power of this attraction. In placing a mature egg of the mare into mature se- men of the stallion, only a certain per cent of the spermatozoa would be attracted to it, and these could not be kept from it. Even though separated from the egg by the aid of a needle, they will immediately re- turn to it upon being liberated. Place an egg from another mare into this same semen and one observes a distinctly different number of the spermatozoa that are attracted to it. Why this difference? Figure 24 shows the attraction the egg has for spermatozoa, but this work is intended for practical subjects only, and the above question will have to go unanswered for the present. The purpose in putting the question, is a hope that the reader may give it much thought on his own account. 62. Want of Sex Attaction a Cause of Barrenness. A stallion and mare could be so magnetically alike that the egg would have no attraction for the sper- matozoa, and barrenness would be the result so far as these two were concerned. In my experience with ex- ternal fertilization I have found this to be a fact. The remedy is to try a change of semen. A stallion may THE INFLUENCE OF SEX IN FEKTILIZATIOX 67 be virile and a mare fecund, yet fail as breeders when mated. This happens more often than most men be- lieve. 63. Result of Sex Control. It will be seen that sex can be controlled to the satisfaction of the investigator, but not in a way satisfactory to the breeder. In making matings to result in a certain sex, might be the means of losing every other quality for which one had la- bored for years. If sex alone is wanted one must bear in mind that male spermatozoa are attracted to nega- tive ova only, and that matings must be made with reference to this fact. 64. Attraction Lost at Time of Fertilization. Ref- ference has already been made (54) to the fact that as soon as the egg has been penetrated by a spermatozoon, the formation of a vitelline membrane prevents others from penetrating it. This is unnecessary, for as soon as the egg is penetrated by a spermatozoon, it has no attraction for others. No sooner has this process of fertilization been accomplished than one observes all other spermatozoa turning in other directions. This is well illustrated in figure 25. CHAPTER V. THE FETUS AND FETAL MEMBRANES OF THE HORSE. 65. Cell Division. Following fertilization a further development begins with the division of the egg-cell, or cleavage. The fusion of the egg nucleus and sperm- nucleus results in a cleavage-nucleus, which always oc- cupies the middle of the egg, and forms the center of a radiation which affects the whole yolk mass. This soon begins to be slightly elongated, becoming less distinct, and finally results in a figure resembling a dumb bell. The nucleus which represents the handle of this dumb bell figure is composed of chromatin and a nonchromatic substance. The latter forms into a bundle of very minute fibres converging at their ends to a point. The chromatin forms into small individ- ual granules, known as chromosomes, and which cor- respond in numbers with the fibres of the nonchromatic substance. In some species these resemble a V shaped figure. Two exceedingly minute bodies, out of which occupies the exact center of each of the two previously mentioned systems may be observed at this time, and which are known as centrosomes. In this scheme of cleavage or cell division, half of these chromosomes THE FETUS AND FETAL MEMBRANES OF THE HORSE 69 are derived from the eoo-nncleus, and half from the sperm-nucleus. 66. Principles of Growth. Thus far a simple prin- ciple only has controlled the development of the em- bryo, that of cleavage or cell division, from which has been derived a cell colony. This is illustrated in fig- ure 26. This principle of development is not sufficient Figure 27. Embryo five days after fertilization. for the production of the more complicated forms which adult animals possess, and two others here su- pervine to complete the development already begun, namely, the principle of unequal growth and that of the division of labor. 67. Principle of Unequal Growth. In the growth oi the embrvo, if the cells of a cell membrane divided 70 STUDIES IX HORSE LREEDIXG uniformly, the result would be a uniform increase in the surface of the membrane in all directions, but the pressure due to growth causes the new cells to assume a direction in the line of least resistance, by which means the different glands and organs are formed. 68. Principle of the Division of Labor. While the division and growth of cells may in general determine Figure 28. Embryo seven days after fertilization, show- ing development of the middle germ layer. the growth and form of the animal body, there is another principle, the division of labor, which is but the principle of duty or function. The more highly an organism is developed, the more its cells differenti- ate themselves for the duties of life, some assuming the function of nutrition, others that of motion, others THE FETUS AND FETAL MEMBRANES OF THE HORSE 71 that of sensibility, and still others that of reprodnc- tion. This division of labor makes a greater degree of completeness in the execution of the individual func- tions possible. By this means we are given gland- cells, muscle-cells, nerve-cells, and sexual-cells. The cells performing the same duty will be found grouped together and constitute a special tissue. Figure 29. Embryo nine days after fertilization. Note the meeting of tlie amniotic fold over the back of the embryo. 69. Folding. There is still another force at work in the development of the embryo, that of folding. It would be impossible to form tubular parts of the ani- 2nal organism in any other manner. The intestinal and other canals must be formed in this manner. If the membrane be folded into the interior of the body, 72 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING the process is known as invagination, while if the fold projects free beyond the surface of the body it is known as evagination. 70. — Germ Layers. The principle of folding already referred to (69) is the chief means of body formation. In the earliest development of the embryo there arise Figure 30. Embryo eleven days after fertilization. The chorion is developed at this time. larval forms which at first are composed of two, and later of fonr membranes. The first two are known as the two primary germ layers, and the later two as the middle germ layers. This larval form composed of two germ layers is known as the gastriila. The mass of cleavage-cells developing into a sac-like germ is known THE FETT'S AXD FETAL MEMBRANES OF THE HORSE 73 as the blastiila. There are four different kinds of blas- tuhie. according to the amount and distribution of yolk, found in different species of vertebrates, and four kinds of gastrulae to correspond with them. 71. Fetal Membranes. There are developed with the permanent ()r •(-1 n r/j -i-> O a Ph >■" O-C 1) a. 73 = -f'O cS b 01 ® S & 160 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING mares known to be producers are rarely offered at public sales. Those who have purchased mares at such sales only to find in the years that follow, that to have purchased a gelding would have proved just as prof- itftble, are many. I have seen mares respond to the call of the stallion while being sold under a positive guarantee that she was safe in foal. 157. Rules in Bu3ring Mares. There are two rules in buying mares, which if followed closely will rarely result in a disappointment. The one is to buy mares only with a foal at foot. Such a mare has proved her- self a breeder. The other is to buy young fillies, and only of the man who bred them, that their sire and dam may both be seen. The latter plan is preferable, as by this way more may be known of what to ex- pect of the filly, both as to her proving a producer and the quality of her foals. 158. Pedigrees and Certificates. This brings up the question of pedigree or certificate. Many believe if an animal is registered, it must be a pure bred. It does not need to be, and very often is not. Many mares and stallions are being sold every day with certifi- cates that are far from being pure bred. They are known as top-cross animals and are far too common in the Pereheron breed and stud book. High officials in the association of this breed are offering many such in their annual sales as shown by their catalogues. Such horses are only grades with a certificate and while these certificates may have a value of their own to a dealer, to a reputable breeder they have no value whatever. However, if one has had no experience with breeds and pedigrees, he does not need to be THE SELECTION OF A BROOD MAKE 161 deceived by these top-cross certificates. If the dams of any animal registered can not be traced back to an imported dam, that animal is only a grade. The fol- lowing certificates, both taken from the stud book of the Percheron Society of America, will illustrate this point, the first one being a pure bred : Collector— No. 60152. Sire: Tremont 33647, by Due de Broglie 2368 (1145), by Brilliant 1271 (755), by Brilliant 1899 (756), by Coco 11 (714), by Vieux Chaslin (713), by Coco (712), by Mignon (715), by Jean le Blanc (739). Dam: Selma 46354, by Bayard 10959 (20891), by Luther 4093 (212), by Luther (792), by Pierre (887), by Laboureur (886), by Jean le Blanc (739). Second dam: Niobrara 44715, by Bolet 14217 (19799), by Sans Souci 7100 (6070), by Snowflake (107), by Avata 1966 (912), by Nogent 738 (729), by Vidocq 483 (732), by Coco 11 (714), by Vieux Chaslin (713), by Coco (712), by Mignon (715), by Jean le Blanc (739). Third dam: Myra 6068 (Paquerette 6139), by Cheri (5464), by Mouton, etc. Fourth dam: Rosette (6134), by Selim (749). It will be noticed in the above certificate that the third and fourth dams are both mares that were bred in France as indicated by the numbers in parenthesis. The following is the certificate of a so-called top- cross or grade : Cinq.— No. 54895. Sire: Costa 42290, by Leroy 21193, by Mithridate 20535 (35918), by Archimede 11411 (7222), by Voltaire 3540 (443), by Brilliant 1271 (755), by Brilliant 1899 (756), by Coco 11 (714), by Vieux Chaslin (713), by Coco (712), by Mignon (715), by Jean le Blanc (739). 162 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING Dam: Octo 25483, by Hercules 19985, by Messidor 11567 (22456), by Forban 7368 (5374), by Picodor (5391), by Pico- dor. Second dam: Cathrine, by A'Venture 1448 (803). Third dam: Catli, by Premeier 11, 1451. Fourth dam : Calebs, by Emperor 658. Fifth dam: Carlo, by Chartres 518. It will be noticed in the above certificate that the dams do not trace back to an imported mare, and that only the first dam is registered. Therefore the colt Cinq. No. 54895 is only a top-cross or grade, being of the sixth cross and possessing sixty-three sixty-fourths of Percheron blood. This is assuming the certifi- cate and pedigree to have an honest foundation. It is in such pedigrees, however, that we find the great- est temptation to misrepresent pedigrees. If the other sixty-fourth part of the blood of this colt was of any of the other draft breeds, no harm could result. It is because of not knowing of what this outcross consists, that we should not use such horses for breeding pur- poses. It may be any of the small breeds, or even of an Indian pony. As soon as the American farmer and breeder understand what this means to the future of the horse breeding industry, such horses will be given no place in breeding. Then there are other certificates given with both stallions and mares by unscrupulous dealers, possess- ing no value whatever. There are a few associations in the country quite ready to register anything for the fee. In buying such horses, one is always buying a grade with a pedigree, which is used only as an aid in making the sale. THE SELECTION OF A BROOD MARE 163 159. Conformation. In comformation, the draft mare should not differ from the draft stallion. Size, the sloping pastern and shoulder, good feet, and hock of the best, both as regards quantity and quality, should always be demanded. If good foals are desired, good mares must be a factor in their production. A good and well sexed stallion, with correct conforma- tion may be able to sire very good foals when mated with only ordinary mares, yet we should not expect him to do it all. The best horses are possible only by the use of good mares. CHAPTER XII. THE CARE OF THE BROOD MARE. 160. Every Normal Mare a Breeder. The mere own- ership of a mare does not mean that one owns a brood mare ; yet, if a mare refuses to produce her kind, it is more likely to be the fault of her owner than her own. Nature made every entire female a breeder. If you own a mare of breeding age and she does not breed, ask yourself why. About twenty years ago I purchased some mares in eastern Iowa and Illinois. These mares were from three to nine years of age, and the most of them were sold only because they would not produce. In April 101 of these mares were turned out to range in the nortliM^est part of South Dakota. They were all large mares of draft blood, weighing from 1400 to 1700 pounds. About the first of June I began breeding them to an imported Percheron stal- lion. The mares were all driven into a corral every Monday and Thursday. All mares in season would be bred upon those days by making one natural ser- vice and capsuling the others. I made but two services each week with the stallion. In 30 days every mare had been bred once. Some were bred as many as three times during the season. The next spring these 101 THE CARE or THE BROOD MARE. 165 mares produced 53 live foals. The next year they produced 91 live foals, handled and bred in the same manner. The third year, every mare had produced at least one foal, and yet many of their former owner? were honest enough to tell me the mares he was sellings were barren. The two oldest mares were nine years of age when I bought them, and their owner told me he would not think of selling them if they would breed. He had bred them every year from their third to their eighth year, but with no results. With such a record behind these mares, and with nothing having been done to aid them in breeding but simply turn- ing them back to Nature, every mare proved herself a producer. 161. The Abuse of Brood Mares. No one thing which I have tried to impress upon the minds of farm- ers and breeders, and with so little effect, is the need of better care of mares in foal, and those they wish to breed. The}^ will drive a pregnant mare six or eight miles to town and tie her to the hitch rack. They will work them until they are warm, and then let them stand in the wind until chilled. They will even drive them to a buggy ; use them in deep mud and upon slippery roads without shoes; back heavy loads with them ; in fact do scores of things with them every day which they should not do, and then wonder why they do not breed, or why they lose their foals. Because their grandfather's old Kate did these things and pro- duced foals for many years, is conclusive proof to their minds that all mares should be treated in the same manner. 162. Occupation of Mare Owners. For more than 166 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING twenty years I have classified my country patrons into breeders, grain farmers and hay farmers. Those des- ignated as breeders made the breeding of live stock their chief business. The grain farmers made the grow- ing and marketing of grain their specialt3^ The hay farmers grew and marketed hay. The table below will show how they stand as breeders. No. of Average No. of Per Class — Mares Bred Age. Foals Cent Breeder 5146 9.6 3447 67 Grain farmer 3297 9.3 1747 53 Hay farmer 2674 9.9 1042 39 11117 ... 6236 56 It is a long call from 67 per cent down to 39 per cent. What a difference to the stallion owner ! We do not have to go far to learn why the hay farmer produces so few foals. In hauling his hay to market he will be out in all kinds of weather and upon every known condition of roads. When he reaches the market his mares will be warm, and often required to stand out in the cold for hours. Colds and a gen- eral catarrhal condition are usually the result. Only this winter I called the attention of a farmer to the fact that his mare was too warm to be left standing in the cold. He thought differently, but only a few days after this occurrence one of his neighbors in- formed me that this same mare had aborted. In this table the grain farmer shows 53 per cent of foals. The same rule applies in a less degree. The more brood mares are used away from home and upon the roads, the fewer the foals. The breeder, regardless of the kind of stock he is breeding produces a much THE CARE OF THE BROOD MARE 167 higher per cent of foals, and for two reasons. His breeding and feeding of stock offers no occasion for his mares to be worked upon the roads. Secondly, the breeder is a higher type of man than the grain or hay farmer. He will always be found with larger sympathies, which is a mighty factor in successful breeding. 163. Occupation of Mares. Much depends upon the occupation or general use to which mares are put, in the way of producing foals succes.sfully. Upon this subject I have been keeping records also. I have classified them according to their occupation, into farm work, where they never left the farm; combination farm work and driving; driving with no other occu- pation ; and saddle work. This does not include so many as the former table, because of not always knowing how to classify some mares ; besides there are a few mares apparent!}' used for several purposes. In this table mares were used only as specified. No. of Average No. of Per Class — Mares Bred Age. Foals Cent Farm work 2361 9.4 1605 68 Farm work and driving 2417 9.1 1305 54 Driving 1683 8.9 690 41 Saddle 264 7.9 76 29 Average 6725 9.0 3676 54 Here we learn that the occupation of the mare has much to do with her as a producer. The above table teaches us that if a mare must work, her work should be something she can do at a slow pace. Where the occupation was farm work alone, the mares produced 68 per cent of foals ; while farm work with driving gave only 54 per cent. Driving gave still less with a 168 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING showing of 41 per cent. The saddle mares did not pro- duce enough foals to justify a stallioner in breeding them, unless the fee be paid in advance. The pace they are required to make, coupled with the extra weight upon the back is fatal to breeding. While in the South during the winter of 1903 I met a breeder of saddle horses and he told me his per cent of foals was so small as to make his business unprofitable. When I learned that his mares were being used under the saddle much of the year, I suggested that his brood mares be ridden at no time, nor for any purpose. Three years later this breeder wrote me his foal crop had more than doubled since he began using his brood mares for breeding only. 164. Work vs. Pasture. I have always held that draft mares would produce the best foals when required to perform a reasonable amount of labor in the harness, but statistics teach us that they do not produce as many. This is not because of being worked, but be- cause of not being worked judiciously. During the summer hot days will come occasionally when mares, if worked at all, will be made too warm. Such days were quite frequent during the summer of 1909 and 1910. When in humid weather the thermometer climbs to 95 and 100 degrees in the shade, it is a waste of time to attempt to work brood mares if one does not wish to overheat them. Then again if one is working brood mares he is more likely than not to get in places where it will be necessary to pull the mare beyond her safety. Another condition against the brood mare often made necessary by work is that of standing when warm until a cold is the result. THE CABE OF THE BROOD MARE 169 Mares running at all times in good pastures or upon the range escape these dangerous conditions, which results in a larger foal crop. If mares must work upon the farm, and a good pasture can be provided, by all means give her and her foal the benefit of it nights and Sundays. 165. Feeding Mares for Foals. Feeding has much to do with successful breeding, and it requires even more than a balanced ration for best results. Corn can be so used with bran, clover, alfalfa or other feed rich in protein, that chemically it will not differ from oats, yet mares fed oats will produce more foals than when corn is any part of the ration. Mares fed oats with bran will produce more foals, than those fed oats without the bran. Mares fed grass and hay with no grain, will produce more foals than when fed grain of any kind. The following table speaks for itself. No. of Average No. of Per Mares Bred Feeds — Age Foals Cent 468 Range feed 10.1 425 91 183 Grass in summer; alfalfa in winter 9.9 161 81 208 Hay, oats, bran 9.2 147 71 398 Hay and corn 8.7 195 49 231 Corn, bran, hay 8.9 117 52 306 Corn, alfalfa or clover... 8.8 177 58 418 Hay and oats 9.0 284 68 The mares in this table kept under range conditions were not worked. Those fed grass and alfalfa worked about one-third of the time. The others were selected because of being owned upon farms where good care and kind treatment was the rule. They all worked, but never left the farm. The rations fed were the 170 STUDIES IN HORSE BEEEDING same as had been used for many years. Nothing was left undone in the selection of these mares to have every condition, other than feed, the same with all the mares. The results of this experiment is at variance with the opinions of many of our best breeders, but such facts are more convincing to my mind than the un- supported theories of any .man. The question of feed is one of the unsolved problems of the American breeder. The question of soil in producing the same feed, is of equal interest. Alfalfa, for instance, grown in the corn belt is but little if any better than clover. This same plant grown further west at an altitude of 3,000 or more feet, is the best food for growing and developing a draft horse ever grown upon mother earth. In bone, and muscle and the quality of both, nothing can compare with it. 166. Com a Menace to Fecundity. Then again, there is corn. Chemically, there is no reason why corn can not be balanced and made a good feed, yet in fact, unless the breeders of draft horses in the corn belt change from corn to some other feed, within a century their mares will all be barren. It has the same effect upon the stallions. Either stallions or mares that have never been fed corn can be put upon a corn ration for a year or two without apparent injury. After that length of time the injurious effect of the corn becomes noticeable. I have known many stallions to be fed corn exclusively for their grain ration for three or four years, acquitting themselves nicely in the stud during this time, and then become sterile all at once. These same stallions were again made breeders within a year by simply substituting oats for the corn. The same has THE CARE OF THE BROOD IMARE 171 proved true of many mares. I have often succeeded in restoring to bearing- corn fed mares that were supposed to be barren, by simply changing their diet from corn to other grain or alfalfa. 167. Short Time Feeding Experiments. It is such facts as these that show the utter folly of attempting short time experiments in grain feeding. Such an ex- periment to be of the highest value to breeders should be conducted for a period of twenty years, or even longer. Theories may be all right in their place, but every known fact shows conclusively that corn is both debilitating and degenerating to the horse. The tem- perature of mares fed corn, averages higher than in the case of those fed oats or other grain. As to corn being a factor in degeneracy, I have made many extended ob- servations. In the case of two lots of mares of the same breeding and quality, the one fed corn and the other oats or no grain, and both lots bred to the same stallion, those fed corn always produced the poorer foals. These foals were not only inferior to the others as foals, but did not mature into as good horses. In many tests I have made of the bone of horses fed upon different grains, those fed corn always showed the weakest bone. In weight per cubic inch, it appeared to be as good as the bone of horses fed other grains, but as soon as it would be given the leverage test it was found possessing very little strength. Those reared from their colthood up to maturity upon an exclusive diet of western alfalfa, showed the best quality of bone of any draft horse tested. For the same breeding, the bone was larger, and greater in both weight and strength. 172 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING I shall not attempt to say why a corn diet has such an effect upon stallions and brood mares, for I do not know. To be positive concerning this question, I shall want to experiment further. However, this fact I have settled to my own satisfaction, that corn is indigestible to any horse. It may be because of its indigestibility that the system becomes so impaired in all its varied functions that degeneracy naturally follows. 168. Pasture. There is no feed so good for a brood mare as good, nutritious grass. In dry seasons, or in case of a scarcity of good grass, a grain ration of oats should also be allowed. There are few pastures in the eastern or middle states growing grasses sufficiently nutritious to support a brood mare and her foal with- out a ration of grain being added. This is the more true if the mare is of draft blood. It requires an abun- dance of nutritious feed to grow a ton horse. 169. Salt should be accessible to brood mares at all times. Water should be given often, to avoid drinking too much at one time. Too much hay or other coarse food is neither good nor necessary for mares. As we have already seen (165) alfalfa is the best of all feeds. Clover should be well cured and placed under cover without any foreign moisture being permitted to reach it. Any hay which has been wet with rain during the curing process, is not ver}^ good for a brood mare. Good bright oat straw, free from rust is preferable to dam- aged hay. Com stover well cured is good for both mares and stallions. Sorghum or sugar cane is a haz- ardous food for a brood mare. Upon one large farm where many mares were kept for breeding purposes, sorghum hay was fed for three years with good results. THE CARE OF THE HROOD MARE 173 l)ut the fourth year because of some condition in weather while cnring, it caused the loss of more than one-half of the foal crop. The same experience has been recorded on several occasions. It may be fed sev- eral seasons without apparent injury, only to play havoc with all the mares the next year. Millet should never be fed in any form to a brood mare. The same may be said of all those wild grasses likely to contain ergot. 170. The Stabling of Mares has much to do with their fecundity. In the early settlement of this coun- try our mares and horses were sheltered in cheaply constructed stables, in which the question of ventila- tion did not need to be considered. There were always enough openings in the stables of our early settlers to provide ventilation. IMares were much more fecund in those days than they are today. We did not hear of colds, coughs and influenza in those times, as we do now. In modern times the first thought of one in building a new barn is to provide against the cold of winter. Little thought is given the question of either light or ventilation, both essential to breeding success. If mares are to be worked during the winter they should be housed at night in a barn, but this barn should be built so as to admit of an abundance of light and air. 171. Mares Running- Out All the Time will do better if they do not have to be worked, than those kept in barns of any kind. An open shed can be given them to run under during stormy weather. For several years I have taken my pure bred mares out of expen- sivelj^ built barns, and let them run out at all times with only a cheaply built open shed to provide against 174 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING storms. I have increased the per cent of foals consider- ably by doing this. Our modern barns are the source of much trouble to breeders because of being built warm, at the expense of sunlight and ventilation. Sun- light is the best germicide we know of, and the cheapest. 172. When to Breed Mares depends upon the amount of work required of them. INIore foals are lost from among the early ones, than from those coming later in the season. About 11 per cent of foals are lost before weaning time, from deaths and abortion. This is upon the basis of mares actually impregnated. Of the losses from death following a normal birth up to weaning time, about 85 per cent are those foaled before May first, as against 15 per cent after that date. The causes of these deaths will be taken up later. Because of this heavy loss early in the season, one should have their mares foal as late in the season as possible. This en- ables one to have the foals come when grass is good. There is no place so good for a mare to foal as in a good pasture. Many of the worst ills of the young foal can be avoided by this practice. The danger of infec- tion is thus reduced to a minimum, besides there is little danger of the newly born foal having bowel trouble, if the mare has access to good grass. 173. Management of Pregnant Mares. If because of the conditions of farm work, one must have some of his foals come early, he should have everything in readiness for them. A mare should never be kept tied in with other horses for three or four weeks before her foaling date. Many foals have been lost by doing this, as foals often put in their appearance long before they are expected. A mare about to foal should be given a THE CARE OF THE BROOD MARE 175 good box stall, so constructed that the foal will have no way of crawling under the manger or getting into positions which will make it impossible for him to gain his feet. This stall should be kept scrupulously clean. If an extra stall can be provided, so much the better. As soon as the foal can stand upon his feet, and the placenta has been expelled from the uterus of the mare, they can be transferred to the clean stall, thus avoiding as much as possible all forms of infection. If the pla- centa has not been expelled within thirty minutes, and does not yield to very gently pulling upon it, the arm should be disinfected and inserted into the uterus. By gentle and careful manipulation of the fingers between the placenta and membranes of the uterus, the placenta can easily be taken away. There is nothing difficult about this. Any man can do it, if he possess ordinary intelligence. The sooner the placenta is expelled, the better, as the uterus begins to contract very soon after the birth of the foal. This contraction of the uterus more tightly fastens its hold upon the placenta. If the placenta has to be taken away by force, it will be well to irrigate the urterus with a warm three per cent solution of carbolic acid. CHAPTER XIII. STERILITY. 174. An Inherited Tendency a Cause of Sterility- Sterility is more often the result of au inherited ten- dency than most of us are willing to admit. For many years I worked systematically in an endeavor to learn, if I could, the basic cause of this tendency. Among other things I tested the fluids (blood) of many stal- lions and mares as to the per cent of salt found in these fluids. For this work I used both mares and stal- lions possessing all degrees of virility and sterility. The average for stallions was 71-100 of one per cent, ranging all the way from 5-10 of one per cent to 92- 100 of one per cent. The mares showed an average of 76-100 of one per cent, slightly higher than the stal- lions. They ranged all the way from 54-100 of one per cent to 1.01 per cent. The stallion testing 92-100 of one per cent was one famed for his virility. With no exception they were stallions possessing a lower virility, as the per cent of salt showed a lower test. When 55-100 of one per cent was reached the stallions became sterile or nearly so ; five per cent of foals be- ing the best showing made by any stallion below that test. STERILITY 177 The mare testing 1.01 per cent was one that had pro- duced fourteen foals in as many years. The same re- sults were obtained with the mares as given by the stallions ; the lower the per cent of salt, the lower the fecundity of the mare. All mares testing below 6-10 of one per cent of salt were found barren. Here we ' ^^ \ ) Figure 51. Microbes found in the semen of a sterile stal- lion. These germs caused the depopulation of several herds in the western part of the country. have something tangible upon which to base the cause of this shy breeding tendency. This is a hereditary tendency, but it can be overcome in part at least by feeding salt to all breeding animals. It was only last summer that one of the leading live stock journals of the country advised its readers to feed salt sparingly to 178 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING their breeding animals. I have been feeding my stal- lions and mares all the salt I could get them to con- sume for many years, and with uniformly good results. It can readily be understood that salt could be forced into a horse by mixing it with feed in such quantities as to impair his digestion. My method has been to have salt accessible to my stallions and mares at all times. In adition to this, I add a teaspoonful of salt to the feed of each stallion daily, and to the mares twice each week. 175. Breed a Factor in Sterility. The question of breeds has something to do as to sterility. From this view-point the table below offers quite a study. These stallions were all pure bred, about 70 per cent of all the breeds having been imported. They were owned and stood for service in the states of Iowa, Illinois, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota and Wisconsin. All five of the breeds were represented in every state. The mares were such as came to be bred, the service registers being used to ob- tain the number of mares. The number of foals given are for the number actually found. This would be as fair for one breed as another. Some of the stallions were used at the same stand two or more seasons, and the number of mares given include those for all the seasons. Only stallions owned by farmers who owned their farms are included in this table. These farmers might be considered above the average as horsemen and breeders. In gathering statistics for this table a stallion was occasionally reported as sterile. In such cases the mares bred were not tabulated. It was the performances of breeding stallions that I wished to STERILITY 179 obtain. The per cent of sterile stallions reported was : Belgians, 3.09 per cent; Clydesdale, 4.6; Perclierons, 3.16; Shires, 5.02; Snffolks, none. No. of No. of No. of Per cent Breed — Stallions Mares Bred Foals of Foals Belgian 219 29783 18168 61 Clydesdale 103 9241 4990 54 Percheron 613 83659 46017 55 Shire 321 41976 20571 49 Suffolk 27 2397 1554 69 The above table teaches ns that the Suffolk leads, with a showing of 69 per cent of foals. The Shire is lowest with only 49 per cent of foals, a difference of 20 per cent. The Clydesdale and Perclierons are about the same, while the Belgian is second in the table with a showing of 61 per cent. Breed then has something to do as to the number of foals we may expect. Nor does the factor of breed affect the stallions only. It is just as plainly indicated upon the part of the mares. The following table is a record for three years of American bred registered mares, owned in the same states as given for the stallions. No. of No. of Per cent Breed — Mares Foals of Foals Belgian 191 405 71 Clydesdale 78 153 65 Percheron 711 454 68 Shire 367 652 59 Suffolk 19 47 82 These mares were from four to ten years of age. All of them were worked some, but none very much. In this table while the ratio varies slightly, yet the breeds hold their same positions. Imported mares of the same 180 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING breeds are not so fecund. The act of importing itself is something of a factor in producing sterility. The table below is a record of mares for the three years following that in which they were imported. If they were imported during the year 1900, the records be- gin with their being bred the season of 1901. This gave them a chance to recover from the ill effects of importing. The mares in both tables were those owned by small breeders, that is farmer-breeders, who would own from one to five such mares. No. of No. of Per cent Breed — Llares Foals of Foals Belgian 61 89 49 Clydesdale 17 19 38 Percheron 212 267 42 Shire 134 133 33 Suffolk 11 28 84 Again the breeds hold their same position as to fecundity, differing only in ratio. These imported mares were all of breeding age when they landed in this country, but this table makes a sorry showing for such mares during their first three years with us, the Suffolks excepted. It is to be hoped they may do better in the future. Such a showing does not make them very profitable to their owners. 176. Feeding has much to do with the sterility of stallions. This has already been conclusively shown (130.) The feeding of corn to stallions, especially young stallions, has been the beginning of many dis- appointments. All kinds of feed having a tendency to produce a high temperature should be avoided. If stallions reach 10 years of age in good physical and sexual condition, their sexual powers are not easily STERILITY 181 impaired by ordinary means after that age. This is because of the fact that only stallions of the greatest sexual power and vigor ever reach that age without becoming impaired. INIany stallions start out with much promise in their early life, only to become of no value as producers by the time they are seven or eight years old. It is such stallions that need our very best care. Besides they should be used very sparingly in the stud. 177. Breeding Bags. The use of breeding bags on stallions and jacks is a very common cause of ster- ility. No stallion or jack can be used with a breed- ing bag w^ithout positive injur.y. Thousands of dollars have already been lost in this manner. Natural copu- lation is effected bj- the interchange of sexual elec- tricity. Any foreign barrier which is a non-conductor 1)1' this electricity will soon ruin the best horse in the world. Such a barrier has the same effect upon the stallions as masturbation. We have no need of train- ing stallions to become masturbators, as there are plenty of them without this training. ]\Iention has already been made (9) of how the use of breeding bags will cause the loss of the power of ejaculation as a result of injury to the sympathetic nerve. 178. Masturbation is another cause of sterility. Young horses acquiring this vicious habit are almost certain of going wrong as breeders. If this habit is of long standing it is almost impossible to overcome it. Nothing is better than steady work and a cooling laxative diet. 179. Vigor Tablets and other stimulants are fre- quent causes of sterility. Doping stallions with drugs 182 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING can never do any good, and may do very mnch harm. In the first place no stallion ever needs that kind of stimnlating. Good feeding' and plenty of physical work is the best stimulant known. The nerves can be strengthened, the muscles made more firm ; the circu- lation quickened and the performance of every func- tion of the horse improved by work, better than by any drugs. There will always be grafters and quacks ready to sell one tablets and powders and tonics with- out end, but leave them alone. 180. Colds, Influenzas and many forms of sickness are the causes of temporary sterility, sometimes re- sulting in permanent sterility. Stallions partially sterile are likely to be made worse by these causes. There are stallions appearing in the best of health from October until April, and then annually go wrong for the balance of the year. Such stallions have little value as breeders, and it will generally prove more profitable to castrate them than to spend time and money in trying to make breeders of them- 181. Cystic Degeneration of one or both testicles occasionally is the cause of sterility — sometimes it is a cystic condition of the spermatic cord rather than the testicles, but in either case there is no help for the stallion. This is made even worse by being one of those difficult conditions impossible of diagnosng, ex- cept in the last stages of the disease. When discov- ered castration will make you a work horse, if not de- layed too long. 182. Contagious Diseases of the generative organs will make both stallions and mares unprolific. A num- ber of years ago I was called into the western part STERILITY 183 of Nebraska to examine some stallions that had very snddenly become sterile. In examining the semen with the microscope, the form of bacillus shown in figure 51 was disclosed. These stallions had proved to be virile under all circumstances, when all at once they became sterile. Every mare served by them became sterile and as a result of this highly infectious malady, several ranches were depopulated of their horses. No ulcers, chancres, or other outward manifestation was in evidence in the case of any of these stallions, yet in the semen of every one was found these germs. 183. Idleness or want of proper exercise will lower the sterility of any stallion. The spermatozoa of idle stallions never have the vitality of those from stal- lions given daily exercise. Very few stallions win- tered in idleness are capable of settling mares early in the spring, while those kept in harness during the winter are always in good condition at the beginning ol' the breeding season. Close confinement has been the cause of many stallions going wrong. All stal- lions kept in close quarters and without exercise will sire foals of lower vitality than if they had been properly exercised. 184. Overwork to the extent of causing a break down of the more important functions of the stallion, sometimes ends in sterility. I have never known this to be done except in the case of very young stallions, two years or less of age. I have known of several two year old colts to be completely broken down in constitution by overwork. There is little danger of this being done in the case of mature stallions. With them the work is too little rather than too much. If a two year 184 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING old colt proves himself a breeder, but does not make a good showing later, there is something wrong with his handling. This happens quite frequently. The fact that he acquitted himself well in his two or even three year form, is conclusive proof that he is a normal breeder. 185. Table of Causes of Sterility Some stallions do very well for three or four years, and then become sterile or nearly so at once. In investigating such cases the following results were obtained: Excessive use in breeding 183 Masturbation 98 The use of breeding bags 87 Too close confinement 39 Vigor tablets or tonics 67 Influenza (pinlv eye) 11 Infectious diseases of a sexual nature 9 Overworking young colts 3 Fevers 4 No cause could be assigned 43 Total 544 Of the 544 stallions becoming sterile after proving themselves breeders, 183 of them could be assigned to excessive breeding. These stallions were mostly abused as four year olds. It is not uncommon to see a stallion of that age required to make two or more services daily Because of their trouble with denti- tion at this age, a four year old should never be used upon more than 50 mares. There is no reason why a draft stallion should not be as virile at twenty as at any earlier period of his life, and he will be if used and handled intelligently. The second largest number STERILITY 185 could be assigned to the vice of masturbation. This vice is not only making many sterile stallions, but it is making many others partially sterile. Breeding bags make a bad showing as do also the use of tonics or stimulants given to slow servers. That a stallion is a slow server is nothing against him. Some of the most virile stallions are exceedingly slow. Such stal- lions never need any drugs. A few minutes brisk ex- ercise immediately before the service will do more than any drug. Diseases of various natures also bring about sterility. There were 43 becoming sterile for which no cause could be assigned. These stallions had been properly exercised, had never been sick, were given the best of care and had never been used iu excess in breeding. This makes it impossible to assign a cause, unless it would be the result of an inherited tendency. It is my belief that an inherited tendency to sterility was the cause, but as this is one of the things not easily proven, I am willing to give them an unassignable cause. Mares with a tendency to sterility will produce stallions inclined to be more or less sterile. Stallions partially sterile will sire stal- lions possessing the same defect. Upon the other hand, stallions of known virility and mares highly fecund are always the offspring of productive parents. 186. Sterile Mares, There are more agencies at work causing sterility in mares than in stallions. A mare will produce several foals in as many years, and then refuse to produce another, and all because of a congested condition, the result of a cold. The number of sterile mares in the country is enough to discourage the breeder and stallioner. Since Nature made every 186 STUDIES IN HORSE HREEDIXG mare a producer of her kind, if she does not reproduce herself, there is something wrong as to the manner in which she is kept. 187. Feeding has already been mentioned (165) as having much to do with the fecundity of mares. It has also been noted that corn should be fed to a brood mare sparingly (165) or not at all would be better. The food for a brood mare should be slightly laxative, as constii^ation should never be found in the same barn with successful breeding. 188. Work in the Harness has much to do with a mare in the production of foals. I am of the opinion that a mare could be worked to advantage as a breeder, but she has never been, and most likely never will be. It matters not what the occupation of the mare may be, in every line of investigation, the mares not worked produce the most foals. Occupation has much to do, that is the kind of labor. Slow farm work gave better results than any other occupation. 189. Congenital Causes of Sterility. Among the congenital causes of sterility is that of rudimentary or undeveloped genital organs. The uterus and ovaries are the most likely to be undeveloped. One frequently finds an uterus in fully developed mares not more than one-tenth normal as to size ; sometimes a little larger, yet far below normal. The same is true of the ovaries. Quite often they will be found very small, having the appearance of having suffered from atrophy, but as this condition is cometimes found in young fil- lies only two or three years of age, one can hardly take that view of it. But after all is said of such con- ditions, the fact remains that such mares do not breed. STERILITY 187 Such mares always appear masculine in character, and there is no way of making producers of them. 190. Abscess Formation. Another condition of the ovaries frequently met with, is that of abscess forma- tion or cystic degeneration. This condition always results in a sterile mare. This is more easily diag- nosed than that of atrophy or rudimentary ovaries. Since the cystic condition enlarges the ovary to two or three times its normal size, which can easily be de- termined by w^ay of the rectum. Only a little further back we find another condition, which is frequently the cause of sterility. 191. Tumors in Fallopian Tubei In the middle nar- row portion of the fallopian tube a tumorous growth is sometimes found, completely closing the tube. This I believe to be induced by ova of unusual size lodging there, and which the system of the mare was incapable of absorbing. This must necessarily result in sterility. 192. Tumors are frequently found within the uter- ine cavity. They are of two kinds, fibroid and can- cerous. Fertilization w411 never take place if cancer is present. The fibroid tumors do not always result in sterility. It is only in cases of large tumors that mares fail to breed. These tumors are seldom found in the case of young or virgin mares. They usually begin their growth as a result of laceration, or a portion of the placenta having failed to be expelled. 193. Malposition of the Cervix often prevents the spermatozoa from entering the uterus. The cervix or neck of the uterus will sometimes be found bent up- wards or to one side. Then sometimes the muscles whose function it is to contract and dilate the cervix, 188 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING contract it so tightly that it must be opened by the hand before the spermatozoa can enter. These condi- tions are barriers to natural service only, as the cap- sule method of breeding finds no difficulty in impreg- nating mares of this kind. 194. Acid Secretions. Unnatural secretions, both acid and alkali are a source of much trouble to breed- ers. The acid conditions are more frequently met with. There are corrections for these conditions, and they will be taken up later. 195. Catarrh. Catarrhal conditions are the cause of more trouble than all other conditions combined. This is the strongest argument that can be made against work- ing brood mares, since this condition is never found in mares that do not work. Mares will be worked in the field or driven upon the road until warm, and then made to stand until chilled, when congestion and a general catarrhal condition follows. A few mares show- ing this condition will occasionally breed, but only oc- casionally, while the greater number will not breed at all. This is but an inflammatory condition of the mucous membranes. With such a condition present, the. fetus can not become attached to the maternal membrane. 196. Bacteria is another source of trouble in pro- ducing sterile conditions. I have often found them in sterile mares that otherwise appeared normal. 197. Incestuous Breeding. Inbreeding as a factor in the cause of sterility is far greater than is generally known. In many of the draft breeds the records have been so kept, and so little importance has been given the value of pedigrees, that violent inbreeding is more generally practised than most breeders know. In the STERILITY 189 case of imported animals, matings within the same family are frequently made, and yet the certificates do not show them to be of the same family. This in a measure at least is the result of more attention having been given to pedigrees than to the horses brought over by some of our importers. I have several times during the past few years advised breeders to use a stallion of different breed when all other measures had failed to impregnate their mares, and in most eases the first service would result in successful im- pregnation. , 198. Magnetic Temperament- The one cause of barrenness in mares that has been the most overlooked, is that of a proper balance between the positive and negative forces of sex. A very positive mare will hardly ever conceive when mated with a stallion pos- itive and masculine to a high degree. This same mare mated wdth a passive stallion, may conceive at once. In like manner a very negative and feminine mare rarely conceives when mated with a stallion of the same magnetic temperament, but will conceive at once when mated with a positive stallion. When everything else fails to settle a mare, try a change of semen. CHAPTER XIV. THE CARE OF THE FOAL. 199. Nourishing the Fetus. The proper care of the foal should begin with the fetus at conception. No good horse will ever be developed out of a poorly- nourished fetus. No time in the life of a horse can compare with its fetal existence for the development of vital force. The half starved fetus means a horse with low vitality. If the stallion and mare were of good vitality and in good health at the time of con- ception, the fetus was ushered into being right. To keep up this fetal vitality, will require plenty of good wholesome and nutritious food for the mare. She should have all she wants of a properly balanced ra- tion, for she must eat and digest for two. I have never seen as good foals produced in the grain belt, as are produced further west. Where mares can have good western bunch grass during the summer and good western grown alfalfa during the winter, one gets the best foals the world ever produced. Here one finds bone and muscle as no where else. If the alfalfa hay is grown without irrigation, so much the better. An- other factor most helpful in this western production of foals is the pure air, water and abundance of sun- shine. This should be remembered by those producing THE CAEE OF THE FOAL 191 foals in th^ grain belt. Keep the mares summer and winter in the open air as much as possible. The nearer we can follow that western ration the better. Well cured clover hay and oats is as near to it as we will ever get. For draft mares doing no work, two pounds of good clover hay and one-half pound of heavy oats (oats that will test 32 pounds or better) daily, to the hundred pounds of weight will make a good ra- tion. I have had better success with this ration here in the corn belt, than any other I have ever tried, al- falfa excepted. If mares are worked, more oats should be added. 200. Overworking Mares. Working mares too hard while carrying and developing their unborn foals is another way to produce a horse of low vitality. If a mare must work, she should not be hurried. Slow, steady work does not injure a mare, even up to within a few days of her foaling date. , 201. Parturition. The three of four days following parturition is a critical time, and a trying one in the life of a foal. A foal starting life in a feeble or ab- normal condition can not be expected to develop into a horse of vitality. There are many cases where a little help in regulating the digestion of a foal would have resulted in developing a horse with a more vig- orous constitution. As soon as a foal has been ushered into life, every precaution should be taken to prevent infection. The navel should be disinfected the first thing done. Any of the coal tar preparations may be used in about a five per cent solution. Or a 1-500 of one per cent solution of corrosive sublimate is one of the best. Lysol is an excellent disinfectant, and may 192 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING be used one teaspoonfiil to the pint of water. As to the umbilicus, never ligate or tie it in any manner. In doing so one is most likely to lay the foundation for a case of pus absorption. Many practitioners advise doing this, but it very often results in serious trouble. If ligated there is bound to be some blood, and perhaps urine, form there with no way of getting out, except by absorption. 202. The Umbilicus. Under natural conditions, the umbilicus is always torn away at the body. Under conditions of domestication it will do this in at least nine cases out of ten. If it has to be cut, it should be cut about six inches from the body. In doing this should the blood flow in a manner at all alarming, it can be li- gated for a time with a cord that has first been well disinfected. In a few hours the cord may be removed, when a thorough emptying and disinfecting of the remaining umbilicus should be made. To give this matter the closest attention may be the means of sav- ing a foal. This is all the more necessary in the early season. Late in the spring and during the summer months there is very little danger of infection. 203. Its Early Nourishment. The proper nourish- ment of the foal is the next thing to interest the breeder. Whether the foal sucks or has to be fed it should be given the first milk of the mare. This first milk is known as colostrum, and has a purgative effect upon the foal very much needed at this time. If the foal is reasonably strong it will find the teat all right. If it should appear too weak to do this, the mare should be milked and the foal fed while the milk is warm. AA^ith one to hold the foal and another to do the feed- THE CARE OF THE FOAL 193 ing this can be accomplished with a dessert spoon bet- ter than anything- else. One or two feedings will usu- ally result in giving the foal sufficient strength to find its own food. 204. Bowel Trouble. During the first twelve hours of its life it should be known that the foal has voided its urine, and that its bowels are working normally. The bowels are more likely to give the greater trouble. If there is trouble in starting the feces, a little olive oil injected into the rectum will generally start every- thing moving all right. If this does not bring about the desired results, one should not stop until all the fetal matter has been removed from the bowels. This may take several hours, but there is no need of losing a foal from trouble of this nature. In obstinate cases an ounce of castor oil may be given, and the rectum well irrigated with a warm soap suds, using only pure castile soap for this purpose. The first symptoms of this trouble are the foal standing with its back arched, its tail erect and later its head and ears will l)egin to droop. 205. Dysentery at this time is not unknown although not a very frequent trouble. This is usually brought about by the condition of the mare. She may have been eating food such as moldy hay or grain that caused the trouble. It may be her milk is too rich and the flow too liberal for its delicate digestion. In such cases I have had my best success by milking away much of the mare's milk, and giving the foal every two or three hours a teaspoonful of lime water in a few spoonfuls of milk. Also reduce the grain ration of the mare for a time. If it does not yield to 194 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING this, I would suspect infection to be the cause. In such cases a veterinarian should be called, as these cases can best be subdued by a serum treatment, which should not be undertaken by everyone. 206. Light Feeding Best. Feeding the mares spar- ingly of grain until the foal is eight or ten days old will give the best results. The digestive organs of a new born foal are about as delicate as are those of a new-born babe, and feed forcing should never be at- tempted during the first few days of its career. When the foal has made a nice start, the feed of the mare may be gradually increased. If good grass can be had at this time, by all means let both mare and foal have it. Good clean oats may be fed a foal when it has reached three or four weeks of age. Only a few at first, and when it has learned to eat and relish them nicely, it may safely have all it wants of them until weaning time, which should take place when the foal is about five months old. 207. Mares Having no Milk. Should the mare have no milk when the foal is born, let it suck just the same. If the mare is sucked regularly every two hours or oftener, in most cases the milk flow will start before the third day has passed. In the meantime the foal should be fed cow's milk. This should be continued until the mare furnishes the foal with all the nourish- ment it needs. The cow's milk should be prepared with great care lest you lose the foal. Into a pint jar which has previously been sterilized with boiling water, pour water to one-eighth full, add one teaspoon- ful of granulated sugar, and fill with new milk from a fresh cow if possible. This should be fed warm, at the THE CARE OF THE FOAL 195 body temperature, and the pint will be a sufficient quantity for one feed, but it should be fed as often as every two hours. It is quite a lot of work to raise a foal in this way, but I have done it, and they made good horses. A nipple over the spout of a teapot is the best thing to use for feeding a hand raised foal. 208. Weaning the Foal. Weaning the foal can be done with no loss of growth. Himply dry the mare up by letting the foal suckle less often all the time. I never milk a mare in weaning a foal. The mare will cease to secrete milk after a time, if the foal be per- mitted to suck but twice a day for a few days, then once only until the mare is sufficiently dry to have the foal taken away from her- During the weaning pro- cess the foal can be tied in a stall at the side of the mare at night. By this way of weaning the foal is more contented, and does much better than if taken away from the mare at once. After the weaning pro- cess has passed, the foal should never want for either pure water or wholesome food. No grain food alone will equal oats. If timothy or prairie hay is used for roughage, bran can be added to the oats, about half of each by measure. If alfalfa or good clover can be se- cured the l)ran Avill not be needed. The bran made at small country mills is much better than that made at the large commercial mills. In the large mills it is poorer because of taking everything out but the outer covering of the grain, and again because they have scouring machinery for scouring the grain which small mills rarely have. In the large mills, everything that can be used for nothing else goes into the bran. 209. An Automatic Feeder is the best way of feed- 196 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING ing' foals and weanlings. By this means the foals can have grain whenever they desire it, and yet at the same time they can neither waste nor soil the feed. If the best possible weights are wanted at maturity this is a good way to feed until maturity is reached. It is im- possible to grow the big: ton horses without plenty of good feed. Another advantage in the automatic feeder is that it compels the foal or horse to eat slowly. This results in a more thorough mastication, obviating those forms of indigestion which are caused by too rapid feeding. 210. Exercise is even more important than feeding, if the best quality of horse is desired. There is no way known of developing good bone and muscle and vital organs, except by exercise. The foals should have a large place in which to run and play, and let them run to their heart's desire. I often hear people express themselves in a way to cause me to believe they were afraid the foals would hurt themselves. They will hurt themselves more by being denied this privilege. In the summer time, all colts should be at pasture. Here they can get both exercise and the best feed for all growing animals. There w^ould he few sterile stallions in the country if all stallions were grown from their foalhood up in good pastures. I have never had any trouble of this kind with a stallion I had grown up to maturity myself. I always keep them either in the pasture or in the har- ness at all times. When they become so old I can no longer turn them in a pasture together, I have several small pastures of two acres each, fenced about nin-; feet high, in which I can turn stallions of any age. THE CARE OF THE FOAL 197 This fence is made b\' using posts 12 feet long, so set in the gronnd that nine feet or a little more will remain above gronnd. For fencing I nse woven wire 52 inches high, and made of very heavy wire. Above this I fin- ish to the top with barbed wire six inches apart. This makes a fence which a horse cannot get his head over, and will stop any stallion. The posts shonld be set one rod apart. 211. The Feet of the foals and yearlings and two year olds as well, shonld be kept in the best possible form. This will reqnire trimming occasionally. If a foal is inclined to go over on one side with a foot, trim upon the opposite side only. Never cut away the frog from the foot of a foal or growing horse, and never pare down the heels. 212. Handling the Foal properly dnring its early life will add much to the value of the future horse. Gain its confidence early, and then never deceive the foal. It delights in being handled and fondled as much as an affectionate child. Its future is at stake, and it should be handled at all times with a view to making it trustworthy at maturity. A foal or horse will do almost anything for sugar, but sugar should be given as a reward for good conduct, rather than a ration. In very large quantities sugar is not good for a growing horse. CHAPTER XV. THE BREEDS. 213. History. The history of the several breeds of horses has been written by men well qualified to dis- cuss that subject from every viewpoint. The agricul- tural and live stock press of the country has at many times reviewed these works, bringing out the more essential features in such a manner that the public generally has a very fair knowledge of this subject. For business reasons the press above referred to has been silent concerning a few of the things, which the breeders of the country have been wanting to know. Because of this delinquency upon the part of our live stock press, I will give a brief description of the chief characteristics of the more important breeds. This will be done only from the viewpoint of the breeder. No attempt will be made to write or regard it in any man- ner as a history. To do this in a manner worthy of the subject, would require the space of a large volume. Only the briefest mention of the breeds from the view- point of today will be made. 214. Classes. The first division of the horses into breeds or classes, is into the draft horse and those to do the lighter and more speedy work of man. Into the THE BREEDS 199 horse of great motive power, and those of greater ac- tion. Of the former class we now have five breeds, Belgian, Clydesdale, Percheron, Shire, and Suffolk. For the purpose of this chapter the latter class can be sub- divided into four sub-classes, the heavy harness or park horse, furnished by the Hackney and Coach breeds; the light harness horse of which the Standard and mod- ern Morgan are best representatives ; the five-gaited saddle horse and the Thoroughbred or running horse. The latter is the basis of all good blood in all the light classes. 215, Where Draft Horses are Grown. To speak in- telligently, or to have a correct understanding of the merits of a breed of horses one must know something of the country in which they were grown. We should also know something of the people originating them. A horse that Avould be a good one in one part of the wcu'ld might possess but little value in any other loca- tion. The conditions of soil, water and climate are mighty factors in the making of any breed of horses or even of man himself. Few people have ever given this thought the attention it merits. Those who are trying to grow large draft horses upon their impoverished soils are doomed to disappointment. All the famous draft horses have had their origin upon the best of soils, soils rich in lime, potash and phosphorus ; that is on soils rich in bone material. One finds them grow- ing on rich land always, and that the size of the breed is determined by the capacity of the soil to grow an abundance of rich nutritious food. Small horses can be grown almost anywhere, but the big drafter requires big feed, and this in turn rich soils to grow it. The fu- 200 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDIXG ture may modify this somewhat by taking the feed grown upon rich soil in one locality, and shipping to localities of less feed and thinner soils. The future home of the big horse will not be one of altitude, but wholly one capable of producing the feed. Another factor entering into the discussion of breeds, is that of differing opinions as to correct standards. Scarcely any two peoples, or even men. can be found agreeing upon a common standard. Even .judges differ, and when they differ there is mighty little chance for ordi- nary breeders to agree. Men also have different motives for doing things, money having a greater influence upon the people of some nations than it has upon the acts of others. 216. The Belgian. The breeders of the very small territory making up the monarchy of Belgian have been peculiarly situated for the growing of big horses, and yet they have succeeded in growing a horse capable of carrying more weight than any horse in the world. Because of their small and cramped situation every- thing has been sacrificed to the moving of heavy loads at a minimum of cost. In muscular development he excels over all breeds. His compact form, with low- flank line and great depth of body are evidence of his being a good feeder and easy keeper. His constitution and digestion are good. Because of this, coupled with his great capacity for carrying his feed, makes him one of the very best shippers. He also adapts himself eas- ily to change of climate. In fecundity and longevity "Ihe Belgians are about the average of the draft breeds. In the early development of the breed but little atten- tion was given to either conformation or soundness. THE BREEDS 201 202 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING Because of this early neglect, he is not yet as prepotent in the reproduction of the most desirable types as some of the other breeds. Although much improvement is noticed of late, he is still too short and straight in the pastern, and also too full in the hock. Many specimens are rather short in the neck, low in the back and short in the croup. Much has been said by his admirers in favor of his intelligence and docility, but I have found him neither as good in disposition nor as intelligent as some of the other breeds. His brain capacity is very small. This is indicated bv the shortness of head from eye to ear. The Belgian is found in all the colors, bay, roan, and chestnut being the colors most frequently seen. 217. The Relative Soundness of Breeds. The fol- lowing circular will explain itself. I believe it to be the first attempt ever made by anyone to collect data to aid in adopting a standard for draft horses from the utility point of view. At the same time it shows the tendency of breeds to become unsound in certain directions, when put to hard work upon the streets of our cities. "Knowing your business calls for the use of a large number of horses, I feel you should be no less interested than the breeder in the best it is possible to produce. The fact has probably been forced upon you before now, that some horses have as much service in them as two or three others appar- ently as good. As an aid in producing better horses, will you kindly fill out and return to me the blank form below. "How many horses have you in service at this time? "From the standpoint of dominant blood, to what breeds do they belong? Give number of each. "How many are unsound in front with side-bone, ring bone, navicular lameness, shoulder or foot trouble? THE BREEDS 203 Figure 53. The imported Belgian stallion. Robt. II De Rum 3595 (46686). This stallion is one of the best of the breed and a well known show stallion. Owned by Chas. Irvine, Ankeny, Iowa. 204 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING "In each case of unsoundness or lameness in front, give de- scription of pasterns, as to lengtli and angle. "How many are unsound behind, with hock, fetlock or pas- tern lameness? "Are any unsound or lame from hip trouble? "In each case give the particular trouble and the breed to which the horse belongs." The above circular has for many years been mailed to those firms using large numbers of horses, ranging in size from 1,400 to 2,000 pounds. These firms were located all the way from Bangor. Elaine, on the east, to Portland, Oregon, on the west. In all an ownership of 101.839 horses have been reported. This includes some Canadian owned horses. The following table shows how the breeds stand as to soundness : No. Horses No. Becoming Per Cent Breed — Reported Unsound of Unsound Belgian 1499 511 34 Clydesdale 21382 2992 14 Percheron 59160 26028 44 Shire 19798 3371 17 Totals 101839 32902 32 In some instances horses were reported as Normans or French draft. These are included in the Percheron list. Of the 101,839 horses reported, 32,902 were re- ported as unsound. This makes a very bad showing, and emphasizes the need of better standards and better sires. The Belgians were reported in smaller numbers than any other breed. This in part is due to many grade Belgians passing as grade Percherons. A little less than one-third, 32 per cent, were reported as un- sound. I found it a rule in most barns to report as unsound only those incapacitated for full work. The showing made in this table is all the worse, when it is THE BRKEUS 20t M CO ,■ o >? c3 206 .STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING remembered that these horses were purchased sound. The Belgians were unsound chiefly, because of defec- tive hocks and pasterns. 218. The Clydesdale. In Scotland we find the home of the Clydesdale. In his early history he was very nuich like the Shire, both having a common origin. In the production of the modern Clydesdale, more science has been employed than in the production of any other draft horse. To such an extent is this true, that scien- tifically speaking, he is the world's best product in draft horses. When viewed from the standpoint of a perfectly and scientifically constructed machine, built to perform its work with the greatest ease and least friction, he has no equal. His sloping shoulder and elastic pastern, his short back but long underline, and his well nigh perfect hock, cause him to do his work with so little friction and concussion resulting, that his legs seldom go wrong. The world's best breeders, re- gardless of their favorite breed, concede to the Clydes- dale the most perfect action at the w^alk. I have seen in the large cities of Scotland, geldings still fresh in their legs after working for ten or more years upon the streets. The sloping pastern is occasionally being overdone, and to improve the quality, some of the ruggedness of the early Clydesdales is being lost. With all his good qualities; with his nearly perfect conformation, he is not generally popular in this country, and will not be luiless the Scotch breeder will make a few concessions to win the trade of the breeders of the United States. I say concessions, for they are such when viewed from the angle of the Scotchman. THE BBEEDS 207 CO TJ o % c 2 ■c o o cj "O — o . - _? I— I ?^ 5 5 ^^ . £ o S ."rim 01 0) g § H ;g fc d >> — -o !- c e 3 o ^ .^ - o •= ^ H s 214 sxrniES IX horsk ishekdixg There are a few breeding estahlishments in France pre- sided over by men of the strictest integrity. There are thousands of breeders in the TTnited States, than whom no men living possess a higher or truer sense of honor and it is to these rather than the dealer that the future of every breeding industry in this country must be en- trusted. Figure 58. A two year old STiire colt. Note the size and quality of hock and hind leg. Such legs can not be made to go wrong. 223. The Shire. In size and bone, actual measure- ment, the Shire is the largest of all breeds. He has done more than any horse or breed of horses in this country in the production of rugged horses with plenty of bone. Many of the high priced geldings produced in this country, although accredited to some of the other breeds, owe their great size and abundance of THE BREEDS 217 bone to the blood of this breed. When mated with small mares, especially mares of very small bone, he will produce a larger, more rugged foal than any other sire. However, his bone is slightly coarser, and he has more hair upon the legs than any other breed, an ob- jection from the viewpoint of this country which can not be overcome. His disposition is good, yet somewhat headstrong or selfwilled. In the language of the En- glishman, "He has a good deal of powder in his eye." His walk is excellent, both as to speed and the way of going. As a work horse he is among the best, always giving evidence of his great power when put to the test. The Shire does not endure long shipping as well as some breeds, and rarely does as well in this country the first year after his arrival here from his native land as in the years to follow. The Shire is not as fecund as the other breeds. This I regard as the fault of the English breeder, rather than of the breed itself. The Englishman does not take kindly to masculinity in a stallion. This has caused him to select the more femi- nine type of Shires for his breeding stallions. Contin- uing this practice for many generations has resulted in fixing a type of stallions very deficient in masculinity. He is also deficient in muscle at the fore arm, gaskin, and upon the shoulder. The Shire stallion has not been worked in his native land for many generations, and he is becoming more deficient in muscle every genera- tion. The American bred Shire is a better horse in re- spect of this, as he is given more pasture to grow in, besides being worked more here than in England. The Shire bred in this country has much less hair upon the 218 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDIXG legs than those imported. This is especially true of those bred in the west at high altitudes. I know of one herd in Wyoming, all of their ancestors being English bred, yet these horses are quite free of hair the second generation from imported stock. At the same time they have increased in size and muscular development. The color of the Shire does not differ from that of the Clydesdale, bay and brown, badly marked with white being the colors most frequently seen. 224. The Suifolk. This breed is found in this coun- try in smaller numbers than any other. His native land is Eastern England. His color is always a shade of chestnut and in transmitting his color he is very pre- potent. In longevity they have no equal, and in fe- cundity they excel over all the breeds. I have seen mares of this breed in England that were regular breeders, when well up in the twenties. I notice the same is true of them in this country. I doubt if a mare of this breed ever reaches an age when she is not a regular breeder. I have never known a stallion of this breed being sterile in the least degree. The Suffolk is the most docile of all the breeds, yet not as intelligent as he might be. A tendency to wildness or nervousness is never observed within the breed. In quality of bone they are slightly better than the other draft breeds. In conformation they have the straightest croup and best top line of all the draft breeds. They are good feeders, with a deep body, and endure shipping and hard work, the equal of any horse in the world. A tendency to thickness or fullness of the hock is noticeable in some of them. He has the least hair upon the legs of any draft horse known, differing from the other British THE BEEEDS 219 Q 220 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING breeds in this respect. Many individuals of this breed are below the size now wanted for draft purposes. This is their worst defect as a true drafter. 225. A Comparative Test of Bone of the five breeds of draft horses, in comparison with the bone of a thor- oughbred stallion, one that had made good both upon the race track and in the stud, makes an interesting study. The bone of this stallion in fineness of texture would compare favorably with ivory. Excepting one mare in the Suffolk class, the tests were made with the bones of stallions, and all were imported. The bone of the mare did not differ from that of the stallion of her breed. Only two animals were used in the Suffolk class while many were used in all the others, the averages being used in this table. The same sized horses were used, all weighing close to the ton mark, excepting the Suffolks, which were slightly smaller. I found the same ratio existed in all the breeds between the pres- sure and gravity tests, so only comparative weights will be used here, that of the thoroughbred being given as one hundred, the basis of the test. A cubic inch of bone from the Belgians weighed 62.6 per cent as much as that of the Thoroughbred. The Clydesdales 61.2; the Percherons 63.3; the Shire 57.9 and the Suffolks 68.7. The above table teaches us that in the quality of bone, but little difference is found be- tween Belgian, Clydesdale, and Percheron, while the Shire is some below and the Suffolk considerably above. The Suffolks had a slight advantage in the test, in be- ing slightly smaller than the others. 226. The Distinguishing Marks or Traits of the sev- eral draft breeds is of interest to many. The greatest THE ISKIiEUS 221 LSi 222 STUDIES IX HORSK BREEDING interest is shown in being able to always classify Bel- gians, Percherons and the two most numerous British breeds, Clydesdale and Shires. While the Belgians have a few^ minor characteristics not usually found in the other breeds, the thing by which he can always be known is the head. No other breed ever has a Belgian head. The shortness of head and ear, the latter coming out of the side of the head, the shortness of space from eye to ear and want of fidlness at this point, are all marks belonging to the Belgian only. If one will take a good look at figures 52 and 53, he will see nothing if not Belgian character. The Pereheron has much about him that can not be found in any other breed. In the first place he has a head that can not be found in any other draft breed. In the width between the eyes, and the distance from eye to ear one finds something truly remarkable. The space between the eyes and ears of the Pereheron is always full and prominent. In other words, he has a larger brain space or cavity than any other. The crest of the Pereheron is unlike that of any other breed in being better defined and more masculine. In the mus- cular development of shoulder, fore arm and gaskin, the Pereheron is found at the other extreme, when com- pared with the Shire. The Pereheron is always muscu- lar, while the Shire is deficient in muscle. In his ner- vous energy and the way of going, the Pereheron shows more blood than any other draft horse. The hair upon the legs will be discussed later. The Shire and Clydesdale will for the purpose of this description be regarded as one breed. So far as breed character goes, the Shire is almost the opposite of the THE BREEDS 22:'. 224 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING Perclieron, and this subject is now being discussed with reference to stallions only. The Shire has little or no crest, many of the stallions having- every appear- ance of a gelding, and that muscular development of shoulder, fore arm and gaskin already referred to is wanting. Herein lies the distinguishing difference be- tween the Percheron and Shire. We are now assuming the color to be the same, for one can find bays with strip and four white pasterns in France. Regarding the hair upon the legs, it is not always safe to assume that every horse with hairy legs is of Shire origin. Many Percherons of the old Boulanais type wear as much hair upon the legs as man,y individuals in the Shire breed. As a rule the Percheron is quite free from long hair upon the legs, while the Shires are famous for this one thing. For all this, some of the best Per- cheron stallions ever brought to this country from France were as hairy at the legs as many Shires, and it is a well established fact that the best and heaviest geldings ever sired by Percheron stallions, were sired by these great big Percherons with much long hair upon the legs. Upon the other hand there are quite a few Shires coming to this country from England with very little hair upon the legs. This is not the type pop- ular in England, yet they are there just the same. I emphasize this point, only because there are a few mis- informed men who believe all Percherons have the legs of a Thoroughbred, while all horses wearing long hair at the legs must be of British origin. When we speak of draft horses, the best Percheron breeding establish- ments upon this continent will invariably be found with horses wearing long hair at the legs, and the more hair THE BREEDS 225 bsi CJ to C w "^ 226 STUDIES IN HORSE BuKEDING one finds there, the more bone, the more substance and the more size will he also find in the horses there. Sp far as hair upon the legs is concerned, one shonld look a little higher up. If the fore arm and gaskin is defi- cient in muscle, I would feel safe in classing the horse as a Shire. However long the hair might be, if the stallion has a well defined crest, coupled with a good muscular development and the other Percheron charac- teristics, I would not hesitate to class him with that breed. There are others who are inclined to classify every horse with an arched nose, or great fullness be- low the eyes, with the British breeds. Again many Per- cherons are found with similar heads, and again one usually finds them among the stallions producing large horses. Such a head, when narrow between the eyes is more likely to be a Shire, but when wide between the eyes it is more likely to be a Percheron. My oavu obser- vations extending over many years make it possible for me to sum up the whole matter in one sentence. The more a Percheron resembles a Shire, the more certai i he will be of siring ton geldings. 227. The Heavy Harness or Park Horse. This class is made up or filled so far as market requirements are concerned by the Hackney more than by all other breeds together. The Hackney is a native of England, and possesses more blood than any other horse of Eu- rope used for harness purposes. The conformation of the Hackney is more nearly correct for high action than that of any other horse. The well nigh perfect flexing of knee and hock of the best actors within this breed is a beautiful sight, yet he is nothing if not a rich man's THE 15REKDS 227 h H ^ 3 cS o C/2 o 228 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING horse. Bay, brown, chestnut and black are the princi- pal colors of this breed. The coach breeds, so-called, both French and German, are sometimes bred in this country for the purpose of supplying the demand for heavy harness horses. Few- can show the action required for this purpose. Theso breeds were produced to be used for military purposes in their native countries, and have been introduced into this country as the result of the American commer- cial spirit. I have spent both time and money investi- gating this subject but have yet to learn of a district in the United States that has been benefitted by the Coach horse of either country. The French Coach car- ries the more blood, and is the more uniform breeder. ]\Iost of the get of Coach stallions reach the markets of the country as some kind of a misfit, without the size and weight to perform the heavy work of the coun- try, and with insufficient action for high class heavy harness horses. 228. The Light Harness Horse. This class comes principally from the Standard bred trotter, a breed of American origin. This horse is too well known to need more than a mention. Some excellent specimens are to be found within this breed for light harness driving, being both intelligent and speed3^ It is the larger specimens of the breed that are used for this purpose. Recently the federal government has shown an in- terest in the light horse industry, and are aiding by a breeding experiment, blending the blood of the nearly extinct Morgan family with that of the better types of Standard blood. 229. The Five Gaited Horse. This horse is a pro- THE BREEDS 229 230 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING duct of the rough part of the Southern states where the saddle horse was a necessity, and much intelligence has been used in his development. He is the result of crossing Standard bred pacing mares with Thorough- bred Stallions, and demonstrates what can be done by cross breeding when intelligently done. He is strictly an American product and he has come to stay. For the breeder who has a fancy for a warm bred horse, and is capable of developing him to the highest limit, the Five Gaited horse offers a lucrative field. He will always be in demand in our own large cities, as well as in his native southland. 230. The Thoroughbred. This horse, the original of all blood and speed needs no mention in this work. His part in the world's work has been recorded in its poetry, its fiction, as well as in its history. 231. The Shetland Pony- This is a member of the equine family worthy of brief mention, as few are more profitable to breed than the Shetland. The demand in this country is now greater than the supply. The cost of producing a Shetland pony is but little more than for a large sheep. Well broken, he sells readily for $100 to $200 in all the large cities of this country. He is a native of the Shetland Islands, to the north of Scotland. In earlier times he was used principally in the coal mines and to some extent by fishermen along the coast. His food was always of the poorest and scantiest supply. The climate was of the fiercest for either man or beast, being both cold and wet. He has survived these things and will live under every known condition of climate or food. In this country he meets THE BREKDS 231 a new condition, both as to his needs and his work. In a conntry where food is plenty he is always fat, while his only work in this country has been the companion- ship of children. Some trouble has been experienced in this country in £5 K\^ ^^ ■?fi ' -' :^.g H ffl(; ^•,5 ^^HH^^^^^^^^^HI ^^M W^^^ MB^Bfe? ■»>,..f - r .,. --^^^B H Figure 66. A pair of "Shelties." breeding them. This is wholly the result of too much feed. They soon become too fat to breed well, unless used more than is usually the practice. Most of the Shetlands brought to this country are bred in the north of Scotland. CHAPTER XVI. JACKS AND JENNETS. 232. The Industry. The mule breeding industry of the United States has grown to be a very important business, in many parts of the country. This has made the breeding of good jacks a very lucrative industry. For the truly good ones, the demand is larger than the supply. The best mules produced in this country are sired by Mammoth jacks, a breed of American origin. While all the blood lines of the Mammoth jacks anu jennets can be traced back to a European source, yet in their present state of perfection, they are strictly the product of American skill and intelligence. 233. Royal Mammoth. The Mammoth jack is the result of the blending of the blood of jacks from Malta, Catalonia and ^lajorca. The name is borrowed from imported Royal ^lammoth, a jack regarded by the best breeders of this country, to be the best specimen ev-r brought here from Europe. A continuous efifort has been made, and a fairly united one, by all the breeders in fixing the color to black, with light shading around the nose and upo?:j the under side of the body. At the present time only occasionally does one revert back to blue or other oii* color. JACKS AND JENNETS 233 o Ml fa 234 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING In figure 67 can be seen a gronp of jennets and their jack colts owned by W. H. Brown, of Calumet Valley Stock Farm, Clarksville, Mo. The one marked No. 1, is Qneen of Scots, No. 529. She won first in yearling class at St. Louis Exposition in 1904. Also sweepstakes as best jennet any age at Missouri State Fair in 1909. Fannie Pitman No. 391, is marked with a 2. Mohawk Queen, No. 525, is marked with a 3. Figure 68 is that of the four-year-old Mammoth jack, Eagle, No. 3797, one of the truly good jacks of the country. This jack is owned by "W. C. Martin, Pleas- ant Hill, ]Mo. Note the extreme vitality of this jack, as indicated by the large heart girth, as well as thick- ness of the shoulders. 234. Hinnies. Crossing the jennet with a stallion, produces a hinny. This cross is now a common one in many parts of the southwestern states. The hinny is so like the mule, that only a few men can tell the one from another. They are usually small, being used in the coal mines and for light delivery work. The demand for mules combining size and constitu- tion is a growing one. Formerly the so-called quality mule was the one in greatest demand. This mule was rather tall for its size, with considerable energy and action, Init rather deficient in constitution. It was the produce of a mare possessing much warm blood. At the present time quality means size, plenty of bone, large heart girth, with every evidence of good consti- tution, more than at any time in the past. Such a mule can be produced, only by the use of some draft lilood in the mare. 235. Where Mules are Bred. While the breeding and JACKS AND JENNETS 235 ayft jljgl^^^^jl^,' '• '"^ i*-;'^'': .4i3^.^^ &••» « (^ ^f ^H^HK^^H|[^^^Hfk E'l ' ,;. ;; ^t/l'i; i^^P^^'^l^Hj ^•ffl"' .^ ■ ^^ L 'IJ^K P-. ' ■ . V ■aiHLV ..<^ i' ' 3Bi N^^H*^"^ P' -' 1 i M^flH 1. i ■■ nii^k ' ■^■"■•■' Figure 68. The mammoth jack. Eagle, No. 3797. Owned by W. C. Martin, Pleasant Hill, Mo. 236 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING growing: of mules is now carried on quite extensively in several of the central western states, yet it is done in rather a small way so far as each farm is concerned. In this respect it does not differ from horse breeding in the same states and districts. Only in the southwest and parts of the west are mules bred upon an extensive scale. In some parts of the southwest there are ranches where 200 to 300 mules are foaled every year. There is one ranch in Texas upon which 1100 mares were bred to jacks during the season of 1910. The capsule method of breeding is practiced upon this ranch, and the 1100 mares were served with four jacks. 236. Breeding for Jacks. There are several states in which the production of jacks for breeding purposes is an industry of considerable importance. However, the breeding of jacks has its difficulties and troubles as do other lines of breeding. One of these is a ten- dency of jennets to be wanting in fecundity even more than mares. The trouble experienced by many jack breeders in this particular is considerable. During the heat period the temperature of the jennet is more likely than not to be too high. This is now being over- come by breeding the jennet by a capsule service just as the heat period has passed. 237. Jack Foals. Another drawback to the breed- ing of jacks is the death rate among the foals. A jack foal is not as easily reared as a horse foal. Pneumonia carries away many of them in the early season, and indigestion, rectal hernia and hemorrhoids take away many others. JACKS AM) JK.XNETS 237 0; ^ O 1) d .S o -' 0) ce = 3 IB C "9 ic 3 « CHAPTER XVII. CROSS BREEDING. 238. General Principles. During the past two years, as many inquiries have reached me upon the subject of cross breeding as any other. Some are not very explicit as to what they wish to know, but I take it that most of them are interested in crossing very small mares with large stallions. The concensus of opinion is adverse to this, but it is either based upon a want of experience, or else the experience was with coarse, unbalanced stallions wanting in quality. I mated a large number of small mares, weighing from 800 to 900 pounds for five consecutive seasons, with an im- ported Percheron stallion weighing from 1950 to 2100 l^ounds, according to conditions of flesh. The result was a uniform lot of well balanced foals, maturing in- to marketable horses with an average weight of 1350 pounds. There was not a badly proportioned horse in the lot. This stallion was evenly balanced and well proportioned, possessing quality in a high degree. The breeding was all done by the use of capsules. 239. Mating Ponies with Stallions. For the sake of the experiment I have mated Indian pony mares weigh- ing only 535 and 545 pounds Avith the stallion above CROSS BREEDING 239 referred to, and the resulting foals were good. They developed into 1100 ])onnd horses, well balanced and well proportioned. 240. Mating- Small Mares with a Belgian Stallion. In the extreme western part of Nel)raska there is oiie ranch where a large nnml)er of 900 pound mares have been mated for five years with an imported Belgian stallion, weighing around 2200 pounds, the capsule sys- tem being employed in making the service. This spring two car loads of these horses (four years old) were shipped to Pennsylvania and sold at an average of $212.50 each. The average weight of these four year old colts when loaded was 1430 pounds each, and every one a good one, well balanced and well proportioned. 241. Coarse Unbalanced Stallions do not Mate well with any Mare. A score of such crosses which have proved successful when quality stallions are used, can be named for every one that has been a failure. It can be readily understood that a stallion wanting in cpiality, coarse and unbalanced would not cross well with any mare however large she may be. Even when such stal- lions are mated with large mares, if observed critically, the foals will be found wanting in cpiality and balance, quite as much as those out of the small mares. 242. The Breeds Differ in Eegard to such Crosses. As regards the crossing of small mares with large stal- lions, it makes some difference about the breed to which the stallion belongs. The British breeds do not give as good results in violent crossing, as do the Belgian and Percheron stallions. I have frequently seen horses with large heads and legs, but ])odies small, resulting 240 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING from mating- very small mares with stallions of British breeding. 243. Crossing the Breeds or mixing the blood of pure bred horses is quite another thing, and should never be undertaken by any but the most intelligent breeders. That this can be done advantageously, we al- ready have proof. In crossing blood it matters not so much about the breeds as it does the types. Mating ani- mals of two breeds, but of the same general type, will give better results than mating two animals of the same breed, but of widely different types. To put it in an- other way, mating two animals of two draft breeds will give better results than mating two animals, one a drafter, the other belonging to the harness breeds. 244. The Saddle Horse is an illustration of this thought. It was produced by mating Standard mares with pacing gait, with Thoroughbred stallions. To be- gin with these breeds were of similar type, and the cross resulted in a most pronounced improvement, for the purpose for which the cross bred product was in- tended. The gaits have been secured from the original mares from which the breed originated, while the sym- metry, style of carriage and intelligence have been transmitted from the Thoroughbred. 245. Recrossing Breeds. The stallion shown in fig- ure 70, is the result of a breeding experiment with draft blood. This experiment began with a grey imported Shire mare. She was mated with a black imported Belgian stallion, resulting in a grey filly. When this filly was old enough she was mated with a grey im- ported Percheron stallion, resulting in the stallion shown in figure 70. It is claimed by most writers that CROSS RREKIlIXfi 241 Figure 70. A re-cross bred stallion and possessing the blood of the Belgian, Percheron and Shire breeds. 242 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING sires produced by cross breeding will not prove pre- potent breeders ; that their foals will not be uniform as regards any quality, color, size or form. The stal- lion above referred to is owned by a colony of Rus- sians in South Dakota, and enjoys the distinction of having produced more geldings selling for three hund- red dollars or more, than any stallion ever owned in that state. His get are remarkable for their uniformity of size, combined with quality, and 85 per cent of them are grey. The number of ton geldings sired by him, and out of mares weighing only 1500 to 1600 pounds, is simply remarkable. Here we have a re-cross bred stallion, that is one the result of twice crossing, and possessing the blood of three draft breeds. The individuals composing his immediate ancestry were quite uniform, although be- longing to three breeds. A wider difference in type could be found within any one of the three breeds, which again calls out the statement, that it is not so much a matter of breed, as it is of type. 246. The Percheron and Shire Cross. We have an- other illustration in the result of crossing breeds, in a stallion owned for eleven years at Randolph, Nebraska. This stallion was out of an imported Percheron mare, and sired by an imported Shire stallion, both dam and sire being good individuals, possessing great size and the best draft conformation. The dam of this stallion was a dark grey in color, while the sire was a blue roan. More than 90 per cent of the get of this horse were blue roan or grey, and this one stallion made Randolph the first primary market in the United States, in the production of high class geldings. The geldings sired CROSS RREEDING 243 by this stallion mature to 2200 pounds, and have sold in the open markets of this country up to five hundred dollars each. 247. The Mares of this Cross are also Producers of High Class Foals. Nor has the good done the horse breeding industry at Randolph, by this stallion, ended in the production of these high class geldings. His mares are proving the best producers of geldings ever owned in that district. It is a fact admitted by all breeders of pure bred draft horses, that no pure bred mares can be found in that district, which can equal as producers of quality, these grade mares sired by that cross bred stallion. 248. Adhering to Type. These things are not writ- ten to encourage any one to embark in cross breeding horses, for not one in a thousand would succeed if they undertook it. When we remember that all draft bred horses have a common origin, it is not very violent crossing when we cross any or all of them. The thing to guard against is in crossing types. It is because of this that so few succeed in breeding pure bred horses. Only a few men seem to understand that by using a stallion of one type for one cross, then one of distinctly another type for the succeeding cross, must necessar- ily result in failure, and this is what most of our breed- ers are doing. To succeed in breeding, one must have a standard or type in mind, and then breed to it. It will not matter so much al)out anything else, if the standard or type is strictly adhered to. 249. Violent Crossing has Proved a Failure. In crossing types I have never known of any good result- ing, when carried bevond the first cross. In INIissouri 244 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING I know of several stallions standing for service, the stallions being the result of crossing pure bred draft stallions upon Standard mares. The get of such cross bred stallions have very little value, seldom two being alike in any respect. It is such violent crossing that has given cross breeding its bad reputation. 250, Mendel's Law of Heredity is the best test of the good or ill effects of cross breeding. When the ancestry of two animals is known, their produce can be foretold by this law, to nearly a mathematical cer- tainty. One could take a grey mare of one breed, whose type or conformation throughout all her past ancestry was the same as that of a grey stallion of another breed, and their produce would be just as certain to possess the grey color and conformation of the original pair, as if that pair had been of one breed. This one sentence covers the entire field of cross breed- ing. CHAPTER XVIII. THE PHRENOLOGY OF THE HORSE. 251. Brain and Nerve Stimulation. To speak of the phrenology or mentality of the horse to some men is but to provoke a smile, yet these same men when questioned are willing to admit that value in a horse represents something more than bone and muscle. Bone and muscle would be of little value, if there was no stimulation for the action of these parts. This stimu- lation is but the function of the brain, and is carried to every part and every muscle of the body, by means of the spinal cord and its many branches. 252. Nervous Energy. The amount of nervous en- ergy a horse possesses, will determine the ease with which he performs his work. It will be noticed by any one at all observing, that no two horses perform their work with the same de- gree of exhaustion resulting. Some appear to do their work with a freedom and willingness unknown to oth- ers, and yet show no signs of exhaustion ; while others must be urged in order to get them to do their work, and yet they always appear to be exhausted. This is wholly a condition of the nervous organization of the horse. Then again, some horses perform any task 246 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEUING Figure 71. The brain of the horse. THE PHRENOLOGY OF THE HORSE 247 given them in an agreeable frame of mind, while others will do nothing except under protest. The one is a willing helper, the other surly and obstinate. In this particular they do not differ from the human subject. 253. Comparative Anatomy of Brain. A study of the comparative anatomy of the brain, discloses the fact that in all the faculties of the base of the brain, there is little difference between man and many ani- mals. Animals must eat as well as man, hence we find the faculty of appetite developed in both. Both must defend and protect themselves from all forms of in- jury and we find the faculties of combativeness, des- truction and secretion common to both. The desire to mate, and the love of young are common to both man and the horse and we find these faculties developed in both. The organs of form ad locality are needed by the horse as well as man, and we find these faculties de- veloped in a high degree. The horse must have the or- gan of form, to aid him in seeing in the night, as well as to be able to see and distinguish between forms seen at any time. The organ of locality is just as necessary to him, that he may know and remember locations and directions. A horse never forgets a place he has once been to, and most horses if taken away from home for a long distance and by circuitous windings, will return by the shortest route, if given their liberty. I know of a Pawnee pony mare that w^as ridden from eastern Nebraska, southeasterly into and through Mis- souri, then in a northerly direction to near Davenport, Iowa. From the latter place she broke away from her keeper and made back directly to Nebraska, and her numerous family, reaching her old home three months 248 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING after she was stolen. She was traced over this route, but those following her were always sufficiently be- hind to make the capture of the thief impossible. It was known that the pony had secured her freedom and was on the way back, two weeks before she reached home. Figure 72. Tho human brain. 254. Quality of the Brain. The brain of the horse is of better quality than that of any other animal. While the brain of the horse is relatively smaller than the brain of some other animals, yet in no other ani- THE PHRENOLOGY OF THE HORSE 249 mal can so fine a texture of brain be found. It is the texture or quality of the brain, quite as much as its size that denotes mental quality. Some horsemen have held that a horse must be very unintelligent because of his small brain, while as a matter of fact few animals, if any, are capable of manifesting such rare intelli- gence as the horse. All other things being equal, size would be indicative of power, but throughout all Na- ture, quality counts for as much as size. A large tim- ber of pine would be stronger than a small one, yet a Figure 73. A sectional view of tlie cranium of tlie liorse, showing the brain cavity. small piece of good hickory may be stronger than either. An organic structure of high quality, indicates a like mental quality. 255. Temperaments. Quality of the brain texture is analogous to the temperaments, which are alike in man and the horse. The nervous temperament is of greatest interest to the horseman. It is the nervous temperament developed to a high degree, that gives the horse that quality we call stamina. This is but "bot- 250 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING torn." It is also the intelligent horse in which we find the nervous temperament predominating. Possessing this temperament should not he construed to mean a Figure 74. Front view of the liead of an intelligent horse. Note the great width between the eyes, and the extreme dis- tance from eye to ear. horse the reverse. It means one having perfect control over both temper and actions. Breeds can be recog- nized quite readily by their temperament. The warm THE PHREXOLOGY OF THE HORSE 251 bred horses, such as the harness and saddle horses are nsually found with the nervous temperament predom- inating. The Percherons possess this temperament to a higher degree than any other of the draft breeds. 256. Vital Temperament. The vital temperament Pigur 75. A side view of tlie liead of a horse possessing remarli^able intelligence. is found developed in the Belgian more than in any other breed. The vital temperament supplies vitality to the organs. It is the source of all vital energy, and sustains the entire animal economy. Its predominance 252 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING THE PHRENOLOGY OF THE HORSE 253 gives us a horse with a deep, well filled body, with a tendency to take on flesh rapidly. It is from among horses with this temperament well developed, that we find most of our dull, sluggish, and stupid horses. Figure 77. Front view of tlie head of an intelligent colt. 257. The Motive Temperament. It is this temper- ament that results from the organs of motion being well developed. This temperament is indicated by the development of the bones and muscles of the horse. This temperament is more prominent in the Shire than 254 STUUIES IX HORSK ISHEKDING any other breed, while the Clydesdale combines the motive and nervous temperaments in a remarkable degree. We find most of our self willed horses among those with large motive, and small nervous tempera- ment. Figure 78. Front view of the head of a stallion inclined to a timid disposition. This is indicated by the narrowness of the head. 258. A Well Balanced Organism. It is possible to have the temperaments well balanced. So far as draft horses are concerned, the better balance foimd exist- THE PHRENOLOGY OF THE HORSE 255 iiig- between the temperaments the more valuable the horse. In the Belgian as a breed, we find the nervous temperament poorly developed. The Clydesdale is more deficient in the vital temperament than any other, while the Percheron as a breed is found deficient most- ly in the motive temperament. A well balanced organ- ism can be found more often among the better Perch- erons, than in anv other lireed. Figure 79. Side view of the head shown in figure 78. The full or arched form of face denotes a self-willed disposition. 259. The Comparative Anatomy of the Brain of the horse can be studied by a comparison of figure 71, with that of 72. In figure 71 can be seen the brain of the horse, while figure 72 shows the human brain. The greatest evidence of brain power, is in the convolu- tions or folds of that organ. It will be noticed that 256 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING these convolutions are as great in the case of the horse, as in that of man. The only difference being in the case of man we find many convolutions not present in the brain of the horse. This corresponds with the Figure 80. Front view of ttie head of an unintelligent brute. Note the depression between the eyes. phrenology of the two subjects. The social, aspiring, moral and most of the intellectual faculties found in man, are wanting in the horse. The skull of man is well filled with brain, while that of the horse is not, THK PHRENOLOGY OK THE HORSE 257 as shown in fit;iire 73. In this figure it will be ob- served that it is in the posterior cavity of the skull (cranium), that the l^rain is lodged. Viewed from the top and front we find the skull composed of three bones ; parietal, frontal and nasal. The brain lies un- der the frontal bone, for the most part, and gives this ])iirt of the skull the appearance of being full or de- Figure 81. A side view of the liead sliown in figure 80. Note the shortness of distance from eye to ear. This horse does not possess ordinary brute sense, and few horses are seen with so small a brain. pressed, as it is large or small. The brain cavity or cranium is made greater, also, as the distance from orbit to orbit is increased. The brain itself is divisi- ble into four chief parts: The cerebrum, forming the largest and most anterior jiart of the brain ; the cere- belhnn, placed liehind the cerebrum ; the pons Varolii 258 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING a l)and of nerve matter; and the medulla ()])longata. passing between the pons Varolii and the spinal cord. 260. The Cerebrum the Organ of Intelligence. It is with the cerebrum, we have most to do in this chapter. Aside from quality, it is the size of the cerebrum that gives to the horse his intelligence. This can be de- termined by actual measurement of the exterior of the skull or head. In figure 74 is shown the head of a horse possessing a large brain, as indicated by the width between the eyes, and distance from eye to the opening of the ear. A horse narrow between the eyes, will be found timid as well as wanting in intelligence. It is no easy matter to frighten a horse possessing ex- treme width between the eyes ; while the horse with narrow frontal bone, is always "seeing things." 261. The Horse of Extreme Intelligence. Figure 75 is a side view of the head of one of the most intelli- gent horses, if not the most intelligent, ever known. This horse was an educated one, not in trickery such as mesmeric and other tricks of man, but educated to do intelligent things. Among other things he could do was to be placed in a room by himself, where he would put together a set of blocks, forming a figure, which could only be formed by one way of arranging the blocks. He could open or unfasten any door that could be opened by man, without the aid of a key. In fact all his work was the work of an intelligent force, in many ways possessing the intelligence of the ordinary man. The frontal bone of this horse extended two and seven- eighths inches anteriorly to the eye, and the distance from the center of one eye to the center of the other, was eleven inches. I have never been able to find an- THE PIIRKXOLOOY OF THE HORSE 259 other head of the horse, showiiiu' such an ininiense brain cavity. This horse was the result of crossing a grac^^' Percheron mare with a SadcUe bred stallion. 262. An Intelligent Head. In figure 76 is shown the actual photographic reproductions of side Jmd front view of the head of a Percheron stallion, which are nothing if not remarkable for brain capacity. This stallion measures ten and one-half inches between the eyes, nine inches from eye to opening of the ear. and thirteen and one-eighth inches from center of the eye, diagonally across the opening of the opposite ear. The frontal bone of his head extends two and one- fourth inches anteriorly to the eye. This stallion has been made to make services without a strap of any kind upon him, in a yard Avhere ten or a dozen geldings and mares were present. The door to his stall can be left open, and he will not go out without permission, even though many horses are in sight upon the out- side. He can be driven anywhere without lines, and he will always turn to the right for any vehicle to which is hitched a horse, but if he meets an automobile, he will give no pai't of the road. 263. An Intelligent Colt. Figure 77 is the head of a colt at thirteen months. The width between the eyes, the fulness of frontal bone and distance from eye to ear all denote intelligence of a high order. His true character does not misrepresent his phrenology, for he is a colt of the highest intelligence. One only has to show him what is Avant(^d of him. and he is always ready to do it. 264. The Head of a Timid Horse- Figures 78 and 79 are front and side views of the head of a stallion 260 STl'DIES IX HORSE BREEDING too narrow between the eyes. A horse with such a head will always be found timid. His nasal bone is full and arched, making the form known as Roman nose. This form of nasal bone is always associated with self-willed horses, and when found in connection with a narrow head, it gives us a horse that will prove unsafe to drive. The stallion whose head is shown in figure 78 and 79 is timid, will become frightened at bridges, vehicles, signs, loose paper and all other un- common ol),iects. This is not all, for when so fright- ened he will go through a stone wall, or at least try it, to get away from the object of his fright. In every other respect the disposition of this horse is excellent, as might be expected by the bright and prominent eye, and erect ear. 265. The Head of a Stupid Horse. Figures 80 and 81 are the front and side views of a stallion that scarce- ly knows enough to eat when hungry. In figure 80 note the depression of the frontal bone between the eyes, and in figure 81 the shortness of head from eye to ear. Seldom is a head seen upon a ton horse with so small a lirain cavity, and the disposition of this horse does not belie his phrenology. I never saw a more stupid brute ; even the ordinary animal instincts being poorly developed in liim. 266. Summary. To summarize, the character of the horse can be told by the temperament and brain capacity. The former has reference to the quality of the brain, the latter to the quantity. The motive tem- perament is where the development of the organs of motion are greatest. It is in this temperament we find the most stubborn and self-willed horses. When this THE PHRKNOI.OdY lU' THE HORSE 261 is balanced with a ^ood nervous temperament we have an excellent combination, tiivinsi' ns both force and intelligence or quality. 267. The Vital Temperament is when the vital or- gans are greatest in their (k'V('loi)ment. It is in this temperament we tind most of our dull, lazy and stupid horses. With this temperauK^it dominant we always have a good feeder and doer. 268. The Nervous Temperament is the outward manifestation of quality. It is the highest and best development of the brain and nerves. It is in this temperament we find our most intelligent horses. This temperament usually jn-edomiiuites in the trotter, the pacer, the saddler and the running horse. It is indi- cated by the bright and prominent eye ; the fine hair and soft, velvety skin with (pudity in every part. 269. The Proper Balance of Temperaments. The best residts are fomid in the jjroper combination or balance of these temperaments. The vital is needed to feed and nourish the body. The motive is needed to give strength and f(n-ee to every part, while the nervous is actually necessary to furnish the stimula- tion for action of every bone, and every muscle. In figure 47 can be seen an ideal combination of the three temperaments, and such a combination as is seldom seen in a draft stallion. The deep body, and good middle are evidence of vital power. The massive bone and great muscular development of motive force ; while the great ])rain capacity and (luality in every part show a wonderf\d nervous enei'gy. 270. In the Quantity of Brain, the size of the cavity is our onlv guide. This is indicated by the width be- 262 STUDIES IN HORSK I5KEP:i)ING tween the eyes and fulness of same, together with the distance from eye to ear. Those wide between the ears, are to be watched, for they will be found vicious and treacherous. Horses narrow between the eyes will be found timid — that is, wanting in courage. The wider between the eyes, and the greater the fulness of the frontal bone, the greater will be the intelligence. CHAPTER XIX. THE SCIENCE OF JUDGING DRAFT HORSES. 271. Importance of Essential Points. In the judging of draft horses, not enough importance has been at- tached to the most essential points. A nice top line may be pleasing to the eye, yet it adds nothing to the utility of the horse. Then again, the trot adds nothing in real value to the draft horse, yet much importance is attached to this gait by most judges. If a draft horse walks right, his trot will be all right, but the real drafter is not performing his work at the trot, and will seldom have occasion to use that gait. 272. Need of a Better System. That there is need of a better system of judging can not be better shown than by referring to the score card now in use. A score of 11 is given the perfect fore pastern and hock combined, out of a possible 100. In the case of more than 100,000 horses reported. 80 per cent of them went wrong because of defective fore pastern and hock. In the actual test, we find an importance of 80 per cent should be attached to these two points, while in theory an importance of only 11 per cent is given them. If one can find a difference of 19 per cent of a whole be- tween theory and fact existing in the case of onlv two 264 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING parts of the horse, what may we expect when every part of the horse is considered. 273. A Horse is Comparable to a Machine. I am probably the only one who has ever attempted to com- pare a horse to a machine, constructed for a specific pnrpose, and by actual, mechanical tests tried to learn his weak parts. I have been carrying on these tests for many years. 274. The Balance of a Horse. The first thing I learned was the per cent of weight borne npon each set of feet. In many tests of draft horses, I found that from 56% to 5914 per cent of the weight was borne upon the fore feet. The average for all these tests was slightly less than 58 per cent. In the case of the Standard bred horse, a greater weight is borne upon the fore feet, than any other breed. There is a slight difference also, in the several draft breeds, but not enough to be of any interest to the student or breeder. 275. How Energy is Expended. The amount of energy expended by each end of a draft horse in mov- ing heavy loads I have investigated. In this experi- ment horses were used weighing from 1400 to 1900 pounds. They were made to pull from an exact level, scales being used to register the draft. Only a nominal difference was registered between the many horses used, the average being 71 per cent for the hind legs and only 29 per cent by the fore legs. This one line of investigation teaches us that the hock is the most important jiart of the draft horse, and it also teaches us why so many horses go wrong in the hock. 276. The Proper Set of the Hind Leg. Most draft horses are either too straight or too crooked in the THE SCIEXCP: of .TUDfilXG DRAFT HORSES 265 266 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING hind leg'. A hock set at the proper angle gives more power, than when set too far back or too far forward. If the hock is correctly set as regards its position to the body ; is of proper size and good quality, it will never go wrong under any circumstances. In case of accident, the bone above or below the hock will break before the hock will break or go wrong. 277. The Different Hock Conformations. In many tests I have made of the hocks of different conforma- tions, I find it easy to group all hocks into three classes. These are shown in figure 82. The hock shown at "A" will never go wrong if the quality is good. Such a hock can be tested by applying mechanical power, and in practically every test, the bone will break before the hock goes wrong. In this conformation of hock it will be noticed that the point of the buttock, the point of the hock, and the back part of the fetlock are per- pendicular to each other. 278. The Spavin and Thoroughpin Conformation. At "B" in this figure is shown a hock set too far back. Because of this set or angle such a hock will be found slightly open at the fore part of the joint, making this joint weak in its front part. It is with such a eon- formation that we usually find the spavin and thor- oughpin. Such a hock is likely to be as strong in its back part, as the hock shown at "A" in this figure, but will always be found weak at the front part of the joint. 279. The Curby Conformation. The hock shown at the right in figure 82 is set tt)o far forward and will always be found weak at the hind part of the joint. It is with a conformation of the hock such as this, that TTIK SC'IKXCl': OF JL'l)(;iX(l DRAFT HORSKS 267 o o « -^ 3 rs 268 STUDIES IN HORSE I5REEDING we find the curb ; while such a hock may be as strong as any in its front part. 280. The Importance of a Good Hock. In mailing out the circular letter, reference to which has already been made, copies of figures 82 and 83 were also en- closed. Reports of 101,839 horses owned were reported from this line of investigation. Of these 32,902 were reported as having become unsound. Owners of horses reporting were requested to compare the conformation of their horses with those shown in figures 82 and 83 and report the result of these comparisons. Of the 32,902 horses reported as unsound, 21,737 were re- ported unsound behind, 93 per cent of such unsound- ness being in the hock. Here again we have evidence of the imoprtance of a good hock, and based not upon theory, but actual fact. Of all horses becoming un- sound, 61 per cent did so because of their hock going wrong. In the selection of breeding stock, no part should be given as careful attention as the hock. 281. The Conformation of Unsound Hocks. The conformation of hock shown at "xV" in figure 82, was seldom found with an unsound hock, while the sound horses were mostly reported with that conformation. The largest number of unsound hocks was reported as being of the conformation shown at "B" in figure 82. 282. The Correct Conformation of Pastern. Taking up the conformation of the fore legs, of the 32,902 horses reported as unsound, 11,165 of them were re- ported unsound in front. As regards these, 10,378. were reported with short and straight pasterns. Some were reported as having rather poor feet at the time THE SCIENCE OF JUDOIXG DKAFT HORSES 289 of their purchase, but where the i)astern was of proper length and elasticity, the feet had remained in about the same condition. Upon the other hand, horses pur- chased with good feet, but short, straight pasterns, soon became crippled in their feet. In no instance was a shoulder lameness reported that the horse did not have a straight pastern. The pastern should be of fairly good length, and set at an angle of 45 degrees. 283. Unsoundness Resulting from a Short and Straight Pastern. It can be readily seen that Avithout a pastern of reasonable length and elasticity, to aid in dissipating concussion, the draft horse will not long remain sound in front when used upon the paved streets of the cities. Taking the reports together it will be seen that short and straight pasterns in front and defective hocks behind, are responsible for most of the unsoundness of our draft horses. The table below will show the defects, both as to kind and numbers of the 32,902 horses reported unsound. Per Cent Fore feet 2337 7.4 Sidebone 4186 12.7 Pastern 978 2.9 Fetlock 1269 3.8 Knee 7 .02 Elbow 69 .2 Shoulder 2319 7. Hind feet 43 .13 Pastern 107 .32 Fetlock 1282 3.9 Hock 20215 61.4 Stifle 61 .18 Hip 29 .08 270 STUDi?:s IX iioksi': r.KEKnixf; 284. Sidebones. No attempt has l^ecn made to in- dicate the iinsoiindness by g'ivino- it a name, the loca- tion of the trouble only liein^i' ^iven. The one excep- tion to this rule is in regard to sidebones. This defect was of snch frequent occurrence, I deemed it best to let it be known, as 12.7 per cent of all unsound horses were troubled with sidebone. Here for the first time is given the location and per cent of frequency of the occurrence of unsoundness in draft horses, as one may reasonably expect to find them upon the streets of our cities. The four weakest parts of the draft horse, in the order of their frequency, is the hock, with 61.4 per cent; the fore pastern (including coronet,) with 15.6 per cent ; the fore feet, with 7.4 per cent ; and the shoulder, with 7 per cent. It has already been observed that the defects of feet and shoulder were aggravated at least by a defective pastern. In very many in- stances they were directly caused by a defective past- ern. Reducing the number of weak points in the horse as much as possible, and we find that about 85 per cent of the unsoundness reported, was the result of defect- ive hock and pastern. Taking the entire number of horses reported, sound and unsound, about 20 per cent were defective in the hocks, and about 10 per cent were defective in the fore pastern. 285. The Importance of Good Hock and Pastern. No such importance as this, has ever been given to these two points of the draft horse, by any .judge or system of judging in this country. Here also is one of the reasons why so little value is placed upon prize winning horses by the great mass of people, and es- pecially breeders. Exhibitors will themselves price THE SCIENCE OF JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 271 first })rize winners l)elow those winning' no place in the same class. It also exjilains in a measure, why onr l)est horses are never shoAvn. 286. The Value of Good Eyes. The next most im- portant point in the horse, is the eye. It is very im- portant, both because of the utility value it gives the horse, and the tendency to inherit defective vision. In a report upon 49,317 horses used in this country, eight years or more of age, 5,013 had some inherited defect of the eye. At the age of four and five years, these same horses had all been passed as having good eyes. These reports were based upon the examinations of veterinarians, and must be considered reliable. Such a report is startling, however, and well may be when some more than 10 per cent of the commercial horses of a country have defective vision. It is much more than I would have been inclined to believe, had I not the figures before me. This is in a measure a breed defect, as the grade Percherons were found much more defective in this respect than any other breed. 287. Intelligence and Temperament. The brain de- velopment of the horse, including temperament, playr? a much more important part in making up the value of a horse than has ever been accorded it. The greater the brain development in the draft horse, the more eas- ily his work is done, the more pleasurre the driver ex- periences in the handling of his team, and the less wear upon the horse as a result of his willingness to perform every duty required of him. 288. Defective Wind. Another defect too frequent- ly seen in the draft horses of this country is that of defective wind. This defect is found in several forms, 272 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING the most common being that of roaring, and more cor- rectly known as laryngeal hemiphlegia. I have attempt- ed no line of investigation so difficnlt of attaining detinite resnlts, as that of reaching any definite con- clnsions in the matter of defective wind. This, for the most part, was made difficnlt hecanse of there being no way of testing the wind of a horse except to "wind him" by violent exercise, snch as rapid trotting or running. Running the horse a short distance is the test employed in the markets when a horse is sold, but for the large nsers of heavy horses in the cities to employ such a method at their annual examinations, or at any time, would require considerable time and one finds no disposition on the part of the large con- cerns to waste time in doing such things. The result is that no test for wind is given until the horse is incapacitated for work. I find that many of the largest transfer companies, as well as others employing a large number of horses, have a system of examining their horses annually, and keeping a record of such exam- inations, but the test for wind is omitted. In a systematic attempt to secure data upon this sub- ject and covering a period of several years, I have been unable to secure complete and reliable reports on but 11,649 horses. These were horses all of which had been tested for their wind when purchased, and their wind found right in every particular. This would place these horses above the average in this one par- ticular at the time these reports were made, and yet 1986 were found with defective wind in a marked de- gree. This is a little better than 17 per cent. In these reports every horse owned by the companies reporting THE SCIEXCE OF JUDOIXf) DRAFT HORSES 273 were tested, and the full number owned by them as well as the number found defective were recorded. No provision has been made for attaching auy im- portance to this defect, or its causes, in the methods of judging horses as at present employed, and yet actual fact, based upon the most painstaking examina- tions, teaches us that it should be given an importance of 17 per cent, even when the better class of horses are under consideration. The scale of points now in gen- eral use places an importance of 12 out of a possible 100 upon the eye, fore pastern, hock and wind, while actual demonstrated fact shows they should be given an importance of 57 out of a possible 100. This is cer- tainly a wide difference, but just so long as standards are based upon theory, just so long will we find judges differing, and horses winning high honors valued be- low those winning no place in the same class. Too much attention has been given to theories in the judg- ing of horses for the good of the horse breeding in- dustry. It has never occurred to judges of horses that judging might be reduced to a science, based upon actual fact. 289. Judging Cattle. The judging of fat cattle has been reduced to an almost exact science. The animal to be judged is divided (mentally) into the several commercial cuts, so that when the judging is complete, one has a fairly accurate idea of which animal in the class judged would sell for the most money in tlie oorn market. There is no known reason why the same rule cannot be applied to the judging of draft horses. To do this one has only to keep in mind a fact well known 274 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING to all, that a draft horse is but an animated machine to he nsed for a specific purpose. 290. A New Scale of Points- 1 believe the follow- ing' scale of points will be found more nearly correct, as regards the relative importance of each part of the draft horse, than any ever formulated : Form and Quality: The legs viewed from in front and behind should be well set under the horse; viewed from the side they should be perpendicular to the body 4 Weight, over 1800 lbs., according to age 5 Quality, as indicated by smooth and hard bone, skin and hair fine, with an abundance of energy 5 Head and Neck: Intelligence, as indicated by width and fulness between the eyes, and good length from eyes to ears 4 Eyes, large, full, bright and of a hazel color 10 Ears, medium size and carried erect 1 Neck, good length, muscled, with well defined crest, wind pipe large, throat latch clean 1 Forequarters : • Shoulder sloping, well muscled 3 Arm and forearm well muscled 1 Knees wide, straight, well supported below 1 Fetlocks wide and strong 2 Pasterns, sloping 45 degrees, good length, elastic 10 Feet, large, even size, dense horn 5 Body : Long, with short back and long underline, well covered with muscle. Width good 2 Chest wide, extending well down between forelegs; large girth, 86 inches or more in mature horse 2 Underline, flank low and well filled 2 Hindquarters: Croup wide, straight, tail attached high, well carried; thighs and gaskins very muscular 1 THE SCIENCE OF JUDGING PRAFT HORSES 275 Hocks, clean, wide, straight and strong 16 Fetlocks, wide and straight 2 Pasterns, medium length, sloping 2 Feet, large, even size, dense horn 3 Walk, straight, regular, long stride, balanced and elastic. . 8 Wind: (Actual test) good, clear, breathing deep and strong. ... 10 100 An unsound horse, or one with defective wind should be given no place in any show ring. CHAPTER XX. FEEDING THE HORSE. In several preceding chapters the subject of feeds or feeding had to be taken up, but only because of its in- fluence upon the subject then under discussion. This chapter is not intended to be more than an aid to the breeder in the feeding of his horses. 291. The Extraction of Nutriment. The amount of nutriment to be secured by the horse from any kind or quantity of feed, depends upon its mastication, the action of the salivary glands and the gastric fluids. The food is first reduced by the molar teeth, assisted by lips, tongue and cheeks, in passing it to the place of grinding and holding it in position. In the horse the lower jaw is about an inch narrower than the up- per, so that grinding is possible on but one side at a time. As mastication proceeds the feed is mixed with saliva poured upon it from glands opening into the mouth. 292. The Amount of Saliva Secreted. Experiments made by Colin made it possible for him to state that it required nearly twenty minutes for a horse to masti- cate one pound of dry fodder consumed. Oats recpiired a little more than their own weight, green fodder about FEEDING THE HORSE 277 half. It can be seen that the more thorough the masti- cation, the more perfect the digestion following. In other words the more time consumed in the mastication of his food, the better will the digestion of the horse be carried through. In this connection for feeding grain, an automatic feeder has many advantages over feeding in an open trough. Digestion is further aided by the gastric fluids poured upon the food after it enters the stomach. 293. Size of Stomach. The stomach of the horse is so snuill that it cannot contain much feed at one time, because of which the food is constantly being pushed on and out of the stomach before it has been long acted on by the gastric juice. The large intestine of the horse has a capacity of about six times the stomach, permit- ting the retention of a large quantity of food. The capacity of the stomach of a mature horse is but eigh- teen to twenty quarts. The entire alimentary canal is but a system of glands, secreting fluids to aid the pro- cess of digestion. 294. The Elements of Food. Foods may be divided into three elements or classes of nutrition ; protein, consisting of the nitrogenous substances of the food ; fats, which are absorbed unchanged in the form of an emulsion ; and carbohydrates, which are converted into some form of sugar, which enters the blood by absorp- tion from the intestinal canal. 295. A Proper Balance of Nutrition. We have now reached that part of our subject, where trouble is eas- ily in evidence. Food products can be so compounded that a proper balance between the three elements of 278 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING i'ood nutrition may be maintained, and yet not be the correct ration for the animal we are feeding-. 296. Acids and Bases. The Ohio experiment sta- tion has recently concluded experiments; and an- nounced the same in their bulletin number 207, dealing with balanced rations for animals from a new stand- point. The one thing of most value to feeders and breeders resulting from this experiment, is that not only should there be a balance between the protein and other food elements, but that the balance between the inorganic acid and base forming elements in the food should also be maintained ; that the acid formers should not predominate over the bases in the feed. This bul- letin is far in advance of anything ever published upon the subject, a part of which follows . 297. Inorganic Matter. There are in all food stuffs minerals taken from the soil by the plant. These min- erals form the ash left when the portions of plant ma- terial are burned, and because they are not destroyed l)y fire they are called inorganic. Some of these ele- ments which remain behind in the ash when foodstuffs are burned unite with oxygen and water to form acids ; others unite with oxygen and water to form what is known as bases, of which slacked lime is a good exam- ])le. Now the process to which foods are subjected in the body is really a burning process; at all events the end products are similar to those resulting from ordi- nary burning. Thus when foods are taken into the body these inorganic elements form acids and bases as final products. 298. The Balance Between Acids and Bases. Bases and acids have peculiar properties. However, when an FEEDING THE HORSE 279 acid and a base are brought together they neutralize each other and the resultant product is something en- tirely different from either of the original compounds, having lost all its active and irritating properties. In the animal body, as we have said, the inorganic, or ash elements, of the food form acids and bases. If the base formed is in excess of the acid, the acid is neutralized and the functions of the body continue normal, sinc^ Ihe normal condition of the blood and body tissues seem to be slightly basic. If, however, the acid formed in the body as a result of the breaking down of the food materials is in excess of the bases, then an abnormal condition results, and if long continued, the animal will be affected with a disease known as acidosis or acid in- toxication. This may become so serious as to cause the death of the animal. 299. Sulphur and Phosphorus Found Mostly in Pro- tein Foods. In the common foodstuffs on the farm the mineral substances which produce acids in the body are snlphur, phosphorus and chlorine; those which produce bases are potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium. These are found in various combinations in plants and feeds, but the greater part of the acid-forming sul)- stance in the animal body comes from sulplnir and phosphorus. The sulphur of feeds is contained abnost entirely in the protein or muscle-forming part; phos- phorus is contained in a numl)er of forms in feed, but most largely in the protein, also. Thus it will be seen tluit any feed rich in protein will cause the formation of a large amount of inorganic acid in the animal body. This requires that high protein foods have sufficient base-forming material accompanying them to insure 280 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING that the acid formed in the animal body will all be neu- tralized. 302. The Cause of Small Bones. It will be seen from this that the ])alance between the acid-forming elements and the base-ft)rming elements in the ration for animals is of great importance. This balance is in- dicated by analysis in the ash of the feeds, which shows the relative proportion of the two classes of ele- ments. Unless sui^cient base-forming material is pres- ent in foods, the bones themselves will be robbed to supply bases to neutralize the excess of acid. A condi- tion of this kind is the cause of rickets or porous bone in old animals; and of a lack of bone development in young animals where the ash content of the food may be high, but where the acid-forming and base-forming elements are not balanced. 301. Com Has an Acid Ash- In straight corn-feed- ing we see the resultant of a complication of deficien- cies; corn lacks protein as well as minerals. In the ash, both acids and bases are deficient but the bases considerably more so than the acids, so that as an only food, corn is characterized by an excess of acid mineral elements, and this excess, together with the deficiency in the total amount of mineral matter present, limits the growth of the skeleton ; but if the protein in the ration of the corn-fed animal is increased by the use of sup- plements to such an extent as will support a maximum production of protein increase, then both phosphorus and the mineral bases must be increased. 302. The Quantity of Ash Required. The basic min- eral elements in a ration must be present in quantities corresponding to the protein, since the sulphur and FEEDING THE HORSE 281 phosphorus of the food proteins constitute the chief sources of mineral bases in the food hut also that this excess he maintained at a high level; that is, that aside from the balance between acid and l)ase, the total quan- tity of ash should be considerable. 303. Alfalfa and Clover are very rich not only in protein but also in the mineral bases, so that they make a fine supplementary food for corn. That alfalfa gives such excellent results when fed with corn to horses can be accounted for in no small degree by the fact that it is so rich in mineral leases. 304. Corn Makes a Poor Showing When Fed to Breeding Animals. This necessity of maintaining the balance between the inorganic acid and base-forming elements, explains why it is impossible to make an ideal ration for horses used for breeding purposes, when any part of that ration is corn. It will be remem- bered that in a former chapter I mentioned instances of both stallions and mares being kept on an exclusive grain ration of corn for two or three years without apparent injury, and then have them go wrong, becom- ing sterile or nearly so, seemingly at once. In all the data collected ujion the subject of sterility, in no case did a ration of which corn was a part make a good showing. 305. The Minimum Amount of Nutriment. Food supplies materials for making good the waste of body tissues. If the supply is liberal and exceeds the de- mands of the body, the horse will gain in flesh and weight. If the sup]ily is only e(jual to the material broken down, the weight of the horse will remain un- changed. If the supply is below the actual demands 282 STUDIES IN HORSE BKEEDING of the body, the horse will lose weight. There is a minimum amount of nutriment absolutely necessary for the maintenance of life. 306. Protein Consumption. The protein of the food is the only source of nitrogenous substances in the body. The formation of flesh, therefore, is primarily dependent upon the supply of protein in the food. Any excess of protein in the food of a horse is disposed of through the excretion of urine. The decomposition of nutritive material of the blood and body tissues goes on as long as the horse lives, and this is known as pro- tein consumption. Neither fat nor carbohydrates. Avhen fed alone, have any influence upon protein con- sumption. The body Avould decompose the same amount of protein, in the case of exclusive feeding of fat or carbohydrates, as if no food whatever was g:iven. When a balanced ration is fed, consisting of protein this con- sumption depends wholly upon the supply of protein in the food. 307. Salt. The feeding of salt daily in moderate quantities to horses, increases the secretion of the body fluids and their circulation, and increases the energy of the vital processes. It also has a stimulating influence on the appetite of the horse, and should always be a small part of the ration for all breeding horses. 308. Nervous Energy is Increased by Protein. One very noticeable thing in the making of a ration for a horse, is the increase of nervous energy noted as the ration is narrowed; that is as the protein is increased at the expense of the carbohydrates. This teaches us that the ration may be widened for horses not at work. The ratio of the legumes usually fed the horse, such as KKKDIXCi THE HORSK 2S3 the clovers and alfalfa, will averag-e about 1 :3V:l;, while for other fodders, or coarse foods it will run from 1 :7 up to 1 :12. Horses fed upon the former always display the more energy. The same is true of concentrates or grains. The ratio of oats always gives the greater en- ergy. By ratio is meant in this chapter, the ratio of protein to carbohydrates. 309. Digestibility of Foods. The digestibility of foods differ, but the average digestibility of the pro- tein and carbohydrates found in the foods usually given the horse is about 80 per cent. If one was to follow a system of balanced ration feeding, for every 1,000 pounds of weight should be given 20 pounds of food (dry matter), in which could be found two pounds of protein and 11 pounds of carbohydrates. Seldom can be found two horses in the same barn requiring the same amount of food. It is because of this that more skill is required in the feeding of horses than any other animals. 310. In Conclusion, as already stated in previous chapters, I would feed no corn to horses which were to be used for breeding. Corn stover, free from dirt and dust is good. Also any hay well cured, and free from mould or dust. The clovers and alfalfa fed in modera- tion have no equal. Oat. barley and wheat straw are safe to use, and can be used with the clovers and al- falfa to advantage. Grasses or grains likely to contain ergot should be avoided. Millet should never be fed a horse of any kind. Sorghum hay or fodder is hazard- ous at best. Kaffir fodder has proved a very fair food for the horse in several localities, but I have never used it. The best single urain ever fed a horse is oats. 284 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING Crushed barley is the next best, but should be crushed, and not ground. Wheat bran is good when mixed with other feed, but Avill not be needed if clover or alfalfa is used. Shorts and middlings form a pasty nuiss in the stomach of a horse and should not be used. Kaffir corn ground has proved a very fair food for a horse, but is improved with a mixture of oats. Cotton seed meal should never be used, and linseed meal only in small quantities. After all is said, the secret of successful feeding lies in so feeding the horse that he may be found at his best at all times, and what may be best for one, may not prove best for another. CHAPTER XXI. DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 311. Diagnosis. Only those diseases likely to be of interest to the breeder will be discussed in this chap- ter. If one has a thousand dollars or more invested in a stallion, he can illy afford to let him die, if there is any way known of saving- his life. It is because of this large investment in a single individual that makes the usual home treatment unprofitable in a very large per cent of cases. It is in diagnosing a case one finds the greatest difficulty. Even in colic and other diseases of the digestive organs, one often meets with great diffi- culty in learning the real trouble. Because of this, if it is possible to obtain the services of a veterinarian, it will prove a good investment to do so. Sometimes a veterinarian can not be had, and under such circum- stances one should do the best he can. In diagnosing the ailments of a horse one need expect but little of breeders, when it is remembered that this is the one great and most uncertain task of veterinarians. 312. Colic in the horse occurs in various forms. En- gorgement colic, obstruction colic, flatulent, or wind colic, spasmodic, or cramp colic, and worm colic are the most common forms. If a horse evinces abdominal pain 286 STITDIES IN HORSK BREEDING he is likely to be put down as suffering with colic, even when the difficulty may be an internal hernia, overload- ing the stomach, or even a bladder or liver trouble. In- guinal hernia is likewise often mistaken for colic, hence one can see the absurdity of advising treatment at long range. If the horse is a valuable animal, no time should be lost in placing him in the care of a veterin- arian. The more valuable the horse the greater the need of this. 313. Engorgement Colic is induced by overloading the stomach with food. The horse may either be over- fed, or else the stomach as a result of some cause may have failed to digest the food and passed it backward into the intestines. Greedy eaters are most predisposed to this disease. The one symptom likely to result in a correct diagnosis of this disease is attempts at vomit- ing. These movements are shown by labored breath- ing, upturned upper lip, contraction of the flank, active motion at the throat, drawing in of the nose toward the breast, causing high arching of the neck. Following retching, gas may escape from the mouth, and this may be followed by a sour froth and some stomach contents. The horse cannot vomit except when the stomach is violently stretched. If the accumulation of food or gas is great enough to stretch the stomach so that vom- iting is possible, it may be great enough to rupture this organ. But after the stomach ruptures, vomiting is impossible. This condition of the stomach is generally made known to us, as soon as food is thrown out through the nostrils. The death rate from this form of colic is higher than in the case of any other. 314. Obstruction Colic usually is known as impac- DISEASES OP" THE HORSE 287 lion of the large intestines. It may be, however, the ol)struction of the diiiestive tract by accnnnibitions of i)artly dioested food, by foreijin bodies, by displace- ments, by paralysis, or by abnormal growths. It is generally indnced by overfeeding, or the feeding of old dry hay, or stalks, superindnced by a deficiency of the secretions of the intestinal tracts. The last named condition may be brought about by lack of water, or the nse of too much strong medicine. The only treat- ment in this form of colic that can l)e effective is to pro- duce movement of the bowels, so as to prevent inflam- mation of the same from arising. 315, Flatulent, or Wind Colic, may be induced by anything that may produce indigestion. The chief symptoms of flatulent colic is the distention of the bow- els with gas. The symptoms of this disease are not so suddenly developed nor so severe as those of cramp colic. At first the horse is noticed to be dull, paws some, and the abdomen enlarges. The pains from the start are continuous. If not soon relieved the symp- toms are aggravated, and in addition there are noticed difficult breathing, mucous membrane highly colored, profuse perspiration and trendiling of the front legs. This form of colic is much more fatal than spasmodic colic. The treatment differs very materially from that of spasmodic colic. An injection, per rectum of two ounces turpentine in eight ounces of linseed oil may safely be given every thirty minutes to stimulate mo- tion of the bowels and favor the escape of wind. The removal of the gas from the bowels is the essential thing. Under the direction of a veterinarian the bow- els may be punctured with a small trocar or needle of 288 STITDIES IN HORSE BREEDING a liypodermic syringe. This has often saved the life of a horse, and can be done with no danger if made with a clean instrnment. 316. Spasmodic, or Cramp Colic, is the result of con- traction, or spasm of a portion of the small intestines. Spasmodic colic is more frequently met with in high bred, than in large draft horses. Like external cramps, spasmodic colic is caused by the unequal dis- tribution of the nervous supply. Drinking cold water while warm, or the sudden lowering of the temperature of the body are the most frequent causes. There should be little trouble in diagnosing this form of colic from any other form, yet there frequently is. One should keep in mind that in spasmodic colic the attack is sud- den ; the pain violent, Avith intervals of ease, the tem- perature and pulse normal during the intervals of ease, and that frequent attempts to urinate are always made. The treatment should be something in the way of an antispasmodic, since the pain is due to spasm or cramp. Given as a drench every half hour until relief is no- ticed, the following is the best formula I have ever tried : Laudanum one ounce. Sulphuric ether one-half ounce. Turpentine two ounces, raw linseed oil four ounces. Shake well before using. I give this only be- cause in cases of this form of colic there is great need of quick relief, and unless help is given the animal early in the disease, there is likely to be serious trouble. 317. Worm Colic is a symptom rather than a disease. In many cases of extreme worm infestation, there are colicky pains at times, such as switching of the tail, frequent passages of manure, and at times some slight straining. About every other man one meets has a DISEASES OF THE HORSE 289 ' ' sure cure ' ' for intestinal worms in horses, but if plen- ty of well cured alfalfa hay be given either horses or colts, no "cures" will be needed. 318. Inguinal Hernia is frequently mistaken for colic. Within a few minutes after an accident of this kind occurs, the horse will become restless. He will jerk up the hind legs, kick at the belh% and point with his nose to the side. The symptoms will increase in se- verity until the horse begins to sweat and roll as in some forms of colic. Inguinal hernia is but an incom- plete scrotal hernia, and may exist and cause no signs of distress, or it may become strangulated and cause the death of the animal. Inguinal hernia is seen mostly in stallions, occasionally in geldings but rarely in mares. Until about the ninth month of fetal life, the testi- cles of the male occupy a position in the abdominal cavity, similar to that occupied by the ovaries of the fe- male. At about the ninth month the testicles begin to descend, and finally become lodged in the sac called the scrotum. In making this change a canal is formed called the inguinal canal, which connects the scrotum below and the intestinal cavity above. This canal is permanently occupied by cords, arteries and canals of the genital organs. It will be seen then that there exists in the stallion and gelding an opening through which it is possible for the small intestines to pass into the scrotum. The passing of such intestines into or through this canal is inguinal hernia. If the intestines are crowded with sufficient force into this canal so that the circulation through the bowel is impeded, it is strangulated. Stran- 290 STUDIES IX HORSE KREKDIXG iiulated iuyiiinal occurs much more frequently in the stallion than in the geldino-. It is very serious and of- tentimes a fatal accident. It is easy for anyone with a slight knowledge of the anatomy of the parts, to understand that the position a stallion assumes during coition favors inguinal her- nia. It will be observed that the testicle on the side of the hernia is kept, tightly drawn upward in the inquinal region, and if the loop of the bowel has descended through the in((uinal canal, it can be made out as quite an enlargement al)ove the testicle. An examination made through the rectum is the only way to confirm the diagnosis, when any entrance of a gut into the canal can be felt from within. The treatment lies in its prompt reduction. If recog- nized early, this can be accomplished by careful trac- tion upon the hernial mass. Every care must be exer- cised lest laceration occur, and the longer the time of the hernia, the greater the care to be exercised. This is one of those conditions where the amateur is likely to do no harm, even though he does no good, and no effort should be spared in reducing the hernia in the shortest time possible. If the owner of a stallion does not suc- ceed in a very short time, or if in the beginning of such an accident he feels himself unable for the task, a vet- erinarian should be secured as early as possible. In such cases one should remember that the hernia must be reduced or the stallion will die. 319. Orchitis is another disease with which stallions may become afflicted. When not by blows or bruises, orchitis is likely to be the result of congestion, pro- duced by excessive copulation, exciting the sexual de- DISEASES OF THE HORSE 291 sire without o-ratiti cation, or heavy grain feeding with little exercise- By removing the cause, reducing the grain ration, increasing the exercise, the giving of some laxative such as two ounces of Glauber's salts daily in the food, and the bathing of the affected organs daily with hot water will usually restore the testicles to a healthy condition. 320. Hemorrhage of the Penis is generally induced by blows, or the force used in entering small, constrict- ed mares, coupled with too frequent service. The treatment may be rest from service for a few days, and the application of alum water to the end of the penis. 321. Maladie Du Colt is a germ disease, and is prop- agated by the act of copulation. It is not unlike syph- ilis in the human subject, and is highly contagious, af- fecting both stallions and mares. It has depopulated a few herds in the western states, and as there is no sat- isfactory treatment of the malady, it should be stamped out by castration or death. 322. Anthrax is a germ disease, and until within very recent years the horse had always been considered im- mune. In the valleys of the upper ]Missouri river and some of its tributaries, it has made the horse breeding industry unprofitable. The disease is never present in the high lands of the west so far as the horse is con- cerned. The virus of diseased animals is disseminated in the excrement, which is often mixed with blood, and therefore with the microbes. The anthrax bacillus is shown in figure 84. They are straight cylindrical rods, usually associated in twos and threes, but sometimes in chains. The formation of spores does not usually take place until after the death of the animal. They multi- 292 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING ply most rapidly under mean temperatures, yet when dry the spores will resist boiling water for some time. The bacilli are taken into the system with the herbage. The disease shows itself* by a fever, with more or less stupor of the patient. The blood is much changed, sometimes visible hemorrhages occur. The intestinal lesions in the horse often give rise to more or less vio- lent symptoms of colic. This complication, considered Figure 84. The bacillus of authrax. (1000 diameters.) too exclusively, frequently interferes with the correct diagnosis of the essential disease. After death the blood is found to be de-oxygenated, viscid, the corpus- cles altered, and the plasma colored red. The spleen is much enlarged. The intestines are sometimes the seat of intense congestive hemorrhagic lesions, and in some cases the lymphatic glands of the different re- DISEASES OF THE HORSE 293 o'ions are in the same condition, and also enlarged to twice or three times their normal size. Similar lesions may also be fonnd in the kidneys. This is an nnfortnnate disease for the breeder, and it should be reported to the state veterinarian as soon as its presence is known. 323. Tetanus (Lockjaw) is a germ disease, the ])acilli lieinu' shown in figure So. Breeders are likelv Figure 85. The bacillus of tetanus (lockjaw). to be troubled with tetanus to (juite an extent, the infec- tion following pricks of nails or abrasions of the skin. The bacillus does not multiply in air containing oxy- gen, besause of whicli only deep punctures are likely to become infected. It is very resistant to heat, support- ing the temperature of l)oiliug water for some time. It 294 STUDIES IN HORSE BKEEDING is but little sensitive to the action of antiseptics. To be infectious the bacilli require the co-operation of other microbes. The disease is characterized by spasms affecting the muscles of the face, neck, body and legs, and of all the muscles supplied by the cerebro-spinal nerves. The spasms or muscular contractions are rigid and persist- ent. The first symptoms which attract the attention of the owner, is difficulty in chewing or swallowing, of moving, and the protrusion over the inner part of the eye of the membrane commonly called the haw. The jaws are set or locked, wholly or in part, giving use to the name of lockjaw. If the attack is acute, the ani- mal will die within a very few days. If of a milder form he may be saved. Tetanus antitoxin injected be- neath the skin with a hypodermic syringe, will afford a very high degree of protection. The patient should be kept in a quiet place, away from all other animals and noises. The bowels should be kept active by the use of cathartics. Mares infected with tetanus poison, seldom breed after, even though a complete recovery is apparent. 324. Influenza is another disease of the horse, and a very common one, that is of interest to the breeder. It is of especial interest to the lireeder because of its effect upon both stallions and In^ood mares. The latter if pregnant are very apt to abort. Young stallions are frequently made sterile by a severe attack of intiuenza. It occurs in several forms, such as equine typhoid fever, pink eye and others. When the visible mucous mem- branes are the principle seat of the disease it is termed pink eye. DISEASES OF THE HORSE 295 It is a contagious and infections fever, caused by a microbe shown in figure 86. Young horses and colts are more susceptible than mature horses, and one at- tack is generally self-protective. Very few horses con- tract the disease after their fifth year, and those kept in poorly ventilated stables experience a more severe at- tack than those accessible at all times to pure air. The disease is known bv its alterations of the blood, great Figure 86. The bacillus of influenza. (1000 diameters.) depression of the vital forces, stupor and frequent com- plications of the lungs, intestines and brain. Occasion- ally an apparent recovery is followed by n severe re- lapse, sometimes proving fatal. Good nursing is the best treatment. The animal should have access to an abundance of pure air and sunshine but the wind should never be permitted to 296 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING blow directly upon the patient. The patient may be allowed any nourishing' food relished. The bowels should be made to perform their functions promptly and regularly. If inclined to be constipated, small doses of Glauber's salts may be given. If the weather is very cold the patient may be kept warm by blanket- ing. In most cases no serious trouble will be exper- ienced if the horse be handled so as not to take a cold. One of the most serious conditions resulting from in- fluenza, of interest to the breeder, is that of its effect upon the mucous membrane of the uterus. Quite fre- quently young mares from three to six years of age after suffering with an attack of this disease will be found discharging pus or a glutinous substance from the vulva. This has been very frequently mistaken for the discharge common in cases of leucorrhea, but in- stead is the discharge from an abscess in the uterus. The mucous membranes throughout the animal are sub- ject to abscess formations during an attack of influenza, and locally no part is so likely to suffer as the uterus. No treatment will give better results for this particu- lar condition of the disease, than irrigating the uterus with hot water at a temperature of 105 degrees. This should be done several times every day until relief is given. 325. Strangles is also an infectious disease of the horse, colts being more predisposed than mature horses. It is caused by infection by contact with an infected animal or the discharges of an infected animal. The germ or bacillus is shown in figure 87. It appears as a fever, lasting for some time, with formation of ab- scesses in various parts of the body, both near the sur- DISEASES OF THE HORSE 297 face and in the internal organs. It usuall^' leaves the animal after convalescence in the best of condition. About the only treatment necessary is to keep the ani- mal in dry quarters and feed a reasonable (luantity of good wholesome food. The swelling under the .iaw should be watelied and all blisters and irritating liniments should be kept awav. These swellinas nuiv he liathed with hot water. Figure 87. The bacillus of stangles. (1000 diameters.) and poultices may be applied. For such purposes no better poultices can be used than flax seed, with a little charcoal and creolin added. As soon as there is any evidence of the fonuation of pus, the abscess should be opened. 326. Pneumonia is another disease of interest to breeders, and it is only in the case of very young foals 298 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING that I shall make mention of it. A large number of foals coming early each spring, appear all right when foaled, but within two or three days are dead. These mostly die of pneumonia, usually contracted during the first hour of their life. In the early spring while the weather is chilly and the air damp, unless a blanket is thrown over a foal until it is dry, it is in serious danger of contracting a cold, which more likely than not will terminate in pneumonia. Lying upon cold or damp ground is also dangerous. The first thing to attract attention in cases such as this, wull be a dullness and weakness of the foal. If at this stage of the disease the membranes of the eye appear red, there is no help for its life, for it is sure to go. If the ear is placed at the side of the foal just be- hind the elbow, a rasping or rattling sound will be heard. After death, the autopsy will disclose a thick, dark blood, and the blackened lungs. All that can be done with such cases is to try to prevent them. One thing that can be done is to have the foals come later. It has been shown that the loss of foals is confined largely to early ones. If one must have them come early, every means should be employed in an effort to keep them warm, and where no wind can strike them until they are well dried. Only think what it would mean if a man was to take a hot bath at a temperature of 100 degrees, and immediately step into a room with- out clothing where the temperature was as low as 50 degrees. That is what the young foal does in many in- stances, and results in the loss of many. 327. The Navel Infection of Foals is another disease resulting in much loss to breeders. This also, is a DISEASKS OF THE HORSE 299 trouble of early foals. It is a true oerm disease, the bacillus being shown in figure 88. This bacillus can not be propagated without oxygen, hence is always found near the surface of the ground. Nor will it mul- tiply at a high temperature, which accounts for its presence in the early spring. Wet situations are fav- orable to their development. Prevention is the best Figure 88. The bacillus of navel infection, ameters.) (1200 di- treatment, and consists of absolute cleanliness. Not only a clean stall should be given it in which to be born, but clean hands in handling it while wet, and the use of some good disinfectant two or three times daily upon the navel until it has dried and fallen off. Creo- lin, or any of the other coal-tar preparations are as 300 STUDIKS IN HORSE HRKEUIXG good as any. and these can generally be found in every barn, and a five per cent solution can be used for this purpose. Should the foal become infected, place him in the hands of a veterinarian as early as possible. There is but one satisfactory treatment, and it consists of a serum treatment, which should be used by a veterinar- '^^*^— - ^^' -^ < V pp. Figure 89. Microbes frequently found in barren mares. (1200 diameters.) ian only. The symptoms are lameness from swollen joints, and the lameness will pass from one extremity to another in quite rapid succession. Foals dropped upon grass which is daily exposed to the sun are al- ways immune. 328. Leucorrhea is a disease very discouraging to a breeder. There are but two primary causes, a want of DISEASES OF THE HORSE 301 proper nourishment, and congestion of the genital tract. The latter is often fonnd in a catarrhal condi- tion of the mare, a condition where some imflammation of all mucous membranes is present. There is more or less discharge, and of a nature all the way from a thin whitish and slimy to a thick yellowish substance. The hair on the under side of the tail is somewhat glued to- \0 » K Figure 90. The bacillus of contagious abortion in mares. (1000 diameters.) gether. Mares in this condition should never be bred, as the disease is likely to be infectious, and nothing should be done to spread the infection. See figures 89 and 90. Only two or three per cent of such mares will breed, and only when the semen is introduced directly into the uterus. There are thousands of mares in the country that do 302 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING not show the usual discharge by which leucorrhea is diagnosed, and yet do show a catarrhal condition, and they will not breed. These mares develop leucorrhea later if not given treatment before they reach that stage. In the treatment of this disease I wish to call the attention of veterinarians to the fact, that while the disease itself may yield as quickly to the perman- ganate of potash treatment as any other, yet the fact remains that mares do not breed, as a rule, after that treatment. I have been confronted with the problem of barren mares, where the condition of barrenness was the result of leucorrhea in some of its many forms for more than thirty years. It was not because of any de- sire to do it, but success in breeding made the solution of this problem an actual necessity. Mares with this disease, but of breeding age, are now giving me very little trouble. It takes much labor and some money to put such mares in condition but practically every one of breeding age can be made a breeder. In many cases of leucorrhea the uterus will be found in a normal condition, while in others the uterus will be found the source of all the trouble. It is well to use the thermometer in the diagnosis of all suspected cases. If the uterus is normal it will show a temperature the same as that of the body. If the uterus is the source of the trouble a high temperature will disclose the fact. When the mucous membrane of the vagina, only, is inflamed, the local treatment need extend no further, but if the uterus is the source of the inflamma- tion, then the local treatment will have to extend to this organ. It will be noticed that most mares in this condition, DISEASES OF THE HORSE 303 and I will include all mares of a catarrhal nature, are more or less debilitated. I look well to this tlrst, and usually give a tonic twice daily in the feed, of ten grains of sulphate quinine, ten grains sulphate of iron. For local treatment I have found nothing better than irrigating vagina, or uterus when necessary, with a gallon of hot water at a temperature of 105 degrees into which has been added a half teaspoonful of sul- phate of zinc. As soon as the tonic has put the mare in good condition, and this may be two weeks or it may be two months, instead of the tonic give twice daily in water, from one to two drams of tluid extract of Mit- chella Repens. I have been using this specific for bar- ren mares, and those troubled with catarrh and leu- corrhea for 11 years with uniformly good results. The sulphate of zinc is one of the best stimulants for mu- cous membranes we have. It is used by occulists in almost every preparation known for granulation or iu- tiammation of the eye. ]\Iares breed readily after this, if there is no trouble but those indicated. The fluid ex- tract of INIitchella Repens I have never known to be used in treating mares until used by myself. With good hygiene, good nursing, and treatment as directed, . I have made producers of many mares given up as barren by others. The Mitchella Repens (squaw vine) will stimulate the action of the ovaries as will nothing else. 329. Abortion in mares is the last disease to be men- tioned in this chapter. This disease, so costly to breed- ers, can be divided into those that are contagious or infectious and those that are accidental. Abortion is the expulsion of the impregnated ovum at any period from the date of fertilization until the foal can survive 304 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING out of the litems. Accidental abortion may be brou^'ht about by reason of anytliinii' that very profoundly dis- turbs the system. Violent inflammations of any impor- tant internal organ, acute indigestion, diarrhoea, the presence of stone in the bladder, uterus or kidneys, may so disorder the uterus as to induce abortion. Ser- vice by the stallion, blows on the abdomen, rapid driv- ing or riding, over pulling on heavy loads, backing loads, rough handling or the use of the whip, shipping, .lumping, slipping, falls, working in deep mud or snow are all well known causes of abortion. It will be no- ticed, however, that most abortions occur just after cold rains and sudden changes of weather from warm to cold. About eighty per cent of all abortions occur at such times. Irritant medicines, the ergot of rye or other grasses, the smut of corn and other grain, and various fungi in musty hay are other causes. Frosted food, indigestible food, green food in a frozen state, and filthy, stagnant water are all dangerous to use for pregnant mares. In addition to all these one must not lose sight of the diseased condition of the fetus, or its membranes, entailed by a sire of low vitality, whether caused by too frequent service, or a want of proper exercise. The symptoms vary according as abortion is early or late in pregnancy. During the first two months, and by the way the largest numl)er of abortions occur at this time, the mare may abort without observable symp- toms, and the fact is made known only by her again coming in heat. If closely observed a small clot of blood may be found, in which the embryo will be re- vealed. If the occurrence is later in gestation, there is DISEASES OF THE HORSE 305 likely to be some general disturbance, when the siii;ill body of the fetus will be expelled, enveloped in its membranes. Abortions during the last stages of preg- nancy are attended with greater constitutional disturb- ance ; the process closely resembling normal parturition. There is the swelling of the vulva, with mucous or even bloody discharges, the abdomen droops, the flanks fall in, the udder fills, and the first pains of parturition begin. Abortion may be followed by the same acci- dents as normal parturition, such as malpresentations, flooding and retention of the placenta. Treatment should be preventive as much as possible, to the extent of avoiding all causes of constipation, diarrhea, indigestion, unnecessary medicines, painful operations, and abuses of all kinds. When abortion is threatened, the mare should be placed by herself and given one-half ounce of fluid extract of black haw, three times daily. The best veterinarians now regard this as the most active preventive of abortion known. Carbolic acid may be given in small quantities with good results. About 20 drops given with the fluid ex- tract of black haw twice daily would probably be better than either of them without the other. If the mare strains, leading her around for a time will sometimes stop it, but if it does not, this should be checked by some sedative. One ounce of laudanum in two ounces of water may be given every three hours until straining has ceased. If all measures fail and al)orti()u proceeds, all that can be done is to see that both fetus and membranes are removed. After abortion, good care should be given the mare in the way of exercise, pure air and 306 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING wholesome food. No mare should be bred sooner than three months after an abortion, and some mares never conceive after one abortion. If a mare is bred and con- ceives, she should be treated for abortion before the next abortion is imminent. This can be done best by jiiving the black haw and carbolic acid as suggested, about one month earlier in the gestation than at which she aborted the preceding year. 330. Contagious Abortion is not likely to be present in mares as in other douu^stic animals. It is only in low, undrained localities that I have found trouble of this nature among mares. It never occurs in high alti- tudes, and very rarely in high land localities of lower levels. No disease'is more difficult of diagnosis, since we find mares in the same herd manifesting many symp- toms. In most cases the mare appears sluggish, list- less, even stupid. Occasionally the opposite is indi- cated, the mare acting restless and nervous. A tem- perature of one or two degrees above normal is the rule for a day or so before the fetus is expelled. The cause of the disease is a germ or bacillus shown in figure 90. These bacilli were present in all of seventeen cases of abortion in one herd. Not a mare in this herd es- caped. The microbes were found in the excrement of geldings and young mares running in this herd, yet all animals incapable of producing foals were normal in every way. They were found in the excrement and blood of all mares aborting. Every fetus expelled was found to contain them in all parts. Blood serum cultures were injected into pregnant sows and cats with no evil results, but a five year old pregnant mare innoculated with pure cultures aborted DISEASES OF THE HORSE 307 11 days later. I found that the eultures ninltiplied most rapidly at a temperature of 40 to 50 degrees F. This will account for the prevalence of the disease late in the autumn. Since these germs are found only in low lands, it can not well be said they are associated with filthy conditions and surroundings. Mares running in low pastures but having no access to yards of any kind, or to filthy places are as likely to contract the trouble, as those having access to filthy yards and stables. The disease is highly infectious, as is evidenced by every mare in a herd aborting, and" the stallion is quite likely to be the source of infection. No stallion should ever be mated with a mare known to have aborted. Such mares should be bred by the capsule method. Mares will carry the infection from year to year and for many years, l^ecause of this mares aborting from this cause should be thoroughly disinfected before be- ing rebred. Every fetus of this' character should be destroyed by burning, and mares aborting should be removed from all other pregnant mares. CHAPTER XXII. BARNS AND BARN BUILDING. 331. General Plans. It would require a full volume to do justice to this subject. Success in breeding de- pends so much upon the manner in which mares are housed, that a brief mention of the subject is made necessary in this work. Only the general principles of barn building will be discussed, however, and these but briefly. 332. Ventilation. One of the essential things in housing horses which are to be used for breeding pur- poses, is that of ventilation. Too much fresh air can not be provided for them, and this can be supplied best by having high ceilings and admitting the air near the ceiling. This will make it impossible for di- rect draughts to fall upon the horses. Bad or vitiated air can be best disposed of by air-shafts running from the roof to near the floor. If the poisonous gases are thus drawn off, and the ceiling high above the horses, the general health of the animals will be good. Colds are seldom known in barns where fresh air is supplied in abundance. 333. Sunlight. Of equal importance for the health of the horse is plenty of sunlight. It is not only the BARNS AND HARN BIILDING 309 -3 310 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING best and cheapest germicide known, but the eyes of horses kept in barns well lighted are always better -5? 1 ^ -^immnm A o5 d oS '\ A b C 1 ^ c c B->*jjj c c c oS -^ Figure 92. Ground floor plan of barn shown in figure 91. A— box stalls; C — open stalls; — office; L — breeding room; S — sewer. than those housed in dark or poorly lighted places. An abundance of light can be given a barn, and with BAKNS AND BARX BUILDING 311 very little expense by the use of windows wherever a space can be found for one. If small windows are used placed well up to the ceiling", they can also be the source of fresh air, and these are the two es- sentials, if health be desired in a breeding- barn. 334. Drainage. In the building of a barn good drainage should also be secured. If the barn is located in a city having a sewer system already established, it can be easily drained and kept in a sanitary condi- tion by connecting- the drainage with the sewer. If the barn is to be built in the country or in a small town, it should be built on an elevation admitting of good drainage. Unless good drainage is provided one need never expect his horses to remain in a thrifty and healthful condition. 335. Floors. In barn building, never make a floor of wood in any part of the barn to be occupied by horses. A wooden floor can not be kept in a strictly sanitary condition by nny known means. If any floor other than earth is to l)e made, let it be of concrete. No floor ever built under a horse has so many good qualities as concrete or cement. Such a floor can be built that will last foi* 50 years, and at all times is easily kept in a sanitary condition. It is not ex- pensive, either, costing but little more than a good plank floor. For heavy stallions I make the floor eight inches thick, and six inches for the other horses. The l)ottom is made of one })art cement with three parts gravel, finished on top with cement and gravel, equal parts, and two inches thick. It should be left in the rough, no trowel being- used. To get the surface level or to any specified grade, a straight 2x6 board can be 312 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING used. It will be noticed that I use no sand. In foun- dation work sand is seldom used by any one, and I use oravel on top instead, that I may have a rough surface. Even a horse without shoes will never slip on such a tloor. So long- as the general level or grade is secured, it matters not how rough the surface may b(\ The rougher it is the better it will be for horses from every viewpoint. 336. Cement. I am often asked if the cement is not a bad thing for the horse to stand upon. Instead, it is the best thing a horse can have under him. If men would do a little thinking for themselves, most of these questions would answer themselves. All horses grown near the sea coast and at low altitudes have a broad foot, with a thin, weak wall, while horses grown at high altitudes and in di'.\' territory always have feet, high rather than broad, with thick, strong walls. The goat offers a good illustra- tion. In his native habitat we find him living upon the rocks, and his foot is more flinty, of finer and bet- ter texture than any of which we know. The horse is no exception to this rule. I have been keeping both stallions and mares upon cement floors for many years, and with a noticeable improvement of their feet. When I sold Nicolas 21997 (43394), August 16th, 1910, the quality of his feet was the cause of nuich comment. He was in his fifteenth year, and yet his feet w^ere much better than when he came from the old country nearly 12 years prior to this time. He had been kept upon cement floors for many years. Horses standing upon cement or any other kind of floors should be w^ell bedded at all times. BARNS AND BARN BUILDING 313 337. Earth Floors. The second best floor for horses is one rightly made of earth. If a good tight wall is placed under a barn and the inside filled with 15 to 18 inches of the right kind of material, one has a very good floor. Before filling, tile shonld be laid thickly thronghont the ])uilding, sloping downward from the center to the outside if the barn is built upon level ground, and from the higher to the lower side if built upon sloping- ground or a side hill. Upon these one can begin to fill with clay or other soil that can be firmed down, or even with broken stone, brick or very coarse gravel. For the surface nothing will be found better than clay and coal cinders, equal parts of each. Such a floor well poundi^d down liefore using is far better than any plank floor. The plank floor is to be condemned because of absorbing filth and microbes, be- sides making an ideal breeding place for rats and mice. In addition to these objections, is that of the space be- low the floor being filled with poisonous gases. 338. Barn Plans. Figure 91 gives thefront and side elevation of one of my barns, this one being used ex- clusively as a stallion or breeding barn. It has a floor space of 56x64 feet, and two sheds in the rear, not shown in the photo, 20x60 feet each. The ground floor plan is shown in figure 92. where it can be seen that a driveway 10 feet wide runs through the barn. There is an office 12x16 feet; a private room 8x16 feet; three box stalls 14.8x16 feet each; three smaller box stalls; an oats bin; a bran bin; pump and stairway; and a breeding laboratory where all tools and stove for heating water are kept. There is also six open stalls for mares during the breeding season, the sheds in the 314 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING BARNS AND BARN BUILDING 315 rear l)einii' used for the same purpose. Every stall is connected with a sewer system owned by myself. The f^oor above affords room for 60 tons of hay. This barn complete was built for $3,300. Figure 93 is that of a barn on the farm of AVm. J. Knebel, three miles south of Norfolk. This barn was built to be used for horses only, and is 36x48 feet, with much space above for hay and grain. Figure 94 is a ground floor plan of this liarn, which has cement floor throughout. Figure 95 is that of a brood mare barn which has given results highly satisfactory. This barn is 36x80 feet, with eight box stalls upon one side, and nine open single stalls five feet wide ; two double stalls each 10 feet wide ; a tool and harness room 5x12 feet ; and a grain bin 10x12 feet on the other side. There is a driveway of 10 feet through the barn. The box stalls open with sliding doors from the driveway, and there is a window 16x30 inches in each stall near the ceiling, which is ten feet from the floor. The floor is cemented throughout. There is space for 100 tons or more of hay. The cost complete was $1,925. 339. Open Sheds. It is not necessary to build ex- pensive barns to be successful in breeding. An open shed to run under in times of bad weather will give as good results as the most expensive barns. I have been handling mares in this manner for several years, and with very good results. This is also a very good way to winter young colts. Barns are only necessary with mares that have to be in harness at any time. It will not do to work mares during cold weather and turn them out in the cold at night. If they have been 316 STUDIES IX HORSE BREEDING warmed in the least they should have good housing at night. 340. Cost of Barns. It is wholly a matter of one's own finances as to what a barn shall cost. A barn such as shown in figure 95, and which cost $1,925, can be l)nilt for around $800. It is all in the manner of build- B A Figure 94. Ground floor plan of barn shown in figure 93. A good farm barn. A — open stalls; B — box stalls; G — grain. ing and finish, as to w^hat the cost will be. The cheaper one will look cheaper and last a shorter time, but will be cpiite as likely to serve its purpose as the more costly one. Even the open shed which costs so little does quite as well if the foals are dropped after June first. The most noticeable difference will be the saving of hay and grain when using the better barns. BAHNS AND BARN BUILDING 31"; o ■>■ B B B e 3 3 Q 3 Figure 95. Ground floor plan of a barn for brood mares. A — open stalls; B — box stalls; G — grain; H — tools. CHAPTER XXIII. BREEDING FACTS WORTH REMEMBERING. 341. Salt. Breeding animals should have all the salt they will consume. They are prolific, or otherwise, in proportion to the salt contents of the body fluids. 342. Evidence of Virility. A stallion's desire, or readiness to copulate, is no evidence of his virilitv. Some of the most virile stallions are very slow servers. 343. Fat. Excessive fat in breeding animals is a potent factor in the cause of sterility, impotency and degeneracy. 344. Death of Foals. Most of the young foals dy- ing are those coming early, rather than those coming later in the season. 345. Evidence of Pregnancy. The only satisfactory way of knowing whether or not a mare is pregnant is by examination via the rectum. After the third month this can be done with certainty, but with sensitive mares may induce abortion. 346. Frequency of Service. A draft stallion will sire more live foals by making one service per day, than he will by making two or more services daily. Excessive service is a frequent cause of sterility, be- sides producing many weakly foals. BREEDING FACTS WORTH REMEMBERING 319 347. Barrenness. If your mare will not lireed, ask yourself why. Nature made every female a i)roducer of her kind. . 348. Cost of Maintaining Barren Mares. Barren mares are eosting the ])reedei's of the Ignited States more than $200,000,000 annually. This is a tax upon the breeder and the country which should no longer be tolerated. 349. The Brood Mare. Give the brood mare a chance. Her foal will sell for more money than her lal)or. 350- The Capsule Serviee. Where the work is properly done, capsule service will result in 30 per cent more foals than natural service. 351. The Care of Foals. To mature a foal into a good horse, recjuires good feeding as well as good breeding. If five pounds of oats per day will make a good foal, ten pounds will make a better one. 352. The Education of the Foal. An hour spent in the early education of a foal, is worth more than a week spent later in breaking. 353. Pure Air. No tonic ever sold over a drug counter is worth so much to breeding stock as pure air. 354. Pure Water. To do their best, horses require pure water cpiite as much as yourself. 355. Exercise. No foal will mature into a good horse, nor will a stallion sire the best foals possible, without an abundance of exercise. 356. Kindness. jMany vicious horses can be made valuable by the vise of kindness, and many good horses have been spoiled by the want of it. 357. Working Pregnant Mares. There is no reason 320 STUDIES IN HORSE BREEDING why prconant maros oan not he worked and produce good foals, yet taken as a whole they never have heeii. This should serve as a lesson in teaching us to work them carefully, and with good judgment. 358. Grass. There is no food so good for the brood mare and her foal as good grass, and the more sa when fed in connection with good oats. 359. The Value of Good Hocks. Look well to the hocks of the stallion used upon your mares. No part of the horse is of such vital importance. 360. Cleanliness. In all things pertaining to the care of the horse, cleanliness should be regarded as of the greatest necessity for successful breeding. 361. Breeds. Be satisfied with nothing below the best, whatever your favorite breed. A good horse is always a member of a good breed. 362. Feeds. If you are feeding for the fat stock show, or the market, corn will help in making your ration, but if you are feeding for foals, let corn be no part of your ration. 363. The True Draft Horse. If you desire to pro- duce the real draft gelding, so much in demand, you will have to use real draft sires. 364. The Intermediate Type. Labor as much as we may to produce large horses, yet the law of reversion will always give us an abundance of the smaller or intermediate types. 365. Temperature in Breeding. The real producers among mares are those with low temperatures, while mares with temperatures indicating 101 degrees or higher seldom breed. 366. Spermatozoa. The best success in capsule RREEDIXG FACTS WORTH KEJIKJinERIXf! 321 breeding- will be had by keepino- the semen at a tem- perature of 98 to 100 degrees. 367. A Tainted Press. In patronizing the live stock press of the country, the breeder should know positively that he is patronizing a publication repre- senting his industry, rather than a tainted press which stands for a class as against the real producer of horses. 368. Shov^ing Horses. As our shows are now con- ducted, mares can not be used for both the show ring and breeding. It is for you to decide which use to make of them. 369. Advertising. If you are going to advertise your horses, as a means to selling them, jiatronize journals read by actual buyers. Breeding good horses only, is the best advertisement. 3477