Author ^-i^'Oj. >f *4 S .L(L.... Title Imprint. 10 — 47372-2 9WO Hi »- THE SUMMER SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN THE UNITED STATES BY CORNELIUS D. JUDD, PH. D. GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION NUMBER THREE PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS NASHVILLE, TENN. Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Education of George Peabody College for Teachers J THE SUMMER SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN THE UNITED STATES BY CORNELIUS D. JUDD, PH. D. GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION NUMBER THREE PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS NASHVILLE, TENN. Copyright, 1921, by Cornelius D. Judd 01 Gl-ci^ct-tt^ ^- L^ " !•> McQuiDDY Printing Co. Nashville mmsmmm CO -r PREFACE The author gives grateful acknowledgment to Dr. Carter Alexander, who gave valuable suggestions as to the selec- tion and arrangement of material ; to Dr. Shelton J. Phelps, who so generously offered advice and criticism from time to time; to Miss Ola O. Andrews, who so patiently cor- rected the English and composition; to Mrs. C. D. Judd, who kindly assisted in preparing and arranging data ; and to the numerous authorities of colleges, universities, nor- mal schools, and public schools, who responded to question- naires and furnished bulletins and catalogs. CONTENTS Chapter I Introduction 5 Chapter II History of Summer Schools in the United States 8 Chapter III The Curricula of Summer Schools 35 Chapter IV The Faculties of Summer Schools Compared with Those of the Regular Year 66 Chapter V Attendance in Summer Schools 78 Chapter VI Miscellaneous Considerations 81 Chapter VII Some General Advantages and Weaknesses of Summer Schools 84 Bibliography 87 titmmmmmimmmm CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In these modern and progressive days, when "efficiency" and "economy" have become the slogans of American busi- ness and when the spirit of thrift must characterize all successful enterprises, it is but natural that school admin- istration recognize and promote any movement tending to eliminate waste and that will expand and speed up our edu- cational process. Therefore, the summer school has come to claim the attention and serious consideration of educa- tional leaders everywhere; for it presents an administra- tive problem whose proper solution seems to be fraught with tremendous possibilities. Such possibilities are to be realized largely thru a more rapid and a more thoro train- ing of teachers. The purpose of this study is to trace briefly the history of the summer school as an educational movement in the United States ; to compare the work of the summer school with that of the regular year ; to point out the inherent strength and weakness of the average summer school; to estimate in a more or less quantitative way what contri- bution is being made by the summer school toward the training of teachers ; and, finally, to offer such suggestions as seem consistent with present facts and tendencies. The scope of the study is confined to summer schools of the United States. Furthermore, no attempt is made to study all summer schools, but only such a number and of such standard as will best represent their typical work in this country. All data were obtained from the following sources: 1. Catalogs and announcements of courses of study of some of the earliest summer schools in the United States. 2. United States Commissioner of Education, Report of 1917. 3. Summer catalogs and regular catalogs of a representa- tive number of state normal schools and universities in different sections of the United States. 4. A questionnaire was sent to 50 universities and 150 state normal schools. It embodied the following top- ics and questions: 1 ) Teacher Training in Summer Schools ATTENDANCE 1. The number of students who enrolled with you for the full summer session of 1916 (this term preferred be- cause of the war; but if more convenient, give any other recent session) : Men, ; women, 2. Number who enrolled for only part of the session: Men, ; women, 3. Number working for degree or diploma, 4. Number receiving a degree or a diploma for summer work only, 5. Number receiving a degree for summer work and reg- ular work, 6. Number of teachers enrolled: College teachers, ; high-school teachers, ; elementary-school teach- ers, ; principals, ; supervisors, ; superintendents, ; rural-school teachers, How many of those teachers were working for a de- gree? 7. Students not expecting to teach, 8. Average number in classes during the summer, ; during regular year, FACULTY 1. Per cent of regular faculty that teach during the sum- mer, 2. Per cent of faculty that teach all the year round, 3. Number of hours' teaching per week: (a) Regular session, ; (b) summer session, MISCELLANEOUS 1. Do you now have the four-quarter plan? 2. If not, do you favor such plan? 3. Did you go on the four-quarter plan as a result of the war? 4. Or are you likely to do so on account of the war? 5. How many hours of practice teaching do you offer dur- ing the summer? 6. Briefly, what is the nature of such teaching? Compare in a few words laboratory work of the sum- mer and of the regular year: (a) As to quality. Introduction 7 (b) As to amount. 8. In general, compare the merits of your summer-school work with that of the regular year. 9. How much did you spend per student for the session here referred to? 10. Do you have the cycle plan? If so, in what subjects? 11. Briefly compare research work during the summer and during the regular year. The fragmentary way in which catalogs are usually com- piled and the incomplete answers to the questionnaire sub- ject the study to the just criticism of inexactness, but an attempt has been made to refrain from inferences and con- clusions that are not in the main substantiated by fact. If this investigation serves merely to direct attentiorT- more fully to the merits, weaknesses, and future possibili- ties of the summer-school movement in America, the au- thor will be fully compensated for all effort expended, and his most sanguine expectations will have been fully real- ized. CHAPTER II HISTORY OF SUMMER SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES A General Survey It has been said that summer schools are spontaneous in their origin and came about for the purpose of satisfying local demands.! Such an assertion is far from an adequate explanation of the existence of summer schools, for their cause lies deeper than this. It is true that they began in certain localities of the United States and for certain re- stricted purposes; but the real foundation of the summer school is to be found in the broader, more progressive spirit that characterized education in this country after the Civil War.2 Just as commercial activities expanded into new fields, took on new aspects, and pursued more economical methods; just as agriculture was no longer expressed by The Man With the Hoe, but had become a real business, demanding business methods; just as religion took on a more liberal and rational attitude toward life, so did so- ciety begin to awaken and look askance at any educational scheme that failed to provide facilities somewhat commen- surate with the demands of life. The summer school, like most salutary innovations, was rooted in an economic de- mand, supplemented by the ambition of the American school-teacher for more thoro preparation and the desire, of the American public for better schools for their children. It is almost a truism that however traditional any edu- cational scheme may have become, it ultimately yields to popular demand and becomes the fountain source from which issue the elements for improvement in all lines of human endeavor. In other words, education finally yields to the behests of economic, social, and political changes. Since the school-teacher is expected to assume leadership in progress and achievement, it is, then, no wonder that new plans, new instruments, new facilities must be pro- vided for his training. Herein lies the explanation of the summer school. If we trace the rise of any summer school in any field of knowledge, we shall find that one of the pri- mary and impelling motives for its organization was the better training of teachers. In view of the foregoing facts, we shall trace briefly step by step the history of the summer school as an educational movement, ever emphasizing and ' Report of Com. of Ed., 1891-92 : 894. ^Bogart: Economic History of the United States. ■MUNI History of Summer Schools in the United States 9 keeping in mind its importance as a factor in improving teachers. It will be found that these steps overlap each other and by no means stand out as successive chronolog- ical phases of development. However, we hope to discover whether the movement is continuous and evolutionary or is a mere educational fad satisfying temporary demands. Classification of Summer Schools That the summer school is truly American and a neces- sary concomitant of American life is evident in that the first schools were indigenous to the New World demands and are embraced in the last half century. In the course of development, the summer school has kept pace with and remained parallel to the other demands of life. There- fore, the curricula have conformed to many demands of life training. To classify them technically according to their diverse functions and shades of procedure would be neither interesting nor profitable here, but for our purposes we shall use the three following classes : 1. Scientific laboratories for teachers and students. 2. Schools without laboratories and giving instruction in but one field or study. 3. Schools giving instruction in more than one field or study. I shall trace briefly the history of each class and point out so far as possible its significance in the growth and development toward the present elaborate summer session now in vogue thruout the country. 1. Scientific Laboratories for Teachers and Students Beginnings About fifty years ago college professors of science con- ceived the idea that summer affords an opportunity for nature study as does no other season of the year. The first to act upon this idea were a few professors and students from Harvard University, who in 1869 made a trip to the Rocky Mountains for the purpose of studying geological formations. During the next few years similar expedi- tions to the West were made by Yale professors and stu- dents, who stored their minds with concrete facts concern- ing mineralogy and enriched the museum of natural history at New Haven with large and valuable collections of min- eral and rock. The idea gained importance until it became a common practice for the leading colleges of the country to be represented from year to year in trips to the West and other sections of the country. These trips served as r 10 Teacher Training in Summer Schools the forerunner of more extended scientific first-hand study during the summer. The biologist as well as the geologist found the summer season essentially suited to an intimate concrete study of real life. The Seaside Laboratory on Penikese Island^ The first scientific summer school in America was an- nounced in 1872 by the famous scholar and naturalist, Louis Agassiz. The session was held at Nantucket, on Penikese Island, about twenty-five miles southeast of New- port, R. I. The announcement containing an outline of the course of study occupied a single quarto page of printed matter. The program was "chiefly designed for teachers who propose to introduce the study of zoology into their schools and for students preparing to become teachers." The following topics, with the names of instructors, taken from the report of the school, will indicate the nature and scope of the work and the personnel of the faculty : "Zoology in General and Embryology of the Vertebrates," by L. Agassiz, Director of the Museum. "The Extinct Animals of Past Ages Compared with Those Now Living and the Methods of Identifying Them," by N. S. Shaler, Professor of Paleontology in the Law- rence Scientific School. "Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Verte- brates," by Dr. B. G. Wilder, Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in Cornell University. "The Animals and Plants Living in Deep Waters," by L. F. de Pourtales, Assistant in United States Coast Survey. "Embryology of the Radiates," by A. Agassiz, Assistant in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. "On Fisheries and Their Management," by Prof. Spen- cer F. Baird, Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian In- stitution. "On Fish Breeding," by Theodore Lyman, Assistant in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. "Chemistry of Feeding and Breathing," by W. Gibbs, Professor of Physics in Harvard University. "Chemistry of the Sea and Air," by James Crafts, Pro- fessor of Chemistry in the Technological Institute, Boston. The project enlisted the financial support of such men as John Anderson and others, of New York, who gener- ously bestowed Penikese Island as a location, $50,000 in money for other expenses, a yacht, and other valuable prop- erty. A commodious building was erected, and in 1873 forty odd students from all parts of the country were en- ' Report of trustees of the school, 1873. / / ( History of Summer Schools in the United States 11 rolled. The death of Agassiz prevented the further pro- motion of the school, and the attempt was abandoned the following year. It will be observed from the foregoing list of subjects and professors that the work consisted mainly of laboratory research and the study of names and forms of animals, rather than experimental biology. But the tremendous importance of this school is seen when we remember that the several great biological schools that followed, some of which exist to-day, are its direct outgrowth. This sum- mer-school movement was readily followed by Harvard, under the leadership of Dr. Asa Gray, who founded a school of botany in 1874. We must here emphasize the important fact that the Penikese school was attended largely by teachers who as- pired to make more thoro preparation for their class work. The Zoological Lahoratory of Johns Hopkins University'^ The spirit which actuated the founding of the Penikese school did not die with its founder. The inspiration still lived in the minds of such men as Dr. W. K. Brooks and Professors Henry and Baird, who revived the Penikese idea in 1878 and induced the trustees of the Johns Hopkins University to provide for the maintenance of a zoological laboratory. The enterprise was sanctioned by the United States Government in a substantial way by granting the free use of Fort Wool, located on an artificial island at the mouth of Hampton Roads. The location of the fort was especially favorable for the study of animals, since the ebb and flow of the tide brought strong currents of water containing an abundance and a great variety of the very best specimens of sea life. Fewer than a dozen persons participated in the work of the first summer, but part of these were school-teachers. The session lasted eight weeks, the courses being given in the form of laboratory research. The work, measured by its results, was highly successful; for it offered an opportunity for original research, col- lected material to be used in the university, gave an ac- quaintance with the forms of sea life, and gave additional knowledge of the zoology of Chesapeake Bay. Further- more, a number of worthy scientific papers were prepared and published. During the next year the school made special contribu- tions concerning the growth, nature, and development of the oyster. The following sessions of this laboratory were held at various points, mainly along the coasts of Virginia, ' Reports of trustees of Johns Hopkins University, Circular 54. 12 Teache?' Training in Summer Schools North Carolina, and Florida, until 1888, when, for lack of funds for maintenance, the sessions were discontinued un- til 1891, when the work was revived and was continued un- til 1903. Since that date^ several expeditions have been sent to the West Indies for the study of botany and zoology, as well as research work carried out in Jamaica and else- where. Since 1910 there have not been sufficient funds available for such work, and the men interested in zoolog- ical research have individually gone to other laboratories for summer work.^ It must not be forgotten that in the earlier days of the laboratory it contributed considerably to the improvement of teachers of biology, botany, and zoology.^ Moreover, it published from time to time the results of investigations until the tracts and books are numerous and furnish an authentic and rare source for a most interesting chapter in many of the textbooks on biology. The laboratory has also been an invaluable aid to students of Johns Hopkins University, the knowledge being utilized in connection with the regular classroom work. Up to 1910 the work of this school constituted a part of the regular summer work of Johns Hopkins University, and elementary zoology is still offered as a part of the summer program. Wood's Hole Laboratory In 1881, under the auspices and support of the Woman's Educational Association of Boston and the Boston Society of Natural History, a laboratory was opened at Annisquam, Mass. Its purpose was "to afford opportunities for the study and observation of the development, anatomy, and habits of common types of marine animals under suitable direction and advice."- The work at first was of a most elementary character, and the number of students averaged about twenty until 1886, when the enterprise was wholly surrendered to the Woman's Educational Association, which appropriated suf- ficient funds to maintain the laboratory under the title of The Marine Biological Laboratory. They erected buildings at Wood's Hole, Mass., and the first session was held in 1888. The attendance was small, and the work was of such a nature as to serve as a founda- tion for sequential research work. The data and material collected were such as would contribute largely to teacher improvement. The aim of the school may be best shown by quoting the words of Dr. Whitman, the director : "Now, ^ Personal letter from E. A. Andrews, Professor of Zoology. ^ From circular of announcement, 1881. History of Summer Schools in the United States 13 the only way to keep the distributive function efficient and active is to unite it in proper relations with the productive function. The laboratory is the creative agent — the source of all supplies ; the school is merely the receiver and the distributor. Any attempt to combine the two which ig- nores or reverses these relations must end in disappoint- ment and failure." Dr. Whitman here makes it plain that while the laboratory furnishes the material, it is the teach- er's part to assimilate and diffuse this material. By 1891 the school had grown considerably in attend- ance, and the course of study had been amplified to meet the needs of teachers and students. The faculty included several of the most eminent men of the country, among whom may be mentioned Dr. Whitman, of Clark Univer- sity ; E. C. Gardener, Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; H. C. Bumpus, Brown University ; W. M. Rankin, Prince- ton College; J. P. McMurrich, Clark University; W. M. Wheeler, Clark University; and T. H. Morgan, Johns Hop- kins University. In addition to this group several distin- guished lecturers were enlisted in the work and gave even- ing lectures on biological subjects of general interest. These lecturers represented Clark University, Harvard, University of Nebraska, and Princeton. To give some idea of the work done, we offer the follow- ing, quoted from the prospectus of the session of 1891: "In addition to the regular courses of instruction in biology, botany, and microscopical technique, consisting of lectures and laboratory work under the direct and constant super- vision of the instructors, there will be given two or more courses of lectures on special subjects. . . . For the completion of any considerable piece of investigation, be- ginners usually require from one to three full years. The aim is rather to make a safe beginning, which will lead to good results if followed up between sessions, and renewed, if need be, for several successive years." That the element of teacher training permeated the courses is shown by the fact that special and exclusive preparation was made for teachers. The prospectus said : "The laboratory for teachers and students will be opened on Wednesday, July 8, for regular courses of seven weeks. The number admitted to this department will be limited tc thirty, and preference will be given to teachers and others already qualified." The work of this school has been carried forward for the past twenty years with ever-increasing attendance. The report of 1918 showed the school to be in a prosperous con- dition, with a splendid reserve fund, a library of 1,654 vol- umes, and a directorship consisting of some of the most 14 Teacher Tf'aining in Summer Schools competent men of the country. By 1915 the total attend- ance had reached 242 investigators, most of whom were teachers of various advancement and standing, represent- ing many of the leading colleges, universities, schools, and academies of the country.^ The school has borne fruition beyond the most sanguine hopes of its founders, its work is nation-wide, and it has long since assumed its place among the great educational agencies of this century. Biological Laboratory at Cold Spring Harbor^ In 1890 the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences be- came the sponsor for a laboratory that would offer a wider field for the study of marine life than any other school had yet offered. The school was located at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, where both marine and fresh-water life could be studied. Mr. Eugene G. Blackford, one of the fish com- missioners of New York State, had previously established a fish hatchery here in 1882, Prof. Franklin W. Hooper, director of the Institute and a former student at Penikese Island, realized the advantages of Cold Spring Harbor as a location for a marine laboratory. He, in conjunction with other professors of the Institute, prevailed upon the trustees to establish a Biological Station, and a board of managers was appointed, consisting of Mr. Blackford, Mr. Hooper, and twenty-two other prominent citizens of New York City, Instead of confining the study to a few specimens of life, there were offered lectures on general biology, embracing many types, such as jelly fishes, star fishes, the clam, the snail, the oyster, the crab, the grasshopper, and the frog. Special instruction was given to teachers in methods of study and presentation; bacteriology was made a new and interesting feature; stereopticon studies were made by evening lectures; and encouragement, instruction, and op- portunity were given for carrying on independent investi- gation. The school has continued to flourish and grow from year to year, until at the present time demands are raised for additional accommodations, A dormitory, dining hall, and assembly room for women have been provided. In 1903 the Carnegie Institution, of Washington, established here a Station of Experimental Evolution, designed for the study of heredity in animals and plants. In 1910 Mrs. E. H. Harriman established here the Eugenics Record Office, which has for its purpose the study of human heredity. '- Twentieth Report, 1917. ' A pamphlet entitled New York City's Biological Reserve, 1917. History of Summer Schools in the United States 15 It is especially interesting to see in this school an expan- sion, a growth, of the summer-school movement from a study of special forms to a general and varied field and from a mere handful of professors to many ardent teach- ers seeking material for classroom use. Other Summer Schools of Science^ Still other scientific schools that maintain summer ses- sions are the Marine Biological Laboratory, Leland Stan- ford Junior University, at Pacific Grove, Cal. ; School of Mountain Field Biology, University of Colorado, at Tol- land, Col.; Indiana University Biological Station, at Wi- nona Lake ; and University of Michigan Biological Station, at Topinahee. These schools, one and all, are now main- tained primarily for teachers and for students of univer- sities and colleges desiring to collect research material for their regular courses. 2. Schools Without Laboratory and Giving Instruc- tion IN But One Field or Study The Concord School The Concord summer school was the pioneer in the field of philosophy and literature. The purpose of the school was "to bring together a few of those persons who, in America, have pursued or desire to pursue the paths of speculative philosophy, to encourage these students and professors to communicate with each other concerning what they have learned and meditated, and to illustrate, by a con- stant reference to poetry and the higher literature, those ideas which philosophy presents. The first purpose of the school was conversation on serious topics, the lectures serv- ing merely as a text for discussion, while dispute and po- lemical debate were avoided. It sought in the discussions at Concord, not an absolute unity of opinion, but a general agreement in the manner of viewing philosophic truth and applying it to the problems of life."- The idea of this school originated in the mind of Bronson Alcott, but was not put in force until 1879, when the first session was held at the "Orchard House." Here assembled such celebrated men as Emerson, Professor Pierce (of Harvard), and Mrs. Cheney, Dr. W. T. Harris, F. D. Sanborn, and many other scholars of the time. The school continued for ten years, ' Directory of Summer Schools, Bulletin No. 53, Bureau of Ed., and summer catalogs of the schools mentioned. ^ Genius and Character of Emerson. 16 Teacher Training in Summer Schools with sessions varying from six weeks in the first term to two weeks in the last term. The work was highly speculative.^ The program in- cluded lectures on Christian Theism ; Speculative, Platonic, and Political Philosophy; the History and Moral of Art; Immortality, Schilling, Oracular Poetry, etc. From the first program to the last, however, may be discerned a grad- ual transition from speculative to realistic thought. The last program dealt with the relations of Aristotle's philos- ophy to that of modern times. The school rendered a tre- mendous service in paving the way for the interpretation and the application of ancient religion, government, and literature in the light of present-day tendencies. The school also stimulated investigation and thought concern- ing the relation of mind and matter. While the school was an exponent of transcendentalism and asserted the suprem- acy of the mind, "it must not be supposed that it was hos- tile to science; on the contrary, it approved and heartily sympathized with it in its great work, which, properly re- garded, it considered tributary to the highest ends of ex- istence."^ The lectures delivered in this school have been published under the following titles: The Genius and Q^aracter of Emerson, The Life and Genius of Goethe, T\e. Destiny of Man, The Idea of God. ^^ The Glenmore School^ As a progressive step from the Concord school came the Glenmore school, in the Adirondack Mountains. The pur- pose of the school was to study the psychology of man and its practical application to everyday life. Applied culture to common living would express the slogan of the school. To quote from the program : "The aim of the school, there- fore, is twofold— (1) scientific, (2) practical. The former it seeks to reach by means of lectures on the history and theory of the culture sciences, and by classes, conversa- tions, and carefully directed private study. The latter it endeavors to realize by encouraging its members to con- duct their life in accordance with the highest ascertained ethical laws, to strive after 'plain living and high thinking,' to discipline themselves in simplicity, kindness, thought- fulness, helpfulness, regularity, and promptness." The school secured the services of such men as J. Clark Murray, ' Programs of the first years. ' Harper's Weekly, August, 1881. 3 Program of session of 1892. History of Summe?' Schools in the United States 17 W. T. Harris, John Dewey, and Josiah Royce. While the Glenmore school gave little or no training directly to teach- ers, its programs contained an elaboration of cultural sci- ence and philosophy that has become an important part of educational training for the best teachers. Furthermore, the school forms a link in the development of summer schools that cannot be consistently omitted. Two other schools that followed in the wake of the Con- cord school were the Milwaukee Literary School, having for its aim free and untrammeled discussion and conver- sation and a study of poetry and philosophy ; and the Chi- cago Kindergarten Literary School, in which courses of lectures were given in masterpieces of literature from Dante, Shakespeare, and Goethe. But a school that de- serves more than passing mention is The School of Applied Ethics at Plymouth Thus far the schools we have examined have been rather far removed from the life of the people. In 1891 a new departure was made as to subject-matter in the summer school at Plymouth, Mass. The subjects dealt with the rise and development of our present system of industries and economics and the condition of the people that grew out of these. The work thus more nearly approached the per- tinent problems of living than did any of its predecessors.^ "The term 'applied ethics' might not carry to all minds an accurate or complete idea of the scope of the school. Pos- sibly the words 'practical sociology' would be more truly expressive of the character of the work that was actually done at this first session. The history and progress of mankind and of communities in matters of religious belief, moral doctrine and practice, and economic life and welfare were the general themes presented and discussed in many topics and phases. "- The following topics, with teachers' names appended, will give a definite conception of the nature of the work and the class of instructors : "Economics and Its History," Prof. H. C. Adams, Uni- versity of Michigan. "Crowding of Cities, Pauperism, Etc.," Mr. Albert Shaw. "Socialism," President Andrews, of Brown University. "Cooperation," Professor Taussig, of Harvard. "Factory Legislation," Carroll D. Wright, United States Commissioner of Labor. ^ Announcement of the school, 1891. " Review of Reviews, September, 1891. 18 Teacher Training in Summer Schools "History of Religions," Professors Toy, of Harvard; Bloomfield, of Johns Hopkins; Jastrow, of University of Pennsylvania; and others. Other living topics were moral instruction of children, prison evils and reforms, charity in cities, and humane treatment of animals.^ The first session lasted six weeks and enrolled more than 200 students, of whom more than 40 were teachers. The next year the school was continued, with a program similar to that of 1891. This may be considered one of the pioneer schools in the study of economics. While the school did not become of a permanent character, yet it did much to- ward broadening the teachers' vision and bringing them into more intimate relation with the life of the people and the problems of society. School of Languages at Amherst An obvious and long step in the expansion of the summer- school movement is seen in the Amherst School of Lan- guages. It opened in 1877, but continued only a few years. The school was intended largely for the training of teachers, especially those of foreign languages. The work was also adapted to the needs of students desiring to make up deficiencies in languages or wishing to begin the study of languages. The average length of the term was five weeks, and the program provided, besides the class work, a medley of gymnastics, lectures, picnics, and excur- sions to places of interest. By 1892 the curriculum in- cluded, in addition to modern and ancient languages, Eng- lish literature, including Anglo-Saxon and early English, chemistry, art, physical education, and mathematics. With the rapid rise of summer schools in colleges, univer- sities, and normal schools, the necessity for this school no longer existed, and its work was gradually absorbed by other schools. The Sauveur Summer School of Languages In 1883 Dr. Sauveur, the original founder of the Am- herst school, resigned from the work there and founded a school of languages at Burlington, Vt. In reality this school was only a resumption of the former work at Am- herst. With the exception of the two sessions of 1886 and 1887, the terms were held successively at Burlington. Up to 1890 the average attendance was about 200. Several thousand students from different parts of the country at- ^ Program of first session of the school. IMJMUlfllil History of Summer Schools in the United . States 19 tended this school, more than half of whom were teachers. The school was designed for the exclusive study of ancient and modern languages, including an English department comprising grammar, literature, and rhetoric. Dr. Sau- veur was one of the first professors to introduce and pro- mote the direct method of language teaching. This method was at the time a great fad, but the novelty gradually dis- appeared, and with it the school that had nurtured it. Schools of Music, Oratory, and Ar-t One of the foremost normal music schools for teachers was that of Lexington, Mass., founded by Mr. Hosea E. Holt, who was a supervisor of music in the public schools of Boston for more than thirty years. Mr. Holt was deeply interested in the principles of teaching as applied to music. In cooperation with Mr. John W. Tufts, of Boston, he planned and executed a series of music books called the "Normal Music Course." He was, therefore, eminently qualified to found a school of music for teachers. The Lexington school continued in existence until the death of Mr. Holt in 1898. The students attending came from different parts of the Union, and the number in the 90's reached the hundred mark, varying from that to 150 until the school closed. ^ The school is significant to our discussion here, because it was strictly a normal school and one of the first to be de- voted exclusively to the training of teachers of music. Other schools- of this nature now holding summer sessions are the American Conservatory of Music, Chicago ; Chicago Musical College; Columbia School of Music; Chicago Sum- mer Normal School of Music; Peabody Conservatory of Music, Baltimore ; Institute of Music Pedagogy, Northamp- ton, Mass. ; Detroit Conservatory of Music ; and Forest Park College School of Music, St. Louis. Most of the schools thruout the country now have summer schools of music, forming a distinct department of their summer- school -curriculum. One of the first and most important schools of oratory was that founded by Dr. Curry at Martha's Vineyard, whose first session was held in 1881. Sessions have been held at many places, with headquarters at Boston. A sur- prising number of people have been in attendance, including lawyers, teachers, politicians, and many others. Some of the terms have been held in connection with leading uni- ' From a personal letter to the author from Mrs. Ada H. Rowse, daughter of Mr. Holt. ' Directory of Summer Schools, Bureau of Ed., Bulletin 53, 1917. 20 Teacher Training in Summer Schools versities of the country, such as Harvard, the University of Chicago, the University of Vermont, New York Univer- sity, University of Washing-ton, Wesley College, and the University of Minnesota. Most of the terms are held un- der the auspices of the school itself at Boston; Asheville, N. C. ; Monteagle, Tenn. ; Newport, R. I. ; Plymouth, Mass. ; Lancaster, Mass. ; Chicago ; Eureka Springs, Ark. ; and Houston, Texas. The average attendance is limited to thirty students on account of the individual work that is done. The terms require four hours' work a day in different courses, such as vocal training, vocal expression, vocal interpretation of lit- erature, English, including Shakespeare, Tennyson, and Browning, and extemporaneous speaking and public read- ing.i Other schools of this group are the Emerson College of Oratory, Boston, and the Minneapolis School of Art, Mu- sic, and Oratory. In addition to the work done in these schools of oratory and expression, many of the state univer- sities and normal schools maintain departments of oratory during the summer in charge of expert professors and trainers. From time to time summer schools of art for the train- ing of teachers have been established in the United States. The most noted among these are the California School of Arts and Crafts, Berkeley; Los Angeles School of Art and Design ; California School of Fine Arts, San Francisco ; Applied Arts Summer School and the Art Institute, both in Chicago ; Martha's Vineyard School of Art, at Vineyard Haven; School of Fine Arts, Detroit; Minneapolis School of Art ; Art Students' League, New York ; New York School of Fine and Applied Art; Summer School of Landscape Painting, New York; Art Academy of Cincinnati; and Darby School of Painting, at Fort Washington. There are also art departments in connection with the regular sum- mer sessions of the various schools thruout the country. An examination of the catalogs of these schools reveals the fact that one of the primary functions of the summer sessions is the training of teachers. 3. Schools With and Without Laboratories and Giv- ing Instruction in More Than One Field or Subject We have seen how the summer school began with a study of special topics in the fields of science and gradually ex- panded into fields of art, literature, philosophy, psychology, economics, pedagogy, and religion, each studied as one sub- From a personal letter to the author from Dr. Curry. History of Summer Schools in the United States 21 ject. We shall now trace the movement a little farther and see how it has been generalized so as to include many studies in the same school. Chautauqua To the influence of the Chautauqua must be attributed much credit for popularizing the summer school. Thru this instrumentality, educational work during the sum- mer was brought into more intimate and vital touch with the demands of the people. Thru the Chautauqua's com- prehensive and liberalizing organization, educative and recreative agencies combined were brought right to the door of thousands of people during the summer months. This class of schools aided in originating and fostering the ideas out of which have grown the present summer schools for the training of teachers. It was by no means the only force that gave impetus to teacher training during the sum- mer months, but, in justice to the movement, we must say that it was one of the prime factors toward bringing about our present system. The work of the Chautauqua was at first religious in both purpose and scope. In 1874 the first assembly was held at Fairpoint, on Lake Chautauqua, in New York. While the early programs consisted mainly of lectures on practical Sunday-school and Bible work, "into the religious cur- rent came, in successive years, more and more tributary streams, representing modern science and literature in their relations to life and everyday thought. One can dis- tinctly trace in the records of Chautauqua the beginnings of its modern educational tendencies, whether in pedago- gics, art, social science, or the higher education. "i While the Chautauqua thus began as a movement re- stricted to Sunday-school work, from year to year the field of subject-matter was extended until twenty years after its origin the Chautauqua University embraced, besides its religious departments, schools of language, the Chautau- qua teachers' retreat, literary and scientific circles, liberal arts, Chautauqua press, and extension and summer assem- blies.- By 1891 the school had a college of liberal arts, giving instruction in German, French, English, Latin, Greek, physics and chemistry, mathematics, geology, and history; a school of sacred literature, devoted to a study of the Bible and its relation to Greek, Hebrew, and As- syrian ; a school of physical culture ; a school of music ; and a department for teachers. The departments have ^ New York Independent, September, 1888. ' Program for session of 1891. 22 Teacher Training in Summer Schools been changed from time to time to meet new conditions. The catalog of 1918 classifies the work under the heads of Academic Courses, which include language and literature, mathematics and science, psychology and pedagogy, his- tory and social science; and Professional Courses, which include library training, home economics, music, arts and crafts, practical arts, expression, physical education, health and self-expression. Supplementing the regular courses, there are offered many educational activities, all carefully planned for teacher training. The following are the pro- grams for 18911 and 1918 1^ Program for 1891 Psychology, pedagogics, and the art of teaching. Elementary science. Numbers. Structural geography. Sand and putty modeling, painting and blackboard lessons. Relations of studies to primary teaching. Physical development. Experimental science, chemistry, and physics. Historical English Grammar and Shakespeare. Penmanship. Normal instruction in Sloyd and kindergarten. Lectures by Dr. Harris, Mr. Bar- deen, Mr. Dewey, Colonel Par- ker, and others. Program for 1918 Education, 14 courses. Science, 14 courses. Mathematics, 4 courses. Arts and Crafts, 21 courses. Home economics, 8 courses. Methods, in all subjects. English, 11 courses. Modern languages, 16 courses. Classical languages, 6 courses. History and social science, 3 courses. Library training. Music, 15 courses. Practical arts, 12 courses. Expression, 8 courses. Physical education, 3 courses. Red, Cross, 4 courses. Military training. The last session enrolled more than 3,000 students, the majority of whom are teachers. In many cases the work done at Chautauqua under well-known instructors is sub- sequently recognized by colleges and normal schools as counting toward degrees. The faculty for the session of 1918 comprised ninety members, many of whom are in the highest ranks among the educators of the country .i ' Program for session of 1891. ' Catalog for 1918. History of Summer Schools in the United States 23 During the 90's the Chautauqua possessed a preeminence over all other summer schools and seemed destined to eclipse all other institutions for teacher training during the sum- mer months. The assembly at Chautauqua Lake was the central school from which emanated the plans for other assemblies too numerous to mention here. By 1900, how- ever, the Chautauqua, as a nation-wide movement for train- ing teachers, had largely fulfilled its mission. Only a few have survived the competition of other summer schools. One of the most illustrious of these is the Jewish Chautau- qua, which held its first assembly in 1896 at Atlantic City. It now enrolls more than 3,000 members in the United States and Canada. It employs many of the most eminent Hebrew scholars from Columbia University, Philadelphia, Johns Hopkins, and New York City. Its course of work combines pedagogy and religion. The work has been made of a truly national character, and also international in that it has received recognition at Oxford, Cambridge, and Edinburgh. But the majority of teachers have found it far more economical and convenient to attend state summer normal schools or summer schools in the universities and colleges — schools which have long since demonstrated their usefulness. But it must not be forgotten that the Chautau- qua assemblies are still attended by a vast number of people and make for real constructive education during the summer months. While the assemblies are no longer so largely at- tended by teachers, they will doubtless remain popular ; for, as no other schools have done, they combine the idea of study with that of recreation. The Martha's Vineyard Surhmer Institute^ A school that occupied an almost unique position in mod- ern education as an agency for training teachers was that of Martha's Vineyard, founded in 1878. The school began in a very humble way, with only a few professors and a course of study including botany, French, geology, miner- alogy, German, industrial drawing, Latin and Greek, micros- copy, pedagogics, and zoology. There was one professor for each department, and the first session enrolled eighty students. Each year changes were made in the faculty and the courses until 1888, when the new feature, a "school of methods," was added, which gave the school new life. This department held a session of three weeks, with only a few teachers in attendance, and gave instruction in methods in the following subjects: Arithmetic, drawing, geography, ' Summer Institute Herald, 1882. 24 Teacher Training in Summer Schools history, kindergarten, language, psychology, natural science, pedagogy, penmanship, physical exercises, school manage- ment, and vocal music. In 1890 a department of methods for high-school teachers was added. That year the enrollment reached about 700, and included teachers of all grades, representing many states and countries. Each school finally included about fifty courses of instruction, divided into three depart- ments — elementary, high school, and academic. The list of subjects subjoined will reveal the nature and scope of the work : Elementary Course High-School Course Academic Course Arithmetic. Civil Government. Drawing. Geography and Phys- iology. Grammar, History. Kindergarten. Language and Pri- mary Work. Vocal Music. Penmanship. Reading. Elementary Science. Botany. Civics. English Literature. French and German. General History. Greek and Latin. Mathematics. Microscopy. Physical Culture. Physical and Scien- tific Geography. Rhetoric. Science: Physics, Chemistry, Miner- alogy, Geology, Zo- ology, Homemade Apparatus. Voice Culture. Botany. Drawing. Elocution and Oratory. English Literature. French and German. History and Civics. Latin and Greek. Mathematics. Music, Instrumental and Vocal. Ornithology and Zo- ology. Painting. Physical Culture. Sloyd. The foregoing list^ shows the breadth, utility, and variety of subject-matter which by this time began to character- ize the summer-school courses. It is not difficult to discern in this school an unmistakable tendency toward making the summer school a popular and efficient factor in the training of teachers. While the course was by no means ideal, it approaches that happy blending and balancing of academic and professional learning that is indispensable to the well- prepared teacher. It should be noted also that for each subject taught the school provided one or more instructors of established reputation. The professional and scientific instruction was given by laboratory methods, the minimum term was six weeks, and the class work' was interspersed with excursions, entertainments, evening lectures, and rec- reations. ^ Announcement of session of 1890. History of Summer Schools in the United States 25 Summer Normal Schools During the first quarter of the nineteenth century the teachers of America held county conventions and teachers' associations at least once a year. These meetings lasted from one to two days and served as educational revivals which gave the teachers an opportunity for an exchange of ideas of method and an opportunity for social intercourse with each other and with the people. The work was largely of the informal sort, and encouraged untrammeled, free-for-all discussion of school problems. The meetings served as the chief fountain sources from which the teacher drew his inspiration and pedagogy for the school year.^ But these conventions and associations did not suffice to satisfy the teacher's desire for improvement and his long- ing for the comradeship of his fellows. The common-school teacher, by the very nature of his condition, isolated, re- stricted in environment, with but few books and no libra- ries, craved a richer, more varied, and more extended field of activity than the convention or association could offer. He found supplemental knowledge and partial solace in teachers' institutes, which had their rise about the middle of the century.^ Horace Mann, in his annual report of 1844-45 as School Commissioner of Massachusetts, said: "Institutes originated in the state of New York in 1843, and they have so commended themselves to the friends of education that they have been held during the current sea- son in more than half of the counties of New York and in the states of Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts." By 1850 teachers' institutes had been held in many states of the Union. Usually the sessions were held for two weeks and were enthusiastically attended. The programs contained names of some of the ablest teachers and lecturers of the time. Teachers were formed into classes and were given instruction in those subjects they expected to teach, and lessons were prepared and recited as is done in school. The institutes thus served as training schools for teachers, and at a time in our his- tory when educational advantages were meager indeed. It is obvious that these institutes were the direct forerunners of summer schools now held in practically every state nor- mal school of this country. Many of the states still have laws- providing for county or district institutes at least once a year. The sessions vary from one day to two weeks, with an approximate average of five days. Other states- provide for professional schools lasting from two weeks to ' Circular No. 2, Bureau of Ed., 1885. ' School laws of the various states. 26 Teacher Training in Summer Schools nine weeks. These latter may be more appropriately des- ignated as summer normal schools. The conviction is growing that institutes have outlived their usefulness as teacher-training agencies, and that their work in that par- ticular should be surrendered to the summer school. Just as the institute superseded the old-time convention and association, so did the summer normal gradually usurp the function of the institute. As this transformation has taken place gradually and now seems to be in the last stage, it would be difficult to fix a date as the beginning of sum- mer normal schools. The teachers' institutes in some of the states were gradually changed both in name and in fact to summer normal schools. The writer well remembers that twenty years ago the summer sessions of two weeks, held in practically every county of the state of Tennessee, were frequently referred to as "summer normals." By 1890^ "summer normals" had been established in the majority of the states of the Union ; and by 1900 they held almost undisputed sway in the training of teachers, more especially rural teachers and other teachers who could not avail themselves of college or normal-school training. The sessions were attended by teachers of all ages and grades who were required by law to obtain or renew certificates. Moreover, we must remember that at this time the majority of teachers were chosen from high-school students,- with no professional training and with none too thoro academic knowledge. Not a small per cent of teachers were with- out even high-school training, who, by dint of study and struggle at home, had become familiar with the common- school subjects. These classes of teachers availed them- selves of the "summer normals," and thus had but little trouble in getting county certificates. It is therefore ap- parent that the "summer normal" occupied a conspicuous and important place in the training of teachers. Gradually the county "summer normal" gave way to the state "sum- mer normal," which, by statutory provision, has become a real part of state educational systems.^ During the last decade the number of summer normal schools has greatly decreased. This is only an indication of educational progress. The former sessions did not meet the demands of changing conditions and the rising stand- ards of scholarship required of teachers. Consequently, school laws have been so amended in many of the states that fewer "summer normals" are allowed. This has re- sulted in the abolition of the smaller county "summer nor- ^ Records of summer normals in different states. ^ State school laws. miBiiHiimM'iri History of Summer Schools in the United States 27 mal" in favor of the better equipped, better taught, and more centralized sessions combining several counties in one "normal." In addition to such consolidated "county nor- mals" are the more elaborately organized sessions in the colleges, universities, and state normal schools. Texas^ affords an example of this. From 1900 to 1917 the num- ber of "summer normals" decreased 41 per cent in this state. Of the attendance in 1917, 87 per cent was in the colleges, universities, and state normal schools, indicating the tendency of the summer school to centralize about the work of reputable institutions of learning. What is true of Texas is to a very great extent true of the entire coun- try. In 1917 there were reported to the Bureau of Educa- tion more than 200 summer schools designated as "summer normals," 112 of which were held under the management of recognized and well-established institutions of learning.- Summer Sessions in State No7'mal Schools By the middle of the nineteenth century only a small number of state normal schools had been established; but by 1875 there were 70 in operation.- The number has in- creased rapidly, until to-day there are 185. With the growth of norrnal schools there came almost a parallel growth of summer sessions in these normal schools. The summer session, however, was for many years a mere ex- pediency, and required careful management and tender nursing before it grew into full strength and maturity. In the majority of the state normal schools it is now empha- sized as the most important and efficient part of the work. In others it is only in the chrysalis stage of development. Of the 200 summer normal schools mentioned in the pre- ceding topic, 94 were held in state normal schools.-^ By no means does this number include all the state normal schools that held summer sessions, for almost 40 per cent of these schools did not report in time to be included in the list. Of the 185 state normal schools in the United States, the writer has seen 129 catalogs for the summer session of 1917. The catalogs indicate that most of these schools pursue the same course of study during the sum- mer as during the regular year. The sessions last from four to twelve weeks, with a median term of eight weeks. The faculties include men and women of ripe scholarship ' State school laws. " Texas State Dept. of Education, = Gordy, Ch. III. ^Bulletin No. 43, Bureau of Education; also catalogs of normal schools, 1917. 28 Teacher Training in Summer Schools and broad experience. These facts show in a general way that the summer session is thoroly intrenched as a signifi- cant part of the regular work in the state normal schools. Summer Sessions in Colleges and Universities Not only did the Penikese school, founded by Agassiz, serve as the mother of scientific laboratories, but it also brought the conception of summer schools in Harvard Col- lege. It will be remembered that the primary aim at Pen- ikese was to train teachers in methods of teaching zoology and geology. Such instruction was open to all the teach- ers of Massachusetts. The plan of summer field work in geology and of marine work in zoology was accordingly projected and was made a part of the university research study. The success of these schools of natural science was by no means disappointing, and they, in turn, led to the establishment of other scientific courses at Harvard. Bot- any, physics, chemistry, physical training, French and Ger- man, field engineering, and medicine were successively added. In a few years the total attendance had reached almost 300, of which 150 were teachers and 38 were stu- dents of Harvard. Except in geology and field engineering, the work could not be counted toward a college degree. These schools subsequently passed under the absolute man- agement and control of the university and became an essen- tial part of the university program. Thus was laid the nucleus of the Harvard summ.er school of to-day. Year by year other subjects were added until the summer cur- riculum included a rich variety of courses, and the students in attendance were given all the advantages the university could offer.i Almost contemporary with the Harvard movement, sum- mer sessions were held in the University of Virginia,- the initial courses being confined to the law department. The class grew in number for a quarter of a century, averaged two months in duration, and finally became a part of the regular instruction in the School of Law of the university. In 1877 the summer school of chemistry was added, the instruction being purely of an individual nature. Courses in mathematics, engineering, medicine, and biology rapidly followed. Ultimately, a Summer School of Education was organized, which proved to be a veritable Mecca for teach- ers of the South. The attendance has grown with leaps and bounds until the summer school ranks with those of the foremost institutions of the country. Full university ^ Catalogs of Harvard summer schools. " Catalogs of Virginia University. History of Summer Schools in the United States 29 credit is offered in many schools and courses, the summer term admits both men and women, is standardized to six weeks, and employs in the faculty some of the most emi- nent professors in the world. ^ The session of 1916- en- rolled 302 men and 1,045 women, employed 99 instructors and 40 lecturers, gave 21 special lectures or entertainments, and gave credit toward both graduate and undergraduate degrees. The University of Virginia thus launched the experiment of summer work in state universities. Other higher in- stitutions recognized its success, and ten years later Ohio Wesleyan College took up the work. Other colleges and universities rapidly followed, until by 1900 more than twenty were offering extensive summer courses. Most of these schools were state universities. In 1916 every state university in the United States reported a summer session, and, in all, sixty-three universities reported their summer work as regular sessions. The length of term varied from 5 to 12 weeks, with a median for colleges and universities of 6.5 weeks, and the median date was found to be June 18 to August 6. In the University of Chicago, the University of West Virginia, the University of Texas, Baylor Univer- sity, the University of Missouri, the University of Florida, Peabody College, and the University of the South the sum- mer session is considered a full quarter of the regular year's work. Practically all reputable colleges and universities now adhere to the plan of making the summer term a part of the regular year and of computing credits accordingly. This chapter would be incomplete without a brief his- tory of the summer session at George Peabody College, Nashville, Tenn. The first announcement of summer courses was made in 1902, when the college was still a part of the University of Nashville. The session lasted six weeks — June 16 to July 25. The course of study comprised philosophy and pedagogy, mathematics, science, English, Latin, history, and lectures. The latter were described as "a number of lectures on timely subjects, given by members of the faculty and others." Credits toward degrees were given in all regular college courses. The L.I. Degree granted a life certificate to teach in the states of Tennessee, Texas, North Carolina, West Virginia, and California. An arrangement was made by President Porter with State Superintendent Fitzpatrick whereby the completion of certain summer courses was ^ Summer catalog, 1916. - Report Com. of Ed., 1917, Vol. II. wmmmmimmfirn- 30 Teacher Training in Summer Schools counted toward a primary state certificate good for one year, and other courses were counted toward a secondary certificate good for four years. No fee or tuition was charged, and railway rates were one fare for the round trip from all points in the South. Teachers constituted almost the entire attendance, and the work accomplished was of the highest merit. The catalog for 1903 contained this statement : "It is the confident expectation that this work will be extended and modified from year to year so as to meet the needs of that large class of teachers and students who desire an oppor- tunity for improvement during vacation. Provision will be made for all that interests teachers now in the field, for helping those who intend to enter the profession, and for doing the usual work of the college. The courses offered for the present summer are consequently intended to serve all these ends. The entire college equipment will be made available — buildings, libraries, laboratories, and a force from the regular faculty supplemented by competent out- side assistance." The truth of the above was fully realized. The term lasted eight weeks, with an enrollment of 151 earnest, aspiring teachers from all parts of the South. By 1904 the courses had been arranged to meet the needs of all classes, from primary teachers to college teachers and city superintendents and principals. In 1908 the college was organized on the four-quarter plan, with the summer session counted as a full quarter. By this time the attendance had reached 376, and the courses had been revised and recast so as to introduce new subjects and maintain a wholesome expansion and growth. Upon the satisfactory completion of summer work, credits were given toward three degrees. By the summer of 1914 the college had been transferred to its new campus on Hillsboro Pike. The faculty had been reorganized, and the course of study had been thoroly re- vised to meet modern conditions. Notwithstanding the in- complete condition of the buildings and improvised make- shifts for many conveniences, the enrollment reached 1,108, consisting of teachers and students from twenty-nine states. In 1916 the work embraced more than 200 courses, cover- ing a rich and varied field in education, history and social sciences, English, science, geography, mathematics, manual and fine arts, home economics, music, physical education, foreign languages, and special courses. There was an en- rollment of 1,484 students in the college and about 150 chil- dren in the Demonstration School, and the faculty num- bered 81 teachers chosen from the ablest in America. History of Summer Schools in the United States 31 The far-reaching and beneficent influence of the summer session at George Peabody College can hardly be estimated. Organized almost exclusively for teachers, it confers a privilege as does no other institution of the South. Its fu- ture greatness can be predicted only in the light of its past marvelous growth and development. What has been said of a few colleges and universities as to summer-school work expresses the typical situation with reference to practically all colleges and universities in the country. To give a history of each of these would not be specially instructive here. The prodigious spread of the summer-school movement has come to include all reputable institutions. Every state university, almost every college, both public and private, besides numerous smaller schools, now offers teacher training during the summer months. \ The Present Status of Summer Schools The writer made a study of 124 normal schools and 179 colleges and universities in the United States for the pur- pose of ascertaining the median length of the summer term of 1916.1 The findings showed the median term for nor- mal schools to be 8 weeks; for colleges and universities, 6.5 weeks; and for both together, 7.25 weeks. 92 per cent of the 303 schools had a median term of 6 or more weeks ; 16 per cent had a term of 8 weeks ; 8 per cent, a term of 9 weeks; 8 per cent, a term of 10 weeks; and 9 per cent, a term of 12 weeks. These figures would indicate that the short-term summer school is being superseded by the longer session — a session of sufl[icient duration for students to accomplish definitely a measurable quantity of their educa- tion. A chance is given for intensive and extensive study, thus insuring substantial educational advancement. In 1916, 734 summer schools were reported to the Bu- reau of Education, an increase of 53 per cent since 1911. A considerable number holding summer sessions did not report ; 63 of those reporting were regular sessions of uni- versities, 62 of colleges, 94 of normal schools, 34 of other institutions, while 481 were reported as independent schools. The total enrollment reached about 300,000, an increase of 152 per cent since 1911. The enrollment in round numbers in some of the schools was as follows : Iowa State Teachers' College 2,500 Ypsilanti State Normal School, Michigan 1,800 ^ Catalogs of summer sessions and Bulletin No. 43, Bureau of Ed., 1917; Bureau of Ed. Report, 1917, Vol. II. 32 Teacher Training in Summer Schools Peru, Neb. 800 Emporia, Kan. 2,300 Illinois State Normal University 2,600 George Peabody College 1,500 Edmund, Okla. 2,400 All Texas Normal Schools 5,000 Natchitoches, La. , 1,000 All Missouri Normal Schools 6,000 Columbia University 7,000 University of Chicago 5,400 The total number of teachers reported for 1916 was 17,- 600, an increase of 121 per cent since 1911. Besides the instructors, there were 2,300 special lecturers. An exam- ination of many of the catalogs of these schools shows that the faculties were made up of the most learned, efficient, and expert teachers available. A very large per cent of those attending were teachers, or students who expected to teach. An interesting feature is the expense involved. The ag- gregate cost reported of summer schools in the United States for 1916 was estimated at $3,000,000, or $14.85 per student. A fact of importance to Southern people is that the South is spending only $10.22 per student, while the Central States are spending $16.38 per student. This is significant as showing that the Southern summer school is poorly supported financially. The amount spent per stu- dent by some of the schools and states is as follows: Uni- versity of Chicago, $80 ; Columbia University, $28 ; Uni- versity of Michigan, $36 ; University of Wisconsin, $20 ; Cornell, $27 ; University of California, $12 ; University of Pennsylvania, $30 ; University of Illinois, $27 ; and Uni- versity of Virginia, $15. Several of the state universities are spending annually $10,000 to $20,000. A careful study of the curricula of summer schools shows that courses in education predominate, which fact would justify the inference that the session is more largely at- tended by teachers than by students preparing for other vocations. While there is yet a lack of uniformity in courses offered in the different institutions, there is a discernible tendency toward standardization of the work required and the number of credits offered. In the col- leges and universities the work is more nearly an integral part of the regular work than it is in the normal schools. Yet in both schools there is an apparent effort to adj ast the summer courses to those of the regular year. Further- more, in colleges and universities there is a more even bal- ance between the amount of academic and professional work than there is in the normal schools. We are justified History of Summer Schools in the Uriited States 33 in saying that in a general way the courses are meeting the demands for improving and training teachers as well as those preparing for other pursuits. ^ Summary A general survey of the summer-school movement shows that it is modern in its origin, having come about in re- sponse to an economic demand and a broader, progressive spirit that characterized education during the latter half of the nineteenth century. According to their development and character of work, summer schools may be classified as scientific schools, schools giving instruction in but one' field, and schools giving instruction in more than one field. Half a century ago Harvard University conceived the idea of spending a few weeks of the summer in scientific study and investigation. A few professors and students went to Colorado to make a brief study of the rocks and minerals of that region. The example of Harvard was followed by Yale, Vassar, and other colleges. Then fol- lowed the establishment of the first real summer school by Agassiz and others at Nantucket, on Penikese Island. The course of study was designed chiefly for teachers who wished to introduce zoology into their schools. From this movement came the establishment of other scientific schools, notably the Zoological Laboratory of Johns Hopkins, which made valuable contributions concerning the oyster and col- lected much information adapted to classroom instruction ; the Wood's Hole Laboratory, which furnished invaluable material to teachers for lecture and demonstration in lab- oratory teaching; and the laboratory at Cold Springs Har- bor, L. L, which offered lectures and research on general biology, including many types and covering a general and varied field. Following in the wake of scientific summer schools cam.e those giving instruction in a single field or subject. Typ- ical of this group were the Concord Summer School of Philosophy and Literature, devoted chiefly to a study of speculative philosophy and the interpretation of ancient literature in the light of present-day tendencies ; the Glen- more School in the Adirondacks, whose purpose was a study of psychology and its practical application to everyday life; the Milwaukee Literary School, having for its pur- pose free and untrammeled discussion and a study of poetry and philosophy ; the School of Applied Ethics at Plymouth, a pioneer school in the study of economical problems and a r ' Catalogs of summer schools, 1916. mmam 34 Teacher Training in Summer Schools school which contributed much toward broadening and lib- eraUzing the teacher's vision ; the School of Languages at Amherst, intended for the training of teachers of foreign languages; the Sauveur School of Languages, attended largely by teachers of ancient and modern languages and English grammar, literature, and rhetoric. The Sauveur school was the first to introduce the direct method of teach- ing languages. Other schools of this class were the Lex- ington Normal Music School, which applied the principles of teaching to music and is significant as being one of the first normal schools in America; and several other schools of oratory, art, and music. The third class, or those giving instruction in more than one field or study, is by far the most numerous. One of the greatest of these in forming a historical background was the Martha's Vineyard Summer Institute for Teachers. Its program for 1891 included an extensive course not un- like the courses of the present summer schools. Finally came the Chautauqua movement, which expanded into many fields of education and formed one of the immediate steps toward crystallizing the summer school into distinct form. Almost simultaneous with the Chautauqua came summer normal schools, whose purpose was to give brief reviews to teachers desiring certificates. The length of term va- ried from a few days to a few weeks. No attempt was made at permanency of organization, and no motive was entertained other than to give reviews. The summer nor- mal school gradually became a part of the year's work in state normal schools and colleges and universities. The length of term has been increased sufficiently that real con- structive advancement and valuable research may be made during the summer months. The curricula have been highly enriched so as to include subjects covering many fields of endeavor; the faculties include some of the most learned men and women of the country ; and the attendance is increasing by thousands from year to year. CHAPTER III THE CURRICULA OF SUMMER SCHOOLS In the foregoing chapter we attempted to trace briefly the origin, growth, and development of the summer school as an educational movement. The historical facts warrant the conclusion that school work during the summer is no longer ephemeral in character. It seems to be a well- established, permanent adjunct of our educational system. There is no apparent reason for expecting its waning or discontinuance. Enrollments have ceased to fluctuate; but they show a continuous, steady growth. In other words, the summer school is here to stay. There has also come about a far more generous recog- nition of summer courses in fulfillment of requirements for certificates, diplomas, and degrees, not alone by the in- stitution under whose control the summer school is held, but also by other institutions, by state statutes, and by city superintendents. But we must not rush to the conclusion that the summer school is perfect in its organization, its program of studies, its coordination of courses and depart- ments, and the effectiveness of its work; for, like all pro- gressive movements, the present stage is transitory. There- fore, it becomes necessary to present an investigation of the nature, purpose, value, and extent of the courses of study offered during the summer and what relation they bear to the courses offered during the regular school year. Such is the purpose of this chapter. We thus hope to show whether or not the summer session may be justly consid- ered as a real part of the school year. To answer the inquiry intelligently involved a careful study of the curricula as shown by catalogs from a repre- sentative number of schools, supplemented with informa- tion from such other sources as were available. Since the study is made with reference somewhat to the South, more catalogs of Southern schools than of any other section were examined. These comprise the catalogs^ of fifty normal schools and twenty colleges and universities of the South and of fifteen normal schools and twenty colleges and uni- versities in other sections of the country. Plan of Study For purposes of this study, all subjects alike or closely kindred were grouped under one major heading. The courses adjusted themselves to the following groups: Edu- ' Catalogs for 1916. 36 Teacher Training in Summer Schools cation, history and social sciences, geography,^ English, science, mathematics, manual and fine arts, foreign lan- guages, music, physical education, certificate courses, spe- cial courses, and review courses. The courses that could be appropriately placed under any heading were counted and assigned to the proper subject group. This was done for all subjects, each course being counted but once. When more than one school in any state were examined, the aver- age number^ of courses in each subject group was taken as fairly representing the typical number of courses in that group for that state. Then the total average number of courses in each subject group was computed for the South and for other sections. The same plan was pursued as to the number of courses in the regular year. In order to ascertain the nature of the courses in each subject, it was necessary to know the majority of charac- teristics used by catalogs in describing the courses. There- fore, all characteristics alike or very similar were grouped together. The qualities appearing as common in 50 per cent or more of the catalogs were taken as a description of what might be termed a representative course of study. The extent, method, and content of each course could thus be fairly well determined. While the methods of arrange- ment of subject-matter in catalogs were very diverse, we found a surprising degree of uniformity in description. The content, when analyzed and sifted, was somewhat sim- ilar — a difference of form rather than of meaning. With the foregoing principles of procedure as a guide, we shall present each subject group in turn, with appropriate con- sideration of such features as enlist our interest and at the same time serve the purpose of this investigation. That Southern schools may be compared with those of other sections, attention will center mainly on those sub- jects common to the curricula of all sections. Those not common will be briefly discussed under another head. The following table shows each subject group analyzed into its constituent subjects, with average number of courses gjven in each subject during the summer session and during the regular year, in normal schools of the South and of other sections and in colleges and universities of the South and of other sections : The average to the nearest integer. The Curricula of Summer Schools 87 TABLE I Showing Average Number and Kind of Courses Given in- Each Subject Group NUMBER OF COURSES Normal Schools Other Subject Group South Sections S' R S R Education: Psychology 2 2 2 3 Pedagogy 11 11 History of Education 2 2 2 2 School Management 1 1 1 2 Child Study 11 11 Principles of Teaching 11 11 Principles of Education 11 11 Educational Psychology 2 2 12 Method 2 1 2 3 Method Subjects 5 4 4 3 Administration 2 2 12 Logic 11 11 Ethics Educational Sociology 1 1 1 1 Practice Teaching 2 2 2 2 Total 24 22 21 25 History and Social Sciences: History (all kinds) 5 8 5 7 Civics 11 11 Sociology 11 12 Economics 2 4 2 5 Total 9 14 10 15 Mathematics: Arithmetic 12 2 2 Algebra 2 2 2 3 Geometry 2 3 2 2 Trigonometry 12 12 Analytics 12 12 Calculus 12 12 Higher Courses 1 11 Total 8 13 10 14 English: Reading and Phonics 1 1 1 1 Expression 13 2 3 Public Speaking 12 11 Spelling 11 11 Grammar 11 11 Rhetoric and Composition 2 3 2 3 Colleges and Universities S R 27 39 11 20 9 18 other Sections S R 4 12 3 6 24 53 5 9 6 67 1 2 1 3 1 3 3 5 4 6 7 17 17 92 1 1 1 1 3 1 3 2 4 2 4 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 2 2 3 2 5 4 18 12 34 2 4 2 5 2 3 2 4 1 1 1 1 2 4 2 4 1 S^Summer Session. KrrRegular year. 38 Teacher Training in Summer Schools NUMBER OF COURSES Normal Schools Other Subject Group South Sections S' R S R English : Language 11 11 Literature 4 6 5 7 History of Literature 2 2 Higher Courses 13 12 Total 15 23 15 20 Science: Nature Study 11 11 Physiology and Hygiene 12 12 Agriculture 3 7 2 6 Biology 2 3 2 3 Physics 12 12 Chemistry 2 2 2 3 Physiography and Geology... 12 12 Higher Courses 13 14 Total 12 22 11 23 Geography 2 3 2 3 Manual and Fine Arts: Drawing 3 4 3 4 Penmanship 11 Manual Training 4 7 4 10 Domestic Science and Art__ 4 8 6 11 Painting, Decorating, etc 2 5 4 7 Statuary Total 14 25 17 32 Music: Vocal 12 13 Instrumental 3 6 3 6 Total 4 8 4 9 Foreign Languages: French 2 4 2 4 German 2 3 3 5 Spanish 2 4 2 4 Latin 2 6 2 6 Greek Other Languages Total 8 17 9 19 Physical Education: Swimming 2 2 2 2 Coaching in Athletics 13 13 Games and Dances 12 2 3 Total 4 7 5 8 Colleges and Universities South S R other Sections S R 5 9 1 2 2 5 6 28 1 3 3 5 15 28 18 34 2 4 16 27 1 2 3 8 4 10 3 7 3 8 2 4 4 10 2 8 1 2 15 39 3 4 2 5 2 5 17 50 1 1 3 3 6 3 6 5 21 3 6 4 22 3 5 4 8 2 4 3 12 1 3 2 10 4 7 5 11 26 91 2 5 2 3 3 4 1 1 5 11 6 11 4 6 8 14 3 4 5 13 1 2 1 3 23 45 2 4 5 15 7 19 12 17 10 17 11 3 19 70 2 4 3 8 2 6 7 14 7 18 The Curricula of Summer Schools 39 NUMBER OF COURSES Subject Group Normal Schools Other South Sections S' R S R Colleges and Universities Other South Sections Special Courses: Total 3 3 Review Courses; Total .15 8 3 4 13 7 S R 2 3 12 8 S R 4 4 9 7 TABLE II Summer Courses in State Normal Schools 1. Ratio of stimmer courses to regular courses 2. Ratio of each group to total sumr)ier courses Normal Schools ?"^'7r*' of South "t Other Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent of of Total of Regular Summer Regular Subject Group Courses Courses Courses Education 109 23 84 History and S. S 69 8 66 English 65 5 75 Science o^ o rr Geography 67 2 66 Mathematics 62 » '^ Manual and Fine Arts_- 56 15 22 Music 50 4 55 Foreign Languages 47 » ^' Physical Education 57 4 o^ Special Courses 100 3 lo Median 62 8 66 Schools Sections Per Cent of Total Summer Courses 19 10 14 10 2 10 15 4 9 5 3 10 TABLE III Summer Courses in Colleges and Universities 1 Ratio of summer courses to regular courses 2. Ratio of each group to total stimmer courses CoUeges and Universities CoUeges and Universities ^ of South of Other Sections Percent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent of of Total of of Total Regular Summer Regular Summer Subject Group Courses Courses Courses Courses Education 69 22 45 15 History and S. S 55 9 18 11 Mathematics 50 7 66 o f^S .:::::::::::::: It % \ Geography 50 2 40 i Manual and Fine Arts_- 59 13 51 i& Music 40 3 37 4 Foreign Languages 38 1^ ^' Physical Education 50 6 d» * Special Courses 50 2 100 3 Median 53 9 37 11 40 Teacher Training in Summer Schools Tables II and III are a summary of Table I. They show the percentage ratio of the average total number of sum- mer courses in each group to the total number of regular courses in the same group, and they show also the percent- age ratio of each group to the total summer courses in all groups. For example, in Table II the number of courses in education given during the summer represents 109 per cent of the number of regular courses given in the same subject group and 23 per cent of the total number of sum- mer courses in all groups. Table II is compiled for normal schools and Table III for colleges and universities. Table II presents also a comparison of the number of courses in normal schools of the South and in other sections, and Ta- ble III presents the same comparison as to colleges and universities of the South and of other sections. What the Tables Disclose In the first place, a considerable lack of uniformity in the number of courses in each group is evident. Whether this lack is a true expression of the relative importance of the groups, we cannot say. In some schools it seems but fair to conclude that it is not. As between sections, there is a tendency toward uniformity in the ratio of the num- ber of summer courses in each group to the total in all groups. (Table II, columns 2 and 4.) There is a like uni- formity in the ratio of summer courses to regular courses. (Table II, columns 1 and 3.) A comparison of columns 2 and 4, Table III, reveals no great disparity, while columns 1 and 3 show but little likeness. In the second place, the tables reveal the relative empha- sis that is placed upon the education group. In both groups of normal schools this subject stands highest. Other groups with higher percentage ratios are English, science, and manual and fine arts. It is evident also that relatively far more emphasis is placed upon education in both groups of normal schools and in colleges and universities of the South than in colleges and universities of other sections. This is perhaps as it should be ; for it is safe to assume that the principal attendance upon normal schools is by teachers whose courses are mainly in the department of education. It would be interesting to know whether such an assump- tion could be made, concerning the colleges and universities of the South — in other words, whether or not teachers con- stitute a larger per cent of the attendance in the colleges and universities of the South than they do in the colleges and universities of other sections. If such is true, then is the South justified in centering attention during the sum- The Curricula of Summer Schools 41 mer upon courses in education? This may be answered in terms of another question : Do the departments of educa- tion offer a field sufficiently rich to justify teachers' tak- ing more work in this field than in any other? We merely raise the question, without attempting its settlement here. In the third place, in both groups of normal schools and in the colleges and universities of the South there is shown to be a decidedly disproportionate number of courses given during the summer as compared to the regular year. Ta- ble II shows the median ratio of summer courses to regu- lar courses as 62 per cent and 66 per cent for the two re- spective groups of normal schools, and Table III shows that 53 per cent and 37 per cent are the corresponding medians for colleges and universities. Just what this me- dian should be we have no way of determining, but doubt- less it should not exceed 40 per cent. Finally, the tables summarily present a comparison of summer work in the normal schools with that in the col- leges and universities. The facts concerning both groups of normal schools and colleges and universities of the South are substantially the same. The same subject groups pre- dominate, with the exception that foreign languages be- come an added important group in colleges and universi- ties. But the one and only material difference is that the ratio of summer courses to regular courses is much smaller in colleges and universities. There is also more uniform- ity in this ratio. In colleges and universities other than Southern the ratio of summer courses to regular courses seems more nearly ideal than in any other group of schools. The median is 37 per cent, with no group, barring special courses, higher than 51 per cent. This fact tends to show that these schools have related the summer courses more closely to the regular courses than have the other groups of schools. It should be noted also that there is not such a marked disparity between the attention given to other sub- jects, thus justifying the inference that these schools are not so largely attended by teachers as are the other groups of schools. Description of Courses That a comparison may be made between the summer courses and the regular courses, it is deemed unnecessary to give a description of both, since descriptions given in the summer catalogs are, as a rule, identical with those given in the regular catalogs. Where significant differences oc- cur, they will be given from time to time such consideration as they merit. mm. 42 Teacher Training in Summer Schools The terms "two-year schools" and "four-year schools" refer to those institutions requiring for diploma or degree two years and four years, respectively, above high school. Education To say just what subjects should be included in this group may seem somewhat arbitrary, for it is a difficult matter to find any study in any field that does not have a more or less intimate relation to education when considered as a special topic or element in civilization. But for compara- tive purposes the foregoing subjects have been chosen as those which best represent a consensus of customary classi- fication in the majority of catalogs. It must be noted that in many of the schools, especially the universities and col- leges, it is not unusual to find one or more courses in m^ny subjects organized as "teachers' courses" and offered dur- ing both summer and the regular year. It was impractica- ble to include these courses under education, but they will be considered in connection with the groups in which they are found. Psychology. — The work in this subject, in general, is divided into two parts. General Psychology and Educa- tional Psychology. The aim of the first is to acquaint the student with the most important fundamental facts of hu- man behavior and to give the student a general idea of the phenomena by which we adjust ourselves to our envi- ronment. The physiology of the nervous system and all the sense organs is briefly studied in their relation to men- tal acts. The most important topics studied are instincts, feeling, attention, interest, consciousness, the theory of emotion, the elementary features of volition, character, and action. The course in educational psychology is closely correlated with education as a teaching and learning process. Em- phasis is placed upon the relations of mental activity to practical school work. The course deals with experimental methods as applied to educational problems. Topics in classroom are usually paralleled by library reading and laboratory experiments. Reports are required on mono- graphs and current literature. The two courses are essentially the same during the reg- ular year as during the summer. On the average this is true for all schools considered, the work being either re- peated or supplemented by other courses. There seem to be more laboratory work and more research work, in pro- portion, during the regular year than during the summer. The Curricula of Summer Schools 43 There is no distinction worth while between the nature and extent of the work in the colleges and universities and in the normal schools. Credits vary from 2 to 5 hours, with an average of 4 hours. Pedagogy. — Most commonly an introductory course. In a few of the four-year schools, however, a more advanced course is offered ; in others the work is subdivided into two or more courses, with more elaborate treatment. The course is intended for teachers with little or no experience. The topics occurring most frequently are the fundamen- tals of teaching, teachers' qualifications, daily programs, recitation, assignment, study periods, examinations and tests, grading, promotion, reports, discipline, sanitation and simple rules of hygiene, school grounds, buildings, equipment, games and plays. During the summer these topics are necessarily treated rather briefly. The prevail- ing plan now is to infuse pedagogy into many of the con- tent courses as they are given, rather than to attempt an abstract or formal treatment of the subject. This is more especially true with respect to the normal schools and teach- ers' colleges. In other colleges and universities there are to be found in the academic departments one or more courses provided specially for teachers. The same course and supplementary courses are offered during the regular year as during the summer. Average credit, 4 hours. History and Philosophy of Education. — A study of an- cient school systems, with special emphasis upon the Greek, Hebrew, and Roman, with a brief study of Oriental edu- cation. Mediaeval Schools: The decay of the Graeco-Roman schools, monasticism and Celtic culture in the early part of the middle ages. Scholasticism, the rise of universities, mysticism, feudalism. Crusades and Knighthood. Modern Schools: With a survey of the development of educational institutions, theories, and practices from the seventeenth century to the present time and their signifi- cance in present educational organization. A study of ed- ucational leaders and reformers. In the six-weeks terms the more popular plan is to con- centrate the work on a study of modern education, with a survey of only enough ancient and mediaeval history to form a background. In the normal schools, during the regular year, the courses are usually outlined for two quarters' work with j.immsmsmxMi'mmi/imimmitfiiii^ 44 Teachei' Training in Summer Schools 5 hours' credit. In the colleges and universities the work is expanded into more courses, with philosophy of educa- tion interspersed. In all schools the summer courses cor- respond to the work of the regular year. Average credit, 5 hours. School Management. — This course is closely allied with that of pedagogy. In fact, it is seldom that the two sub- jects are given in the same school. The course deals with school organization, classroom management, and the every- day problems of teaching ; and the relation of school to soci- ety and the moral and social value of school life. Some of the problems most commonly considered are discipline and con- trol, grading and promotion, backward children, various devices, economy of time and energy, physical conditions of schoolroom and children, lesson plans, programs, rela- tions of the outside life of the child to his school work, re- lation of teacher to parent, and general schoolroom tech- nique. In all schools the course is substantially the same during the summer as during the regular year. Work during the regular year is more closely correlated with practice teach- ing than it is during the summer. In all four-year schools the above course is supplemented with a higher course, and also with other more specific courses considering certain problems more in detail. Average credit, 3 hours. Child Study. — In general, this is the same as the course in educational psychology. The course is sometimes desig- nated as genetic psychology. Average credit, 4 hours. Principles of Teaching. — Closely akin to educational psy- chology. In fact, it is an application of the principles ob- tained from elementary psychology, and is designed to sup- plement this subject. The course may be described as psy- chology from the functional point of view as applied to the recitation in different branches of learning. The course is not usually given if child study is offered. The work consists of assignments from texts, recitations and reports on special topics, and practice or demonstration teaching. The course is practically the same for all schools, and the work of the summer the same as that of the regular year. Average credit, 31/2 hours. Principles of Education. — Supplements the principles of teaching. In many catalogs the course seems to include KM MMU' The Curricula of Summer Schools 45 the principles of teaching. The course, however, deals primarily with the philosophy of education. Teaching is examined in the light of physiology, biology, psychology, and philosophy. Special emphasis is placed upon the school as an institution with regard to the principles of education in a democracy. The general method is by lectures, reci- tations, and reports. Same course given during regular year, with same credit. Average credit, 31/2 hours. Method. — There is a decided tendency to do away with general method, as such, and incorporate it in subject meth- ods and educational psychology. The aim of the course is to offer the fundamental principles in the teaching process and their relation to the learning process. The most com- mon topics are a study of the formal steps of the recitation, the problem of how to study and teaching how to study, the selection and arrangement of subject-matter, methods of securing interest, individual attention, elements of skill and drill, development, and appreciation. Lesson plans, obser- vation, and demonstration are required. There is the same work in all schools, and the same course is given during regular session as during the summer. Average credit, 4 hours. Method Subjects. — This group embraces methods in al- most the entire field of elementary and high-school sub- jects. Both suggestive and demonstrative method is of- fered in all summer courses along with the content matter. The most common courses are in reading, arithmetic, lan- guage, grammar, literature, history, geography, nature study, drawing, construction work, penmanship, story-tell- ing and child literature, dramatization, elementary science, folk dancing and games, physiology and hygiene, geometry, and library. The courses deal with the best methods of presenting the respective subjects, with emphasis on such topics as attention, motivation, organization of subject- matter, lesson plans, laboratory work, and observation of classes. We are justified in saying that method permeates the summer work to about the same degree that it does the work of the regular year. In fact, herein lies one of the fundamental differences between the summer school and the regular session. This is perhaps as it should be, espe- cially with reference to normal schools and teachers' col- leges, for teachers in service constitute a large per cent of summer attendance. Credit, 2 to 5 hours. 46 Teacher T^^aining in Summer Schools Administration and Organization. — The course deals pri- marily with the work of superintendents and high-school principals of city school systems. The main problems pre- sented are the organization of school systems with refer- ence to school boards, superintendents, principals, and teachers ; curricula and their adaptation to the needs of the schools ; buildings and equipment ; textbooks and courses of study; the training, selection, improvement, and promo- tion of teachers; systems of grading and promotion; re- ports and records; standard tests; and means of raising school funds. The work is most frequently based upon conditions as revealed in recent school surveys and in school systems otherwise known by class and instructor. In the four-year schools the work is divided during the summer on the average into two courses, and during the regular year into two or more courses. This is especially true of the normal schools and teachers' colleges. Provi- sion is made for students in secondary education and ad- ministration, the cycle plan being applied to the summer program. Average credit, 4 hours. Educational Sociology. — A study of the origin and na- ture of society and the fundamental social problems. The units of society, including the family, the church, the state ; social functions of the school ; industrial organizations and the relation to society. A course in rural sociology is of- fered in many schools. During the regular year the work is presented in the form of social problems, and an attempt is made to arrive at their solution from the standpoint of the school. (See History and Social Sciences.) Average credit, 3 hours. Logic and Ethics. — Found mainly in four-year schools. Their infrequent occurrence and their limited bearing upon teacher training do not merit a description here. Average credit, 4 hours. Practice Teaching and Observation. — This work is usu- ally given as a part of other courses, especially method sub- jects, psychology, child study, and school management. Work for observation is occasionally given by students, but more frequently by summer-school instructors. There seems to be a meager amount of actual practice teaching by students during the summer. Lessons are observed and discussed with a view of developing general principles and solving both general and special problems. Individual con- The Curricula of Summer Schools 47 ferences are provided, at which lesson plans and specific problems are considered. The work does not correspond to that of the regular year, for in most schools the classes of students attending dem- onstration schools are the backward trying to make up their work and the bright pupils who can do a half year's work during the summer. The work is confined mainly to normal schools and teachers' colleges. In nearly all schools the department of education occu- pies a very important place in the program of endeavor. It ramifies all departments in normal schools and teachers' colleges. In other universities and colleges the School of Education is given an eminent position alongside those of Law, Medicine, Theology, etc. It is not too much to say that during the summer it is assigned a preeminence over all other schools and departments. History and Social Sciences Ancient History. — A study of ancient nations only in so far as their political, social, and intellectual life has a bear- ing upon present times. Chief emphasis is placed upon Greece and Rome as factors in the world's progress and development. Two courses are given, one devoted to Greek history and the other to Roman, the two courses covering one quarter's work. The chief topics studied are the life, institutions, art, philosophy, literature, government, law, and organization of ancient nations and the contribution of these elements to modern times. Class work consists of re- ports from source material, lectures, and assignments in a standard text. Special economic, industrial, and political problems of Greek and Roman life are compared with those of modern times. Average credit, 4 hours. Mediaeval History. — A general survey of the history of Western Europe from the time of Theodosius to the end of Charlemagne's reign ; the breaking up of the Carolingian Empire ; the rise of feudalism and feudal institutions, with their effect on France, Germany, and Italy ; the church as a religious and secular power ; the Crusades ; the rise of new nations ; the Papacy ; Hundred Years' War ; the Renais- sance; discoveries and inventions. Average credit, 4 hours. Modem History. — The Reformation period ; the influence of the Renaissance in forwarding the movement ; the great religious wars ; the growth of modern nations and the rise 48 Teacher Training in Summer Schools of benevolent despotisms; the rise and decline of Spain and Bourbon France; Prussia and Russia under the Great Elector and Peter the Great ; the industrial revolution ; re- construction of Europe. Average credit, 4 hours. The tendency is away from so much ancient and mediaeval history toward an intense study of modern history, espe- cially the more recent period. The six-weeks' terms usu- ally give about one-half of each of these courses or give the entire course in two sections. English History. — Little attempt is made to cover the entire field of English history, but some important period or epoch is selected for exhaustive study and requiring much supplementary reading. The periods most frequently se- lected are from the beginning of the Tudor line to the close of the Stuarts' reign, and from George III to the present, with special attention to the reform and expansion move- ments at work during the time of Victoria and continuing to the present. Average credit, 4 hours. America7i History. — A brief review of the colonial pe- riod, dealing with the planting and developing of the colo- nies and their relations with England till the close of the Revolution, and the government under the Confederation ; the rise of nationalism ; the westward movement ; the growth of sectional strife; the development of the slavery question and state rights ; the Civil War ; the problems of reconstruction ; the political, social, and industrial develop- ment of the United States. The work is usually covered in one course in two-year normal schools, but the four-year schools divide it into two or more courses. There is al- ways a similar course in the regular year's work. Average credit, 4 hours. In many of the colleges and universities a great variety of courses is given and a larger number than in the normal schools. The practice seems to be to break up the work and intensify the study of each part. This is especially true of the universities and colleges of other sections than the South. A glance at their catalogs shows a field of his- torical study and research embracing all phases of the growth and development of all peoples. A course found now in practically all the schools is a study of the Great War, including the growth of militarism in Germany, our relations to Europe, and the growth of internationalism. In all schools there are found the same or corresponding courses during the regular year as during the summer. The Curricula of Summer Schools 49 Civics. — Deals with the formation of our union and the basic principles of our government. A study of federal, state, local, and municipal government, including the forces and influences affecting governmental operation ; types of government now in vogue and the place of our country among them. In colleges and universities the work in civics is often supplemented by one or more courses in political economy. The work is sometimes made a part of the American his- tory course. In all the schools the same or similar course is given dur- ing the regular year. Average credit, 2 hours. Sociologij. — Most common in colleges and universities, but found in a few of the four-year normals. A course in rural sociology is given in many of the two-year normals, the work including such topics as community organization, shifting of population, tenancy, rural conveniences, how certain crops influence social life, rural transportation, the church, the school. Average credit, 2 hours. The more advanced course includes a study of the un- derlying principles of social science, beginning with the simplest personal relations and proceeding to the more complex forms of association ; an analysis and interpreta- tion of existing society, with illustration. The aim is con- structive rather than critical. Social Problems. — A study of methods of collecting and interpreting large bodies of facts, much of which is statis- tical ; forms of graphical representation. Other courses include community problems, poverty, pau- perism. Average credit, 4 hours. Economics. — This field is not common to two-year nor- mal schools. The more elementary courses are intended to give a knowledge of the common economic practices and phases of everyday life. The purpose is to give the student a working vocabulary and a clear understanding of politico- economic questions and terms. These include economic wants, production, distribution, and exchange. Average credit, 4 hours. The following courses are found common : Public finance, marketing (both farm and commercial), farm accounting, labor problems. Identical or supplementary courses are 50 Teacher Training in Summer Schools found during the regular year. Rural economics seems to be more emphasized in the South than in other sections and more during the summer than during the regular year. A greater variety of courses, with more intense study, is of- fered in colleges and universities of other sections than the South. Mathematics Arithmetic. — Usually given as a review course for teach- ers who desire a more thorough knowledge of content and method, and some of whom are preparing for certificate examinations. The work consists very largely of actual arithmetical performances in order properly to illustrate methods of presenting the subject. The following topics are stressed : How to acquire skill in fundamental opera- tions ; denominate numbers ; percentage and its important applications ; fractions and their relation to integers ; geo- metrical arithmetic ; lesson plans ; and courses of study. Average credit, 3 hours. Algebra.— The two-year normal schools restrict the work either to elementary or high-school algebra, with a credit of 3 hours. The four-year schools, in addition to review courses, offer one or two courses in college algebra, with an average credit of 4 hours. Much of the summer work assumes the form of rapid reviews, covering as much sub- ject-matter during the summer as is usual during two quar- ters of the regular year. The summer work is character- ized also by much suggestive method. Usually an arrange- ment is made whereby the same number of credits may be obtained during the summer as during the regular year. Plane Geometry. — In the two-year normals two courses are given, each covering about two books of the subject. In the four-year schools the custom is to give only one course, restricted to two books or covering rapidly the en- tire subject. Stress is placed upon the solution and proof of originals. Average credit, 3 hours. During the regular year, 4 hours. Solid Geometry. — Matter usually covered by a course in this subject. Attention is given to the fundamentals of the science; original problems and numerical exercises; prac- tical applications, especially of those principles leading to the mensuration of solids. The same work is given during the regular year, except the subject is covered less rapidly. Average credit, 3 hours. The Curricula of Summer Schools 51 Analytics, calculus, and higher branches of mathematics are usually found only in the four-year schools. The courses of the summer include the usual subject-matter, and corresponding courses are found during the regular year. The larger colleges and universities give a variety of subjects, covering much of the theory and application of mathematics. With the exception of occasional reviews, these subjects are made a part of the regular year's work. Courses are far more numerous in colleges and universi- ties other than Southern. Average credit, 4 hours. English Reading and Phonics. — Credit, 4 hours. Expression. — Credit, 2 hours. Public Speaking. — Credit, 2 hours. These courses are essentially those of method. They consist of a study of the elements of vocal expression and the steps necessary for a systematic course of reading in the grades ; method of teaching reading in the grades ; the relation of reading to work in literature; the study and vocal interpretation of classic selections from literature; dramatization of stories and plays and the dramatic in- stinct in children ; story-telling, including the organization of material for stories and actual practice in story-telling; declamations of short classics ; how to select, arrange, and present material in a way that will impress an audience; composition and delivery of formal and informal speeches ; debates and impromptu speeches. In some of the larger universities and colleges an exten- sive and varied field is offered in oratory during both the summer and regular year. In all schools the work of the regular year is more extensive than during the summer. Average credit, 3 hours. Rhetoric and Composition. — Usually divided into two courses, the first of which embraces the following topics: Making bibliographies; outlining themes; note taking; a study of unity, coherence, and emphasis as applied to the theme, the paragraph, and the sentence; methods of par- agraph development; how to increase one's vocabulary; analysis of masterpieces of English prose ; and much prac- tice in writing. The second course involves methods of making assign- ments, how to criticize and rate papers, oral story composi- tion, picture work, vocational English, cooperation and cor- relation, course of study, textbooks, etc. Work is carried 52 Teacher Training in Summer Schools on by outside reading, discussions, observation of classes, and the making of model lessons. Courses are similar for all schools and made a part of the regular work. Average credit, 4 hours. Literature. — The prevailing plan is to divide the work in literature according to the different types of epic, lyric, drama, novel, and essay, and devote appropriate time to each. These are studied with reference to both English and American writers. The following courses are typical : Shakespeare, with a study of the origin and development of the modern drama (4 hours) ; Milton (2 hours) ; Eight- eenth Century Poetry (4 hours) ; Victorian poets (4 hours) ; Tennyson and Browning (4 hours) ; the English novel (4 hours) ; American prose (4 hours) ; contempo- rary drama (5 hours) ; the short story (2 hours). There is a decided lack of uniformity as to courses that are given, but from four to six of the preceding are given dur- ing the summer. During the regular year the tendency in the larger colleges and universities is to subdivide the courses still further and give intensive study to each au- thor. Moreover, a large number of additional courses are given, covering every phase of literature. As a whole, the catalogs indicate more comprehensive English work dur- ing the summer than during the regular year. Credit, 5 hours. History of Literature. — Two courses, the history of Eng- lish literature and the history of American literature, with a study of material illustrative of every epoch or period. Credit, 4 hours. Science Nature Study. — A course intended for teachers of pri- mary and intermediate grades. An attempt is made to fa- miliarize students with native plant and animal life most intimately related to human welfare, and especially those that appeal to the interest of the child. Plans of correlat- ing the work with other work of the grades are given. Actual field observation is made and considerable laboratory work is done. Given during both the summer and the reg- ular year. Credit, 2 hours. Physiology and Hygiene. — A study of the structure and functions of the human body, with a view of learning to protect the same; bodily defects and the remedies; tests of the eyes, ears, and throat; hygiene of the mouth; ven- The Curricula of Summer Schools 53 tilating : heating ; food digestion ; disinfectants ; conta- gious diseases ; water supplies, sewage, and sanitation ; how to control and suppress epidemics. Same course given during regular year. Credit, 4 hours. In the larger colleges and universities a health depart- ment embracing many courses is maintained, and from two to five of these are offered during the summer. Agriculture. — The nature of courses varies somewhat in accordance with the soil and climate of different sections ; but the following courses are found somewhat common to all the schools : Elementary agriculture, dealing with soils, farm products, stock raising, plant diseases, grafting and pruning; animal husbandry — a study of feed values, bal- anced rations, breeds, and various types of live stock, poul- try, dairying, animal diseases ; horticulture — usually two typical courses, one devoted to garden vegetables, the other to methods of fruit growing. Credit, 2 hours during the summer, 4 hours during reg- ular term. Field Crops. — A study of all important grains and ce- reals ; also potatoes, legumes, and grass crops ; soil prepa- ration, fertilizers, seed selection, silage, harvesting, stor- ing, etc. Credit, 2 hours. In many of the four-year schools the department of ag- riculture embraces a rich field of subjects, offering instruc- tion in practically all matters pertaining to farming as a profession. A first-hand study is made of plants, animals, soils, etc. Much laboratory experiment is required. The work of the summer seems to be more intensive than dur- ing the regular year. Biology. — Two courses are typical. One is devoted to general zoology, in which a study is made of the structure and history of the common forms of life, including the earthworm, crawfish, starfish, locust, mussel, crabs, cen- tipedes, spiders, and insects; a brief study of protozoa; flat worms; round worms. Laboratory and field work is emphasized. The economic relation of biology is given con- siderable attention. Credit, 4 hours. Another course is devoted to plant biology. A study of pollination and fertilization ; structure and functions of root, stem, flower, leaf, and fruit ; the collection and classi- 54 Teacher Training in Summer Schools fication of plants ; plant societies ; an introduction to plant physiology, observing by laboratory method germination, respiration, tropism, etc. Credit, 4 hours. The same or supplementary courses are given during the regular year, with laboratory. The laboratory work in biology is far more extensive during the summer than dur- ing the regular year. Physics. — A general course in physics, covering the sub- jects of mechanics and properties of matter, presented with lectures and demonstration exercises and problems; heat, electricity, sound, and light, with about twenty laboratory experiments. In the two-year normal schools this course includes about one-half the above topics, while the four-year schools tend to concentrate on an exhaustive study of two or three topics. Courses correspond to regular year's work. Three hours a week given to lectures and two hours to lab- oratory. Credit, 4 hours. There is no marked difference in the nature of the work in the different classes of schools, except that the colleges and universities give more courses and more elaborate training in their application. In the regular year the courses are more drawn out, and include a more compre- hensive study of both theoretical and applied physics. In the summer session much time is given incidentally to methods of presentation. Chemistry. — A course in general chemistry, dealing with simple chemical changes, elements and compounds, equa- tions, acids and bases, equivalents, reagents, simple organic and inorganic compounds, metals and their compounds; application to modern industrial processes ; methods of teaching incidentally stressed. Credit, 4 hours. Also a course in organic chemistry, intended mainly for students in home economics and agriculture. A study of fabrics, fuel, water, fats, proteins, minerals, and carbo- hydrates; bleaching, dyeing, tanning. Much laboratory work. Credit, 4 hours. In the larger colleges and universities both graduate and undergraduate courses are offered. Summer courses correspond with those of the regular year, with the same credit. The CuiTicula of Summe7' Schools 55 Physiography and Geology. — The typical course offers a study of the simple physical phenomena affecting climate, plants, animals, and soils ; physical geography as related to the occupations, progress, and enlightenment of mankind ; population as related to geography ; map construction. The structure of the earth and brief history of its for- mation ; characteristic rocks, minerals, and soils ; field trips, classroom exercises, and laboratory work. Summer work corresponds to that of the regular year. In the larger colleges and universities geology is divided into several branches, with extensive laboratory experi- ment. Laboratory work appears to be more extensive dur- ing the summer than during the regular year. Aside from education, science occupies first place of im- portance and extent in both summer and regular work. Geography Commercial Geography. — The course treats of geographic influence upon the production and exchange of the most important commodities and a study of industries as related to geography. Credit, 4 hours. Teaching of Geography. — A study of methods. Use of maps, graphs, outlines, and charts ; course of study in geog- raphy, lesson plans, correlation of geography with other subjects. These courses are given during regular year. In addition, the work of the regular year expands into a study of the geography of different sections. The work is not common in colleges and universities, especially those of the South. Commonly given as a review or method course during the summer. Credit, 2 to 4 hours. Manual and Fine Arts Drawing. — This work includes courses in public-school drawing, elementary perspective, lettering and poster mak- ing, and simple courses in design. Credit, 2 hours. Penmanship. — A study of the proper systems, forms of letters, and methods of teaching. No credit. Manual Training. — Includes courses in mechanical draw- ing, elementary and advanced bench work, wood turning, and pattern making. Credit, 3 hours. 56 Teacher Training in Summer Schools Domestic Science and Art. — Courses in sewing, ranging from the study of stitches to the more complex work of tailoring, including pattern making, modeling, designing; all problems concerning the home, such as decoration, san- itation, cleansing, heating, division of income, budgets ; cooking, including a study of foods in relation to source, composition, characteristics, value to body, digestion, af- fected by heat, cost, proper combinations. Special courses in canning and other demonstration work are common dur- ing the summer, but are not given during the regular year. All summer courses except these closely correspond to the work of the regular year. In colleges and universities other than the South more elaborate programs are given. Credit, 2 to 4 hours. Sketching, Painting, and Decoration. — The work usually begins with composition and the careful drawing of inte- rior and exterior scenes. This is followed with house dec- oration ; charcoal drawing and memory sketching ; applied design, including stenciling, block printing, etc. ; pictorial treatment of plant and animal forms in colors. In the two-year normal schools simple still-life drawing and com- mercial design seem to be the most popular courses. The same work is given during the regular year, with many ad- ditional courses. Most of the four-year schools maintain colleges of art in which are given instruction in all branches from simple drawing to oil paintings and statuary. Credit, 3 hours. Music Vocal Music. — A course intended to prepare teachers to give instruction in the various grades and offering training in sight reading, ear training, and dictation. Methods of presenting music are highly emphasized. The work of the regular year supplements this course with more advanced courses in harmony, music, literature, interpretation, etc. Credit, 2 hours. Instrumental Music. — The usual courses are given in piano and other stringed instruments. Band and orchestra are offered in many schools. Credit, 2 hours. Many of the colleges and universities have regular schools of music, offering a great variety of courses during the reg- ular year. Foreign Languages In the two-year normal schools elementary courses are given in spoken and written forms in French, German, and ■■ The Curricula of Summer Schools 57 Spanish. The direct method of conversation prevails. Much dictation is used. In addition to these courses, the four-year schools give more extended courses in conversa- tion, composition, and literature. The same courses are given during the regular year. Credit, elementary courses, 4 hours ; literature, 2 hours. Latin. — Studied in relation to English. The usual courses, beginning Latin and Caesar in the two-year schools ; and, in addition to these, Cicero, Virgil, Latin literature, Catullus, etc., in the four-year schools. Credit, 2 to 4 hours. Greek. — Xenophon's Anabasis, Homer's Iliad, Euripides, etc. Credit, 2 to 4 hours. The summer work is a part of the regular year's work. Special teachers' courses are found in all foreign language departments in nearly all colleges and universities. Physical Education Aside from the wholesome effects expected from the ex- ercise, these courses are given primarily for those who ex- pect to teach or who are taking special training in coaching. Courses are provided to meet the needs of all grades of teachers, men and women, from primary grades to high school. Credit, 2 hours. Special Courses These courses include special work in such subjects as could not be appropriately placed under the preceding sub- ject groups. There is lack of uniformity with reference to the nature of special work, but many of the schools give journalism, library training, and commerce. The study of journalism seems to be confined to the four-year schools. Occasionally it is listed under the English department, but more frequently as a separate department. The plan pur- sued is the preparation of articles from research material, and also a careful study of the technique of writing for the public, as well as a careful study of the mechanical side of press work. In some of the larger schools a periodical un- der the auspices of the institution serves as a medium for this work. Library training consists of the usual work in this sub- ject. During the summer the course is arranged to meet the needs of teachers, principals, and superintendents in the 58 Teacher Training in Summer Schools matter of equipping, arranging, and managing a school library. Many of the schools maintain a commercial department, in which the usual business courses are offered. Other schools offer only a few courses, such as penmanship, com- mercial geography, commercial arithmetic, shorthand, and typewriting, the last three being given during the summer. Other courses occurring less frequently are military drill. Red Cross, social work, photoplay, and demonstration or lecture courses under the departments of home economics and agriculture. Credit, 1 to 3 hours. Review Courses The practice is somewhat prevalent of offering work in various departments in the form of rapid reviews for those who are not well grounded in the subjects or who desire preparation on entrance requirements. This work is con- fined almost entirely to the two-year normal schools which give preparatory work during the regular year. Certificate Courses It is the custom of a number of normal schools to offer work that affords opportunity for preparation in those subjects required for certificates in the state where the in- stitution exists. These may or may not be review courses. Legal provision is made in many states whereby certifi- cates may^ be renewed when a certain number of credits have been obtained in a state normal school or other repu- table institution. Thus these courses may be made to co- incide with regular courses without loss of time to the stu- dent or the institution. In the larger institutions certifi- cate courses, as a rule, are not designated as such, but are absorbed by the regular work. Teachers are given the privilege of taking such courses as in the judgment of the institution will confer the greatest benefit upon them. Such an arrangement obtains during both the summer and the regular year. Teachers' Courses Aside from the extensive educational departments main- tained by colleges and universities during the summer, as well as the regular year, are those courses in the academic departments listed as "teachers' courses." The aim of such courses is to provide a combination of content and method work in sufficient proportion to meet the needs of those students who have not the time to make preparation ""■"""^^W The Curricula of Summer Schools 59 in the strictly professional subjects or are not inclined to do so. It also gives opportunity for those who desire to specialize in the teaching of certain subjects to obtain both the academic and professional training necessary for suc- cessful teaching. The following are some of the courses thus listed : Latin, Greek, and modern languages ; chemis- try, physics, and geography ; history and economics ; alge- bra and geometry ; and English. The same credits are al- lowed as for the regular academic subjects in these depart- ments. Credits Allowed The number of credits assigned to the different courses is computed on the basis of a twelve-weeks' term, the **hour" meaning one recitation a week during a period of twelve weeks. Fractions have been disregarded, and the nearest average integer is taken as the approximate number of hours' credit allowed for each subject. The following is a summary of results: Subject Hours Education ■-- 4 Mathematics 3 English 4 Science 4 Manual and Fine Arts 3 Foreign Languages 2 to 4 Geography ^^ 4 Music 3 Physical Education 2 Special Courses 1 to 4 Such certificates and review courses as coincide with a part of the regular program are given corresponding credit ; but when the work in such courses is below the regular standard, such credit is allowed as the courses seem to merit. It was found that most of the schools give credit for only as many hours as the student actually does — that is, there is no particular premium placed upon summer work. In a number of schools the six-weeks' term may count for a quarter's credit, the student being allowed to register in only half as many subjects as during the regular year, and being required to do double work in these subjects ; while students taking the full number of subjects and reciting the regular number of times are given half credit for the six-weeks' term. In the schools of eight-weeks', nine- weeks', or ten-weeks' term, some of them give credit for a full quarter's work, but the larger number prorate the work by hours. By increasing the number of recitations a week, liiiiiiiliiflii 60 Teacher Training in Summer Schools any term shorter than twelve weeks may thus be made the equivalent of a full quarter's work. With few exceptions, credits for summer courses are identical with those for the regular year. In a few schools some courses are condensed during the summer or consist of rapid reviews for which only half as much credit is al- lowed. Academic and Professional Work Compared But few catalogs precisely agree as to what subjects should be classed professional and what subjects academic. In view of such disagreement, we shall not presume to set up an arbitrary definition of these terms; but for present purposes let us assume that all subjects given in the de- partments of education are professional. It seems but fair to include also those courses in which method plays a sig- nificant role or which are given primarily for teachers and are listed as such, but under academic departments. This would include all "teachers' courses" of whatever kind. All other subjects may be classed as academic. Keeping this classification in mind, let us compare the relative amount of professional and academic work given during the summer and during the regular year. Such a comparison may be made both from the stand- point of the number of subjects and from the total average number of credits allowed. From Table I and a careful study of the catalogs the fol- lowing table was compiled, showing the ratio of profes- sional credits to total credits for summer term and the reg- ular year: Ratio of Professional Credits to Total Credits Summer Regular Term Year Per Cent Per Cent Normal schools of South 54 50 Normal schools of other sections 53 51 Colleges and universities of the South 26.4 9.6 Colleges and universities of other sections 19.2 5.7 The term "professional" as used here pertains only to teaching. The above results are compiled from a compar- ison of summer courses and regular courses in the colleges of arts and sciences ; colleges of medicine, law, dentistry, etc., are not considered. A glance at the table shows that professional and aca- demic work are just about evenly divided in the normal schools during both the summer and the regular year. The Curricula of Summer Schools 61 Since these schools exist primarily for teachers, should not the preponderance of work be at least of a professional na- ture? From many quarters the normal schools have been decried for giving so much professional work. The bare figures above show but a slight leaning to professional courses, when it is remembered that in many of the courses here designated as professional, there is perhaps, after all, a decided excess of content material over mere method. Moreover, we have come to look dubiously on any sort of "method" that is not permeated through and through with real subject-matter. It occurs to the writer that before we pronounce a verdict of censure upon the summer session in the normal schools we should deliberate carefully as to the function of these schools and should have firsthand, authentic information as to how their courses are presented. We should interpret the foregoing figures as auguring no evil to the profession of teaching. On the other hand, the summer session in normal schools betokens an earnest ef- fort to do a large share in the training of teachers. These figures show also that the colleges and universi- ties assign teacher training a very prominent place in their summer work as well as during the regular year. Very few of these institutions of reputable rank have omitted from their program of study an ample provision for a broad and liberal department of education. This depart- ment is given precedence over all others during the sum- mer session. Besides, in other departments many subjects are offered especially for teachers. The summer courses make provision for the needs of all teachers from elemen- tary to high school. The figures indicate also that during the regular year there is no tendency to minimize the im- portance of professional work. Teachers are trained along- side members of other professions, and schools of education are placed on the same dignified plane with those of law, medicine, engineering, and agriculture. Laboratory Work In the general questionnaire sent to 150 normal schools and 50 universities the following question was asked con- cerning laboratory work: Compare in a few words laboratory work of the summer and of the regular year : a. As to quality. b. As to amount. Answers received from 125 schools are grouped and sum- marized as follows : 62 Teacher Training in Summer Schools a. As to quality. 103 schools reported the work as "the same." 5 schools reported the work as "superior." 11 schools reported the work as "inferior." 6 schools reported the work as "adapted to the needs of rural teachers and teachers in small towns, but more practical than during regular year." b. As to amount. 86 schools reported the work as "the same." 6 schools reported "60 minutes in summer equal 90 min- utes regular year." 4 schools reported "about 40 per cent of regular." 1 school reported "depends upon students." 13 schools reported "less." 7 schools reported "more." 5 schools reported "very little." 3 schools reported work as "more intensive." From these replies it is seen that in a majority of the schools the laboratory work of the summer session either equals or excels in quality and equals or exceeds in quantity that of the regular year. Of the 31 universities answering, 28 reported the work as being exactly the same for the sum- mer as for the regular year. The data show also that 22 schools, or about 18 per cent, offer less work; while 7 schools, or about 6 per cent, offer more work. We would conclude, then, that the laboratory work of the average summer school is of lower standard than that of the regular year. Research Work The questionnaire contained the following question rel- ative to research work: Briefly compare research work done during the summer with that done during the regular year. Answers received from 30 universities and 81 normal schools were as follows: 79 schools answered: "None." 13 schools answered : "Work is the same as during regu- lar year." 20 schools answered: "Much less is done during the sum- mer." 8 schools answered: "Work is better, for students are more mature." The Curricula of Summer Schools 63 1 school answered : "Offer advanced work in a number of departments, chiefly nonlaboratory." Of the 42 schools having research during the summer, only 14 were normal schools, and 8 of these reported the work as much less during the summer than during the reg- ular year. But few of the normal schools are making any attempt at research work at any time during the year. The number of schools reporting work as "the same" with those reporting it as "better" is about equal to the number re- porting the work as "less" during the summer." So, from these data no conclusion can be drawn as to the merits of research work done during the summer compared with that done during the regular year. However, a study of a large number of catalogs tends to show that in a majority of the schools there is very little research work done during the summer, and this of a rather elementary nature. Practice Teaching In the general questionnaire the following questions were asked pertaining to practice teaching: 1. How many hours of practice teaching do you offer during the summer? 2. Briefly, what is the nature of such teaching? The following is a summary of replies received from a total of 122 schools (for convenience the answers to both questions are combined) : No. Schools Reply 41 "None." 12 "2 to 4 semester hours. One student teacher does all teaching at first. Lesson plans are prepared by stu- dents and submitted to critic teachers or supervisors. Frequent individual conferences." 13 "Give three hours' credit for summer term. At least three hours' teaching per week required of students." 8 "21/2 to 5 credits allowed. Students required to do 1 to 21/2 hours' teaching daily." 10 "One hour's teaching required daily for half the term of six weeks. Work closely supervised by critic teach- ers." 9 "Same as regular year." 29 "Observation work only. No students teach." The foregoing was supplemented as far as possible by statements from the summer catalogs. "iW?^ 64 Teacher Training in Summer Schools The information, at best, reveals a lack of standardized practice teaching during the summer. The regular cata- logs show that a similar condition obtains during the reg- ular year. But few of the universities make any pretense at carrying on a practice school during the summer, and 29 of the normal schools seem to afford merely observation facilities during the summer, without any attempt at main- taining a regular training school. It is seen that 52 offer or require a certain number of hours' work each day in the practice school, and that 9 of these offer the same nature and amount of work as during any term of the regular year. The catalogs and the replies to the questionnaire indi- cate that there is a lack of uniformity as to the number of practice teachers assigned to each critic teacher or super- visor, the number ranging from 5 to 18 during the summer and from 4 to 20 during the regular year. We would conclude from the data at hand that the prac- tice school during the summer is largely a matter of expe- diency and by no means corresponds in efficiency with the training school of the regular year. As to the effect upon teacher training, this condition is deplorable indeed; for when it is remembered that the summer school is planned and maintained for the purpose of contributing to the pro- fessional equipment of teachers, many of whom receive training from no other source, the significance of the train- ing school becomes evident. Let us indulge the hope that at no distant day the institutions of the country will awaken to a full realization that the training school, thruout the year, should form the core and nucleus of the work of teacher training. Summary A study was made of the curricula of summer schools under the following subject groups: Education, history and social science, geography, English, science, mathemat- ics, manual and fine arts, foreign languages, music, phys- ical education, certificate courses, special courses, and re- view courses. Catalogs of 65 normal schools and 40 uni- versities were examined with a view of determining the nature, purpose, value, and extent of the courses of study offered during the summer, and in what respect these courses compare with those of the regular year. There is shown to be a lack of uniformity as to the num- ber of courses offered in each group ; but there is consider- able uniformity between different sections of the country in the ratio of the number of summer courses to all courses, and also in the ratio of summer courses to regular courses. The Curricula of Summer Schools 65 Relatively, the education group is more highly empha- sized in number of courses, credits offered, and richness of content than any other group. This subject group is more stressed in the Southern schools during the summer than in schools of other sections. The number of courses offered during the summer in nor- mal schools would seem to be disproportionate to the num- ber offered during the regular year. In the universities the ratio seems more consistent. Universities other than Southern have more closely re- lated the summer courses to the regular courses than have the other groups of schools. The content of the courses for the summer session does not differ materially from that of the courses for the reg- ular year. During the summer there seems to be a slight preponder- ance of professional work over academic work. The universities are contributing largely to teacher train- ing thru "teachers' courses," listed as academic work, but organized specifically for teachers. If we consider the "hour" as one recitation a week for a period of twelve weeks, the typical summer course is as- signed 4 hours' credit. The catalogs disclose a tendency toward the elimination of review courses and certificate courses, these being sup- planted by credits for summer attendance upon such courses as are most contributory to professional improvement. Professional and academic work are about evenly di- vided in the normal schools during both the summer and the regular year ; the universities give more emphasis to pro- fessional work during the summer than during the regular year. Laboratory work of the summer appears to be inferior to that of the regular year. Practice teaching during the summer is either entirely lacking or consists mainly in observation work. Research work during the summer is perhaps inferior to that of the regular year. CHAPTER IV THE FACULTIES OF SUMMER SCHOOLS COMPARED WITH THOSE OF THE REGULAR YEAR The preparation of summer faculties compared with that of the regular faculties has become a topic of wide discus- sion and considerable speculative thought, without, how- ever, any adequate investigation. The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the two faculties of a representative number of schools and elucidate points of similarity as well as difference; to point out as far as possible the signifi- cance of the scholarship of summer faculties as to the prob- lem of teacher training ; and, in the light of the facts shown, to make such recommendations as seem feasible and expe- dient. Plan of Study For lack of any other available standard for measuring scholarship, the faculties were analyzed with reference to degrees held, as shown by the catalogs of the schools con- sidered. In order of scholarship attainment, from highest to lowest, all degrees are here reported in terms of five divisions; viz., Ph.D., M.A., B.A., Honorary, and None. All bachelors' degrees are classed as "B.A." degrees, re- gardless of whether such degrees were conferred in some special field or for miscellaneous courses in the School of Arts and Sciences. Teachers holding more than one de- gree are classed under the heading represented by the high- est degree held. For example, if one holds a Ph.D. degree and an M.A. degree, he is classed under the heading "Ph.D." Any earned degree is here considered as higher than any honorary degree. Therefore, those teachers holding hon- orary and other degrees are classed under the heading rep- resented by the highest of the other degrees. Teachers listed in the catalogs as assistants merely are not included in this study, but those listed as assistant professors and associate professors are included. No members of the fac- ulties of practice schools are included, except those desig- nated as directors or principals. M.D. degrees, where the holders appeared to be bona-fide members of the faculty other than in the School of Medicine, are classed as "M.A." degrees. Faculties of schools of medicine and of schools of dentistry are not considered. Faculties of Summer Schools 67 Source and Arrangement of Data The data were gathered from summer and regular cata- logs' of 100 normal schools and 50 colleges and universities. The normal schools were chosen by states rather than by any special merit of any school or group of schools, thus giving a somewhat random selection. State universities were selected as representing what is most typical and most nearly standardized in university and college training. Besides the state universities, the University of Chicago, Teachers College, Johns Hopkins, Harvard, Leland Stanford Junior, and Peabody College were considered.- The faculties for each subject group were listed and to- taled for each school ; also the total for all groups was found for each school. Then the percentage ratio of the number holding each degree to the total holding all degrees was computed for each subject. Then the average per cent holding each degree was found for each subject group in all schools studied. The average percentage relation of the number in the faculty of each subject group to the to- tal number in the faculties of all groups was computed. Thus the relation of the faculty of each subject group to the faculty in each of the other subject groups is plainly shown in the resulting tables. Also the relative number of teachers in the subject groups can be easily seen. The latter fact is of value only with reference to the size of classes and number of students pursuing each group, which will be considered in Chapter V. Tables The succeeding tables show the results of the study. Ta- bles IV and V show the per cent of teachers for the summer sessions in normal schools who were classed under the five headings previously mentioned. For example, in Table IV, on the average, 6 per cent of the 229 teachers of education in the summer sessions of Southern normal schools hold the Ph.D. degree; 20 per cent, the M.A. degree; 29 per cent, the B.A. degree; 1 per cent, an honorary degree only; and 44 per cent, no degree at all. In like manner the faculty for the other subject groups is shown. The tables from IV to XI, inclusive, are alike. It may be noted from Table IV that there is a total aver- age of only 1.7 per cent of the 1,089 teachers in the sum- ' Catalogs of 1916. " In succeeding pages this entire group will be referred to as "uni- versities." mmummmm ittiii mt 68 Teacher Training in Summer Schools mer faculties who hold Ph.D. degrees, 17 per cent who hold M.A. degrees, and so on — a showing of ten times as many M.A. degrees as Ph.D. degrees and twice as many B.A. as M.A. degrees. The number of honorary degrees is insig- nificant, but it is a fact worthy of notice that 47.5 per cent hold no degree at all. From the standpoint of teacher training it is gratifying that the education group ranks among the highest. Also, from Table IV it is seen that in the summer ses- sion of Southern normal schools less than one-fifth of the teachers hold the two highest degrees, while nearly one-half the teachers hold no degree at all. TABLE IV Summer Faculties — State Normal Schools of the South Showing: 1. Total number of instructors considered. 2. Number of instructors in each subject group 3. Per cent of instructors in each subject group holding the different degrees 4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees No. in Each Group Ph.D. M.A. B.A. Hon. None Per Per Per Per Per Total in All Groups, 1,089 Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Education 229 6 20 29 1 44 History and S. S 109 3 25 29 43 Geography 34 33 44 23 English 120 5 23 38 1 33 Science 98 1 16 31 52 Mathematics 87 2 30 36 32 Manual and Fine Arts 174 3 34 63 Foreign Languages 63 33 50 17 Music 76 12 88 Physical Education 44 4 47 49 Other Courses 55 1 17 3 79 Per Cent of Total Holding Each Degree 1.6 17 32 .4 47.5 Faculties of Summer Schools 69 TABLE V Summer Faculties — State Normal Schools Other Than Southern Showing: 1. Total number of instructors considered 2. Nuynber of instructors in each subject group 3. Per cent of instructors in each subject group holding the different degrees 4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees No. in Each Group Ph.D. M.A. B.A. Hon. None Per Per Pei' Per Per Total in All Groups, 1,775 Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Education 426 13 28 28 31 History and S. S 125 11 29 37 23 Geography 71 6 18 32 44 English 142 8 60 26 6 Science 213 7 35 42 16 Mathematics 107 6 16 55 23 Manual and Fine Arts 249 3 18 79 Foreign Languages 89 13 40 35 12 Music 123 1 11 88 Physical Education 106 7 14 79 Other Courses 124 7 32 61 Per Cent of Total Holding Each Degree 6.6 22.7 29.2 41.5 It seems but fair to conclude that, in the light of present standard requirements of teachers in the public schools, especially in the high schools, the faculties of normal schools should be expected to maintain corresponding standards. In this sense Table IV reveals a standard too low. Southern Faculties of Southern Normal Schools Compared With Those of Other Normal Schools A comparison of Tables IV and V gives a slightly better showing for summer faculties of normal schools of other sections than for summer faculties of the South. There is seen to be a greater average per cent of Ph.D. and M.A. degrees, with correspondingly fewer B.A. degrees and those with no degrees. The education group again ranks among the highest. The fact that such a large percentage in both groups of schools holds no degree may be too much emphasized, for the catalogs show that many of those teachers holding no degree have received rather thoro training in normal schools and have received from one summer to three years' college training. Summer Faculty of Normal Schools Compared With Regular Faculty A comparison of Tables IV and VI indicates that the regular faculty of the normal schools of the South has rel- iifiiiiiiimii^ 70 Teacher Training in Summer Schools atively more teachers holding the highest degrees and more holding the B.A. degree than has the summer faculty. TABLE VI Regular Faculties — State Normal Schools of the South Showing : 1. Total number of instructors considered 2. Niimber of instructors in each subject group 3. Per cent of instructors in each subject group holding the different degrees 4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees No. in Each Group Ph.D. Per Total in All Groups, 1,340 Cent Education 255 7 History and S. S 120 4 Geography 67 English 133 4 Science 227 3 Mathematics 134 4 Manual and Fine Arts 122 Foreign Languages 80 Music 67 1 Physical Education 81 Other Courses 54 Per Cent of Total Holding Each Degree 2.8 M.A. B.A. Hon. None Per Per Per Per Cent Cent Cent Cent 24 39 1 29 25 41 10 52 37 11 22 62 12 26 57 14 32 48 16 15 23 62 22 70 8 6 16 77 5 47 48 3 42 55 22.8 45 1 27.4 ',|SB||:'. TABLE VII Regular Faculties — State Normal Schools Other Than Southern Showing: 1. Total number of instructors considered 2. Number of instructors in each subject group 3. Per cent of instructors in each subject group holding the different degrees 4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees No. in Each Group Ph.D. M.A. B.A. Hon. None Per Per Per Per Per Total in All Groups, 2,226 Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Education 445 9 23 37 31 History and S. S 156 6 38 50 6 Geography 67 2 19 62 17 English 223 4 32 50 14 Science 379 5 26 52 17 Mathematics 136 6 14 67 13 Manual and Fine Arts 245 4 26 70 Foreign Languages 158 10 20 56 14 Music 134 2 14 84 Physical Education 133 3 35 60 Other Courses 150 3 28 69 Per Cent of Total Holding Each Degree 4 18 42.4 35 Faculties of Summer Schools 71 It should be noted that both tables show that a very large per cent of the faculties for manual and fine arts, physical education, and music hold no degree. This is perhaps at- tributable to the fact that the two former subjects are com- paratively new, and there is a consequent dearth of teachers, and that the conferring of degrees in music is rather recent, and custom has not demanded degrees in this field. A like comparison of Tables V and VII shows that a larger number of teachers in the regular faculties hold de- grees than in the summer faculty. But the difference is not so marked as in the South. The same subject groups make both the best and the worst showings in the summer session, as in the regular year. The regular faculty shows fewer Ph.D. and M.A. degrees and more B.A. degrees than does the summer faculty. It can also be seen from the total averages of Tables VI and VII that more members of the regular faculty of the Southern normal school hold degrees than do members of the regular faculties of normal schools of other sections. Summer Faculties of Universities Tables VIII and IX show the summer faculties for uni- versities of the South and for other sections. Both tables show a high average of Ph.D. degrees in the faculties of education, history and social sciences, English, science, mathematics, and foreign languages; but Table IX shows a much higher average in those subjects than does Table VIII. The total averages for Table VIII show only 26 per cent with no degree, with 20 per cent, 28 per cent, and 24 per cent holding Ph.D., M.A., and B.A. degrees, respec- tively. Table IX shows that more members of the faculties of universities of other sections hold degrees than do the faculties of Southern universities. Attention is directed to the fact that more than 50 per cent of the teachers of his- tory and social sciences, mathematics, and foreign lan- guages hold Ph.D. degrees. Regular Faculties of Universities Tables X and XI show the -regular faculties for colleges and universities. As to total averages, there is no appre- ciable difference. The same subject groups show high per- centages for the highest degrees, as in the summer faculties. The specially high percentage of the education faculty that hold Ph.D. and M.A. degrees is noticeable, being 54 per cent and 34 per cent, respectively, for the Southern schools, and 54 per cent and 26 per cent, respectively, for schools of other sections. This last fact would justify the conclu- sion that in the average state university of this country the ¥ih 72 Teacher' Training in Summer Schools department of education is provided during the regular year with a faculty as skillful and as well prepared as that of any other department, all of which should signify that consider- able importance attaches to the training of teachers in these institutions. TABLE VIII Summer Faculties — Colleges and Universities of the South Showing: 1. Total number of instructors considered 2. Number of instructors in each subject group 3. Per cent of instructors hi each subject group holding the different degrees 4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees No. in Each Group Ph.D. M.A. B.A. Hon. None Per Per Per Per Per Total in All Groups, 1,004 Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Education 181 23 34 19 4 20 History and S. S 102 39 31 20 6 4 Geography 25 12 60 19 9 English 98 39 28 19 2 12 Science 181 29 37 28 6 Mathematics 80 22 37 29 12 Manual and Fine Arts 100 3 16 27 54 Foreign Languages 95 33 47 13 1 6 Music 61 5 27 68 Physical Education 39 10 34 56 Other Courses 42 16 10 32 3 39 Per Cent of Total Holding Each Degree 22.6 29 23.3 1.6 21.3 TABLE IX Summer Faculties — Colleges and Universities Other Than Southern Shoviting: 1. Total number of instructors considered 2. Number of instructors in each subject group 3. Per cent of instructors in each subject group holding the different degrees 4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees No. in Each Group Ph.D. M.A. B.A. Hon. None Per Per Per Per Per Total in All Groups, 2,053 Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Education 287 42 27 21 3 7 History and S. S 226 59 25 10 4 2 Geography 43 11 24 41 2 22 English 205 33 38 23 1 5 Science 472 44 27 25 1 3 Mathematics 105 54 33 11 2 Manual and Fine Arts 164 7 9 33 51 Foreign Languages 226 54 26 10 1 9 Music 124 9 15 25 51 Physical Education 103 4 17 30 49 Other Courses 98 15 16 49 20 Per Cent of Total Holding Each Degree 31 25 22.7 1.3 15 Faculties of Summer Schools 73 TABLE X Regular Faculties — Colleges and Universities of the South Showing: 1. Total number of instructors considered 2. Number of instructors in each subject group 3. Per cent of instructors in each subject group holding the different degrees 4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees No. in Each Group Ph.D. M.A. B.A. Hon. None Per Per Per Per Per Total in All Groups, 1,660 Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Education 188 52 34 9 5 History and S. S 180 38 24 30 3 5 Geography 9 11 30 40 19 English 118 39 34 21 6 Science 564 28 39 30 3 Mathematics 102 43 26 29 2 Manual and Fine Arts 133 17 36 47 Foreign Languages 183 44 45 8 3 Music 48 1 39 60 Physical Education 52 19 31 50 Other Courses 83 10 11 39 40 Per Cent of Total Holding Each Degree 30 25.4 26 3 12 Regular Faculties- TABLE XI -Colleges and Universities Other Than Southern Showing: 1. Total number of instructors considered 2. Number of instructors in each subject group 3. Per cent of instructors in each subject group holding the different degrees 4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees No. in Each Group Ph.D. Per Total in All Groups, 3,947 Cent Education 394 54 History and S. S 553 . 36 Geography 39 43 English 316 32 Science 1,224 36 Mathematics 197 52 Manual and Fine Arts 355 15 Foreign Languages 442 41 Music 158 4 Physical Education 119 Other Courses 150 12 Per Cent of Total Holding Each Degree 33.4 M.A. B.A. Hon. None Per Cent 26 34 39 38 31 25 23 32 16 10 11 28.3 Per Cent 17 30 18 26 . 26 22 28 21 15 32 43 Per Per Cent Cent 25.3 3 4 7 1 34 6 65 58 34 13.3 -. ^ li i iMii i iiBi 74 Teacher Training in Summer Schools Summer Faculties Compared With Regular Faculties of Universities It is apparent from Tables VIII and X that the regular faculties of Southern universities show to have a larger per cent of the higher degrees than do the summer facul- ties. But when certain subject groups are compared, the difference is still m^ore conspicuous. For instance, only 23 per cent of the summer faculty for education hold the Ph.D. degree and 20 per cent hold no degree, while in the regular faculty for the same subject 52 per cent hold the Ph.D. degree and only 5 per cent hold no degree. A sim- ilar disparity is seen between the summer faculties and the regular faculties for mathematics and foreign languages. Shall we interpret this difference in the faculty for edu- cation to mean that teachers receive better training in the universities during the regular year than during the sum- mer? Our data force us to the affirmative conclusion. The conclusion is further substantiated by Tables XII and XIII, which show that a much larger per cent of the fac- ulty is devoted to education during the summer than dur- ing the regular year ; while in Chapter V it is shown that more teachers are in attendance upon the summer session and that classes in education are larger. Such attendance demands proportionately more teachers for education than for other departments, with less salary paid and a conse- quent lowering of the standard of scholarship. The fur- ther fact that a considerable part of summer work is made up of review courses and certificate courses (Chapter III) tends to force the admission that the summer work is not on a par with the work of the regular year. The fact is more or less mitigated, however, when it is remembered that a fr.r less per cent of students are seeking degrees dur- ing the summer than during the regular year, and, as a result, entrance requirements are far less rigid during the summer. (Chapter V.) The total average of Tables IX and XI show but little difference in the summer faculty and the regular faculty for universities other than Southern. As in the Southern universities, the regular faculty for education shows more of the higher degrees and B.A. degrees than does the fac- ulty of the summer term ; while the opposite is true for his- tory and social sciences, science, and foreign languages. Comparative Number of Teachers in Summer Faculty and Regular Faculty Tables XII and XIII present the average per cent of the entire faculty found in each subject group. It is clearly Faculties of Summer Schools 75 seen that in the normal schools thruout the country the ed- ucation group forms a larger percentage of the faculty than does any other group. It is seen also that Southern normal schools emphasize this group during the summer to a greater degree than during the regular year, the percent- ages being 21 and 19, respectively. The same fact obtains for universities, the percentages being 18 and 14 during the summer as compared with 11 and 10, respectively, during the regular year. TABLE XII Showing Ratio ^f the Total Number of Instructors in Summer Faculties in Each Subject Group to the Total Number in All Groups Normal Schools Colleges and Universities Other Other Southern Sections Southern Sections Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Education 21 24 18 14 History and S. S 10 7 10 11 Geography 3 4 2 2 English 11 8 10 10 Science 9 12 18 23 Mathematics 8 6 8 .j Manual and Fine Arts__ 16 14 10 8 Foreign Languages 6 5 10 11 Music ■_ 7 . 7 6 6 Physical Education 4 6 4 5 Other Courses 5 7 4 5 TABLE XIII Showing Ratio of the Total Number of Instructors in Regular Faculties in Each Subject Group to the Total Number in All Groups Normal Schools Colleges and Universities Other Other Southern Sections Southern Sections Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Education 19 20 11 10 History and S. S 9 7 11 14 Geography 5 3 11 English 10 10 7 8 Science 17 17 34 31 Mathematics 10 6 6 5 Manual and Fine Arts__ 9 11 8 9 Foreign Languages 6 7 11 11 Music 5 6 3 4 Physical Education 6 6 3 3 Other Courses 4 7 5 4 TABLE XIV Showing Average Number of Teachers in Summer Sessions AND IN Regular Year Summer Sessions Regular Year Normal schools of the South 29 37 Normal schools of other sections 35 54 Colleges and universities of the South___ 59 94 Colleges and universities of other sections 86 187 itti 76 Teacher Training in Summer Schools Attention is directed to the large percentage of teachers of science during both the summer and the regular year. From the former tables it may be noted that the science faculties show a very high degree of preparation relative to the large number devoted to the subject. The catalogs, especially those of universities, show that the field of sci- ence, with its many ramifications, completely eclipses all other fields. Even in the education departments, pure sci- ence and scientific research form a very large part of teacher training. Short courses in biology, chemistry, ag- riculture, and pure psychology are offered in the summer sessions. (See Chapter III as to laboratory work.) Table XIV shows the average number of teachers in both the summer and the regular faculties. The normal schools of the South use fewer teachers during both the summer and the regular year than does any one of the three other groups, except the summer faculties of Southern universi- ties. Since the average size of classes is larger in the South than in other sections, we would again conclude that, from the standpoint of faculties, the facilities for teacher training during the summer are inferior to those of other sections. It is further seen from Table XIV that the summer fac- ulties are considerably smaller during the summer than during the regular year. In the light of the fact that the average attendance during the summer is smaller than dur- ing the regular year, so far as absolute number of teachers is concerned, the inference is justifiable that results may be somewhat equalized between the summer-school work and the work of the regular year. Questionnaires Pertaining to Faculties In the general questionnaire sent out the following ques- tions were asked concerning the faculty : 1. What per cent of the regular faculty teach during the summer ? 2. What per cent of faculty teach all the year round? 3. Number of hours' teaching per week — (a) regular session, (b) summer session. Of 150 normal schools and 50 universities to whom the questionnaire was submitted, 85 normal schools and 31 universities answered question 1; 90 normal schools and 28 universities answered question 2 ; and 88 normal schools Faculties of Summer Schools 77 and 30 universities answered question 3. The answers re- duced to percentages and summarized were as follows : Normals Universities Per cent of faculty teaching during the summer 71 59 Per cent of faculty teaching during entire year 68 58 Hours' teaching per week, summer 16 13 Hours' teaching per week, regular year 17 14 These results show that a slightly larger per cent of teachers in the regular faculties of normal schools work during the summer than work during the regular year, while in universities the per cent is about the same, being 59 and 58 per cent, respectively. This fact would signify that, so far as permanent fac- ulties are concerned, the summer school is given about equal prominence with the rest of the year, and the infer- ence is justified that the summer work is more or less a continuation of the program for the regular year. As to number of hours' teaching per week, the advantage seems to be in favor of the summer school. CHAPTER V ATTENDANCE IN SUMMER SCHOOLS Perhaps no feature of summer schools is more significant in determining whether the movement is tributary to the main stream of education, a mere desultory expediency, or an intrinsic part of present educational procedure, than is the personnel and extent of attendance ; for here we may partially determine in a quantitative way just to what ex- tent the summer school is contributing toward a more en- lightened leadership for the school children of both city and country. Sources of Information The nature and the number of questions relative to at- tendance may be seen from the questionnaire. (Chapter I.) The incompleteness of records and the large amount of work entailed in answering some of the questions pre- cluded a whole-souled response from a large number of schools. Nevertheless, the nuniber is sufficiently great to typify in a large measure the nature and extent of attend- ance in the average summer school. The replies have been reduced to percentages of the total enrollment, except the replies to question 8, which are expressed in absolute num- bers. The replies are compiled separately for normal schools and for universities. The following table shows the results, based upon the attendance for the summer of 1916. The numbers in parentheses represent the number of schools replying. PER CENT OF TOTAL ENROLLMENT InNorvial Schools In Universities 1. For full summer session 14% men 28% men 76% women (81) 61% women (30) 2. For part of summer session 2% men 2% men 8% women 9% women 3. Working for degree or diploma 40% (73) 44% (28) 4. Receiving a degree or diploma for summer work only Practically none Practically none 5. Receiving a degree or diploma for summer and regular work 6% (85) 4% (31) 6. Teachers enrolled: a. College teachers Practically none 5% (26) b. High-school teachers 5% (68) 24% (28) c. Elementary teachers 63% (60) 17% (21) d. Principals 5% (71) 11% (23) e. Superintendents 3% (69) 5%o (27) f. Supervisors 3% (58) 4% (14) g. Rural 47% (89) 12% (15) h. Working for a degree Few reported or 30% (12) not known Attendance in Summer Schools 79 PER CENT OP TOTAL ENROLLMENT . . , ^^^ J!formaI Schools Tn Uviversifies 7, Not expecting: to teach 10% (16) 31% (lu) 8. Average number in classes: a. During- re^lar year 21 (69) 19 (27) b. During summer 24 (69) 23 (27) It may be observed from the table that there are five times as many women enrolHng for the full term in normal summer schools and twice as many women in the univer- sity summer schools as there are men enrolling, and there IS an average of 10 per cent that enroll for only part of the session. In view of the fact that of 124 normal schools and 179 colleges and universities holding summer sessions in 1916 the median length of term was 7.25 weeks (Chapter I)' and 92 per cent of these 303 schools held a session of more than six weeks, the foregoing report on enrollment indi- cates that 90 per cent of the total enrollment in the sum- mer schools receive the advantages of at least 7 weeks' training during the summer. Since the group of univer- sities to which the questionnaire was sent includes only those of highest rank and consequently holding longest summer sessions, their median term is higher than that of the total 179 colleges and universities not of highest rank. Therefore, it seems safe to conclude that a majority of those enrolled in summer sessions are in attendance from 8 to 10 weeks ; and since 9 per cent of the 303 schools have a median of 12 weeks, assuredly 9 per cent of the enroll- ment herein reported attended a session of 12 weeks. In like manner (Chapter I), it is evident that 16 per cent attend a term of 8 weeks, 8 per cent a term of 9 weeks, and 8 per cent a term of 10 weeks. The vast importance and the far-reaching significance of such attendance in the training of teachers can hardly be estimated, for it shows that the teachers of this country are availing themselves of the opportunity which the summer school offers for ma- terial improvement and permanent advancement. Answers to question 3 show that 40 per cent and 44 per cent of those enrolling in normal schools and universities, respectively, were working for a degree or a diploma. This fact may be interpreted as an indication that the standard requirements for teachers are being raised, and that the summer school is serving as one of the avenues thru which teachers may improve their scholarship to a degree com- mensurate with the requirements of such standard. An- swers to question 4 show that practically no degrees have been conferred for summer work alone, which fact is partly due to regulations of many of the institutions. Such a 80 Teacher Training in Summer Schools regulation is inconsistent with educational progress and the demands for better-trained teachers. Every barrier against the teacher's advancement should be removed. Every institution should make it possible for teachers to avail themselves of the summer session for obtaining a de- gree and thereby increase their possibilities for more eflS- cient and worthy service. In replying to question 6, a number of the schools in- cluded rural teachers under the item "elementary teachers." It is therefore difficult to ascertain just what per cent of the enrollment is rural and what per cent city-elementary. This error causes a discrepancy in the total per cents when added for 100, but it does not prevent an analysis of the problem as to the most important points. There is evi- dently a small enrollment of college teachers, supervisors, and superintendents in both normal schools and universi- ties, there being more of each, however, in the universities than in the normal schools. It seems that the normal schools enroll no college teachers and that only 5 per cent of their enrollment is principals. The preponderance of ele- mentary and rural teachers is evident in the normal schools. It would appear that the universities enroll the major part of the high-school teachers and also of those working for degrees. Furthermore, it is seen that teachers constitute about 90 per cent of the total enrollment in the normal schools and about 70 per cent in the universities. Since some of these questions were answered by only a few schools, the conclusions are more or less approximations ; but, judging from the exact replies obtained, the estimates are none too high, but are rather conservative. The replies to question 8 indicate that average classes are larger during the summer than during the regular year, but the difference is perhaps not so great as to affect mate- rially the equality of advantages offered. When it is remembered that the total enrollment in the summer schools of the United States in 1916 was about 300,000, or 38 per cent of the entire teaching force of the nation, their tremendous importance as an agency for train- ing teachers becomes obvious. Nor does this enrollment include the more than 20,000 pupils in the summer prac- tice and observation schools held in connection with teacher- training schools. Neither does it include the many sum- mer schools failing to report to the Bureau of Education. CHAPTER VI MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS The following miscellaneous questions not considered in previous chapters were included in the questionnaire: 1. Do you have the four-quarter plan? Of 111 schools replying, 41 answered: *'Yes." 2. If not, do you favor such a plan? Of 70 replying, 42 answered, "No," and 28 answered par- tially in the affirmative. (Practically all answers to this question expressed the decision of faculties.) 3. Did you go on the four-quarter plan as a result of the war? Of 42 schools replying, 9 answered: "Yes." 4. Or are you likely to do so on account of the war ? Of 66 replying, 58 answered, "No," and 8 answered that they did not know. This part of the questionnaire would have been far more satisfactory had it been sent to all schools in the country that hold summer sessions. The replies are, however, suffi- cient to indicate partially the tendency with reference to the four-quarter plan. Since about 40 per cent of the 111 schools replying now have the four-quarter .plan, there is obviously a considerable tendency toward the plan. Furthermore, as has been pre- viously shown (Chapter I), a large number of schools now have a modified four-quarter plan, as their length of sum- mer term is from 8 to 10 weeks, and credit is given for a full quarter's work. Again, the answers to question 2 show that 40 per cent of those schools not on the four- quarter plan manifest toward it a favorable attitude ; which attitude is not transient, for only 9 schools, or 20 per cent, went on the four-quarter plan as a result of the war. Most of the affirmative replies come from universities and four- year normal schools, which tend to show that it is mainly these institutions that favor utilizing the school plant for the entire year. Very few of the two-year normal schools have the four-quarter plan. 8. In general, compare the merits of your summer-school work with that of the regular year. The answers to question 8 were expressed in divers ways ; but, as to meaning, each may be interpreted in one of three ways — namely, the work of the summer school is superior to that of the regular year, it is essentially the same as that of the regular year, or it is inferior to that of the reg- Mii ii M iii r i tti i iiiiii^^ ^ 82 Teacher Training in Summer Schools ular year. Of 29 universities replying, 9 reported the work as superior, 16 as essentially the same, and 4 as . inferior. Of 88 normal schools replying, 18 schools, or 21 per cent, reported the work as superior; 46 schools, or 53 per cent, as the same; and 23 schools, or 27 per cent, as inferior to that of the regular year. The answers to this question are very si,f;nificant as show- ing just what estimate the higher institutions are placing upon their summer work and what disposition some of the leaders in educational plans maintain toward the movement for the all-year-round school. Many of the answers are more or less characterized by a note of optimism, enthusi- asm, or genuine hopefulness. Even the answers designat- ing the work as inferior are usually qualified by commend- atory statements or mitigating explanations. The fol- lowing replies, taken at random and representing all sec- tions of the country, are illustrative : ' "The same standard is maintained." "Students more serious-minded and work harder." "Inferior, Mainly to meet certificate requirements." "There is no appreciable difference." "Work is essentially the same. Presence of teachers im- proves interest." "Work more intensive. Results equally as good." "In general, have best work during the summer session." "The tail v/ags the dog." "Same plan, except a series of special review classes and lectures are offered to summer-school students." "About the same." "Student body older, more serious, study harder, work more satisfactory." "Maintain the same standards as during the regular year." "Thoroughly practical, both from the standpoint of the teacher and classes, and the finest sort of spirit. Every phase of work compares favorably with regular session." "Students all more mature, and so the work is fully as good or better. Fewer distracting influences during the summer." "Usually better work done during the summer." "Work is about on a par with that of the regular session. Our summer students are nearly all teachers." "Summer students much more mature, hence do stronger work and use what they get more intelligently. Winter students have no fixed habits, so more amenable to sugges- tions," ■M Miscellaneous Considerations S3 "We see very little difference between work of summer session and regular year. Students, as a rule, are more mature. The summer quarter's attendance is larger, as many students are completing their work in that manner, or else they wish to prepare on special lines. I have had no complaint from members of the faculty of the classes in summer schools." "Same in credit value as winter. We try to make all work equally efficient. Students of summer term are usu- ally stronger and more diligent." "As good in every respect." "No special difference." The foregoing replies indicate that the prime motive for maintaining the summer school is to aid in training teach- ers and also to give students not expecting to teach a chance to pursue their work toward degrees, and that in a major- ity of the summer schools reporting the work is equal to or superior to that of the regular year. While some of the previous chapters do not in all particulars vouchsafe the rathe*' sweeping statements here given, when taken in their entirety, they do not contradict them. The conclusion that, technically, the summer school is in all respects equal to the regular year is not justified by the facts, But when viewed in the broadest sense, and especially with reference to the number of teachers improved in scholarship and in- spired toward higher ideals, the summer school is perhaps unsurpassed by any other agency. :::^iiiiii mgiiiing,,^ CHAPTER VII SOME GENERAL ADVANTAGES AND WEAKNESSES OF SUMMER SCHOOLS Besides the specific merits and demerits of summer schools already mentioned, the following general features are apparent: 1. Kural teachers are given opportunity for improvement in both method and scholarship. While the university sum- mer schools enroll comparatively few rural teachers, they constitute a large per cent of enrollment in the summer ses- sions of state normal schools. These teachers are thus per- mitted to raise the grade of their certificates, to renew them, or to obtain college credit in lieu of them. The last choice is rapidly gaining precedence, for the school laws of many states require attendance upon a summer session as a condition for teaching or for the renewal of certificates. By such attendance teachers are brought face to face with the latest methods of teaching and are permitted also to ob- tain courses of instruction in class management. They may also receive suggestions for the solution of their own individual or local problems. Again, by enrolling in aca- demic classes, teachers may from summer to summer im- prove their scholarship. 2. The summer school is a great factor in raising educa- tional standards. Only a few years ago grave apprehension was expressed lest summer schools degenerate into mere "institutes." Facts tend to show that such fears were un- grounded. While as a whole the work of the summer school is not on a parity with that of the regular year, most certainly the vast number of teachers it reaches and whose scholarship is thereby improved warrants the assertion that it is a most powerful agency in raising educational values, in enlarging the teacher's conception of her work, and in exalting her ideals of education. 3. The summer school broadens the general educational outlook of teachers. Unquestionably one of the greatest benefits received by teachers from a session in a summer school comes from the personal contact and the professional association with other teachers in other fields of work and from other sections of the state or nation. Thousands of teachers are thus permitted to gain breadth of vision and imbibe inspiration from men and women of broader and deeper culture. In addition to this general uplift, the teacher may avail herself of specific instruction from ex- Advantages and Weaknesses of Summer Schools 85 perts representing the large institutions of the country. Teachers may pursue regular courses with the very best instructors, and perhaps have time left for general lectures and social intercourse with their fellow teachers. Besides, summer schools offer many wholesome diversions. Cata- logs of summer schools now emphasize the facilities offered for high-class entertainment. Such entertainment in the form of lectures, dramas, scenic trips, games, and social functions, gives the teacher a change of attitude, and her summer months become a profitable means of recreation and realization. Such diversions, combined with profes- sional training, send the teacher away with renewed vigor and strength, in a more optimistic frame of mind, and with a more determined and exalted purpose. 4. The summer school is an effective agency for improv- ing teachers in service. Unlike the members of other pro- fessions, the teacher is offered a liberal opportunity for perfecting her preparation while engaging in her work. With a minimum of initial preparation, she is given the chance of gradually rounding out her scholarship. The summer school is the chief instrument thru which this is done. It offers an opportunity for gradual growth and confers upon the teacher the possibility of realizing high professional attainment. Too, this opportunity reaches thousands of teachers who could not otherwise rise higher. Their very meager salaries preclude them from sparing the time and money for continuous attendance at college or uni- versity. Obviously, then, the summer school becomes a great economic factor in the training of teachers. 5. The summer school gives an economic advantage, in the use of school plants, equipment, and time saved to stu- dents. The millions of dollars in the form of school plants, when put to use during the summer, yield a handsome div- idend, and at the same time meet such Qverhead expenses as are continuous thruout the year regardless of the use of the plant. Expensive laboratory equipment when idle depreciates almost as much in value as when in use and represents a vast investment of capital. Another economic feature of great significance is that college professors are offered employment thruout the year, such work offering a change of recreation equivalent to the effects of the same time spent in idleness or rest. The economic value of the time saved to students is of tremendous importance. On the four-quarter plan there is plainly a saving of one year out of four to the student working for the bachelor's de- gree. Therefore, education is hastened, the army of teach- ers augmented, and the standard of teachers' preparation 86 Teacher Training in Summer Schools proportionately raised. Since the war the necessity for speeding up our educational output becomes more appar- ent, and for doing so the summer school offers a most plausible method. Such an agency is of vast importance to the teachers and other college students returning from the army, since by attending a summer school for three sessions the loss of a year in the army may be retrieved. Such are a few of the commendable features of the sum- mer school. Among many weaknesses, the following are the most salient : 1. The foregoing chapters show that as an agency for disseminating higher education, the summer school is far beyond the rudimentary stage; but it has not yet reached the high level demanded by the standards set by our great- est educational leaders and by the high ideals of American life. The work, as a whole, is not equivalent to the thoro scholarship offered during the regular year, and perhaps will never be so until the courses of the summer session are accorded the same prestige as the courses of the regular year. The work remains too much as a link between the quasi-academic public and the university. 2. Laboratory and research work is not sufficiently em- phasized. Such work should be offered in cycles and of the highest standard and greatest practicability, substituting original work for that of mere erudition and of quality for that of quantity. 3. There still lingers a tendency of the summer school to broaden rather than to deepen scholarship and culture, as is shown by a careful consideration of the courses of study offered. This tendency seems to be gradually disappear- ing, but many summer schools extend a false hope to those desiring to gain precise technical knowledge. By no means should the summer school endeavor to accomplish in a few weeks what should require a year of patient and painstak- ing work, accompanied by research and laboratory. Glam- our and veneering must not be substituted for depth, and the summer school must help to decrease rather than in- crease the number of poorly-trained teachers. Bihliogra'phy BIBLIOGRAPHY 87 Adams, Herbert B. — Catholic Summer Schools of America, Bureau of Education, Report, 1894-95, I: 1065-77. American Monthly Review of Reviews — American Summer Schools, 1892-99, 5: 421-22, May, 1892; 7: 539-42, May, 1898; 9: 939-43, May, 1894; 11: 530-34, May, 1895; 13: 853-55, May, 1896; 15: 554-55, May, 1897; 17: 540-41, May, 1898; 19: 583-85, May, 1899. Bond, Beverley W. — Practical Methods in Summer Sessions, History Teacher's Magazine, 5: 123-25, April, 1914. Bulletins, Bureau of Education, Nos. 48 and 449. Bureau of Education, Report, 1891-92: 891-959;" Repart, 1917, Vol. I: 481-497. Carney, F. — Efficiency of Summer Schools, Nation, 89: 509, Novem- ber 25, 1909. Catalogs of summer schools and of regular sessions of 50 universities and 150 normal schools in the United States, sessions of 1916. Chautauqua, 39: 474-76, July, 1904. Claxton, P. P. — Value of Summer Schools, Virginia Journal of Edu- cation, 4: 427-29, April, 1911. Columbia University Summer Session — Columbia University Quar- terly, 11: 19-27, December, 1908. Fletcher, Tom^The Teacher and the Summer School, Texa's School Journal, 29: 11-12, January, 1912. Judd, Charles H.— Summer Schools in United States, Bureau of Ed- ucation, Report, 1913, Vol. I: 545-51. Macdonald, William — Status of the Summer School, Nation, 89: 202- 3, September 2, 1919. Marsh, J. F. — The University Summer School and the Training of Teachers, West Virginia Educational Conference, Proceedings, 1915: 25-28. Mayer, A. G.— Should Our Colleges Establish Summer Schools? Science, 23: 703-4, May, 1910. Meaders, A. J.— The Summer School Worth While, Arkansas Teacher, 4: 11-12, March, 1916. Morgan, W. P. — The Summer Normal, School News and Practical Educator, 29: 261-62, February, 1916. Mosher, Warren F., and Conaty, Rev. T. J. — Retrospective and Pro- spective Views of the Catholic Summer Schools of America, Mosher's Magazine, 14: 161-70, July, 1899. Mullaney, Rev. John F.— Summer Schools and Their Relation to Higher Education, Proceedings of the Thirty-First University Convocation, University of New York, 1893: 484-90. Rembert, A. G.— The Summer School and the Better-Trained Teacher, Southern School News, 1 : 3-4, 7-9, February and March, 1910. 88 Teacher Training in SuTnmer Schools Euediger, William Carl — Summer Schools, in his Agencies for the Improvement of Teachers in Service, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 3, 1911. School Education Co., Minneapolis — Report of the Teachers' Training Schools of Minnesota, 1895. School Laws of the Various States of the Union. School Announcements from Early Summer Schools in the United States; also reports from these same schools. Spread of Summer Schools, Independent, 55 : 1698-1700, July 16, 1903. Stewart, Jane A. — The Summer School, Journal of Education, 84: 13, 17, July 6, 1916. Summer Normals — Virginia Journal of Education, 1: 27-31, October, , 1907. The Summer School — Dial, 16: 313-15, Historical Statement. Summer Schools and Continuovis Sessions of University and College, Monroe, Cyclopedia of Education, Vol. 5: 450-52. Texas, Department of Education — Suggestive Course of Study for Summer Schools, Circular 'No. 28c. Vincent, George E. — Growth and Future of Summer Schools, Chau- tauqua, 41: 428-35, July, 1905. Ward, David A. — The University Summer School as a Training School for Teachers. How Can It Be Improved in This Respect? West Virginia University Conference, Proceedings, 1915: 29-33. White, Emerson E. — Professional Training of Teachers in Summer Schools, N. E. A. Report, 1894: 100-106. Willoughby, Westel W. — History of Summer Schools in the United States, Bureau of Education, Report, 1891-92, Vol. II: 893-959. ii MM liiiiiiiiiiiit. ii ■5