it' 1 bo^ ©0^ .> ^ A-^ X . ^ ^ ^:# ;>^^. .0 c ■^^> .<^' -^ ,xx^' ^ •^'^'^%^- ^ ><^ .^ ^r -^"^ 0^ e '^ ON , ':^ * N ^ x'^ "-^ lie till he is tired ; and when he chooses to get up, treat him very gentl}^ as if he had been doing every thing that was right. By these means a young ox will in a few days be broken to his labor. With gentle treatment, he is alwaj^s of the same temper ; always of the same aptitude to labor." A new scholar should be broken in, to the regulations of a school, if not in the same way, at least on the same principles. But what is to be done with' the thoroughly incorrigible ; the one that has imbibed habits of confirmed depravity, and on whom admonitions and efforts have all been expended in vain ? I think there can be but one answer — dismiss him. In this case there are bad influences 02ct of school, operating more powerful^, and counteract- ing but too successfully the good influences of discipline and instruction. Unless these could be removed, the prospect of reformation is hopeless ; and, therefore, you are not only justified, but bound, out of regard to the welfare of the rest, at once to separate him from the school. In Sunday schools, where it is possible to isolate in a great measure a youth of this description, and to keep him almost exclusively under the eye of a judicious teacher, it may be desirahle to retain our hold as long as he is willing to attend ; but in schools where num- bers are to be governed by one teacher, this degree of care is manifestly impossible. It is then far SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 51 better that one should be abandoned to his folly, than that the whole school should be corrupted by his iniquity.* Before concluding this letter, I must very briefly refer to the too frequent absence of good order in Sunday schools. I am not ignorant of the pecul- iar difficulties which stand in the way, and fre- quently impede the exercise of discipline in these institutions. There is in the minds of some Sun- day school teachers a constant shrinking from the exercise of authority, lest the child should be dis- gusted with school, and withdraw itself altogether from the influences of Christian instruction. The only remedy that I can suggest, is, the adoption of a cyurse which, I doubt not, has frequently been urged upon attention ; viz. the exercise by teach- ers generally, of greater care in the selection of superintendents, and of greater humility in sub- mitting to their arrangements. These men should be chosen chiefly on account of their ability to govern ; and when chosen, they should be " esteemed very highly in love for their work's sake." From the remarks which have been made in this letter on the government of schools gene- rally many important princijyles may be gathered, which, with some trifling modifications, will admit of general adoption in Sunday schools. The par- * I have recently heard of two instances in which expulsion has led to the reformalion of the offender. The possibility of this result should not be kept altogether out of sight. 63 SCHOOL teacher's manual. ticular mode of their application must be left to the judgment of experienced teachers. In conclusion, let me again remind you, that cJiildren naUtrally love order. They may not like the means by which alone it can be secured, but when it is secured, they are always the happier for it. A strict disciphne, unstained by severity, never weaned the affections of any child, either from his schooler his teacher. If, therefore, you would at once promote your own comfort, the happiness of your pupils, and their highest wel-^ fare — maintain good government. LETTER IV.— TO THE SAME. *'didaktik," or the art of communi- ; GATING. By this word (didalctik), which the Germans have adopted from the Greek, I wish you to under- stand, the art of teaching; as distinguished on the one hand, from their methodik^ or science of meth- ods ; and on the^ other from their jpadagogik^"^ or science of education ; of which the art of com- municating is only one part or division. You will readily perceive that it is an attainment per- fectly distinct from any particular plan or system ; and also a very different thing from w^hat is usu- ally termed tact 171 teaching. It is in fact, the art of so communicating knowledge, that the pupil shall, as far as possible, comprehend in all its rela- tions, the truth sought to be imparted ; and that, associating what is thus received, with other and * Dr. Bryce (of Belfast) suggests the word padeutics, which may be considered as both an art and a science; an art when it lays down rules, a science when it teaches general principles. 5# 54 SCHOOL teacher's manual. previous acquisitions, he may be led at one and the^ same time, to cultivate his original faculties, and to store his mind richly and permanently with valuable facts. THis is what I mean by " the art of teaching," a talent which few naturally possess, but which may doubtless be acquired by the careful and diligent study of the human mind, in connection with a moderate share of ^'practice." The use of this latter word suggests an analogy which, certainly to some extent, subsists between the profession of teaching and that of medicine. He who would be an accomplished physician, must study principles, as well as " see cases ;" and, in like manner, he who would be a useful teacher, must look beyond the systems to the principles on which they rest. The man who thinks himself qualified to teach, merely because he has observed others teaching on a particular plan, is just as much an empiric, as the medical pretender whose course of study has been limited to occasional walks through the wards of a hospital. It was in connection with this view of the subject, (its relation to the philosophy of the human mind,) that Dr. Thomas Brown, of Edinburgh, spoke of - the art of teaching as ''the noblest, and in pro- portion to its value, the least studied of all the arts." When examined in this light, it cannot fail, I think, to be recognised as an attainment equally important to day and to Sunday school teachers; because, it bears as directly on the SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 55 efFectual communication of Divine, as of secular knowledge. After these remarks, from which you may- gather the notions I entertain of the length and breadth of this subject, it is scarcely necessary for me to add, that a letter, like the present, can, of necessity, contain little more than a few brief hints, relating indeed to the art in question, but by no means sufficient for its entire comprehension. Before this can be accomplished, many a volume must be studied ; and, let me say, too, many a night passed in deep reflection upon the observa- tions of the day. I will suppose you, then, actuated by a sincere desire to communicate instruction in the best pos- sible way, entering your school room, perplexed and harassed" by the waywardness and indiffer- ence of your pupils ; and that in this state of mind you put the question, ''What can I do to excite attention, to stimulate dulness, to awaken effort ?" I reply, in the first place, as preliminary indeed to every thing else, — ^bring distinctly before your own mind the well-known fact, that children delight as imich in exercishig their minds as their limhs ; provided only that which is presented to them, be suited to their capacities, and adapted to their strength.* ^ Probably it is no exaggeration to say that the appetite for know- ledge is as great as any bodily appetite. To know, is one of the 56 SCHOOL teacher's manual. '' It was but this morning, (says a recent writer on education,) that I watched a young lazaroni, while he sought to make his little crazy boat lie straight and steady upon the water. How fertile was he in expedients ; how ingenious in contri- vances ; how resolute against despair ! First, were the waves too strong ; he sought out, therefore, a more sheltered spot : he next adjusted the balance and unfurled the sails — still without success. He then looked around him in much perplexity, till some of that long sea-w^eed, which is scattered over the coast after a storm, caught his eye : this he seized eagerly, and peeling it into long strips, he tied with them his little boat to a stone, (his sheet anchor ;) and then wading as far out as the w^eed would permit, and so shaping his course that a neighboring jetty might afford him smooth and tranquil water, he again placed his boat upon the sea. There he stood breathless, his hands busied with his burdens, his shirt tucked up and held by his teeth, but still half floating on the water, and his face troubled as though with his last hope. One moment he seemed to have succeeded ; the next, and his boat again lay with its side upon the strongest desires of childhood ; to obtain a new word is pleasant, and to gain a newideais pleasanter still; but to be crammed with words without ideas is very painful. Dr. Johnson was any thing but a philosopher, when he said that *'no attention cau be obtained from children without the infliction of pain." Happily for this- gen- eration, this notion is now nearly exploded. SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 57 waves : he did not however even then despair, but sat himself upon the beach, with an old nail and a stone, to devise some other remedy."* Now, we have only to make our experiments equally interesting to the youthful mind, in order to excite and to sustain the same ardor. It is a great mistake to suppose, as many do, that, in order to make learning pleasant to the young, difficulties must as much as possible be removed out of the way. On the contrary, it is in teaching them to overcome difficulties, that we shall be most likely to create the interest we are so desirous of calling forth. As a general rule, it should be the care of a teacher to supply his pupils from day to day with a succession of topics, somewhat heyond their knowledge^ without being above their comprehension. General rules, how^ever, will not suffice for the guidance of young teachers ; they want details, examples, illustrations ; and without these, rules are w^orthless. If, therefore, I should sometimes enlarge on certain branches of instruction with a minuteness which their relative importance would scarcely seem to justify ; if I should stop to weigh confficting opinions on points which may at first sight appear in themselves too trifling for discus- sion; if I should sometimes, for the sake of -eluci- dation, descend to apparent littleness ; remember * Outline of a System of National Education. London, 1835. 58 SCHOOL teacher's manual. that I do so, not because I am either regardless of the importance of condensation, or insensible to the ofFensiveness of puerility ; but because I am determined in these letters to sacrifice every thing else to perspicuity and practical usefulness. The Alphabet is usually the first subject pre- sented to the notice of a child at school ; and a more difficult or tiresome lesson he is never doomed to meet with in his whole future course. The 7iaines of the letters are unmeaning and arbi- trary sounds ; and with two or three exceptions, theforms are not associated with any object previ- ously recognised. How can such an exercise be expected to produce any thing but weariness and disgust ? You will be glad to hear that men of the highest attainments in literature, have not thought it beneath their character and standing to endeavor at least to facilitate the passage across this ' bridge of sighs.' Mr. Wood, of the Sessional School, Edinburgh, whose views I shall first mention, attaches no importance to the orde?' in which the letters are learned. He ridicules the idea of perplexing chil- dren at this period with any division of the letters into vowels and consonants : or the still further classification of consonants into mtitesj liquids^ semi- vowels J and double consonants; and he disapproves, as equally unsuited to their capacities, the distraction of their minds with labials^ dentals^ gutturals and na- sals; even though accompanied by the explanation, SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 59 that these hard words mean nothing more than Zip, teetlt^ throaty and nose sounds. No attempt, however, appears to have been made at the Ses- sional school, to remove the tedium invariably connected with this branch of instruction ; unless, indeed, an artificial exhibition of the twenty-six letters on a box, contrived by the late Dr. Andrew Thompson, for the use of his own parish school, can be thus designated. Professor Pillans, in some lectures which he delivered in the year 1827, on the theory and practice of teaching, proposes, on the contrary, to arrange the alphabetic** characters in brother- hoods, according to the organs of voice used in pronouncing them ; and to teach the child the knowledge of his letters at first, and for a long time, in this way only. " We should thus avoid," he says, " the greatest diffi- culty the child encounters in learning the alphabet, that of recollecting the sequence or arrangement of the letters. The order of their succession in our common alphabet is entirely capricious, and appears, indeed, to be purely accidental ; and a knowledge of it, so far from being indispensable at the outset, is at that stage alto- gether useless for any practical purpose. Yet, in the ordinary way, the child is arrested, and unseasonably detained in the very porch of learning, by being com- pelled to name, and not to name only, but to learn by heart, a series of letters, which have not one associating tie to bind them in the memory, but juxta-position. It 60 SCHOOL teacher's manual. is stringing beads, as it were, on a thread of sand. It may be well he should know this alphabetic arrange- ment when he comes to consult a dictionary ; but I really cannot see its use for any other purpose. On the other hand, by the classification of letters in their cog- nate relations, the acquisition of them may be made an amusing exercise. The attention of the child being drawn to the organs of voice employed in each set, he makes experiments upon them, in imitating the sounds he hears, and has thus a guide to the pronunciation of each letter, which greatly facilitates his acquaintance with their form and power."* Jacotot, to whose principles and methods I shall hereafter have occasion to refer, meets the diffiulty in by far the^best manner ; he gets rid of alpha- betic teaching altogether, and introduces the pupil, from the first, to a knowledge of words. At the Borough Road school, the principle of dispensing with alphabetic teaching has long been adopted : the alphabet class has merged in that of chil- dren in two letters ; and all unmeaning combina- tions have been utterly excluded.t The advantage is obvious. If the word ''me," ''in," or "to," for instance, be mentioned, the child recognizes a familiar sound, and judging by the ear, he almost instinctively answers, m-e, to the question, " Can you spell the word me ?" If, after having men- "* Pillans' Letters to Kennedy. t '* The Mother's Primer, by T. H. Gallaudet," now in use in the primary schools in Boston, teaches words before letters. SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 61 tloned the word, the monitor tells him to point on the lesson to the letters which compose it, his curi- osity is excited, and the gratification attendant on a successfiil effort, excites a desire to encounter new difficulties.*' Spelling. We learn to spell, chiefly, if not exclusively, in order that we may be able to write correctly ; that method, therefore, which will most speedily and effectually enable us to carry the relative situations of the letters in the mind, so that whenever we wish to express our thoughts on paper, we can do so without misplacing them, is certainly the best. Now, as writing a word is a slower operation than orally spelling it ; and as the mind is obliged in that exercise to dwell longer on the relative situation of every letter, than it is in mere pronunciation, the ortliogra])hj of the word * The absurdity of teaching the letters of the alphabet by their arbitrary names, in place of their sounds, has long been fell in France and Germany. We tell a child to say peaytch-wi-es-i-see, and then call upon him to pronounce it. What would he conclude, if he reasoned, but that it mnsihe peaytchwiesisee, and by what magic can he learn that it should be pronounced^ziA: ! A striking illustration of this occurred in a school which I visited. Two bright children of six years of age, could repeat every letter of a word at sight, and then would look up, with an innocent, inquiring face, to their teacher, unable to divine how this cabalistic combination of sounds should be pronounced together, until he repeated the word. It seems they had formerly been guided by the pictures of the objects annexed to the words, and had pronounced the name as they had learned to speak it. But, the perfect knowledge of the Utters afforded uo clue to the sound of the word. — JVoodbridge. 6 62 SCHOOL teacher's manual. must be more deeply impressed on the memory by writing, than it can be in any other way. When, therefore, the learner has become able to write, this mode of teaching him to spell should by no means be neglected. " Reading should invariably precede spelling. I do not mean that the child should be kept a long time in learning to read, before he commences spelling ; but that he should never be set to spell a word until he has first become able readily to read it. The reason is, that reading is much easier than spelling, and that a person cannot spell by thinking hovr a word sounds^ but he must recollect how it looks. The eye, there- fore, as well as the ear, must become familiar with a word, before it can readily be spelled. One thing that renders reading easier than spelling,- is, that perception is more vivid and distinct than conception. Hence it is easier to distinguish two similar words, as cat and rat^ or eat and tea^ when the eye is fixed upon them in read- ing, than it is to recollect the difference in their orthog- raphy, when they are absent from the eye."* These judicious remarks coincide in the main, with the substance of a lecture upon this branch of tuition, delivered by another practical teacher, before the convention of teachers, assembled to form the American Institute of Instruction in 1830. Both agree that the words to be spelled should first be embodied in reading lessons, and * Parkhurst. SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 63 afterwards arranged in columns ; and both insist that the evidence of their being possessed by the pupil should in all cases be rendered in writing. On this point the lecturer justly observes, — " III all branches susceptible of it, the exercises, the results of study, should be presented to the eye^ as the best organ of communication with the mind. What- ever is acquired through this medium, is better retained than when entering through any other. It may be said, the eye remembers. It is more attentive than the ear. Its objects are not confused. It takes in a single and perfect image of what is placed before it, and transfers the picture to the mind. Hence ail illustrations in our teaching which can possibly be addressed to this organ, should be so applied."* The plan pursued at the model-school in the Borough Road, which plan is fully explained in the Manual of the society, is perhaps the best that can be devised. " The spelling lessons, which are printed in both roman and italic type, to exercise the children in read- ing various characters, exhibit a two-fold arrangement. The names of things are arranged under various heads, such as trades, measures, vegetables, quadrupeds, cloth- ing, fruit, medicine, flowers, birds, &c. ; and columns * Thayer. Since the above was written, this lecture and several others of a similar character, delivered in the United States, have been reprinted in London, under the title of " the Schoolmaster," 2 vols. Knight, Ludgate Hill. 64 SCHOOL teacher's manual. of other words are placed alphabeticallj. Tlie last fifteen lessons of the set consist of a selection of words, approximating in sound, but different in spelling and signification. They embrace the principal orthographi- cal irregularities of the language. The whole set con- sists of sixty folio lessons, containing, besides four alphabets, nearly six thousand words ; selected prima- rily for the purpose of communicating a complete knowledge of English orthography, and revised with the design of including a very extensive range of use- ful knowledge, and inducing habits of observation and inquiry. The plan of teaching is invariable throughout the series ; the pupils are expected to spell, read, and explain every word. Suppose, for instance, the word to be ' he.' The first boy would say h, e — he ; and the second boy would, without giving a regular defini- tion, express his sense of its meaning. He may be supposed to say, 'him;' or 'not me;' or, putting it in a sentence, say, ' he is here.' Any answer which indicates a knowledge of the word should be accepted, however homely either in language or illustration. The same remark applies to all the definitions they give : if the idea be correctly received, repeated demands for explanation will soon lead to more suitable language and more correct definitions. The two principal points to be attained by the pupil, are, the comprehension of the meaning of the term, and the power of expressing that meaning in suitable language. " The meanings of the words in the alphabetical col- umns, which are generally derivative, the pupils learn by being exercised in separating the prefixes and affixes, and then tracing the root through other combinations. SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL* 65 For instance, the word ' retrospective ;' the monitor would say, ' Separate it,' and the boys would reply, retro^ behind, spect^ look, and tion^ act or action. He would then say, ' What is the meaning of the word retro- spectionV and he would ask for other instances in which the root occurs. In-spect, pro-spect, spect-acle, circum-spect, re-spect, and other words, would be given."* The advantages of this system of interrogation are numerous and weighty. It teaches even the youngest child to apply every word as it is brought before him, from his earliest acquaintance with a written or printed language. It leads the mind direct from the w^ords to the legitimate use of them, the communication of ideas. By inducing the child to draw on the resources of its own mind, it teaches him to compare, to discrim- inate, to judge ; a process by which he is rendered capable of far greater mental exertion. It neces- sarily insures a habit of observation and scru- tinizing inquiry ; it occasions close application ; and it constantly calls upon the master rather to restrain than to excite. * See Manual of the System of Primary Instruction, pursued in the model-schools of the British and Foreign School Society. See also, on this subject, Wood's Account of the Edinburgh Sessional School. To Mr. Wood the cause of education is deeply indebted. He was certainly the first to call public attention to the importance of giving a more intellectual chojcdiCiQX io popular education; and by his unwearied exertions in the Sessional school he demonstrated the practicability of it. 6* 66 SCHOOL teacher's manual. Reading. It has often been observed, (and certainly not without sufficient reason,) that very few persons read well ! To read simply and naturally, — with animation and expression, is indeed a high and rare attainnient. What is generally called good readings is in fact the very worst kind of reading ; I mean that which calls the attention of the auditor from the subject of discourse, to the supposed taste and skill of the person who is pronouncing it. Ars est celare artem,* The best window is that which least intercepts the prospect ; and he is the best reader, who brings before us the mind of the author, unencumbered by the tints and tracery of his own style and manner. Still it must be remembered that, with most persons, reading is an art. The best readers are those who have most diligently studied their art ; studied it so well, that you do not perceive they have ever studied it at all. You so thoroughly understand, and so sensibly feel the force of what they say, that you never think for a moment how they are saying it, and you never know the exact extent of your obligation to the care and labor of the elocutionist. In many schools, little can be done beyond teaching the pupil to read in a plain and intelligent manner ; to pronounce with gene- ral correctness, and to avoid offensive, tones. You may probably wish to have a few rules, "" The perfection of art, is to conceal art. SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 67 by attention to which, this degree of proficiency may, in most cases, be secured. I will only men- tion four. 1. Take care that the piqnl thoroughly understands that which he is directed to read. This is absolutely essential to his success. If he do not fully com- prehend the thought, how can he be expected ade- quately to express the Janguage in which it may be, clothed ? Attention to this point is jtist as important in the lowest as in the highest class. Indeed it is there (in the lowest class) that the habit of fully comprehending in the mind that which is presented to the eye, must be formed. The great evil of putting before children unmeaning com- binations of letters, such as " bla, ble, bli, bio, blu," and all the rest of this ridiculous tribe^ is, that in reading them, a hoMt is formed of sepa- rating the sight and sound of words from sense, a habit which frequently cleaves to the mind long after the days of childhood have passed away. If, therefore, jou would have a sentence well read, read so as to be understood and felt by the hearer, — take care that the reader himself both understands and feels it. The progress of your pupils, too, will by this means be greatly facil- itated. " He who is taught the habit of carrying the sense along with the sound, is armed with two forcesanstead of one, to grapple with the difficul- ties he encounters ; the one, his knowledge of the 68 SCHOOL teacher's manual. letters and syllables, and the other, his knowledge of the story."* 2. Remember that the tones and em]^hasis which we use in conversation^ are those which form the basis of good elocution. Children should, therefore, be instructed to read as they talk. How often do you find young people describing, with an ease and vivacity which is truly charming, events which, if read by them in the very same terms from a book, would be insufferably dull and uninter- estino^ ! 3. Gttard your pupils against rapidity and loud- ness. A rapid and noisy reader is, of all others, the most disagreeable ; and, at the same time, the most unintelligible. Insist, therefore, -upon a slow and distinct enunciation of every word ; without securing which, it will be impossible to obtain correct pronunciation, good emphasis, or suitable intonation. Slow reading, in a subdued tone of voice, is always most agreeable aAd impressive ; in the reading of the Holy Scrip- ture, the boisterous fluency which ignorant per- sons so frequently applaud, is irreverent and offensive. 4. Do not permit too much to be read at one time. A good teacher can profitably occupy twenty or thirty minutes over a page, without at all weary- * Pillans. SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 69 ing his children. He will often have to say, *' I perceive you do not quite understand that pas- sage ; read it again." Then he will require defi- nitions of the leading words, their synonymes and their opposites ; then perhaps he will have the sentence analysed or paraphrased ; and after this, he will thoroughly explain every incidental allu- lusion, whether geographical, historical, or bio- graphical, w^hich may be involved in the passage. All this, it may be, must be done before that which is read can be thoroughly understood ; and he knows, (to return to the point whence we set out,) that until it is understood it can never be properly read. Ia^terrogation. Intimately connected with the point which I have been urging, is the prac- tice of interrogation ; the object of which, when rightly conducted, is two-fold : first, to ascertain satisfactorily that ideas, in distinction from mere words, are received by the pupil ; and, secondly, to afford opportunities for the communication of incidental instruction. There is no way in which the correctness or incorrectness of a child's ideas on anj^ subject can be so effectually ascertained, as by proposing a series of questions ; their extent and bearing being determined, for the most part, by the answers received. A teacher who has not been in the habit of doing this, can form no adequate notion 70 SCHOOL teacher's manual. of the amount of ignorance and misapprehension which this ploughshare of the mind will turn up. Now there are two methods in which a ten- dency to misconceive the meaning of words may be met ; and both must, as far as possible, be brought to bear upon the evil. The first is, — VISIBLE ILLUSTRATIONS. Whcrcver the subject will admit of it, there is nothing equal to this kind of explanation. You will recollect an observation made some paragraphs back, ''the eye remem- bers ;" it might also be said, (although of course comparatively and subject to exception,) tlte eye makes no mistakes. A child has a very different, a much more perfect idea of that which it sees, than it can have of any thing which is incapable of being perceived by the senses ; its conceptions are generally v^gue and indistinct. Among the subjects which admit most easily of being explained by objects of sight, might be mentioned the various branches of natural history, and the physical sciences generall}^ • In some of these the object itself can. be called in, and in others detached portions of it. In the absence of the object itself, or any part of it, a model, a graphic representation, an outline, or a diagram, will suffice ; but something of the kind must, if possible, be presented. Hence the importance of schools being provided with specimens of as many different things as possible, and of' children being SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 71 taught to cultivate habks of observation and inquiry. It is in many respects of the highest importance to teach children to discern the most minute differences and resemblances in objects which they can examine ; the eye, the ear, the touch, the taste, the smell, should all be educated, by exercise on a great variety of objects. If the perceptive faculties be not carefully culti- vated, it is impossible that the conceptions of a child can be either ready or accurate. An example of the striking effect of specimens in aiding the imagination, is thus related bj^ an eye-witness. ''When a delegation of one of the most savage of the western tribes, a few years since, passed through Philadelphia, they were invited to visit the museum. Finding therein many of their quadruped acquaintance, with various implements of their own warfare, and a vast number of objects before unknown to them, they were naturally much delighted with the cele- brated establishment, and expressed (as far as an Indian ever deigns to express it) their admiration of the novel spectacle. Divers ejaculations, and some obscure signs of relaxed gravity, were occa- sionally observable during their progress through the rooms, until they came to that part of the hall where the skeleton of the huge mastodon stood all at once revealed to their bewildered senses. The awe which seemed to come over them now deprived their tongues of utterance, 72 " SCHOOL teacher's manual. and held their eyes fixed* in the direction of the vast black bony structure, as if it had been an object of adoration. Such, it was said, their tribe are in the habit of regarding the mammoth ; and as it had all their lives before been merely a crea- ture of the imagination, or seen only in detached portions, its real bulk and proportions had proba- bly never before been adequately conceived." There will, however, sometimes be found mat- ters of science, which we can neither bring before the eye, nor explain to the comprehension of a child, and these he must be taught to receive on the evidence of testimony. It is important to guard the youthful mind against that contracted habit of thinking and reasoning, which" makes its own knowledge and extent of observation the standard of probability. It was under the influ- ence of this narrow and skeptical spirit that Mr» Hume maintained, that a miracle being contrary to experience, could not be established by >any human testimony. And it was with equal reason and propriety that the king of Siam, when informed by a foreigner at his court, that in some parts of Europe, at certain seasons of the year, water became so solid that an elephant might walk over it, told the narrator, without much ceremony, that he lied. In many cases, however, in the absence of ocular demonstration, it is possible to adopt an aiialogous fact or principle ; and, wherever this can be done in the way of illustration, it is of SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 73 course highly desirable. Had it happened that any one at the court of Siam had been acquainted with the properties of heat, and capable of per- forming the requisite experiments, the unbelief of his majesty might easily have been removed, and his confidence in testimony fully restored. But besides this mode of illustration, it is some- times necessary to carry out to a considerable extent, the practice of accustoming the pupil to separate the prefixes and affixes of words, and to trace the root through other combinations. Let me, however, in connection with this subject, earnestly warn you against pushing this kind of investigation too far. I have known some teach- ers, partly perhaps from vanity, and partly from ignorance, make themselves exceedingly ridicu- lous by attempting to meddle with Latin and Greek roots, before they were at all acquainted with either of these languages. To a certain, but very limited extent, this may be done wifh safety ; beyond that limitation, the practice is manifestly absurd, and sure to lead all parties into error. The best advice that can be given to a young teacher on this subject probably is this, — ''So long- as you are unacquainted with Latin and Greek, confine your etymological researches to the sim- plest examples that are given in elementary books prepared for this purpose ; when you have mas- tered these languages, you may go as far as you please.^' 7 74 SCHOOL teacher's manual. Incidental teaching, by which I mean the practice of communicating general knowledge in an incidental and unsystematic manner, although not liable to the same abuse, still needs to be imparted with judgment and caution. It should never be forgotten, that in science, as well as in religion, there are many things which a "babe" in knowledge is " not able to bear." Some teach- ^ers, in the plenitude of their zeal to impart, or rather perhaps in their anxiety to disjjlaij^ are accustomed to cram mere children with a kind of food which their tender minds can never digest. This is on every account highly objectionable. The mere accumulation of facts in the memory is of trifling value, if unaccompanied by the devel- opment and training of the faculties. A mind filled with the results of other men's research, and unacquainted with the steps and processes of the proof, may, as Beattie remarks, fitly enough be compared to a well-filled granary, but bears no resemblance to the fruitful field, which multiplies that which is cast into its lap a thousand fold. Writing. On this subject a very few hints must suffice. 1. Bear in mind, that your pupil's -success mainly depends upon the attention paid to him when Jirst beginning to write. It is then that habits are formed, which he will find it after- wards almost impossible to alter. 2. Let writing on slate precede the use of pen and paper. The forms and combinations of letters will most read- SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 75 ily be attained in this way ; and when that is done, no great difficulty will be found in accustoming the pupil to the use of the pen. 3. Let not the pupil attempt what is termed '' small hand," until he can write a good bold text hand with neatness and accuracy. 4. When he comes to learn the cur- rent or running hand, let him be taught that neither legibility nor elegance will do without expedition. Accustom him, therefore, to write freely from dictation. The most approved rules for preserving a right position of the body, for holding the pen, and for effecting the various movements and combma- tions by which the letters are to be exequted, though highly important for you to know^ w^ould yet be out of place here. For these particulars you must study the best treatises on the art of penmanship. The onty other points to which it is necessary for me to allude, are these. 1. Materials for writing should be of good quality, — it is not economical to use inferior articles. Steel pens, which may now be purchased at a very reasonable rate, are in every respect preferable to those which are made from quills ; they are cheaper, they need no mending, and they execute the letters with greater neatness and precision. 2. Every liiie should be examined as it is written. The habit which prevails in some schools, of writing a page before examination, is highly pernicious ; quality 76 SCHOOL teacher's manual. in writing should at all times be regarded rather than quantity. Arithmetic. In teaching arithmetic, regard must be had to the same great jprinciples which have already been laid dow^n in relation to other branches of knowledge. Nothing must be con- sidered as done, that is not thoroughly compre- hended ; a meaning and a reason, must be attached to every step of the process. Begin, therefore, first of all, by referring the pupil to sensible objects, and teach him to compute what he can see, before you perplex him with abstract conceptions. A mere infant may in this way be taught to add, subtract, multiply, and divide, to a considerable extent. Apparatus for this purpose, of various kinds, is already in use ; but what need have you of apparatus ? Every thing around you and about you may be made subservient to this end. It will not do, however, to stop here. The mind must before long be accustomed to abstrac- tions, and therefore the sooner you can teach a child to convert this tangible arithmetic into abstractions, the better. You will do this to some extent, by drawing its attention to what has been called, aptly enough, *' tJie process of disentan- glement,'^'' " You take a skein of ruffled thread ; and, if you can find the end, you carefully draw it through all its loops and knots, and in a few minutes it is unravelled. SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. ' 77 Now just in this manner must the minds of children be exercised in finding out the truth of some abstract prop- osition. To a mind not so exercised, a very simple question \vill be extremely formidable. How often have not only children, but their elders, been puzzled by the simple question, ' What is two- thirds of three-fourths of any thing V Now to get at the truth required here, it will be seen how necessary it is to get at that part of the proposition that can be laid hold of; that is to say, the part to which the mind can attach, from its being something known : it would in this case, of course, see first that three-fourths were three-quarters ; and then it would soon discover that two quarters, the two-thirds of them, must be half. We give this and other illustra- tions, to show that, by applying the analytic process properly, a very small quantity of real knowledge will produce a very large proportion of arithmetical power; therefore it is not so much the knowledge that may be fixed dogmatically in the mind, that will serve your purpose, as that which the mind itself evolves in its process of elaboration. It will be the business of the teacher to help the mind to create its own strength, and this he will do by subjecting it to wholesome and judi- cious exercise. '* TaTcecare that your ptqnl never proceeds to a second example in any rule, initil you are quite sure that he thoroughly understands the first. No matter what time may be consumed upon this introductory effort, — he must not be allowed to go on with * Educational Magazine. — Method of Teaching Mental Arith- metic. 7S SCHOOL teacher's manual. partial and inaccurate notions of what he is about. You will often be deceived in this particular. It is necessary, therefore, when a result is obtained, to require an explanation of every step by which it has been reached ; to demand whij that particu- lar course, in preference to any other, should have been pursued ; and to ascertain whether the pupil so far understands the reasons of the process, that he could, if he chose, in conformity with those reasons, adopt other modes of arriving at the same conclusion. " Two persons never have exactly the same associa- tions of ideas ; theynever associate their ideas in exactly the same order. The consequence is, that no two persons think of the same proposition alike. Hence, a proposition expressed in certain terms, may be very clear and intelligible to one person, and very obscure, or altogether unintelligible, to another ; and perhaps, with a very slight change of terms, the case would be entirely changed. It would be intelligible to the latter, and unintelligible to the former. An explanation which is very clear and lucid to one, will often convey no idea at all to another. When a proposition is made for two persons to reason upon, they will often take it up and manage it very differently in their minds. When the subject is such as to admit of demonstration, as is the case with mathematics, they will generally come to the same conclusions. But on other subjects their conclu- sions will sometimes agree and sometimes not. There are several valuable practical results to be derived from this. First, it is very important that the teacher should SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 79 be able readily to trace, not only his own associations, but those of all his pupils. When a proposition or question is made to a scholar, he ought to be able to discover at once whether the scholar understands it or not. If he does not understand it, the teacher should be able to discover the reason why, and then he can apply the remedy. This is to be done only by question- ing the scholar and tracing his associations, and finding out what he is thinking about, and how he is think- ing about it. Without doing this, the teacher is as likely to perplex the scholar as to assist him by his explanations. Secondly, when a scholar does not understand the question or proposition, he should be allowed to reason upon it in his own way, and agree- ably to his own associations. Whether his way is the best or not on the whole, it is the best way for him at first, and he ought by no means to be interrupted in it, or forced out of it. If teachers would have patience to listen to their scholars, and examine their operations, they would frequently discover very good ways that had never occurred to them before."* Rules which are seldom understood^ and scarcely eveV viewed in connection with the principles on which they are based, are of little use to children. The business of the teacher is, not to send his pupil to an unintelligible rule, but first to make him see the dificulties of the question which has baffled his ingenuity ; then to lead him on, hy a sxiccession of questions^ to discern the principle he is * Colbiirn's Lecture on Teaching Arithmetic. 80 SCHOOL teacher's manual. in search of; and, finally, to let truth so break upon his mind, that, by the possession of it, he maybe only incited to pursue with fresh vigor other and more difficult investigations. Arithmetic thus taught, becomes a fine mental discipline, and strengthens the intellectual powers, instead of resting only in the memory. But in order to carry on this mode of tuition, your own explanations must he clear and simple. ' ' Will you please to tell me why I carry one for every ten?" said a child to her instructor. ''Yes," rephed he, kindly, '' it is because numbers increase from right to left in a decimal ratio." The child sat, repeated the information she had received to herself two or three times, and then looked sad. The master, as soon as he had answered, pur- sued his other business, and did not notice her. She w^as disappointed. She understood him no better than if he had used words in another lan- guage. '' Decimal," and " Ratio," were words that might have fallen on her ear before ; but if so, she understood them none the better for it. She looked in the dictionary, and was disap- pointed again ; and, after some time, put away her arithmetic. When asked why she did so, she replied, " I don't like to study it, I cannot understand it."* I may safely leave you to make the application. "" Hall's Lectures to School-masters on Teaching SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 81 Again. You should never tmderrate the difficulties ofyourpujjils. A child will not apply vigorously, unless it sees that its efforts are appreciated ; unless it perceives that you recognise the differ- ence between its capacity and your own. The attention which such a one can give to a difficult process is at best but limited ; the intellect is soon exhausted, and the effort it makes is often pain- ful while it lasts. Do not then strain the muscles of its mind, or cause its Uttle feet to bleed, by an unreasonable forgetfulness, either of its short footsteps, or of the difficulties of the way. "A good school-master," says old Fuller, " minces his precepts for children to swallow, hanging clogs on the nimbleness of his own soul, that his scholars may go along with him." In the working of arithmetical questions, two points must be kept constantly in view, — correct- ness and dispatch. The attainment of the latter is often a matter of great difficulty. To supply this defect, (the want of rapidity,) contracted methods on the slate should be encouraged, such as bringing the number of tons, hundred weights, quarters, and pounds, into pounds, in one Hne; working by aliquot parts and approximations ; or calculating part of a question abstractedly, and part on the slate. A great variety of questions should also be given specially for pure mental solution. 82 SCHOOL teacher's ' MANUAL. I need only further suggest on this subject, the importance of guarding the pupil against lassitude and inattention. To this end, take care that yoicr qtiestions follow one another with the utmost rabidity. If long pauses are permitted between questions, the children are sure to fill up the interval with thoughts not at all in accordance with the subject before them. You must allow them no time to wander. It is obvious, however, that such an exercise cannot be long continued. Fifteen or twenty minutes is quite sufficient at once ; the moment the mind flags, it is time to stop. You will gain nothing by straining faculties, which can never be exercised beneficially but in a healthy state. This remark, I need scarcely say, applies to every other branch of learning, just as much as to arithmetic. We can scarcely commit a greater error in education, than that of wearying the atten- tion by attempting too much at once. Progress in any intellectual pursuit depends, much more upon intensity of application, than upon protracted study. To produce languor by overworking^ the mind, is to inflict a very deep and serious injury ; such a result should therefore most anxiously be avoided. Grammar. * * I learned grammar (says William Cobbett) when I was a private soldier on the pay of sixpence a day. The edge of my berth, or that of my guard bed, was my seat to study in ; my SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 83 knapsack was my book-case, and a bit of board lying on my lap was my writing-table. I had no money to purchase candle or oil ; in winter time it was rarely that I could get any evening light but that of the jire^ and only my turn even of that. To buy a pen or sheet of paper, I was compelled to forego some portion oi food^ though in a state of half starvation ; I had no moment of time that I could call my ow^n ; and I had to read and write amidst the talking, laughing, singing, whistling, and bawUng," of at least half a score of the most thoughtless of men, and that too in the hours of their freedom from all control. And, I say, if I, under circumstances like these, could encounter and overcome the task, is there, can there be, in the whole world, a youth to find an excuse for the non-performance ?'' . But before either a youth or a child will heartily set about this task, he must be convinced of its utility ; and he must be made to understand the nature and object of the study. On this point a great deal of misapprehension prevails. A boy who is presented with a string of definitions and rules, without being made acquainted with the priilciples on w^hich these rules depend, never dreams that the dull lesson naturally arises out of the constitution of the very language he is using every day. It never once occurs to him, that the Enghsh tongue controls the English grammar; he 84 SCHOOL teacher's manual. Imagines, on the contrary , -that grammar gives the law, and that language must obey. Perhaps he might be set right on this matter most readily, by its being briefly explained to him, how a missionary, for instance, thrown among a barbarous people, having an tmwritten lang-uage, would proceed in order to form a grammar of that language. He might easily be made to under- stand how the whole procedure of #the missionary would be guided and controlled by the usage of the barbarians ; that he must take his laws from their practice ; that he could not, in any case, give laws to them. In short, that his sole province as a grammarian would be, to ascertain and unfold, to classify and embody, existing usages. It is precisely on this principle that grammar should be taught. The information (which is conveyed orally) should be imparted in connec- tion with questions grounded on this view of the subject. " The teacher might commence the conversation by remarking, in as clear a manner as possible, that every word in the language, like every boy in the school, belongs to some class. Stopping some seconds to ascertain that this simple fact was well understood, he might remark, that the only difference is, there are eight classes of boys in the school, but nine classes of words, ^^his would be followed by saying, ' Tell me the names of any things you see.' A number of things being SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 85 named, he would say, 'Tell me the names of some things which you cannot see.' Several being men- tioned, the question would be put, ' What have you told me about these things V Ans. ' Their names.' Now the teacher would observe, all these names which you have mentioned belong to one class ; the name of that class is, ' Nouns ;^ all names belong to it, foF the word Noun means Name. Goodness, Justice, Height, Depth, Length, and Breadth, and every name you can possibly find, even * Nothing' itself belongs there- fore to this class, because it and all these are names. "Having proceeded thus far^ he would judge it desira- ble to retrace his steps, to ascertain if he were tho- roughly understood. He would therefore ask one, a dull boy in the draft, 'How many classes of words are there V Another, ' What is the name of the class of words about which we have been speaking V A third, 'What is the meaning of the word Noun V A fourth would be asked to mention some name which did not belong to it; a fifth, what part of speech Nothing was. In this manner the teacher would ascertain if the atten- tion of the class had been efi'ectually directed to him. Pursuing his subject, he would ask them to mention a name. Supposmg ' desk," to be mentioned, the ques- tion would follow, ' Tell me something about desk.' They would mention long, narrow, wooden, strong, and other qualities, in rapid succession. The draft thus exercised would be led to discover that these are quali- ties, and although intimately connected with, are not nouns themselves. To assign these to another class, and to give it the name of ^ Adjective,^ proposing some 8 86 SCHOOL TEACHER S MANUAL. questions to insure his being thoroughly understood, would be his next object. " The verb would be introduced, by asking them to tell him some word which implied motion. ' Fly,' ' run,' * go,' and many others being given, he would class them under the name of ' Verbs,^ Some general questions would again ensue. " Proceeding with his subject, he would ask them to mention one of the verbs they had just named ; per- haps ' speak' would be selected. ' Tell me,' he would say, 'howl speak r Ans. 'Slowly.' Quest. ' In what other ways might a person speak V Ans, ' Quickly, loudly, softly, intelligibly, roughly.' Quest, ' What do all these express 1' Ans. 'The manner of speaking. Remember, then, all words which express the manner of acting, are ranked in a separate class, called ' Ad- verbs.^ Quest. ' What is the meaning of the word Ad- verb V Ans. ' To a verb.' Quest, ' What is the differ- ence between an adjective and an adverb V Ans, ' An adjective expresses the quality of a noun, an adverb the quality of a verb.' Quest, ' Is it correct to say the sea is smoothly V Ans. ' No.' Quest, ' Why V Ans. ' Because sea is a noun, and requires an adjective.' Quest. ' If I speak of the saihng of a ship, must I use the word calm or calmly V Ans, « Calmly.' Quest. * Whyl' Ans. ' Because sailing is an action.' " The Pronoun is of very easy introduction ; its name ' for a noun,' sufficiently expresses its use, and a few examples are all that in this stage of the business is necessary. The Articles require only naming, referring to a few instances in which they arc used j and Inter-' jections are as readily distinguished. SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 87 " The distinctions of these seven parts being well impressed on the mind of the pupils, the teacher pro- ceeds to the remaining two, which at the first glance, do not appear to admit of a very clear separation. The one is illustrated by the teacher's taking a slate in his hand, and saying, ' Tell me all the words you can think of, which express situation in reference to this slate.' The answers, ' above,' ' below,' ' imder,' &c., will bring forth the Prepositions^ and a reference to a hinge, will explain the Conjunction^ which, when the other eight are known, requires no further distinction. " When the class has arrived at this point, the teacher reads some sentences from his book, and requires each boy in turn, to class the words and give his reasons; Being well prepared for this exercise, it is rarely of long continuance. In the ensuing lessons, it would be observed that the articles, — the gender, and properties of nouns, — the degrees of comparison in adjectives and adverbs,— the kind of verbs, and the varieties of the pronoun, have all relation to the number three. This presents an opportunity of giving a sure and ready index to these variations which so often and so long perplex master and pupils. Thus learned, they are obtained at once and forever. " The influence of one word on another, or syntac- tical parsing, is now easily unfolded. A sentence being read, the teacher, at his discretion, makes various alter- ations in its construction, each of which is made the subject of inquiry. Care being taken that the difiicul- ties are seen and felt, the teacher gradually leads the pupils by questions to their elucidation. Other sen- tences of a similar kind are then introduced, and the 88 SCHOOL teacher's manual. rule comes in as the result of their own observation and inquiry. It is thus seen to rise necessarily out of the language, instead of being arbitrary and indefinite ; and so far from being a burden on the memory, and exciting disgust, it is welcomed as the result of a clear investigation, and cherished in the memory, from a thorough conviction of its truth and suitability." GEoaRAPHY. All practical writers, of any value, now agree that the best mode of imparting instruction in geography, is, to begin at home ; to teach a child the geography of its own parish, county, and country, before you attempt to intro- duce it to other parts of the world. It is obvious, that a learner can form no clear conception of the height of mountains, of the course of rivers, or of the nature of the great divisions of the earth, excepting as he can compare what he reads with that which he sees around him. Nothing, there- fore, can be more absurd than to begin by intro- ducing a child to the map of the w^orld ; or to go on filUng its head with geographical descriptions of Africa, China, or Russian Tartary, before it is at all acquainted with its own country. In like manner, if you wish a child to have correct notions about lakes, islands, or isth- muses, you will be much more likely to insure his possessing them, by referring him to the peculiar- ities of a neighboring pond or rivulet, than by any abstract description whatever. The name of SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 89 mountain, and valley, and lake, and river, should indeed be invariably connected with the observa- tion of hill and hollow, pond and brook. Again, with regard to the relative situation of distant places, a knowledge of which can only be obtained through maps, remember, that the pupil will only gain hiowledge from looking at a map, in proportion as he is taught to associate the lines and spots of the map with the objects they repre- sent. It is of no use setting him to gaze at dots, to remember their situations on the paper, or to recite the name attached to them in the book ; unless the mind be accustomed at the same time to realize the objects they denote, and to recognise all this arrangement on paper, as nothing more than an aid to the imagination. "We have had," says an able writer, " the details of an instance in which a child of two years old, could point to every line and spot upon the map of Europe, only on hearing its name, before he could yet pronounce a word. But while we mourn over the mistaken kind^ ness which could thus prepare an infant for the prema- ture grave to which he descended, we do not envy the reputation of that teacher, who would be satisfied with making his pupils equally expert in this parrot-like exercise. We fear there are many such instances ; nay, we suspect there are many schools where the ideas derived from the map, are just such as would be obtained from studying those charts of human life which represent an event by a promontory, difficulty by 8* 90 SCHOOL teacher's manuai*. a whirlpool, and death by a torrent or waterfall, ter- minating in the beautifully ornamented border, that sur- rounds this picture of time and history ! We are only less liable to be imposed upon by that which pretends to represent invisible things. " The first step necessary to enable the pupil to acquire ideas from representation, is to teach him the relation of the one to the other. Even the effect of pictures is often lost upon the young mind for want of a practical knowledge, or perception of perspective ; and he sup- poses objects smaller or higher, from their appearance on the picture, or darker from their shade, because he has never been taught to observe the effect of distance and light. How much more liable is he to error, in regard to the naked outlines, or mere indices of great objects, presented on a map ! I know not any mode so effectual to make the pupil familiar with the nature of maps, as to teach him to construct them from nature, and this may be accomplished, at the same time that he is learning to observe the objects around him. "Let the course of observation to which we have referred, be extended to every thing within his horizon, and let him learn the individual name attached to every object of importance. Let him learn to observe them from different points of view. Point out to him the varying position of the sun. Let him observe its direc- tion in the morning, at noon, and at evening, — and then show him the north star, and he will thus find the marks for the four standard points to which he is to refer all descriptions of the situations of places. Let the terms east^ souths west, and north, be attached to these points, only when he has learned the need of them; and not be SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 91 employed before he has acquired distinct ideas of them. Let him observe the direction of the great objects of the landscape, first from one prominent point, then from another. Let him notice those which are in a range or ' roup with each other from his station — those which are on opposite sides — those which would form a triangle — and those which would make a square, or a cross, and thus fix the positions of every important place in his mind, so that he could sketch a map of these points and lines from his imagination as well as from direct per- ception. " But he must in the mean time be taught the con- struction of maps of a much smaller space. Let him draw upon the slate, no matter how rudely, a square to represent the table upon which he is writing, or the room in which he is sitting. If practicable, let him look down upon it from the ceiling above; but in any event, let him mark the spot on which every object is placed, with its size and shape, as it would appear from above. As soon as he has repeated this so often, that he per- ceives the want of accuracy in his rude representations, furnish him with a scale to measure the room or the table, and the distance of the respective objects from each other ; and supply him with a smaller rule, adapted to the size of his slate, divided into an equal number of parts. Then direct him to transfer, after the measure- ment of every line or distance with the larger rule, an equal number of parts with the smaller upon his slate, until every object is represented in proportionate size, and relative situation, with a good degree of accuracy. This he will be told is 3. plan or map ; and as his obser- vations abroad are going on, he will probably be him^ 92 SCHOOL teacher's manual. self anxious to employ the same method to represent the various objects of the landscape before him. He should be led on, however, hy graduated steps. Let him draw an entire plan of the house in vrhich he lives, of the garden attached to it, and of the farm or grounds around it. So far as it is practicable, let every effort be followed by measurement, as in the map of a room, in order that the habit of accurate observation, so valuable in life, may be cultivated, at the same time that he acquires a correct idea of distances. " The pupil will now be prepared to delineate with more or less accuracy, the outlines of the country around him, and by observing carefully the ranges of objects, he may arrive at a tolerable degree of accuracy by mere inspection. He should be accustomed also to ascertain short distances by paces, and longer ones by an accurate observation of the time which is spent in passing over them, either on foot or in a carriage, and to register all the circumstances which are necessary for his map. As his perception of accuracy increases, he may be taught to trace the deviations from a straight line in a stream or a road ; and if circumstances admit, he should be allowed the use of a chain or tape measure and a com- pass, as soon as he is capable of employing them. *' Such is the course it is desirable to pursue in order to be fully prepared for the study of maps; and I know not how we can otherwise avoid the danofer of false or imperfect conceptions, which will destroy half their value to the pupil. It is obvious, that it might be, and ought to be, commenced in the nursery, under the direc- tion of its mother. It would serve as the amusement of many a listless moment, a^ soon as the child can use ^ SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 93 slate and pencil. It might be carried on by any parent, who can spend two or three hours in a week with his children, before they are ten years of age. If they are left to begin at school, no reason can be given why it should not be adopted by the instructor of a boarding- school. Indeed, there are few teachers of common schools, whose influence and usefulness with their pupils would not be increased, and whose labor would not be on the whole lightened, by the extra lessons and little excursions which it would render necessary. " After the pupil has become familiar with the con- struction of these simple maps, he should be taught to draw them on every variety of scale, until he ceases to think of the size of the map before him, and by imme- diate reference to the scale of measurement, should learn to perceive at once, through the medium of a map, the great objects which it represents, instead of the lines and points upon its surface, just as we receive ideas through the medium of words. It will also facilitate his transition to other maps, if he be accustomed to draw a meridian through some prominent object, from an observation of the North star, or a shadow at noon- day and to divide the map by other lines, drawn paral- lel and perpendicular to it, at regular distances. It will aid still farther in his transitions, if the central line from east to west be assumed as an equator^ and distances be reckoned in both directions, from this and the first meridian. " It is scarcely necessary to add, that as no descrip- tion can be equally useful with the view of objects them- selves, it is desirable that the pupil should learn the 94 SCHOOL teacher's manual. geography of the neighboring country, as well as his own town, as much as possible, from personal observa- tion, and be accustomed to describe and delineate its outlines. It should only be after his own sketches are executed, that he should be furnished with more com- plete engraved maps of the same region. " Let me not be told that this is theory, plausible upon paper, but impracticable in its execution. It is but the history of what has been done and still is done, in the schools of Pestilozzi and his followers in Europe ; and is in substance what must be done, by every one who is designed to be a topographical or military engineer. It would require little more time, thus to learn to delineate the great features of a country, if it were commenced at an early period, than it now does to imitate the letters of the alphabet. Every step is, in itself, perfectly prac- ticable and easy. Only time and patience are neces- sary to combine them all, in an ordinary course of instruction. Where either of these fail, or where pre- judice and avarice prevent the over-tasked instructor from adopting this entire course, much may be done by devoting two or three hours in a week, for a short period, to this object. Some measures of this kind should always be taken, to prevent the blunders to which the uninitiated pupil is continually liable."* * I am sure no apology will be necessary for this long extract from a lecture delivered before the American Institute of Instruction, by the Rev. William C^ Woodbridge. I am unwilling to keep back a paper so likely to be valuable, in order to make room for any obser- vations of my own. I perfectly agree with him in what he has advanced; the principle is fully adopted in the Borough School. SCHOOT. teacher's MANUAL. 95 Geometry, the elements of Natural Philo- sophy, Linear Drawing, and several other branches of knowledge, which are now intro- duced with great advantage into schools, fall under the same general principles. The limits which I have thought it most expedient to prescribe for myself, will not allow of any lengthened observa- tions on the best modes of teaching them. In all it will be found desirable, first to awaken, and then to gratify curiosity. Visible illustrations should, if possible, be presented. A cone cut into several sections, viz. the circle, elhpse, triangle, parabola, and hyperbola, will render important aid in getting clear and distinct impressions of the elementary principles of conic sections ; and a cube, and the various species of parallelopipeds, may be laid before a child with great advantage, in imparting the first principles of solid measure. ''How few (says the writer I have so frequently quoted) in our schools, or among farmers or mechanics, have a clear and distinct idea of what is meant by a cube, or solid inch, or foot, or mile ! And, until a person has a clear conception of that original ele- mentary idea in solids, how can he move one step on the subject, except by groping in midnight darkness ? And how is he to gain a conception of that idea, except by some familiar practical illustration ? Three or four j^ears ago, a gentle- man sold a right of some water for carrying a mill. The quantity first agreed upon, was a stream 96 SCHOOL TEACHEJl's MANUAL. which could be discharged through a two-inch tube. When asked what he should charge for the quantity which could pass through a four-inch tube, he answered, ' Twice the price of the other.' The purchaser, of course, obtained four times the water for twice the money, as a tax upon the sel- ler's ignorance ; which a glance at a diagram might have removed."* In Land Surveying, nothing equals the chain in the field for exciting the mind. Rules will always be sought with eagerness, when operations demand them. Linear Drawing is a branch of instruction to which a high degree of importance should be attached, both as a means of improving the per- ceptive powers, and as auxiliary to almost every branch of art. It ought on no account to be neg- lected. The best plan that can be pursued, prob- ably is, to commence with simple geometrical lines and figures ; then to make the pupil execute ani- mals, or other objects- ; and then maps and charts. Further than this, you may not find it either prac- ticable or desirable to go. In our common schools, more importance should be attached to the study of Composition. It has been too much neglected. Under suita- ble regulations this exercise might be rendered highly salutary, not only as a discipline of the mind, but as a means of moral improvement. ^Machinery o£ Education, by the Rev. Win. C. Woodbridge. SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 97 Perhaps the best way of introducing such a prac- tice, is, for the teacher to read a short and striking narrative ; requiring the pupils, first to listen atten- tively, and then to write upon their slates as much of it as they can in their own words. They might in this way be trained to habits of attention ; and at the same time be tested as to their proficiency in writing, spelling, grammar, and the formation of sentences. In all you do, however, remember that The great object of your care should he to form good men- tal HABITS ; to accustom children to discern betwixt good and evil ; and to teach them, not only how to acquire knowledge, but how to apply it. A mind may be filled with all the " Imowledge and mysteries" of other men, but it is "poor and miserable" still, if it wants the judgment or the vigor, necessary to use its .attainments with pro- priety and effect. The habit, for instance, of attention to abso- lute ACCURACY, is not merely important in the acquisition of knowledge ; it has much to do with the happiness or misery of life. " How many of t^he most mischievous falsehoods and calumnies originate from the want of this habit ! How often do suspicion, and jealousy, and coolness, and even enmity, originate in families and in society, simply from an inaccurate description or narrative ! And how often is there reason to fear that the innocent suffer, and the guilty escape, in our courts of jus- 9 98 SCHOOL teacher's manual. tice, from similar causes ! It will require but a little attention to the manner in which witnesses of real honesty, and under the sanction of an oath, often give their testimony, and the totally new aspect which the narrative assumes, under the cross-examination of an acute advocate, to per- ceive the immense importance of cultivating a fac- ulty on which the life of others often depends."* Now, accuracy in statement, where there is no wish to deceive, depends entirely on the power of the MEMORY ; and memory again depends on habits of attention : every pursuit, therefore, that tends to cultivate this faculty, should be regarded as valuable, not merely as affording additional power for acquiring knowledge, but also as deter- mining character. But ATTENTION, as cvcry one knows, is very much influenced by habit; so much so, indeed, that processes, which in the first instance require the closest attention, are after a time performed without any effort whatever. This is illustrated every day, in the rapidity with which we combine columns of figures. In like manner, a person little accustomed to intellectual processes, advances step by step, with minute attention to each as he proceeds ; while another perceives at once the result, with little consciousness of the steps by which he arrived at it. "For this reason it fre- * Sketches of HofwyL SCHOOL TEACITEr's MANUAL. 99 quently happens, that m certain departments of science, 'the profound philosopher mates a bad teacher. He proceeds too rapidly for his audience, and without sufficient attention to the intermediate steps by which it is necessary for them to advance ; and they may derive much more instruction from an inferior man whose mental process on the sub- ject approaches more nearly to that which in the first instance must be theirs."* Habits of an opposite character, namely, of inattention, are fatal to intellectual advancement. A mind of this description is worse trained than that of the sav- age, on whose accurate observation and powers of memory, the hves of travelers so often depend. I have myself been guided, more than once, through the intricacies of a South American forest, by a male or female Indian, under circumstances which obliged me to stake my safety altogether upon their habits of minute attention. The influence of association, both on the mem- ory and on the general character, should also be borne in mind. Dr. Abercrombie refers our asso- ciations to three classes : — 1. Natural or philoso- phical association. 2. Local or incidental associ- ation. 3. Arbitrary or fictitious association. " The principle on which they all depend," he says, '' is simply the circumstance of two or more facts, thoughts, or events, being contemplated together * Abercrombie on the Intellectual Powers. 100 SCHOOL teacher's manual. by the mind, though many of them have no rela- tion to each other except this conjunction." The associations referred to under the first head, arise out of ''the real relation of facts to each other, or to subjects of thought previously existing in the mind." Those of the second are '' formed accord- ing to no other relations than such as are entirely local or casual." The third are produced '' by a voluntary effort of the mind ; and the facts asso- ciated are not connected by any relation except what arises out of this effort." The following exam- ple of natural or philosophical association is given as having occurred to himself: — "In a party of gentlemen, the conversation turned on the warlike character of the Mahrattas, as compared with the natives of Lower India, and the explanation given of it by an author, who refers it to their use of animal food, from which the Hindoos are said to be prohibited by their religion. A doubt was started respecting the extent to which Hindoos are prohibited from the use of animal food ; some were of one opinion, and some of another, and the point was left undecided. Reading, soon after, in the Journal of Bishop Heber, I found it stated, that at one time during his journey, when a large supply of meat was brought to him, he ordered three lambs to be sent to his Hindoo attendants, and that the gift was received with e\eYy expression of gratitude. On another occasion, such a fact might have been passed by without producing any impression ; or it might have been slightly associated with the good SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 101 bishop's attention to the comfort of all around him, but not remembered beyond the passing moment. In con- nection with the discussion now mentioned, it became a fact of great interest, and never to be forgotten ; and led to inquiry after more precise information on the sub- ject to which it related. " This trifling example may serve to illustrate the principle, that the remembrance of insulated facts does not depend merely upon the degree of attention directed to them, but also on the existence in the mind of sub- jects of thought with which the new fact may be asso- ciated. Other facts, as they occur, will afterwards be added, from time to time, giving rise to a progressive increase of knowledge, in a mind in which this mental process is regularly carried on. This habit of attention and association ought therefore to he carefully cultivated^ as it must have a great influence on our progress in knowledge, and likewise on the formation of intellectual character, provided the associations be made upon sound principles, or according to the true and important relations of things. It is also closely connected with that activity of mind, which is ever on the alert for knowledge, from every source that comes within its reach; and that habit of reflection, which always con- nects with such facts the conclusions to which they lead, and the views which they tend to illustrate. On this principle also, every new fact which is acquired, or every new subject of thought which is brought before the mind, is not only valuable in itself, but also becomes the basis or nucleus of further information. Minds which are thus furnished with the requisite foundation of knowledge, and act uniformly upon these principles 9* 102 SCHOOL teacher's manual. of enlarging it, will find interesting matter to be asso- ciated and remembered, where others find only amuse- ment for a vacant hour, which passes away and is forgotten. There is also another respect in which the habit of correct and philosophical association assists the memory, and contributes to progress in knowledge ; for by means of it, when applied to a great mass of facts relating to the same subject, we arrive at certain general facts, which represent a numerous body of the individuals, and the remembrance of which is equivalent to the remembrance of the whole." The improvement of the judgment, or reason, ''that power by which we distinguish truth from falsehood, and combine the means for the attain- ment of our ends," should also be a primary object of concern. It is impossible for me here, to enlarge on the nature of this faculty, or even to refer to the various circumstances under which it is liable to become perverted or depraved. It is only necessary to observe, that it is guided by the same laws, when engaged in the investigation of truth, as when employed in the regulation of conduct ; and consequently, is liable to be biased by per- - sonal feelings, and vitiated by immoral conduct. Young people should have their attention frequently directed to this truth ; and while warned against being misled by fallacies, either in fact, in induc- tion, or in argument, should especially be guarded against taking up opinions under the influence of interest or inclination, and yet giving themselves SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 103 credit for unbiased inquiry. A few simple illus- trations, exhibiting in various lights this sad pro- pensity to self-deception, in relation to important truths, will satisfy an intelligent youth that he is as responsible for his belief as for his conduct ; since he is answerable, not only for the' faithful collection of facts and evidences, but for the temper of mind in which these evidences have been subsequently examined and weighed. An ENLARGED COURSE of instruction, that which has reference to the general improvement and cul- tivation of the mind, as well as to the acquisition of diversified knowledge, is hj far the best and safest that can be imparted to children. It is true, they will in this case learn much that will be of no use whatever to them, so far as their advancement in life is concerned ; much that will soon be for- gotten ; and much more that may never turn to account in assisting them to pursue any particular trade or business for the mere accumulation of property. But why should this result be a source of regret ? The chief end of knowledge is not to get on in the world ; it is bad morality to inculcate such a notion : the end is rather to enable its pos- sessor so to regulate his habits and business of life, that he may extract the greatest possible portion of comfort out of small means ; and, by the cultiva- tion of his intellectual faculties, be introduced to enjoyments of a higher and better order than those 104 SCHOOL teacher's manual. which lead in willing captivity the mass of the uneducated and the rude. What particular branch of knowledge will be most valuable in future life to any given child, it is scarcely ever possible to predict. Circum- stances, apparently the most trifling, often deter- mine the settled pursuits of a long -and active life. In the year 1828, a school was established, for three months only, among some of the Penobscot tribe of Indians, who resided on the Penobscot river. One of the pupils, Paul Joseph Osson, dis- tinguished himself by unusual intelligence and proficiency. After leaving the school, he returned for a year or two to his Indian habits and man- ners ; but at the end of this time, being on a visit to Bangor, he happened to fix his eye upon some engravings in the shops, which made a very strong impression upon his mind. He was then taken to the room of a painter, and shown a considerable collection of portraits. From that time painting seemed to take possession of his whole soul. He employed himself continually in sketching figures upon wood and bark, and commenced drawing and painting flowers, animals, miniature likenesses of his fellow Indians, and landscapes of consid- erable compass. He is' now under regular tuition, and is said to be making respectable progress. It is related, that a lady, who was some years since visiting Old Town, the Indian village, was so SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 105 Struck with the fine figure and face of one of the Indian boys, that she sketched an outhne of him on the spot : this made a strong impression on the boy, and on the tribe generally ; and it is strongly suspected that Osson was the boy alluded to, and that this was the first spark of excitement that kindled his infant genius.^ In many cases it may be that you cannot do more than to impart to your pupils the elements of knowledge. How important then is it, that you let every branch receive attention only in projjortion to its prohable utility ; that you never indulge in y«z;or- ite pursuits^ to the exclusion or neglect of those which are more important to your scholars ; and that you conscientiously determine, that the inter- ests of the great majority shall never by you, (as they too frequently are by others,) be cruelly and wickedly sacrificed, to the vanity of displaying the attainments of a small and favored few. Each branch must receive attention according to its rela- tive importance, whatever maj^ happen to be your own peculiar predilections. Above all, let it be your grand object to teach every thing with eter- nity in view. That instruction is little worth, which does not embrace man's whole existence ; and which has not as distinct a reference to the world that is to come, as to that which now * American Annals. 106 SCHOOL teacher's manual. obtrudes its claims with such unwarrantable importunity. Here, however, let me warn you of the danger a teacher incurs by the too ready adoption of what he may consider new and improved methods of INSTRUCTION. Experiments are often valuable, but then they need to be made very cautiously ; a large number of facts and observations ought to be accumulated, before any practice involving material changes, is introduced into a school. On this subject I should recommend you to read the chapter on Scheming^ in Mr. Abbott's Teacher. He very justly remarks, that ''in almost all the cases where the wonderful effects of supposed improvements are hastily proclaimed, the secret of the success is, not that the teacher has discovered a better method than the ordinary one, but that he has discovered a, newer one. The experiment will succeed in producing more successful results, just as long as the novelt}^ of it continues to excite unusual interest and attention in the class, or the thought that it is a plan of the teacher's own invention, leads him to take a peculiar interest in it. And this may be a month, or perhaps a quarter, and precisely the same effects would have been produced if the whole process had been reversed." The men who have really effected improve- ments in education, and left their mark on the SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 107 rising generation, are veiy few. The three who of late years have attracted the greatest share of attention, are Pestalozzi, Fellenberg, and Jacotot. I cannot do more than briefly to allude to these cel- ebrated names ; I must refer you to other sources, for extended information respecting their history and plans. Henry Pestalozzi was born at Zurich, on the 12th of January, 1745. He was originally intended for the ministry; but after pursuing the usual course of studies, he resigned that profession, and turned his attention to the correction of what he conceived prevailing errors in the education of the young. His great object appears to have been, at once to improve the intellect and amend the heart, by imparting a knowledge of things^ rather than of words, and by exciting and developing benevo- lent affections. The great instrument he employed was love^ and he appears to have possessed an amazing talent for so wielding that power, as to secure the most unbounded influence over the young. His long life was singularly chequered, and its end melancholy. He died in 1S27, at the age of eighty years, overwhelmed with the disap- pointments and mortifications which he had in a great measure brought upon himself by a too cred- ulous reception of the extravagant flatteries of his disciples. Emmanuel Fellenberg, who is a man of rank and fortune, is still living, and his institution at 108 SCHOOL teacher's manual. Hofwyl, about six miles from Berne, is an object of great interest to the philanthropist. The colony of Mey Kirk, at the distance of five or six miles, is a branch of this institution. It consists of eight or ten poor boys, who are placed under the direc- tion of a teacher, on a spot of uncultivated ground, from which they are expected to obtain the means of subsistence. Hofwyl is in every respect a place of education, of which the instruction imparted is only one means, and therefore principles, rather than methods, are to be gathered from its observa- tion. The founder of Hofwyl proposes nothing less than "to develop all the faculties of our nature, physical, intellectual, and moral, to endea- vor to train and unite them into one harmonious system, which shall form the most perfect charac- ter of which the individual is susceptible, and thus prepare him for every period and every sphere of action to which he may be called.'' The leading principles of the institution are fully explained and illustrated in the delightful Sketches, to which I have already several times referred ; and so far as they can be made to apply to com- mon schools, I have endeavored to embody them in these letters. M. Jacotot, who is, or was, a professor of the French language at the University of Louvain, styles his system, "Universal Instruction and Intellectual Emancipation." A compendious ex- position of the principles and practice of this SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 109 teacher has recently been published, from which it appears that the peculiarity of Jacotot's system, consists in little more than the extensive, if not universal application of an old precept, ''Learn sometldng thoroughly ^ and refer every thing else to it^ His motto is, " Tout est en tout," which has been thus paraphrased : '' Every thing is to be learnt thoroughly, and all possible use made of facts already known, in order that they may be used as paths to lead the learner in regions unknown and still to be explored." This principle is cer- tainly good, whatever may be the character of Jacotot's appUcation of it. The probabiUty is, that he, like many other persons who attach them- selves exclusively to one plan, knows his idea to be a good one, and so rides it to death. Improvements in education, however, like improvements in every thing else, bring with them corresponding dangers ; these sometimes arise (as in Jacotot's case) from pushing new plans and principles too far, and sometimes from an instructor working the additional power they give, with too high a pressure, upon minds predisposed to extra- ordinary intellectual activity. Two very different classes of minds are exposed in opposite directions to danger, from the singular facilities which are now afforded for the acquisi- tion of knowledge ; I mean the indolent and the precocious. A mind that waits to be acted upon, instead of exerting its own native faculties, is not 10 110 SCHOOL 'rEACHEii's MANUAL. an improving mind. The aim of a good teacher is not so much to infuse knowledge, as to develop power — to encourage and to invigorate effort ; he well knows^ that the moment any mind begins to depend upon the facilities afforded it, rather than upon itself, its efforts are impaired and its growth checked. The easiest way of learning a thing is not always the best. If all the truths of any science could be transferred in a moment to a learner's mind, without any exertion of his. own, it would do him very little good ; he would lose all the benefit both of thinking and reasoning. It is far better that he should find the road somewhat rough, and be his own pioneer in clearing and leveling it. But if it be (as it certainly is) an evil, to make the acquisition of knowledge so easy, that the mind becomes almost passive in its reception, and indolently ceases to make those efforts by which alone it can acquire strength and vigor, let it never be forgotten, that a far greater and more tremendous amount of mischief is accomplished, when, by undue excitement, an excessive intellect- ual development takes place, and the body, enfee- bled by the dangerous activity of the brain, becomes the sport of a morbid irritability, or sinks into premature decay. Now, I think there are few good schools, where there is not some danger of one or more minds being injured in this way. The vanity of the parent, the ambition of SCHOOL teacher's maxual. Ill the child, the pleasure which the teacher experi- ences, when he succeeds in exciting and develop- ing one or more faculties to an extraordinary degree, all combine to promote that excessive intellectual activity, which is always perilous, and often fatal. I speak not now of the moral effects of this unnatural excitement, how it enfeebles the will, how it excites the passions, and, by the increased susceptibility which it occasions, how it leads directly to excessive sensuaht^f.* I say, I speak not now of these, because I am looking simpty at its physical effects ; and viewing the matter in this light alone, I am borne out by the united testimonj" of medical waiters, in the asser- tion, that undue, and especially premature intel- lectual excitement, is the frequent, if not certain forerunner of impaired health, and of an early grave. Take care, then, of precocious children ; have no part in the process which is handing them over * At Hofwyl, more than one instance has occurred, in which it was necessary to diminish the amount of the pupil's intellectual efforts, in consequence of the alarming tendency to sensuality which it produced. The same general truth is illustrated, by the comparison of nations and communities in different stages of civili- zation. While a certain degree of culture will diminish the sensual- ity of a savage tribe, or of a new colony, it rolls back in overwhelm- ing waves upon those nations who have attained the height of cultivation and refinement, and whose intellectual faculties have been cultivated beyond the due proportion of their moral faculties. WQodbridge. 112 SCHOOL teacher's manual. to disease and death. *' The early history of the most distinguished men will, I believe, lead us to the conclusion, that early mental culture is not necessary, in order to produce the highest powers of mind. There is scarcely an instance of a great man, one who has accomplished great results, and has obtained the gratitude of mankind, who in early life received an education in reference to the wonderful labors which he afterwards per- formed. Those men who have stamped their own characters upon the age in which they lived, or who, as Cousin says, have been the * true repre- sentatives of the spirit and ideas of their time, have received no better education when young, than their associates, who were never known beyond their own neighborhood.' "* Dr. Spur- zheim says, '' No school education, strictly speak- ing, ought to begin before seven years of age." But this opinion must be taken with limitations. Perhaps it would be better to say, that no intel- lectual effort ought to be required before that period. An infant school should be the happy asylum of babes, rescued by the hand of benevolence from penury, negligence, and vice : when such an insti- tution becomes an *' intellectual Jiot-liouse^'^ it should be put down as a nuisance of the very worst description. * Brigham on the Influence or Mental Cultivation upon Health. 'C TVTATVTTTAT 11 Q SCHOOL TEACHER S MANUAL. 11 Do not then, be found, among those who fool- ishly complain that their children are childish^ — they ought to be so. ^he slower good fruit ripens, the better and the more valuable does it eventu- ally become. The bearing which some of the foregoing obser- vations have on religious instruction, will not escape the notice of the judicious parent or Sun- day School teacher. On this aspect of the subject, (precocity in religious knowledge,) I could say much, but I forbear; the ground is tender, and it is difficult to avoid misapprehension. It w^ill be safer for me to express my sentiments m the lan- guage of another, than to clothe them in my own. I adopt, therefore, the words of a correspondent of the Christian Observer, and add, "Mental precocity is not a healthy attribute, even when it assumes the character of religion. The religion of Httle children ought eminently to be an affec- tion of the heart, grounded indeed upon scriptural truth, the elements of which are intelligible to a little child, but not ramified into all the doctrinal discussions and mental developments w^hich w^ sometimes survey with wonder. Theology, as a science, may be made as great a stimulant to the infant mind as baby novel reading ; and the effect will too likely be, that the subsequent relaxation will be in proportion to the undue tension. Eve- lyn's child [whose remarkable history had formed the subject of a previous paper,] was not alto- 10* 114 SCHOOL teacher's manual. gether simple ; there was something of the artifi- cial, that which was not natural in his years, mixed with his lovely character ; and so far as this is indicated, it weakens our sympathy. When he asks, * if he might pray with his hands unjoined^'^ he is altogether the child. His piety, his rever- ence for God, his tenderness of conscience, his willingness to bear inconvenience or pain, where duty requires it, are thus incidentally evinced ; while his scruple is so full of sincerity, that we sympathise, while we smile at his simplicity. But when he deals in abstract truths, and lays down theological propositions, such as that ' all God's children must suffer affliction ;' and when he declaims against the vanities of the world, before he had seen any ; he is no longer a child of five years old speaking from his own simple feel- ings ; he is either repeating by rote, or he has gained an early maturity of thought and an abstraction which are not natural, and are not of necessity religious. In giving up his own little world to God; in bearing with meekness the afflicting hand of his heavenly Father ; in expres- sing his reverence, by wishing to assume the accustomed attitude of infantile devotion; and above all, in his simple and affecting prayer, — ' Sweet Jesus, save me — deliver me — pardon my sins — ^let thine angels receive me ;' he evidences an early growth of the spiritual affections : but in abstracting all this into theological propositions, SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 115 he merely shows the prematurity of the mental powers, or more probably, what he had heard and remembered. ' My son, give me thy heart,' as distinct from the mere exercise of the understand- ing, is the command of our heavenly Father ; and in the case of little children, and often of older converts, the heart may be far in advance of the intellect.'^ LETTER v.— TO THE SAME KEWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS. "Experience," says Fellenberg, "has taught me, that indolence in young persons is so directly opposite to their natural disposition to activity, that, unless it is the consequence of bad educa- tion, it is almost invariably connected with some constitutional defect."* And yet, as every one knows, the professed object of more than one half the punishment inflicted in schools is to compel application ; while we are told on all hands, that without the constant stimulus of re- ward, it is impossible to secure any long-contin- ued effort to excel. If, however, Fellenberg is right, in supposing that stimulant is only needed in morbid cases, and I see no reason to distrust his authority, how important is it, that the greatest care should be exercised in correcting indolence or inattention, ^ Sketclies of Hofw} 1. Letter xiii. SCHOOL teacher's MANtJAL. 117 lest in attempting to remove the immediate evil, we should induce others of greater magnitude, and inflict permanent injury on the character. It is always dangerous to punish children for idle- ness ; the pain inflicted, instead of being regarded as an inconvenience resulting from a fault, is almost sure to be associated in the child's mind with the industry and learning which it is intended to promote. It is obvious that no association can be more mischievous.* Rewards, if judiciously bestowed, may, on the contrary, be productive of much good. In private families, and in very small schools, the influence which is founded on afiection for the teacher, is doubtless better adapted than any other to stimu- late attention and to awaken effort. His smile,when * ** Punishment ought to be used to deter a child from doing evil, but It ought never to be used to induce it to do good. For instance, you see a child strike another, — punish the offender, and while he is Buffering, he ascribes the pain to the blow which he had inflicted on his companion. You thus establish in his mind the association of necessary contiguity between the blow and the punishment; and this association will deter him from a repetition of the offence. But suppose it should be your desire that your child should do what is good, — suppose you wish that he should read a chapter in the Bible, and he refuse, — you punish him, — you then associate the punishment with the Bible, and this association is attended with injurious results. In a few morhid cases, where the child cannot be aroused to intellectual activity, it may be necessary to inflict pun- ishment for idleness ; but such cases are rare, and when they do occur, it will be found that neglect in early education is closely con- nected with their existence. "—/)r. Bryce of Belfast. lis SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. thus valued, is by far the best reward. But, as I have said elsewhere, it is a fatal error to lay down plans for a school of many children, which are in fact only adapted to a very limited number of pupils, living beneath the roof of his instructor, and altogether under his control. I again repeat, it is impossible for you to act the parent to a large number of children, whom you see only for a few hours of the day, or to employ, in these circum- stances, to any great extent, that kind of power which springs only from constant and familiar intercourse. Hence arises the necessity, in large schools at least, for that kind of stimulant, which although in some respects objectionable, is sup- plied by emulation and by reward. I know it is a question with many, whether emulation ought, under any circumstances, to be used as a motive to induce the 5^oung to apply themselves to the acquisition of knowledge. Essays and papers innumerable have been written, to show, that this principle is ranked by the apostle Paul with the "works of the flesh," and should therefore find no place in schools where the spirit of Christianity is intended to be inculcated. These writers associate with the term, pride and vanity, hatred and envy, ambition and selfishness. Others understanding by emulation^ simply the desire of sitrpassing^ and considering that in this primary sense it has no moral character whatever, but is good or bad, according to the objects and SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 119 motives with which it is associated, maintain that emulation is one of the most important springs of action, and ought on no account to be dispensed with. It is plain, that the whole controversy, so far as Scripture is concerned, turns on the mean- ing attached to the word.* I confess to a decided leaning towards the opinions of those who take the more favorable view. Bad as our nature is, I cannot but think that there is such a thing as a generous rivalry. I know that it is no uncommon occurrence for well-matched competitors to be the dearest of friends ; and though envy may some- times be stirred up for a moment, in consequence * The word ^ajAor signifies any fervid affection of the mind. Such is the generic idea, and when specifically applied, it may mesm Siuy earnestness or engagedness in 3Lny parsu'it. In the New Testament it is generally applied to designate anger , warmth of feel- ing, in the way of indignation ; e. g. in Acts v. 17 ; xiii. 45 ; Rom. xiii. 13; 1 Cor. iii. 3. But sometimes it is employed in a good sense ; e.g. John ii. 17, " the zeal" (^jjAef) ** ^^ thine house,"— i. e. zeal for the honor of thine house. And in a sense like this last named, we generally employ it, in our own language. In Gal.v. 20, it plainly designates a bad passion, which is reckoned among " the works of the flesh." But as it may also imply simple earnestness, or engagedness, warmth of feeling in a good cause, (as in John ii. 17,) nothing can be drawn from the use of this word which will cast light on the subject of emulation. In the like manner is the verb Tretpot^fjXicff employed. It is used as meaning to excite to emu- lation, in a good sense, in Rom. xi. 11—14, and perhaps in Rom. x. 19. It is employed in a bad sense in 1 Cor. x. 22. The word itself; therefore, can determine nothing. It is in its own proper nature, merely ^ewenc, meaning to excite, to stir up, go as to do either good or evil.— Fro/. Stuart. 120 SCHOOL teache;r's manual. of discomfiture, I cannot but think, that if the parties '' strive lawfully," resentment, if at all excited in the vanquished, will be short-lived. That competition has an important use, in teach- ing children their relative powers, cannot, I think, be disputed. This species of self-knowledge, so valuable in future life, and which no books can teach, can be gathered only in the field of contest. That struggles of this character are necessarily connected with a selfish desire of personal dis- tinction ; with comparisons flattering to self, and injurious to others ; — ^with jealousy, envy, and ill- will ; — I can by no means admit. At the same time, it is quite plain that great care should be taken not to push rivalry too far ; that the desire of superiority should always be made subordinate to the cultivation of kind and generous feelings ; and that the victor and the vanquished should both be made sensible, not only that distinctions of every kind are relative, but that intellectual superiority is only to be desired, in so far as it is associated with moral excellence. In the bestowment of a reward, the great point to be kept in mind, is, the production of right impressions on the mind of the child, as to the intent and object of the gift. It should be dis- tinctly understood, that it does not in any sense partake of the character of a payment. The gospel teaches all of us, that nothing we can do merits reward ; we must take care, by our practice as SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 121 well as by our instructions, to inculcate the same truth. He who is accustomed to do right, in order that he may obtain gifts here or hereafter, is at best a mercenary ; he who does so in order that he may obtain the praises of men, or secure the advancement of his own interests, is but the slave of vanity or selfishness ; while he, who pursues the same course, looking only for his reward in that self-approbation and quiet complacency which are the result of conscious rectitude and supposed superiority, is the victim of a vice more terrible and destructive, when viewed in ^'the light of God's countenance," and in relation to man's highest and best interests^ than it is possible for any human power rightly to estimate. The deity to whom this man offers sacrifice, — ^before whose altar his incense perpetually arises, and in whose smile he finds his continual happiness, — is none other than — himselfi Finding his pleasures only in his own thoughts, he is obliged '' to conceive himself what he is not, for who is pleased with what he is?" He is an idolater, whose guilt is aggravated by the absence even of a pretext, that his devotions are intended to terminate somewhere beyond the immediate object of his adorations. Dust and pollution is the sole and ultimate divinity of a self-complacent man ; he .^annot enter into the presence even of his Maker, without carrying 11 123 SCHOOL teacher's manual. along with him thoughts and feelings appropriate only to a self-existent and independent being. I press these remarks on your attention, because I know that many educators imagine, that if they can repress the outbreakings of a spirit of rivalry and ambition, all is well ; whereas it is quite pos- sible, by the injudicious management of these outward manifestations of depravity, only to throw the disease within, and to aggravate far deadlier evils which may be raging there. A reward ought to be regarded only as a pleas- ant memorial of a good deed ; its legitimate object is, to keep in memor}^ the approbation which a superior mind has accorded to certain conduct; and its chief value arises from the asso- ciation which it creates, between that which is pleasant, and that which is good. Hence its pecuniary value is of comparatively little moment. " If rewards are given at all," says Mr. Hall of Andover, (to whose valuable lectures I have else- where referred,) ^'let them be rewards of merits* and not rewards of intellectual capacity. The dull of apprehension are not to be punished for being so, neither do the more gifted merit praise for what they have received from the hand of God. * By rewards of imrity I here undersland Mr. Hall to mean, rewards of habitual industry, of regular exertion, of general good conduct in relation to the studies of the school; and not moral con- duct of any kind. SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 123 And on the whole, I am incHned to believe that the safest way is to dispense with rewards alto- gether, w^hen they cannot be equally offered to all." But why not be offered to all f Only make their value to consist in the associations gathered around them, rather than in their pecuniary cost, and there will be no difficulty in making them suffi- ciently numerous to excite the desire and to gratify the expectation of the largest number. In this case, too, they may be given at comparatively short intervals, the importance of which will be well understood by those who know enough of human nature to estimate the length of a year in the apprehension of a child. If, in addition, care be taken to avoid the production of too high a degree of excitement, and too exclus-ive a desire for dis- tinction ; if children are taught, that goodness in itself is from its very nature, at all times and without any exception, beneficial, and vice as invariably injurious, I do not think that either the permission of emulation, or the bestowment of rewards, will render a.nj child less susceptible to better influences, less alive to appeals simply made to the conscience and the affections, or less disposed to cultivate any branch of moral excel- lence. Rewards, how well and wisely soever they may be bestowed, will not, however, prevent transgression. ** Offences will come ;" and pun- 124 SCHOOL teacher's manual. ishment, in one form or other, must be inflicted. And here, the first and great object to be secured, is the retrospective association of the pain inflicted with the previous fault. All punishment should be of this retrospective character ; it should never be inflicted to enforce the repetition of a good action, but always to prevent the repetition of a bad one ; and the association of pain with that which is wrong, and of pleasure with that which is right, should always be kept in mind as its great object and end. 2. It should he serious. Ineffectual punishment does positive harm. No chastisement is benefi- cial which does not humble the delinquent ; cause him to fear ''the rod;" and thus tend to prevent the repetition of the fault. 3. It should he immixed with personal feeling. *' The child should never imagine that his educa- tor is influenced in his discipline by the same passions he himself feels."^ Hence, a teacher should never punish a child for personal disre- spect ; he cannot do so without making the child sensible of its own importance, or without appear- ing to be actuated bj^ a spirit of vengeance. The petulance and insult of one so inferior should always be treated with pity rather than with anger. *' The insolence which has its origin in ^ Fellenberg, SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 125 vanity or pride, is not likely to be reformed by punishing the numerous petty offences to which it will give rise. Our attention and efforts must be directed to the false state of feeling w^hich gives birth to them, if w^e w^ould be successful in con- vincing the offender of his, fault, and in leading to its correction."* 4. The punishment should he proportioiied to the guilt involved in the offence^ and not to the amount of inconvenience occasioned by it. If you allow your- self to punish children merely because they have occasioned you some loss or inconvenience, you will often treat them with gross injustice, and will as certainly lose all hold of their affections. *' Little Charlotte was going out into her father's orchard : it was full of violets. ' Oh,' cries Charlotte, full of joy, ' what beautiful little flowers ! I will gather my apron full, and make a nosegay for mother.' She immediately knelt down, and with greaf industry gath- ered her apron full ; then she seated herself under an apple-tree, and made a handsome nosegay. ' Here it is,' said she ; ' now I will run and convey it to my dear mother. How she will be delighted to kiss me !' To increase the pleasure of her mother, she crept slily into the kitchen, took a china plate, put the nosegay on it, and went on a full leap down the stairs, to find her mother. But Charlotte stumbled, fell, and broke the china plate into a hundred pieces, and scattered her * Fellenberg. 11* 126 SCHOOL teacher's manual. nosegay all around. Her mother, who was in the room near by, heard the noise, and immediately sprang to the door. When she saw the broken plate, she ran back, seized a rod, and without inquiring a word about the manner in which the plate was broken, came to the child. Terrified, both by the fall and on account of the broken plate, and half dead with the fear of the rod, little Charlotte could only ejaculate^ 'Dear mother! dear mother !' But this was of no service to her. 'You naughty child !' said her mother, ' break a beautiful plate, will your and chastised her severely. This injustice alienated her affections, and she never again brought a nosegay to her mother."* 5. Regard should he had to the physical .co7idition of the culprit. Fellenberg observes, '' The habit of wandering from one subject to another, which so often gives rise to useless remonstrances, and still more useless punishments, as well as impatience and irritability of temper, are frequently connected with debility or disorder of the nervous system, and should be treated accrdingly. The educator should especially avoid the use of all violent means, where debility of body, or an unsound state of health, gives rise to faults or habits ; and above all, where the pupil himself is sensible of his error, and struggles against it. In such cases the teacher should, on the contrary, take the place * Salzmann's Art of Misedu cation. How to make yourself odious to children. iscHooi. teacher's manual. 127 of a friend, and proffer his aid, as to one in need of assistance, instead of assuming the attitude of a severe judge." 6. Punishment is effectual in proportion to its cer- tainty, not to its SEVERITY. Severity may pro- duce fear ; but fear, while it is in many respects degrading and corrupting, never acts as a preven- tion to evil^ except where it is accompanied by a firm conviction that punishment will inevitably follow the commission of a fault ; and then it is the certainty, not the 5e^;m^2/ of chastisement, "^hich effects the end in view. " During the wars in Flanders, in the reign of Queen Anne, when the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene commanded the allied army, a soldier in the division of the latter was condemned to be hanged for marauding. The man happened to be a favorite with his officers, who took great pains to save his life, and for this purpose interceded with the prince, who positively refused to grant their request. They then applied to the Duke of Marlborough, begging his grace to interfere; he accordingly went to Prince Eugene, who said, he ' never did, and never would, consent to the pardon of a marauder.' ' Why,' said the duke, ' at ,this rate we shall hang half the army ; I pardon a great many.' 'That,' replied the prince, ' is the reason that so much mischief is done by your people, and that so many suffer for it : I never pardon any, and therefore there are very few to be punished in my department.' The duke still urged his request ; on which the prince 128 SCHOOL teacher's manual. said, * Let the matter be inquired into, and if your grace has not executed more than I have done, I will consent to the pardon of this fellow.' The proper inquiries were accordingly made, and the numbers turned out very highly in favor of Prince Eugene ; on which he said to the duke, ' There, my lord, you see the benefit of example. You pardon many; I never pardon one ; therefore /ez^? dare to offend, and of course but few suffer.' *' This is one among the many confirmations which might be adduced to the truth of Beccaria's remark, that a ' less punishment which is certain^ will do more good than a greater which is uncertain,'' " Whether corporeal punishments can, under all circumstances, be dispensed with, is a question I am not prepared to answer. That children may, in almost every instance, be governed without them, is I think indisputable ; but that there are no cases in which the infliction of bodily pain should be resorted to, is an assertion I am not prepared to make. Fellenberg concedes in theo- ry and practice, that corporal punishment is Qcca- sionally, though rarely necessary. He thinks that serious faults, which result from violent ijassions, should be repelled with corresponding force at the moment, in order that a deep impression of physi- cal pain may be associated with them, and serve as a check when excitement of this kind begins anew. He considers also, that it is sometimes necessary to give a physical check of this kind, as SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 129 a counterpoise to strong propensities or long-established habits ; as a means of arousing the pupil from that drowsy irresolution which is frequently the great- est obstacle to reformation. At the same time, he strongly condemns those arbitrary and violent punishments which appear to have no other source than the will of the master, and too often seem dictated by his passions. These he considers the cause of serious injury to the character ^ although they may be effectual in repressing the exterior defects of the pupil. "They often afford him," he says, '' a species of consolation, in the idea that his sufferings are excessive, or at least that they are the result of passions Uke his own. They thus arouse his courage and sense of justice, in opposi- tion to his educators. They bring his better prin- ciples into conflict with an authority which he is bound to respect, and thus utterly derange his views and feelings as to right and wrong. They often excite passions incomparably ^^orse than the fault they are designed to correct, and strengthen them by calling them frequently into exercise. When they exert an influence, they only accustom the pupil to act from the lowest motives, the fear of his fellow men and of phj^sical pain, and thus debase, instead of elevating his character."^ Professor Pillans goes farther. He has written ably and eloquently against any kind of corporal * Sketches of HofwyL 130 SCHOOL teacher's manual, punishment whatever, and (which is far more) has proved that he could do without it in the High school of Edinburgh. Mr. Wood, on the other hand, leans to the occasional use of the cane ; re- garding corporal punishment as an evil, the use of which is only to be justified by necessity. He thinks that in large establishments like the Session- al school, that necessity is fairly made out ; and he is decidedly of opinion, that if entirely withdrawn, the directors of that institution would be compelled to have recourse to some substitute equally degra- ding and objectionable. He says, '' Often have we seen the bringing out of a child to receive a single stripe on the hand, restore that order and attention which the young teachers and their as- sistants had been unable previously to procure." And he asks, ''Is there really any other method by which the same important end could, with children of six or seven years, or even upwards, so expeditiously, so effectually, and at the same time less objectionably, be attained? I think there is not ; and therefore, much as I dislike the application oi force ^ under any circumstances, I could not, as the director of a public school, insist upon its entire abolition." Allow me now to offer two or three observations in relation to the general subject. 1 . Be slow to punish in any way. Never be in haste to believe that a pupil has done wrong. Make every inquiry for evidence, and always try to establish the inno- SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. ' 131 cence of the accused party. If acquitted by the evidence adduced in his favor, he will love his teacher the better for having pursued this course ; and if proved guilty, he will be more likely to be affected by what you may say to him. 2. In rehuking sin, avoid aliJce the langitage ajid tones of execration and of indifference. It is never well to make the worst of any occurrence. Calm and temperate remarks, offered in a serious spirit, are most likely to affect the heart and to awaken the conscience. 3. Never have a punishing hour. Except in special cases, it is far better for discipline to be exercised without attracting pubhc notice. If every case of disobedience, or idleness, or disorder, is to be brought forward at a stated hour, and pun- ishment inflicted in the presence of all, what other result can be expected, than that unpleasant asso- ciations will be formed, in connexion both with the school and the teacher, — and that, hardened by the spectacle, the scholars will care little about sharing in a species of disgrace, with which their minds are so constantly famiharized ? Sometimes, how- ever, marking out an offence by infhcting punish- ment on the offender before the w^hole school, may Tdc highly impressive. In a case of this kind, as a rare occurrence, it^is desirable briefly to address both the transgressor and his schoolfellows, setting forth the act of punishment before all as a. disagree- able necessity, arising out of the misconduct of the 133 SCHOOL teacher's manual. boy, — an evil inflicted much against the teacher's will. If this be the true state of the educator's feelings, the children will not fail to perceive it, and will be affected accordingly. ' 4. Never delegate punishment^ nor ever inflict it as the delegate of others. It is an every day occurrence in many schools, for parents to come to the teacher, with earnest requests that he will severely punish their boy for misconduct at home, — and, strange to say, there are some teachers who are willing to be made in this way the object of the child's aver- sion and hate. Others again, with equal folly, are accustomed, in order to avoid the trouble and dis- agreeableness of correction, to request the parent to inflict at home, punishment for offences com- mitted at school. The evils which invariably arise out of such monstrous improprieties are so obvious, that after what I have already said on the subject, it is, I trust, scarcely necessary to guard you against a practice so absurd and mis- chievous. The following general principles, translated from the German of Denzel, one of the most able living writers on this subject, will suitably con- clude the few hints I have now offered for your consideration. *'In the application of rewards and punish- ments," he observes, " the educator will do well to observe the following suggestions : SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 133 *' I. Since that which is good and right ought to be done because it is good and right, without reference to reward or punishment, it follows that neither rewards nor punishments are ever to be employed, so long as other means are sufficient to enable the educator to keep his pupils in the way of-their duty. " II. In his whole course of education and instruction, the teacher should exhibit such inducements to obedi- ence, activity, exercise of talent, and love of order, as will in a great measure remove the occasion of transgress^ ing his commands^ and of the consequent punishment; and let obedience and learning carry with them their own reward. "III. It is only merit, diligence, acquisition by close application, and not talents and particular gifts of na- ture, that can justify any claims to reward. In no case ought the effects of incapacity or of innocent weakness to be punished. It is merely neglect, levity, and indo- lence, with the effects of a perverted will, that are pun- ishable. " IV. Rewards should only please, excite, and ani- mate ; without producing by any means, vanity, pride, and haughtiness. In the same manner, punishments ought to be such as to awaken a desire for that which is good ; they should warn and restrain from evil, and not produce in the child any distrust in his own powers. Rewards should never appear to be distinctions ; and punishments^ should be considered as evils inflicted out of necessity, and not of choice. " V. Rewards and punishments should be only spar- ingly applied, or they lose their beneficial influence. By their frequent use, the mind either becomes insen- 12 134 SCHOOL teacher's manual. sible to their influence, or it obtains an erroneous im- pression, that mankind in all their actions are to be influenced only by that which is to them personally profitable or injurious. "VI. The more sensual the man is, and the more he lives merely for the present and for himself, and the younger he is, so much the sooner after the act must re- ward or punishment be applied. On the contrary, the older the child, the more he must be accustomed to ex- pect his reward or punishment at a distance, and the more must he be taught to hope or fear the remote con- sequences. *' VII. Rewards and punishments should never be applied by the educator till after he has fully weighed the circumstances in a dispassionate state of mind, with perfect impartiality. Every indiscretion, every mistake in the circumstances, every perceptible favouritism for an individual, effaces from the heart of the child what- ever is beneficial in reward or punishment ; that is, the sense of its necessity and propriety. The passionate man always commits errors. He mistakes the good, or overvalues it in his reward. That which is wrong is equally misunderstood, and attributed to the worst mo- tives, and punished with excessive severity. Punishment should never be applied in anger, and still less with a sneer, or scorn, or an air of triumph ; but rather always with marks of compassion for the child. Children should feel that the educator is compelled to the measure, and that it is disagreeable to him. When he impru- dently punishes, he necessarily alienates the hearts of his pupils, and fosters a refractory, turbulent disposi- tion ; but when punishment is properly applied, it leaves SCHOOL teacher's maxual. 135 a permanently good impression, and the educator is esteemed and beloved as a father. For a general rule, the approbation of the teacher is a sufficient reward for all moral conduct. In no case should it be encouraged by a determined precise premium. No rewards are proper in the religious part of education ; for they might lead to the opinion that mankind could merit the favour of their God by their good works," LETTER VI.— TO THE SAME. MORAL AND RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE. It has been beautifully said, that '* truth, con- sidered in itself, and in the effects natural to it, may be conceived of as a gentle spring or water- source, warm from the genial earth, and breathing up into the snow-drift that is piled over and around its outlet. It turns the obstacle into its own form and character, and as it makes its way increases its stream ; and should it be arrested in its course by a chilling season, it suffers delay, not loss, and waits only for a change in the wind to awaken and again roll onwards."'* So would I describe the present relative posi- tion of knowledge and religion. The scattering abroad of knowledge, and the general diffusion of the elements of science among the people, may, for a time, like the snow-drift which covers the fountain, appear to impede, rather than advance ^ S. T. Coleridge. SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 137 the triumphs of the gospel ; but it is in truth only destined to accelerate its progress. The quiet, but insinuating master influence beneath, is silently gathering strength from the apparent hindrance, and preparing to break forth afresh with the force and volume of a torrent. Many amiable and excellent persons are slow to perceive this ; they are hard to be persuaded, that whatever is gained for knowledge must eventually be gained for Christianity ; and they tremble, at the very moment when the dictates of faith and reason alike call upon them to rejoice. Hence it happens, that while many, influenced by selfish- ness and pride, openly mourn over ''the eman- cipation of the human reason from a legion of devils," because it involves " the loss of a herd of swine ;" others, from whom better things might have been expected, stand by unconcerned, as this great work of humanity and religion falters in its course, or at best, urges its way by slow and painful steps. I trust it is scarcely necessary to say to you. Sedulously avoid this mischievous error. Never give place for a moment to the idea, that intellectual advancement is in any degree unfavor- able to moral improvement, or imagine that you will be more likely to promote true Christianity by exclusive attention to religious instruction. While you are deeply anxious that all you teach should be based upon the gospel, and sanctified by the Holy Spirit, never forget that children have duties 18* 138 SCHOOL teacher's manual. to perform in this world as well as the next, and that it is cruelty, as well as folly, to deprive them of any natural right, under the pretext of extraor- dinary care for their spiritual interests. Rightly , understood, the two invariably coincide : the en- largement of the intellect is favorable to the im- provement of the heart ;* " reason" is " assisted by faith," and ''taste" is "purified by devotion." Keeping this cautionary remark in view, I may now venture to say, " Gird up the loins of your mind," and bend your undivided energies to the accomplishment of the great ultimate object of all your labors — the production of good moral and religious influences. And here allow me to offer you one word of pre- liminary advice. It is this : — Take rational and scriptural views, of the nature of the Being on which your influence is to he exerted. If you set out with the idea, that the heart of a child is a fountain of love and purity, — that its affections, untainted by evil, will naturally gush forth towards the good and the beautiful, when presented to its notice, — that its mind is a white and pure tablet, on which you may inscribe what you will ; — I say, if, in- stead of listening to the voice of scripture and of reason, you take up with these miserable senti- * The committee of the general Assembly of the church of Scot- land, state in their report on schools in the Highlands, that those in which the greatest variety of secular instruction is imparled, are, most distinguished by a religious character. SCHOOL TEACHER^S MANUAL. 139^ mentalities, your disappointment is sure to be both bitter and complete. Rest assured, that '' folly is bound up in the heart," even ^'ofa child," and regulate your expectations accordingly. Against an opposite error, that of supposing (as some do) that since God alone can change the heart, the improvement of the natural dispositions is altogether out of our reach, I trust you need scarcely be warned. • This is a monstrous pre- sumption, and can never be too severely reproba- ted. All experience — the history of the church in all ages — goes to prove, that while at various peri- ods, the world has been startled and instructed by the sudden and permanent conversion of large numbers of the profligate and the profane, — -the *' salt of the earth," the benefactors of the world, whether considered individually or in the aggre- gate, have generally been gathered from the hab- itations of the amiable, the intelhgent, and the devout. In moral education,' a twofold work has to be accomplished: ''the faculty of reason must be taught how to judge rightly between truth and error, good and evil ;"^ and the hahit of acting rightly must be formed, in order that the imagina- tion, the passions, and the affections, may be ac- customed to bow to the decisions of reason, when thus enlightened and strengthened. The first of * Hooker. 140 SCHOOL teacher's manual. these, (the formation of right judgments,) has long been a primary object of our efforts ; the last, (the formation of habits and the regulation of emotions,) has not yet received that share of attention which its paramount importance demands. It may be worth inquiry, whether more cannot be done in this way than has hitherto been considered prac- ticable. To accomplish any good at all, however, re- member, the affections of your pupils must he secured. If they do not love you, they wdll repel all your attempts to do them good. There must be sym- pathy between you and them, or all your efforts to influence them will be vain. Your first step, therefore, must be, to secure a place in their most agreeable associations. When your presence and society is a source of joy, it may easily be made the occasion of benefit. I have already said so much on the art of obtaining influence, that I need scarcely add. It ivill not be gained by indulgence. Mr. Abbott has truly said, '''it is one of the mys- teries of human nature, that indulgence never awakens gratitude or love in the heart of a child." Firmness regulated by kindness, — a kindness not only felt, but expressed in acts of sympathy and love, — ^^will alone secure any efficient hold on the affections of the young. I would here, however, again request you to bear in mind, that the kind of influence which the teacher of an elementary school can exercise over SCHOOL teacher's MANUAL. 141 his pupils, is in many respects very different from that which can be brought to bear by a wise parent or tutor. It must be, as I have before said, influence exerted for the most part, not on the individual, but on the mass, and conse- quently, to a great extent, through the agency of general arrangements, rather than of personal in- tercourse. But to proceed. In all attempts to exercise moral influence over the young, the faithful incAilca" cation of Divine Truth from the Bible is the first point to he regarded. To enlarge upon the excellency of scripture, or to show its adaptation to all the wants of humanity, is here, I trust, unnecessary. Were the book the production of man only, unassisted by inspiration, — did it carry with it no rebuke, — did it leave sin untouched, — would it but cease to be an accuser, or agree to descend from the judg- ment-seat, we cannot for a moment doubt that, containing, as Sir William Jones has well said it does, " more true sublimity, more exquisite beauty, purer morality, more important history, and finer strains, both of poetry and eloquence, than could be collected within the same compass from all other books which were ever composed in any age or in any idiom," — it would at once push aside all com- petitors, and be extensively and anxiously incorpo- rated into the whole system of education, as the foundation and corner-stone of all improvement. 142 SCHOOL teacher's manual. Why it does not occupy such a place we all know too well.* I should say then, first of all, if it be possible, let every child have^ every day^ some portion of Divine Truths however small, stored up in its understanding and memory. It is the reiteration, day after day, of truth upon the mind, that makes the impression. To be remembered, however, it must interest ; and to interest, it must be understood. To effect this purpose, the catechetical form of instruction, which, as Dr. Johnson well defines it, is simply " asking questions, and correcting the answers," will doubtless be found in general the most appro- priate. The practice of reading from a book a certain number of prescribed questions, and hear- ing the child repeat by rote the words which are set down for him as the answers, is, in my opinion, * Fellenberg's observations on this subject are striking ; and as coming from him, they may have weight in quarters where scarcely any other individual would be heard. He says, " We see in out days, that every thing which ^arewfs, which nature, which conscience^ and the observation of our own hearts can accomplish, for the moral development of children, is inadequate. Let this (the Old Testa- ment) b^ the first history presented to the child, and let him be deep- ly imbued with the spirit of the Bible." Of himself he says, " We establish our institutions upon the basis of genuine Christianity. We proceed, in the commencement of our labors, upon the essential principles and conditions of tha gospel. The best practical example for the educator is to be found in the Saviour of men ; and in the result we should aim at no other object, than the realization of that kingdom of God to which he has;\ : ^ '5^ ; > ^^. .^^^^^^ " ^' -^ ii^HTr/p^ i> "^^ A^ ^ ? ^.^^.%. -^^ / O , >• ,-v^ ,^^^^^- ;§ .\^^ -'u ^^- •/ V 1 c^ -V^?^^ 2 ■■"^^ c ^ -^ ■ -> "' ^ '^ « <^ . ^ .0- 0x0 v.- o^ ^ /■/ ^^• "^^.- V C-^ ^ o> ' ^ . \ \->' t/- \^ N^ ^^ v^^ .-1 3 iA^ \\"^ 1 ■^- '- i>. sT'..^\#- z .j^H/^ljXK^* ;<^- ^>-. * ,y ^- o^. "f^ ^^ ^